US20030108793A1 - Cathode compositions for lithium ion batteries - Google Patents

Cathode compositions for lithium ion batteries Download PDF

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US20030108793A1
US20030108793A1 US10/210,919 US21091902A US2003108793A1 US 20030108793 A1 US20030108793 A1 US 20030108793A1 US 21091902 A US21091902 A US 21091902A US 2003108793 A1 US2003108793 A1 US 2003108793A1
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lithium
ion battery
crystal structure
composition
cathode
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Jeffrey Dahn
Zhonghua Lu
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3M Innovative Properties Co
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
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    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
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    • C01G45/1228—Manganates or manganites with trivalent manganese, tetravalent manganese or mixtures thereof of the type (MnO2)-, e.g. LiMnO2 or Li(MxMn1-x)O2
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    • C01G51/50—Complex oxides containing cobalt and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiCoO2 containing manganese of the type (MnO2)n-, e.g. Li(CoxMn1-x)O2 or Li(MyCoxMn1-x-y)O2
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    • C01G53/44—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiNiO2 containing manganese
    • C01G53/50—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiNiO2 containing manganese of the type (MnO2)n-, e.g. Li(NixMn1-x)O2 or Li(MyNixMn1-x-y)O2
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    • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
    • H01M4/139—Processes of manufacture
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    • H01M4/485—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of mixed oxides or hydroxides for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiTi2O4 or LiTi2OxFy
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    • H01M4/50—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese
    • H01M4/505—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing manganese for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiMn2O4 or LiMn2OxFy
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    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/52—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron
    • H01M4/525—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing iron, cobalt or nickel for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiNiO2, LiCoO2 or LiCoOxFy
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    • H01M10/0525—Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
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Definitions

  • This invention relates to compositions useful as cathodes for lithium ion batteries.
  • Lithium-ion batteries typically include an anode, an electrolyte, and a cathode that contains lithium in the form of a lithium-transition metal oxide.
  • lithium-transition metal oxides that have been used include lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, and lithium manganese oxide. None of these materials, however, exhibits an optimal combination of high initial capacity, high thermal stability, and good capacity retention after repeated charge-discharge cycling.
  • the invention features a cathode composition for a lithium ion battery that contains lithium having the formula (a) Li y [M 1 (1 ⁇ b) Mn b ]O 2 or (b) Li y [M 1 (1 ⁇ b) Mn b ]O 15+c where 0 ⁇ y ⁇ 1, 0 ⁇ b ⁇ 1 and 0 ⁇ c ⁇ 0.5 and M 1 represents one or more metal elements, with the proviso that for (a) M 1 is a metal element other than chromium.
  • the composition is in the form of a single phase having an O3 crystal structure that does not undergo a phase transformation to a spinel crystal structure when incorporated in a lithium-ion battery and cycled for 100 full charge-discharge cycles at 30° C. and a final capacity of 130 mAh/g using a discharge current of 30 mA/g.
  • the invention also features lithium-ion batteries incorporating these cathode compositions in combination with an anode and an electrolyte.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 15+x .
  • An example of M 2 is nickel.
  • M 1 (1 ⁇ b) , M 2 and x are defined as in the first embodiment, with the proviso that (1 ⁇ 2x) ⁇ y ⁇ 1 and M 2 is a metal element other than chromium.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 2 .
  • An example of M 2 is nickel.
  • M 1 (1 ⁇ b) , M 2 and x are defined as in the first embodiment, with the proviso that 0 ⁇ y ⁇ (1 ⁇ 2x), 0 ⁇ a ⁇ (1 ⁇ y) and M 2 is a metal element other than chromium.
  • the resulting cathode has the formula Li y+a [Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 1.5+x+y/2 .
  • An example of M 2 is nickel.
  • a fourth embodiment of (b); b, M 1 (1 ⁇ b) , M 2 and x are defined as in the first embodiment, with the proviso that 0 ⁇ y ⁇ (1 ⁇ 2x).
