US20180114983A9 - Cathode active materials for lithium-ion batteries - Google Patents

Cathode active materials for lithium-ion batteries Download PDF

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US20180114983A9
US20180114983A9 US15/458,612 US201715458612A US2018114983A9 US 20180114983 A9 US20180114983 A9 US 20180114983A9 US 201715458612 A US201715458612 A US 201715458612A US 2018114983 A9 US2018114983 A9 US 2018114983A9
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variations
cathode active
powder
particles
lithium
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US20170263928A1 (en
Inventor
Hongli Dai
Akshaya K. Padhi
Huiming Wu
Dapeng Wang
Christopher S. Johnson
John David Carter
Martin Bettge
Wenquan Lu
Chi-Kai Lin
Victor A. Maroni
Xiaoping Wang
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Apple Inc
UChicago Argonne LLC
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Apple Inc
UChicago Argonne LLC
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Publication of US20180114983A9 publication Critical patent/US20180114983A9/en
Assigned to APPLE INC. reassignment APPLE INC. ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: PADHI, AKSHAYA K., WU, HUIMING, DAI, HONGLI, WANG, DAPENG
Assigned to UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC reassignment UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: WU, HUIMING
Assigned to UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC reassignment UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: LIN, CHI-KAI
Assigned to UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC reassignment UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: BETTGE, MARTIN
Assigned to UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC reassignment UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: CARTER, JOHN DAVID, JOHNSON, CHRISTOPHER S., LU, WENQUAN, MARONI, VICTOR A., WANG, XIAOPING
Assigned to APPLE INC. reassignment APPLE INC. ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: UCHICAGO ARGONNE, LLC
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/50—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese
    • H01M4/505—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing manganese for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiMn2O4 or LiMn2OxFy
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
    • H01M10/0525—Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
    • H01M4/131—Electrodes based on mixed oxides or hydroxides, or on mixtures of oxides or hydroxides, e.g. LiCoOx
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/362—Composites
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/52—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron
    • H01M4/523—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron for non-aqueous cells
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/52—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron
    • H01M4/525—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing iron, cobalt or nickel for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiNiO2, LiCoO2 or LiCoOxFy
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01B—CABLES; CONDUCTORS; INSULATORS; SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR THEIR CONDUCTIVE, INSULATING OR DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES
    • H01B1/00—Conductors or conductive bodies characterised by the conductive materials; Selection of materials as conductors
    • H01B1/06—Conductors or conductive bodies characterised by the conductive materials; Selection of materials as conductors mainly consisting of other non-metallic substances
    • H01B1/08—Conductors or conductive bodies characterised by the conductive materials; Selection of materials as conductors mainly consisting of other non-metallic substances oxides
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M2004/021—Physical characteristics, e.g. porosity, surface area
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M2004/026—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material characterised by the polarity
    • H01M2004/028—Positive electrodes
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M2220/00—Batteries for particular applications
    • H01M2220/30—Batteries in portable systems, e.g. mobile phone, laptop
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/04—Processes of manufacture in general
    • H01M4/0471—Processes of manufacture in general involving thermal treatment, e.g. firing, sintering, backing particulate active material, thermal decomposition, pyrolysis
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/362—Composites
    • H01M4/366—Composites as layered products
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/485—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of mixed oxides or hydroxides for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiTi2O4 or LiTi2OxFy
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/50—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese
    • H01M4/502—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese for non-aqueous cells
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
    • H01M4/582—Halogenides
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
    • H01M4/5825—Oxygenated metallic salts or polyanionic structures, e.g. borates, phosphates, silicates, olivines
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/64—Carriers or collectors
    • H01M4/66—Selection of materials
    • H01M4/661—Metal or alloys, e.g. alloy coatings
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries

Definitions

  • This invention was made with U.S. government support under WFO Proposal No. 85F59. This invention was made under a CRADA 1500801 between Apple Inc. and Argonne National Laboratory operated for the United States Department of Energy. The U.S. government has certain rights in the invention.
  • This disclosure relates generally to batteries, and more particularly, to cathode active materials for lithium-ion batteries.
  • a commonly used type of rechargeable battery is a lithium battery, such as a lithium-ion or lithium-polymer battery.
  • a lithium battery such as a lithium-ion or lithium-polymer battery.
  • batteries powering these devices need to store more energy in a smaller volume. Consequently, use of battery-powered devices may be facilitated by mechanisms for improving the volumetric energy densities of batteries in the devices.
  • Lithium transition metal oxides can be used in cathode active materials for lithium-ion batteries. These compounds can include lithium cobalt oxide or derivatives thereof. These compounds can be in the form of powders.
  • the disclosure is directed to a compound according to Formula (III):
  • M is B, Na, Mn, Ni, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo, Ru or a combination thereof, 0.95 ⁇ 1.10, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.50, 0 ⁇ 0.05, and 1.95 ⁇ 2.60.
  • M is Mn, Ni, or a combination thereof, 0.95 ⁇ 1.10, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.50, 0 ⁇ 0.05, and 1.95 ⁇ 2.60.
  • the disclosure is directed to a powder comprising particles.
  • the particles include the compound according to Formula (III).
  • the disclosure is directed to a powder comprising particles that have a core and a coating.
  • the coating is disposed over at least a portion of the core.
  • the core includes a compound selected from the compound of Formula (I), Formula (IIa), Formula (IIb), and Formula (III):
  • M is selected from Co, Mn, Ni, and a combination thereof
  • M 1 is selected from Ti, Mn, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof, and
  • M 2 is selected from B, Na, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof;
  • M 1 is selected from Ti, Mn, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof, and
  • M 2 is selected from B, Na, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof;
  • M is selected from B, Na, Mn, Ni, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof,
  • the compound is Formula (I),
  • M is selected from Co, Mn, Ni, and a combination thereof, 1 ⁇ 2, and 2 ⁇ 3.
  • the compound is Formula (IL),
  • M 1 is selected from Ti, Mn, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof
  • M 2 is selected from B, Na, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof.
  • the compound is Formula (IL), and 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.10.
  • the compound is Formula (IIb),
  • M 1 is selected from Ti, Mn, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof, and
  • M 2 is selected from B, Na, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo, Ru and a combination thereof.
  • the compound is Formula (IIb), and 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.10.
  • the compound is Formula (III),
  • M is selected from Mn, Ni, and a combination thereof
  • the coating comprises an oxide material, a fluoride material, or a combination thereof.
  • the core includes a compound according to Formula (IIa). In some aspects, the core includes a compound according to Formula (IIb).
  • the core comprises a compound according to Formula (III). In further variations, 0.001 ⁇ 0.03.
  • the disclosure is directed to a compound represented by Formula (IV):
  • the disclosure is directed to a compound represented by Formula (IV), wherein 0.98 ⁇ 1.01.
  • the disclosure is directed to a compound represented by Formula (IV), wherein 1.00 ⁇ 1.05. In a further aspect, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.10.
  • the disclosure is directed to a compound represented by Formula (IV), wherein 0.95 ⁇ 1.05 and 0.02 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.05.
  • the disclosure is directed to a compound represented by Formula (IV), wherein 1.01 ⁇ 1.05 and 0.02 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.05.
  • the compound has the structure of Formula (Va) or Formula (Vb):
  • the disclosure is directed to a powder comprising particles, the particles comprising the compound represented by Formula (IV): Li ⁇ Co 1-x Mn x O ⁇ .
  • the particles comprising the compound represented by Formula (IV): Li ⁇ Co 1-x Mn x O ⁇ .
  • at least a portion of the particles have a smooth surface.
  • at least a portion of the particles have a tap density equal to or greater than 2.2 g/cm 3 .
  • at least a portion of the particles have a smooth surface and a tap density equal to or greater than 2.2 g/cm 3 .
  • the disclosure is directed to a cathode active material that includes the powders as described herein.
  • the disclosure is directed to a cathode having the cathode active material disposed over a current collector.
  • the disclosure is directed to a battery cell that includes an anode having an anode current collector and an anode active material disposed over the anode current collector and the cathode.
  • the disclosure is directed to a portable electronic device including a set of components powered by the battery pack.
  • a precursor solution e.g., an aluminum salt and/or fluoride salt precursor
  • a precursor solution is prepared by dissolving the precursor in a solvent to form a precursor solution.
  • the precursor solution is added to a particle powder to form a wet-impregnated powder.
  • the wet-impregnated powder is heated to an elevated temperature to form a particle having the composition described herein.
  • first and second solvents are dissolved in first and second solvents to form first and second solutions, respectively.
  • First and second solutions are then combined to make a precursor solution, which is then added to particles as described herein.
  • the disclosure is directed to making the particles by dry blending methods.
  • Particles of a nanocrystalline material are combined with particles comprising the compound of Formula (IV).
  • the nanocrystalline material particles and the particles comprising Formula (IV) are subject to a compressive force, shear force, or a combination thereof.
  • the nanocrystalline material particles bond to the surface of the powder particles. The particles thereby form a coating on the powder particles.
  • M is at least one element selected from B, Na, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo and Ru. In some variations, 0.95 ⁇ 1.30, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.30, 0 ⁇ y ⁇ 0.10, and 1.98 ⁇ 2.04. In various aspects, the compound is a single-phase compound with an R 3 m crystal structure. In further aspects, ⁇ >1+x and/or ⁇ 1+x.
  • the disclosure is directed to a powder comprising particles.
  • the mean diameter of the particle can be at least at least 5 ⁇ m. In some aspects, the mean diameter of the particle can be at least 20 ⁇ m.
  • the particle can comprise secondary particles, each of which comprises a plurality of primary particles sintered together. In some variations the at least 30% of the average secondary particle is formed of a single primary particle.
  • the disclosure is directed to a cathode active material comprising the compounds or powders.
  • the disclosure is directed to a battery cell comprising an anode, a cathode comprising a cathode active material.
  • the battery cell can have a first-cycle discharge energy greater than or equal to 750 Wh/kg.
  • the battery cell can have an energy retention greater than or equal to 70% after 10 charge-discharge cycles.
  • the battery cell can have an energy capacity retention is at least 65% after 52 discharge cycles.