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 1.5+x+y/2 .
  • An example of M 2 is nickel.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ 2x)/3 ]O 15+x/2 .
  • M 2 are Co or Fe and combinations therof.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ 2x)/3 ]O 15+x/2 .
  • M 2 are Co or Fe and combinations therof.
  • M 1 (1 ⁇ b) , M 2 and x are defined as in the fifth embodiment with the proviso that (1 ⁇ x) ⁇ y ⁇ 1 and M 2 is a metal element other than chromium.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ 2x)/3 ]O 2 .
  • M 2 are Co or Fe and combinations thereof.
  • M 1 (1 ⁇ b) , M 2 and x are defined as in the fifth embodiment, with the proviso that 0 ⁇ y ⁇ (1 ⁇ x).
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ 2x)/3 ]O 15+x/2+y2 .
  • M 2 are Co or Fe and combinations thereof.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ 2x)/3 ]O 15+15 x.
  • M 2 is chromium.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y+a [Li (1 ⁇ x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ 2x)/3 ]O 1.5+1.5x+y/2 .
  • An example of M 2 is chromium.
  • the resulting cathode composition has the formula Li y [Li (1 ⁇ x)/3 M 2 x Mn (2 ⁇ 2x)/3 ]O 15x+15+y/2 .
  • M 2 is chromium.
  • the invention provides cathode compositions, and lithium-ion batteries incorporating these compositions, that exhibit high initial capacities and good capacity retention after repeated charge-discharge cycling.
  • the cathode compositions do not evolve substantial amounts of heat during elevated temperature abuse, thereby improving battery safety.
  • the cycling was between 2.0 and 4.8 V at 5 mA/g.
  • the cycling was between 3.0 and 4.4 V at 10 mA/g.
  • FIG. 3 is a plot of specific capacity versus x in Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 over various voltage ranges.
  • the solid and dashed lines as indicated give expected capacities.
  • the circles give the experimental capacity to 4.45 V, the squares give the experimental capacity of the anomalous plateau and the triangles give the experimental first charge capacity.
  • FIG 4 b shows the diffraction pattern of the starting powder.
  • the in-situ scans are synchronized with the voltage-time curve in FIG. 4 c . For example, the 8th x-ray scan took place at the top of the first charge as indicated.
  • FIG. 5 a is the voltage-time curve
  • FIG. 5 b are the lattice constants a and c
  • FIG. 5 c is the unit cell volume correlated to the voltage-time curve. The cell was cycled between 3.0 and 4.4 V
  • FIGS. 6 a - e are plots of differential capacity versus voltage for Li/Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 cells with x as indicated. The cells were charged and discharged between 3.0 and 4.4 V using a specific current of 10 mA/g.
  • FIG. 7 a is the voltage-time curve
  • FIG. 7 b are the lattice constants a and c
  • FIG. 7 c is the unit cell volume correlated to the voltage-time curve. The cell was cycled between 2.0 and 4.8 V.
  • FIG. 8 b shows the diffraction pattern of the starting powder.
  • the in-situ scans are synchronized with the voltage-time curve in FIG. 8 c . For example, the 16th x-ray scan took place at the top of the first charge as indicated.
  • FIG. 9 a is the voltage-time curve;
  • FIG. 9 b are the lattice constants a and c; and
  • FIG. 9 c is the unit cell volume correlated to the voltage-time curve. The cell was cycled between 2.0 and 4.8 V.
  • FIG. 10 is a Gibbs triangle for the Li—M—O ternary system with M representing Ni x Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) . The compositions of relevant phases are indicated.
  • FIG. 11 is an expanded portion of the Li—M—O Gibbs triangle of FIG. 10 showing the region of interest for the charge and discharge of Li/Li[Ni x Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 2 cells.