  • FIG. 1 is a top-down view of a battery cell in accordance with an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 2 is a side view of a set of layers for a battery cell in accordance with an illustrative embodiment
  • FIGS. 3A-3C are a series of scanning electron micrographs showing, respectively, a base powder, a 0.1 wt. % AlF 3 -coated base powder, and a 0.1 wt. % Al 2 O 3 -coated base powder, according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 4 is a plot of data representing a performance of three coin half cells, each incorporating a single cathode active material, during a first cycle of charging and discharging, according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 5 is a plot of data representing a change in capacity, over extended cycling under rate testing, of the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 6 is a plot of data representing a change in capacity, over extended cycling under life testing, of the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 7 is a plot of data representing a change in energy density, over extended cycling under rate testing, of the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 8 is a plot of data representing a change in energy density, over extended cycling under life testing, of the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 9 is a plot of data corresponding to charge-discharge profiles for each the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 under rate testing;
  • FIG. 10 is a plot of data corresponding to charge-discharge profiles for each the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 under life testing;
  • FIG. 11 is a plot of data representing dQ/dV profiles for each the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 under rate testing.
  • FIG. 12 is a plot of data representing dQ/dV profiles for each the four coin half-cells of FIG. 4 under life testing.
  • FIG. 13 is a plot of data representing an influence of molar ratio on a capacity and efficiency of a cathode active material comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 14 is a plot of data representing an influence of molar ratio, represented by ⁇ , and Mn content, represented by x, on a c-axis lattice parameter of Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 15 is a plot of data representing a change in the c-axis lattice parameter with molar ratio for Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 16 is a series of scanning electron micrographs of powder prepared at 900° C., 1000° C., 1050° C., and 1100° C., according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 17 is a series of scanning electron micrographs showing an influence of temperature and molar ratio, ⁇ , on particle morphology, according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 18 is a plot of data representing an influence of mixing ratio on a capacity and an efficiency of a cathode active material comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 19 is a series of scanning electron micrographs of cathode active materials comprising Li ⁇ Co 1-x M 0.16 O ⁇ and prepared according to a co-precipitation method, according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 20 is a plot of x-ray diffraction patterns of cathode active materials prepared according to a co-precipitation method and comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O ⁇ , and Li ⁇ Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O ⁇ with varying values of ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 21 is a plot of x-ray diffraction patterns of cathode active materials prepared according to a co-precipitation method and comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O ⁇ and Li ⁇ Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O ⁇ with varying values of ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 22 is a series of scanning electron micrographs of cathode active materials comprising Li ⁇ Co 1-x M x O ⁇ and prepared according to a sol-gel method, according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 23 is a plot of x-ray diffraction patterns of cathode active materials prepared according to a sol-gel method and comprising Li 1.131 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.198 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.241 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , and Li 1.301 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 24 is a plot of differential capacity curves for cathode active materials comprising LiCoO 2 , Li 1.05 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.05 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 1.05 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 1.110 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , and Li 1.19 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 25 is a plot of voltage profile curves for cathode active materials comprising Li 1.05 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.05 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 1.110 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , and Li 1.19 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 26 is a contour plot of discharge energy density that varies with Mn substitution, Co 1-x Mn x , and lithium ratio, [Li]/[Co 1-x Mn x ], according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 27 a contour plot of energy retention that varies with Mn substitution, Co 1-x Mn x , and lithium ratio, [Li]/[Co 1-x Mn x ], according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 28 is a plot of differential capacity curves for cathode active materials comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.99-y Al y Mn 0.01 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.98-y Al y Mn 0.02 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.97-y Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , and Li ⁇ Co 0.96-y Al y Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 29 is a plot of differential capacity curves for cathode active materials comprising Li 0.977 Co 0.97 Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , Li 0.992 Co 0.97 Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , Li 1.003 Co 0.97 Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , and Li 1.014 Co 0.97 Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 30 is a plot of discharge energy versus cycle count for cathode active materials comprising Li 0.992 Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , Li 1.003 Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , and Li 1.014 Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 31 is a plot of discharge energy versus cycle count for cathode active materials comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.98-y Al y Mn 0.02 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.97-y Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , and Li ⁇ Co 0.96-y Al y Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 32 is a plot of nuclear magnetic resonance patterns for Li ⁇ Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O ⁇ and Li ⁇ Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 33 is a plot of discharge energy versus cycle count for cathode, active materials comprising Li 1.01 Co 0.97-y Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ for 0.077, 0.159, and 0.760 wt. % added Al 2 O 3 , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 34A is a scanning electron micrographs of particles of cathode active material prepared by firing a precursor and comprising Li ⁇ Co 1-x-y Al y Mn x O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 34B is a scanning electron micrograph of the cathode active material of FIG. 34B , but in which the precursor was fired at a higher sintering temperature, according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 35A is a particle size distribution of particles of cathode active material prepared from a precursor fired at 1050° C. and comprising Li ⁇ Co 1-x-y Al y Mn x O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 35B a particle size distribution of particles of cathode active material prepared from a precursor fired at 1085° C. and comprising Li ⁇ Co 1-x-y Al y Mn x O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 36 is a plot of surface area change and energy retention versus calcination temperature of a cathode active material comprising Li ⁇ .01 Co 1-x-y Al y Mn x O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 37 is a plot of initial discharge capacity and coulombic efficiency versus calcination temperature of a cathode active material comprising Li 1.01 Co 1-x-y Al y Mn n O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 38 is a plot of heat flow versus calcination temperature of cathode active materials comprising LiCoO 2 , Li ⁇ Co 0.99 Mn 0.01 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.98 Mn 0.02 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , and Li ⁇ Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 39 is a plot of c-axis lattice parameter versus lithium content, ⁇ , for cathode active materials comprising LiCoO 2 , Li ⁇ Co 0.98 Mn 0.02 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O ⁇ , Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , and Li ⁇ Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 40 is a plot of Raman spectra for cathode active materials comprising LiCoO 2 , Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , and Li ⁇ Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment
  • FIG. 41 is a plot of discharge capacity after 52 cycles versus lithium content, ⁇ , of cathode active materials comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , and Li ⁇ Co 0.93 Mn 0.70 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment;
  • FIG. 42 is a plot of differential capacity curves for cathode active materials comprising Li 1.025 Co 0.96-y Al y Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , and Li 1.00 Co 0.93-y Al y Mn 0.07 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • FIG. 43 is a data plot of first-cycle charge capacity, first-cycle discharge capacity, and first cycle coulombic efficiency versus lithium content, a, for cathode active materials comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • compositions referenced for cathode active materials represent those of as-prepared materials (i.e., “virgin” materials) unless otherwise indicated. Materials of these compositions have not yet been exposed to additional processes, such as de-lithiation and lithiation during, respectively, charging and discharging of a lithium-ion battery.
  • Lithium cobalt oxides can be used in cathode active materials for commercial lithium-ion batteries. These compounds often include lithium cobalt oxide or derivatives thereof. The performance of such cathode active materials can be increased by improving its capacity, working voltage, and gravimetric electrode density.
  • Particles can include primary and secondary particles.
  • Primary particle and secondary particle size distribution, shape, and porosity can impact the density of lithium cobalt oxide electrodes.
  • Secondary particles are comprised of agglomerates of the smaller, primary particles, which are also often referred to as grains. Control of the secondary particle characteristics of shape and density can be gained.
  • the performance of batteries can be improved using compounds and particles that provide increased capacity, working voltage, and gravimetric electrode density. These and other needs are addressed by the disclosure herein.
  • FIG. 1 presents a top-down view of a battery cell 100 in accordance with an embodiment.
  • the battery cell 100 may correspond to a lithium-ion or lithium-polymer battery cell that is used to power a device used in a consumer, medical, aerospace, defense, and/or transportation application.
  • the battery cell 100 includes a stack 102 containing a number of layers that include a cathode with a cathode active coating, a separator, and an anode with an anode active coating. More specifically, the stack 102 may include one strip of cathode active material (e.g., aluminum foil coated with a lithium compound) and one strip of anode active material (e.g., copper foil coated with carbon).
  • cathode active material e.g., aluminum foil coated with a lithium compound
  • anode active material e.g., copper foil coated with carbon
  • the stack 102 also includes one strip of separator material (e.g., conducting polymer electrolyte) disposed between the one strip of cathode active material and the one strip of anode active material.
  • separator material e.g., conducting polymer electrolyte
  • the cathode, anode, and separator layers may be left flat in a planar configuration or may be wrapped into a wound configuration (e.g., a “jelly roll”).
  • Battery cells can be enclosed in a flexible pouch.
  • the stack 102 is enclosed in a flexible pouch.
  • the stack 102 may be in a planar or wound configuration, although other configurations are possible.
  • the flexible pouch is formed by folding a flexible sheet along a fold line 112 .
  • the flexible sheet may be made of aluminum with a polymer film, such as polypropylene. After the flexible sheet is folded, the flexible sheet can be sealed, for example, by applying heat along a side seal 110 and along a terrace seal 108 .
  • the flexible pouch may be less than 120 microns thick to improve the packaging efficiency of the battery cell 100 , the density of battery cell 100 , or both.
  • the stack 102 also includes a set of conductive tabs 106 coupled to the cathode and the anode.
  • the conductive tabs 106 may extend through seals in the pouch (for example, formed using sealing tape 104 ) to provide terminals for the battery cell 100 .
  • the conductive tabs 106 may then be used to electrically couple the battery cell 100 with one or more other battery cells to form a battery pack.
  • Batteries can be combined in a battery pack in any configuration.
  • the battery pack may be formed by coupling the battery cells in a series, parallel, or a series-and-parallel configuration.
  • Such coupled cells may be enclosed in a hard case to complete the battery pack, or may be embedded within an enclosure of a portable electronic device, such as a laptop computer, tablet computer, mobile phone, personal digital assistant (PDA), digital camera, and/or portable media player.
  • a portable electronic device such as a laptop computer, tablet computer, mobile phone, personal digital assistant (PDA), digital camera, and/or portable media player.
  • FIG. 2 presents a side view of a set of layers for a battery cell (e.g., the battery cell 100 of FIG. 1 ) in accordance with the disclosed embodiments.
  • the set of layers may include a cathode current collector 202 , a cathode active coating 204 , a separator 206 , an anode active coating 208 , and an anode current collector 210 .
  • the cathode current collector 202 and the cathode active coating 204 may form a cathode for the battery cell
  • the anode current collector 210 and the anode active coating 208 may form an anode for the battery cell.
  • the set of layers may be stacked in a planar configuration, or stacked and then wrapped into a wound configuration.