  • FIGS. 12 a - e are plots of differential capacity versus voltage for Li/Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 cells with x as indicated. The cells were charged and discharged between 2.0 and 4.8 V using a specific current of 5 mA/g.
  • FIG. 13 is a plot of the portion of the discharge capacity of Li/Li[Ni x Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 2 cells (first charged to 4.8 V) due to the reduction of Mn.
  • the points are the experimental results, the solid line is the prediction if the capacity is governed by the sites available in the Li layer (after the Ni 4+ is reduced to Ni 2+ ) and the dashed line is the capacity available if all Mn 4+ in the compound is reduced to Mn 3+ .
  • the estimated stoichiometry of the sample at this potential based on oxidation state arguments (see table 1) is [Ni 033 Li 0113 Mn 0556 ]O 1833.
  • the calculated pattern is shown as the solid line.
  • FIGS. 14 c and 14 d show the variation of the goodness of fit (G.O.F.) and the Bragg-R factor versus the occupation of the oxygen sites.
  • FIGS. 16 a - g are plots of capacity vs. cycle number for the materials of FIGS. 15 a - g under the same cycling conditions.
  • Cathode compositions have the formulae set forth in the Summary of the Invention, above.
  • the formulae themselves, as well as the choice of particular metal elements, and combinations thereof, for M 1 and M 2 reflect certain criteria that the inventors have discovered are useful for maximizing cathode performance.
  • the cathode compositions preferably adopt an O3 crystal structure featuring layers generally arranged in the sequence lithium-oxygen-metal-oxygen-lithium. This crystal structure is retained when the cathode composition is incorporated in a lithium-ion battery and cycled for 100 full charge-discharge cycles at 30° C.
  • the cathode compositions can be synthesized by electrochemically cycling cathode material described in Dahn, et.al.
  • Heating is preferably conducted in air at temperatures of at least about 600° C., more preferably at least 800° C. In general, higher temperatures are preferred because they lead to materials with increased crystallinity.
  • the ability to conduct the heating process in air is desirable because it obviates the need and associated expense of maintaining an inert atmosphere. Accordingly, the particular metal elements are selected such that they exhibit appropriate oxidation states in air at the desired synthesis temperature. Conversely, the synthesis temperature may be adjusted so that a particular metal element exists in a desired oxidation state in air at that temperature.
  • cathode composition examples include Ni, Co, Fe, Cu, Li, Zn, V, and combinations thereof.
  • Particularly preferred cathode compositions are those having the following formulae (where weighted average oxidation state of all M 2 is 2 when in a fully uncharged state and 4 when in a fully charged state):
  • the cathode compositions can be combined with an anode and an electrolyte to form a lithium-ion battery.
  • suitable anodes include lithium metal, graphite, and lithium alloy compositions, e.g., of the type described in Turner, U.S. Pat. No. 6,203,944 entitled “Electrode for a Lithium Battery” and Turner, WO 00/03444 entitled “Electrode Material and Compositions.”
  • the electrolyte can be liquid or solid.
  • solid electrolytes include polymeric electrolytes such as polyethylene oxide, polytetrafluoroethylene, fluorine-containing copolymers, and combinations thereof.
  • liquid electrolytes examples include ethylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, and combinations thereof.
  • the electrolyte is provided with a lithium electrolyte salt.
  • suitable salts include LiPF 6 , LiBF 4 , and LiClO 4 .
  • Li/Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 is derived from Li 2 MnO 3 or Li[Li 1/3 Mn 2/3 ]O 2 by substitution of Li + and Mn 4+ by Ni 2+ while maintaining all the remaining Mn atoms in the 4+ oxidation state.
  • Conventional wisdom suggests that lithium can be removed from these materials only until both the Ni and Mn oxidation states reach 4 + giving a charge capacity of 2y.
  • Li/Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2/x3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 cells give smooth reversible voltage profiles reaching about 4.45 V when 2x Li atoms per formula unit are removed, as expected.