  • the cathode current collector 202 may be aluminum foil
  • the cathode active coating 204 may be a lithium compound
  • the anode current collector 210 may be copper foil
  • the anode active coating 208 may be carbon
  • the separator 206 may include a conducting polymer electrolyte.
  • the cathode active materials described herein can be used in conjunction with any battery cells or components thereof known in the art.
  • the layers may be stacked and/or used to form other types of battery cell structures, such as bi-cell structures. All such battery cell structures are known in the art.
  • the materials can be used as cathode active materials in lithium-ion batteries.
  • transition-metal oxides are variations of lithium cobalt oxides.
  • the disclosure is directed to compounds of Formula (I):
  • M Co, Mn, Ni, or any combination thereof, 0.95 ⁇ 2, and 2 ⁇ 3.
  • ⁇ 2.8. In some variations, ⁇ 2.6. In some variations, ⁇ 2.4. In some variations, ⁇ 2.2. It will be understood that the boundaries of a and g can be combined in any variation as above.
  • M 1 is one or more cations with an average oxidation state of 4+ (i.e., tetravalent)
  • M 2 is one or more cations with an average oxidation state of 3+ (i.e., trivalent), and 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 1.
  • M 1 is selected from Ti, Mn, Zr. Mo, Ru, and a combination thereof.
  • M 1 is Mn.
  • M 2 is selected from B, Na, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Ru, Mo and a combination thereof.
  • M 2 is selected from Mg, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, and a combination thereof.
  • M 2 is Co.
  • cobalt is a predominant transition-metal constituent which allows high voltage, and high volumetric energy density for cathode active materials employed in lithium-ion batteries.
  • M 1 is one or more cations with an average oxidation state of 4+ (i.e., tetravalent)
  • M 2 is one or more cations, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 1, and 0 ⁇ y ⁇ 1.
  • M 1 is selected from Ti, Mn, Zr, Mo, Ru, and a combination thereof.
  • M 1 is Mn.
  • M 2 is selected from B, Na, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Ru, Mo and a combination thereof.
  • M 2 is selected from Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, and a combination thereof. In some variations, M 2 is selected from Mg, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, and a combination thereof. In specific variations, M 2 is Co and Mn.
  • ⁇ 1.2. In some variations, 0.95 ⁇ .
  • cobalt is a predominant transition-metal constituent which allows high voltage, and high volumetric energy density for cathode active materials employed in lithium-ion batteries.
  • M is B, Na, Mn, Ni, Mg, Ti, Ca, V, Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, Sc, Y, Ga, Zr, Mo, Ru or a combination thereof or any combination thereof; 0.95 ⁇ 1.10; 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.50; 0 ⁇ 0.05; and 1.95 ⁇ 2.60.
  • M is Mn, Ni, or any combination thereof.
  • M is Mn, Ni, or a combination thereof, 0.95 ⁇ 1.10, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.50, 0 ⁇ 0.05, and 1.95 ⁇ 2.60.
  • ⁇ is 0.003.
  • a distribution of aluminum within the particle may be uniform or may be biased to be proximate to a surface of the particle.
  • Other distributions of aluminum are possible.
  • Al is at least 500 ppm.
  • Al is at least 750 ppm.
  • Al is at least 900 ppm.
  • Al is less than or equal to 2000 ppm.
  • Al is less than or equal to 1500 ppm.
  • Al is less than or equal to 1250 ppm.
  • Al is approximately 1000 ppm.
  • the various compounds of Formulae (I), (IIa), (IIb), and (III) can include Mn 4+ .
  • Mn 4+ can improve a stability of oxide under high voltage charging (e.g., 4.5V) and can also help maintain an R 3 m crystal structure (i.e., the ⁇ -NaFeO 2 structure) when transitioning through a 4.1-4.3V region (i.e., during charging and discharging).
  • the disclosure is directed to a powder that includes particles.
  • the particles can comprise the compound of Formula (III) and new formula.
  • the particles comprise a core comprising a compound of Formula (I), Formula (IIa), Formula (IIb) or Formula (III), and a coating disposed over at least a portion of the core.
  • the particles comprise a core comprising a compound of Formula (III), and a coating disposed over at least a portion of the core.
  • the powder may serve as a part or all of a cathode active material.
  • the particles described herein can be used in a cathode active material in a battery.
  • Such cathode active materials can tolerate voltages equal to or higher than conventional materials (i.e., relative to a Li/Li + redox couple) without capacity fade.
  • Capacity fade degrades battery performance and may result from a structural instability of the cathode active material, a side reaction with electrolyte at high voltage, surface instability, a dissolution of cathode active material into the electrolyte, or some combination thereof.
  • the aluminum can be referred to as a dopant.
  • Such aluminum dopants can be distributed uniformly throughout the particle, or alternatively localized along the surface of the particle.
  • the particle comprises a core and a coating.
  • the coating can be an oxide material, a fluoride material, or a combination thereof.
  • the coating may be a layer of material in contact with a surface of the core or a reaction layer formed along the surface of the core.
  • the coating can include an oxide material (e.g., ZrO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , etc.), a fluoride material (e.g., AlF 3 ), or a combination thereof (e.g., AlO x F y ).
  • the oxide material includes at least one element selected from the group consisting of Al, Co, Li, Zr, Mg, Ti, Zn, Mn, B, Si, Ga, and Bi.