  • the cells are charged to higher voltages, surprisingly they exhibit a long plateau of length approximately equal to 1 ⁇ 2x in the range between 4.5 and 4.7 V. Subsequent to this plateau the materials can reversibly cycle over 225 mAh/g (almost one Li atom per formula unit) between 2.0 and 4.8 V.
  • In-situ x-ray diffraction and differential capacity measurements are used to infer that irreversible loss of oxygen from the compounds with x ⁇ 1 ⁇ 2 occurs during the first charge to 4.8 V.
  • These oxygen deficient materials then reversibly react with lithium.
  • the electrochemical activity during the first extraction of lithium is thought to be derived from the oxidation of Ni (Ni 2+ ⁇ Ni 4+ , Cr (Cr 3+ ⁇ Cr 6+ ) or Co (Co 3+ ⁇ Co 4+ ).
  • Ni Ni 2+ ⁇ Ni 4+ , Cr (Cr 3+ ⁇ Cr 6+ ) or Co (Co 3+ ⁇ Co 4+ ).
  • These oxidation state changes therefore, set limits for the maximum amount of Li that can be extracted from the compounds in a conventional intercalation process.
  • the Ni oxidation state reaches 4+ at the stoichiometry Li 1 ⁇ 2x [Ni x Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 2 , leading to an expected reversible capacity of 2x Li per formula unit.
  • There is a clear change in slope of the voltage profile of the first charge near 4.45 V, followed by an irreversible plateau (except for x 1 ⁇ 2), whose length increases as x decreases.
  • the capacity of the first charge between 3.0 V and 4.45 V in the sloping portion of the curve is very near to that expected when Ni reaches 4+, as we will show later below. Therefore, the origin of the long plateau is mysterious, but useful, because it leads to materials with considerably greater reversible capacity.
  • the compositions involved in this irreversible plateau are the focus of this application.
  • the capacity versus cycle number is also shown for the same cells in the right hand panels of the figures.
  • the voltage profiles are smooth and the cells show excellent reversibility.
  • the solid line in FIG. 3 shows the capacity expected before the Ni oxidation state equals +4 plotted versus x in Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 . This occurs at the stoichiometry Li 1 ⁇ 2x [Ni x Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 2 .
  • FIGS. 5 a - c shows the lattice constants and the unit cell volume correlated to the voltage profile. Within the error of the experiment, the changes to the lattice constants and the unit cell volume appear to be reversible as lithium is removed from and added to the compound.
  • FIGS. 6 a - e shows the differential capacity versus voltage for the Li/Li[Ni x Li (1 ⁇ 2x)/3 Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 ]O 2 cells cycled between 3.0 and 4.4 V. Apart from small differences between the first charge cycle and later cycles thought to be caused by the impedance of the uncycled Li electrode in the freshly assembled cells, the differential capacity is perfectly repeatable for numerous cycles, suggesting a stable intercalation process for all these materials.
  • FIGS. 1 a - e clearly shows that there is excess capacity available in these samples above 4.45 V which occurs as a plateau between 4.5 and 4.7 V during the first charge cycle.
  • the length of the plateau capacity is plotted versus x in Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 as the squares in FIG. 3.
  • the plateau capacity decreases smoothly with x.
  • the plateau should have a length of 1 ⁇ 2x per formula unit, if all Li atoms can be removed from the Li layers and provided that Li atoms cannot be extracted from the predominantly transition metal layer.
  • This prediction is given as the long dashed line in FIG. 3 and agrees well with the square data points which are the experimental plateau capacities from FIG. 1
  • the total capacity of the first charge of the cells described by FIG. 1 is given as the triangles in FIG. 3, and compared to the capacity expected if all the Li atoms could be extracted from the Li layers. The agreement is quite good.
  • the lattice constant and the unit cell volume changes are correlated to the voltage profile.