  • the oxide material may include oxoanions such as phosphates (e.g., AlPO 4 , Co 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , LiCoPO 4 , etc.).
  • the fluoride material includes at least one element selected from the group consisting of Al, Co, Mn, Ni, Li, Ca, Zr, Mg, Ti, and Na.
  • the coating may include one or more compositions selected from AlF 3 , Al 2 O 3 , AlPO 4 , Co 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , LiCoPO 4 , and ZrO 2 .
  • the coating can be in any amount known in the art. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 7 wt. % of the total particle. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 5 wt. % of the total particle. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 0.8 wt. % of the total particle. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 0.6 wt. % of the total particle. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 0.4 wt. % of the total particle. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 0.3 wt. % of the total particle. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 0.2 wt. % of the total particle. In some variations, amount of coating may be less than or equal to 0.1 wt. % of the total particle. In various aspects, the amount can be chosen such that a capacity of the cathode active material is not negatively impacted.
  • the coating may include multiple layers of coating material.
  • the coating may also be a continuous coating or a discontinuous coating.
  • Non-limiting examples of discontinuous coatings include coatings with voids or cracks and coatings formed of particles with gaps therebetween. Other types of discontinuous coatings are possible.
  • Powders comprising the particles described herein can be used as a cathode active material in a lithium ion battery.
  • Such cathode active materials can tolerate voltages equal to or higher than conventional materials (i.e., relative to a Li/Li + redox couple) without capacity fade.
  • Capacity fade degrades battery performance and may result from a structural instability of the cathode active material, a side reaction with electrolyte at high voltage, surface instability, dissolution of cathode active material into the electrolyte, or some combination thereof.
  • the compounds and/or particles as described herein when incorporated into a battery as a cathode active material, have lithium ion batteries that can be charged at high voltages without capacity fade.
  • the compounds may impede or retard structural deviations from an ⁇ -NaFeO 2 crystal structure during charging to at higher voltages.
  • the compounds as described herein when incorporated into a battery as a cathode active material, have lithium ion batteries to have voltages greater than 4.2V without capacity fade. In further aspects, such batteries have voltages greater than 4.3V. In various aspects, the lithium cobalt oxide materials are directed to voltages greater than 4.4V. In various aspects, the lithium cobalt oxide materials are directed to voltages greater than 4.5V.
  • Batteries having cathode active materials that include the disclosed particles can show improved the battery performance at high voltages.
  • the particles provide for an increased battery capacity over cycles at high voltage (e.g., 4.5V).
  • the decay rate of the battery is less than 0.7 mAh/g/cycle at a charge potential of 4.5V.
  • the decay rate of the battery is less than 0.6 mAh/g/cycle at a charge potential of 4.5V.
  • the decay rate of the battery is less than 0.5 mAh/g/cycle at a charge potential of 4.5V.
  • batteries that include cathode active materials comprising the disclosed particles lose lower amounts of energy per unit mass per cycle. In some embodiments, such batteries lose less than 4 Wh/kg over per cycle when operated at a potential of 4.5V.
  • the disclosure is further directed to methods of making the disclosed compounds and particles.
  • Al may be introduced via a surface modification process.
  • the particle may be coated with a coating comprising aluminum and subsequently heated. Thermal energy can enable a reaction between the particle and the coating, thereby infusing aluminum into the core (e.g., doping).
  • the particle may be exposed to a solution that comprises aluminum. A chemical reaction between the particle and the solution can create a surface reaction layer comprising aluminum. The particle may be subsequently heated (e.g., to diffuse aluminum from the surface reaction layer into the particle, convert the surface reaction layer into a coating, etc.).
  • the particle may be contacted with particles that comprise aluminum, such as during milling.
  • Mechanical energy creates compressive forces, shear forces, or a combination thereof, to fuse the aluminum particles to the particle (e.g., bond Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles to the particle).
  • These surface modification processes can allow the core to achieve an aluminum content between 0 ⁇ 0.03.
  • Other surface modification processes are possible.
  • the performance of batteries including the compounds and/or powders can increase battery capacity and/or reduce the loss of available power in a fully charged battery over time.
  • the disclosure is further directed to methods of modifying a surface of particles by wet processing or dry processing.
  • the disclosure is directed to methods of making particles.
  • a precursor solution comprising a first amount of a precursor dissolved in a solvent is prepared.
  • the powders comprises a compound according to Formula (I), (IIa), (IIb) or (III).
  • the precursor solution is added to the powder to form a wet-impregnated powder.
  • the wet-impregnated powder is heated to an elevated temperature.
  • the first precursor is dissolved in a first portion of the solvent to form a first solution.
  • the first solution is added to the powder to form a partial wet-impregnated powder.
  • a second precursor is dissolved into a second portion of solvent to form a second solution.
  • the second is added to the partial wet-impregnated powder to produce a wet-impregnated powder.
  • the wet-impregnated powder is then heated at an elevated temperature.
  • wet-impregnation involves adding solvent to particles of the powder until the particles exhibit a damp consistency (e.g., paste-like).
  • the amount of solvent can be selected such that, when the precursor solution is added to the powder, the wet-impregnated powder so-produced exhibits a damp consistency.