  • the c-axis begins to decrease rapidly, consistent with the behaviour observed (for example in LiCoO 2 ) when the last lithium atoms are removed from the lithium layers.
  • the a-axis remains almost constant, while the c-axis is changing.
  • the plateau cannot correspond entirely to a parasitic side reaction involving the electrolyte, because clearly the lithium content of the material is changing. Both the clear plateau near 4.6 V and the region of constant a-axis are not observed during the second charge. Some irreversible change has occurred in the electrode during its charge to 4.8V.
  • FIGS. 8 a - c show the raw in-situ XRD results and FIGS. 9 a - c show the lattice constants and unit cell volume correlated to the cell voltage profile. Both FIGS. 8 and 9 clearly show that the structure of the material, as evidenced by the diffraction pattern and the lattice constants, in the discharged state (53 hours) is different from the virgin sample. In particular, the unit cell volume (FIG. 9 c ) is much larger than in the original material.
  • FIG. 9 c shows the unit cell volume
  • the charge removed must come from the oxygen atoms and therefore the removal of lithium must be accompanied by the expulsion of oxygen from the structure along this plateau.
  • FIG. 10 shows the Gibbs triangle of the ternary Li—M—O system where we have abbreviated Ni x Mn (2 ⁇ x)/3 by M, where x is set by the nickel quantity in Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 .
  • the compositions of relevant phases in the triangle are given.
  • the solid solution series Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 (0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.5) is found on the line joining Li[Li 1/3 M 2/3 ]O 2 and LiMO 2 .
  • the line joining Li[Li 1/3 M 2/3 ]O 2 and MO 2 represents a line of constant transition metal oxidation state equal to 4+.
  • FIG. 11 shows an expanded view of the Gibbs triangle in the region of interest to describe the charge of a Li/Li[Ni x Li (1/3 ⁇ 2x/3) Mn (2/3 ⁇ x/3) ]O 2 cell.
  • the electrode in the freshly assembled cell begins at the point of intersection between the heavy solid line and the line joining Li[Li 1/3 M 2/3 ]O 2 and LiMO 2 .
  • FIG. 12 reinforces this point by showing that the differential capacity versus voltage of the first charge to 4.8 V is different than the next cycles for the cells described by FIG. 1.
  • the subsequent cycles are very reversible, as predicted by the line from “B” to “C” in FIG. 11.
  • Table 1 gives the expected Mn oxidation state at the point “C” in FIG. 11.
  • the structural model used to calculate the diffraction pattern in figure assumed that the sample retained the O3 structure.
  • Table 2 gives the results of the Rietveld refinement of the charged electrodes.
  • the obtained oxygen stoichiometry is compared to the predicted oxygen stoichiometry at 4.8 V given in table 1 based on oxidation state arguments.
  • the agreement between predicted and measured oxygen stoichiometries appears to be very good and is evidence that the charged materials are oxygen deficient.
  • TABLE 2 Results of ex-situ x-ray diffraction analysis of the samples charged to 4.8 V, showing oxygen loss.
  • LiOH.H 2 O (98%+, Aldrich), Ni(NO 3 ) 2 .6H 2 O (98%+, Fluka) and Mn(NO 3 ) 2 .6H 2 O (97%+, Fluka) were used as the starting materials.
  • a 50 ml aqueous solution of the transition metal nitrates was slowly dripped (1 to 2 hours) into 400 ml of a stirred solution of LiOH using a buret. This causes the precipitation of M(OH) 2 (M ⁇ Mn, Ni) with what we hope is a homogeneous cation distribution.
  • the buret was washed three times to make sure that all the transition metal nitrates were added to the LiOH solution.
  • the precipitate was filtered out and washed twice with additional distilled water to remove the residual Li salts (LiOH and the formed LiNO 3 ). The precipitate was dried in air at 180° C. overnight.