  • the method additionally includes heating the wet-impregnated powder at an elevated temperature. It will be appreciated that the amount of solvent may be determined by selecting a known amount of the powder and progressively adding solvent until all particles of the powder appear wet, but do not flow (i.e., show a damp consistency). A ratio of solvent to powder (e.g., grams of solvent per grams of the powder) may be scaled as needed to accommodate different amounts of the powder when utilizing the method. A concentration of the at least one precursor may then be selected to apply a desired quantity of material onto the surface of the particles. Representative variations of the method are described in relation to Examples 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
  • heating the wet-impregnated powder includes drying the wet-impregnated powder.
  • the at least one precursor includes aluminum (e.g., see Example 1).
  • preparing the precursor solution includes dissolving a first precursor into a first portion of solvent to form a first solution and dissolving a second precursor into a second portion of solvent to form a second solution.
  • the first portion of solvent and the second portion of solvent, in total, may correspond to the amount of solvent.
  • preparing the precursor solution also includes mixing the first solution with the second solution, thereby forming the precursor solution.
  • the first precursor includes aluminum and the second precursor includes phosphate (e.g., see Example 3).
  • the first precursor includes cobalt and the second precursor includes phosphate (e.g., see Example 4).
  • the first precursor include aluminum and the second precursor includes lithium (e.g., see Example 5).
  • preparing the precursor solution includes dissolving the first precursor into the first portion of solvent to form the first solution, dissolving the second precursor into the second portion of solvent to form the second solution, and dissolving a third precursor into a third portion of solvent to form the third solution.
  • preparing the precursor solution also includes mixing the first solution, the second solution, and the third solution thereby forming the precursor solution.
  • At least one of the first precursor, the second precursor, and the third precursor include lithium.
  • the first precursor includes cobalt
  • the second precursor includes lithium
  • the third precursor includes phosphate (e.g., see Example 6).
  • adding the first solution to the powder includes drying the partial wet-impregnated powder. In some embodiments, heating the wet-impregnated powder includes drying the wet-impregnated powder. In some embodiments, the first precursor includes aluminum and the second precursor include fluorine (e.g., see Example 2).
  • a method for modifying a surface of particles includes stirring a suspension of particles.
  • the particles include the compound of Formula (III).
  • the method also involves adding one or more precursor to the suspension of particles while stirring.
  • the method additionally includes filtering the particles after adding the precursor solution. Representative variations of the method are described in relation to Examples 7-9.
  • the method includes filtering the particles after adding the at least one precursor and heating the filtered particles to an elevated temperature.
  • the precursor solution can include aluminum or cobalt (e.g., see Example 8).
  • the metal precursor include an aluminum precursor, e.g., Al(NO 3 ) 3 , and a cobalt precursor, e.g., Co(NO 3 ) 3 .
  • a method for modifying a surface of particles in a powder includes blending particles of nanocrystalline material with particles of the powder.
  • the particles of the powder can include a compound according to Formula (I), (IIa), or (III), as described herein.
  • the particles can be combined with the nanocrystalline material and while blending, and/or subjected to compressive forces, shear forces, or a combination thereof. Such forces can induce the nanocrystalline material particles to bond to surfaces of the particles of the powder.
  • the nanocrystalline material particles and the powder particles can be blended in such a ratio that the nanocrystalline material particles form a predetermined amount of coating on the powder particles. Representative variations of the method are described in relation to Examples 10-12.
  • the nanocrystalline material particles can include an aluminum oxide material, an aluminum fluoride material, or a combination thereof.
  • ⁇ represents a molar ratio of lithium content to total transition-metal content (i.e., total content of Co and Mn).
  • increasing lithium content can increase capacity, improve stability, increase gravimetric density of particles comprising the compound, increase particle density, and/or increase particle strength of the cathode active material.
  • decreasing lithium content can increase capacity, improve stability, increase gravimetric density of particles comprising the compound, increase particle density, and/or increase particle strength of the cathode active material.
  • the compound of Formula (IV) may be represented as a solid solution of two phases, i.e., a solid solution of Li 2 MnO 3 and LiCoO 2 .
  • the compound may be described according to Formula (Va):
  • x describes including both Mn and Co. Due to differing valences between Mn and Co, such inclusion of Mn may influence lithium content and oxygen content of the compound.
  • the composition of ‘x’ can be 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.10. In some variations, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.10. In such variations, the lithium content can be from 1 to 1.10 in Formula (VI), and the oxygen content can be from 2 to 2.10.
  • the compounds disclosed herein have lithium contents and oxygen contents that may vary independently of x. For example, and without limitation, the lithium and oxygen contents may vary from stoichiometric values due to synthesis conditions deliberately selected by those skilled in the art. As such, subscripts in Formulas (V) and (VI) are not intended as limiting on Formula (IV), i.e., ⁇ is not necessarily equal to 1+x, and ⁇ is not necessarily equal 2+x. It will be appreciated that the lithium content and the oxygen content of compounds represented by Formula (IV) can be under-stoichiometric or over-stoichiometric relative to the stoichiometric values of Formula (VI).
  • the compound of Formula (IV) may be represented as a solid solution of two phases, i.e., a solid solution of Li 2 MnO 3 and LiCoO 2 .
  • the compound may be described according to Formula (Vb):
  • Mn is a cation with an average oxidation state of 4+ (i.e., tetravalent) and Co is a cation with an average oxidation state of 3+ (i.e., trivalent).