  • the dried precipitate was mixed with the stoichiometric amount of Li(OH).H 2 O and ground in an automatic grinder. Pellets about 5 mm thick were then pressed. The pellets were heated in air at 480° C. for 3 hrs. Tongs were used to remove the pellets from the oven and sandwich them between two copper plates in order to quench the pellets to room temperature. The pellets were ground and new pellets made. The new pellets were heated in air at 900° C. for another 3 hrs and quenched to room temperature in the same way. The samples described here are the same ones reported in U.S. Ser. No. 09/845,178.
  • the heated powder was ground in an automatic grinder again and pellets about 5 mm thick were pressed.
  • the pellets were heated in an argon stream at 900° C. for 3 hours using a Lindberg tube furnace.
  • the oven was heated to 900° C. at a rate of 600° C./hr. After dwelling at 900° C. for 3 hours, the oven was cooled to room temperature at a rate of 600° C./hr.
  • argon was purged through the tube oven for about 3 hrs to remove residual oxygen from the tube.
  • X-ray diffraction was carried out using a Siemens D500 diffractometer equipped with a Cu target X-ray tube and a diffracted beam monochromator.
  • Profile refinement of the data for the powder samples was made using Hill and Howard's version of the Rietveld Program Rietica as described in Rietica v1.62, window version of LHPM, R. J. Hill and C. J. Howard, J. Appl. Crystallogr. 18, 173 (1985); D. B. Wiles and R. A. Young, J. Appl. Crystallogr.14, 149 (1981).
  • the materials are single phase and adopt the ⁇ -NaFeO 2 structure (space group R-3M, #166).
  • In-situ x-ray diffraction measurements were made using the same diffractometer and lattice constants were determined by least squares refinements to the positions of at least 7 Bragg peaks. Rietveld profile refinement was not performed on in-situ x-ray diffraction results.
  • Bellcore-type electrodes were prepared for the electrochemical tests. Z grams of the sample is mixed with ca. 0.1Z (by weight) super S carbon black and 0.25Z Kynar 2801 (PVdF-HFP)(Elf-Atochem). This mixture was added to 3.1Z acetone and 0.4Z dibutyl phthalate (DBP, Aldrich) to dissolve the polymer.
  • DBP dibutyl phthalate
  • the slurry was then spread on a glass plate using a notch bar spreader to obtain an even thickness of 0.66 mm.
  • the dry films were peeled off the plate and punched into circular disks with a diameter of 12 mm.
  • the punched electrode was washed several times in anhydrous diethyl ether to remove the DBP. The washed electrode was dried at 90° C. in air overnight before use.
  • FIGS. 15 a - g and FIGS. 16 a - g show the charge-discharge curves and capacity retention versus cycle number of Li/Li[CrxLi(1 ⁇ 3 ⁇ x/3)Mn(2 ⁇ 3 ⁇ 2x/3)]O 2 cells cycled between 2.0 and 4.8 V using a specific current of 5 mA/g at 30° C.
  • FIGS. 15 a - g shows that the first charge profiles are quite different from the following ones and that the irreversible capacity losses are between 75 mAh/g and 150 mAh/g.
  • 16 a - g shows that the delivered reversible capacity gradually decreases from about 260 mAh/g to almost 0 mAh/g as the Cr content increases from 1 ⁇ 6 to 1.
  • the Cr is believed to be in 3+ oxidation state and the Mn in the 4+ oxidation state. Since Mn4+ can not be oxidized beyond the 4+ oxidation state in these experiments, the Mn4+ is assumed not to take part in the redox reaction.
  • FIG. 17 shows that the first charge is quite different from the following ones.
  • the features (marked with the dashed circle) during the first charge become more pronounced as the Cr content, x increases. These changes may be related to the movement of Cr during the first extraction of Li.
  • the peak in FIG. 17 marked with the solid circle near 4.5 V during the first charge is due to oxygen loss.
  • FIGS. 17 a - g show that the peak near 4.5 V in FIGS. 17 a - g.

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