  • the disclosure is further directed to powders comprising compounds described herein.
  • the disclosure is directed to a powder that includes particles comprising Li ⁇ Co 1-x Mn x O ⁇ where 0.95 ⁇ 1.10, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.10, and 1.90 ⁇ 2.20.
  • the powder may serve as part or all of a cathode active material (i.e., the cathode active material includes the powder).
  • 0.98 ⁇ 1.01 and x 0.03.
  • 1.00 ⁇ 1.05. 1.01 ⁇ 1.05 and 0.02 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.05.
  • 1.01 ⁇ 1.05 and x 0.04.
  • the compound of Formula (IV) may be represented as a solid solution of two phases, i.e., a solid solution of Li 2 MnO 3 and LiCoO 2 .
  • the compound may be described according to Formula (Va) or Formula (Vb), where Mn is a cation with an average oxidation state of 4+ (i.e., tetravalent) and Co is a cation with an average oxidation state of 3+ (i.e., trivalent).
  • x can describe both Mn and Co. Without wishing to be held to a particular mechanism or mode of action, because of differing valences between Mn and Co, inclusion of Mn may influence lithium content and oxygen content of the compound.
  • the combination of ‘x’ and ‘y’ at least zero and less than or equal to 0.10. In some variations, the combination of ‘x’ and ‘y’ can be greater than zero and less than or equal to 0.10. In such variations, the lithium content can be any range described herein for other Formulae. In some variations, Li can be from 0.9 to 1.10. In some variations, oxygen content can be from 2 to 2.10. It will be recognized that, as with all Formulae presented herein, that the compounds disclosed herein have lithium contents and oxygen contents that may vary independently of x and y.
  • the compounds and powders can be in a cathode active material for lithium ion batteries, as described herein. These cathode active materials assist energy storage by releasing and storing lithium ions during, respectively, charging and discharging of a lithium-ion battery.
  • the characteristics of the powder can provide improved battery performance when the powder is used as a cathode active material.
  • Powders comprising the compounds described herein have increased tap densities over previously known compounds.
  • Batteries comprising these powders as a cathode active material have an increased volumetric energy density.
  • batteries having such cathode active materials have a specific capacity greater than 130 mAh/g. In some instances, the specific capacity is greater than 140 mAh/g. In some instances, the specific capacity is greater than 150 mAh/g. In some instances, the specific capacity is greater than 160 mAh/g. In some instances, the specific capacity is greater than 170 mAh/g.
  • Increasing an initial lithium content in the cathode active materials can increase the volumetric energy density and/or cycle life.
  • the cathode active material can exhibit a high tap density and/or improved particle strength. In some instances, the cathode active material can exhibit a tap density equal to or greater than 2.1 g/cm 3 . In some instances, the cathode active material can exhibit a tap density equal to or greater than 2.2 g/cm 3 . In some instances, the cathode active material can exhibit a tap density equal to or greater than 2.3 g/cm 3 . In some instances, the cathode active material can exhibit a tap density greater than or equal to 2.4 g/cm 3 .
  • the disclosure is directed to a cathode active material for lithium-ion batteries that includes a lithium cobalt oxide having a tetravalent metal of Mn 4+ .
  • the trivalent Co ion, Co 3+ can serve as host to supply the capacity.
  • incorporating Mn 4+ can improve a stability of lithium cobalt oxide under high voltage charging and can also help maintain an R 3 m crystal structure when transitioning through a 4.1-4.6 V region (i.e., during charging and discharging).
  • the voltage charge can be equal to or greater than 4.4 V. In some instances, the voltage charge can be equal to or greater than 4.5 V. In some instances, the voltage charge can be equal to or greater than 4.6 V.
  • a degree of Mn can influence an amount of additional lithium desired for the cathode active material.
  • a composition of lithium cobalt oxide having 92% Co and 8% Mn may correspond to a lithium content of 6 to 10 mole percent in excess of unity.
  • ranges for the lithium content may vary based on the degree of manganese substitution, and as shown in relation to FIG. 13 , may be determined by those skilled in the art using empirical data.
  • the molar ratio indicated on the abscissa, corresponds to ⁇ , the molar ratio of lithium content to total transition-metal content (i.e., described as the “Li/TM ratio” in FIG. 13 ).
  • the cathode active material was characterized chemically using inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), as known to those skilled in the art.
  • ICP-OES inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy
  • a first curve 300 representing a change in capacity with the molar ratio is fitted to a first set of data points 302 .
  • a second curve 304 representing a change in efficiency with the molar ratio is fitted to a second set of data points 306 .
  • the first curve 300 exhibits a maximum in a range corresponding to 0.98 ⁇ 1.05.
  • limits of the range may change in response to changes in x, which represents an amount of Mn in the cathode material.
  • those skilled in the art may alter a and x to achieve a desired combination of capacity and efficiency.
  • the compounds described herein can allow for excess lithium storage.
  • This increased capacity allows those skilled in the art to match a particular (increased) capacity to a desired efficiency.
  • additional lithium can normally expected to function as a contaminant in the cathode material, degrading its performance. Indeed, when the excess of lithium exceeds a threshold value (e.g., exceeds a 1.05 in FIG. 13 ), both capacity and efficiency decrease.
  • FIG. 14 presents a plot of data representing an influence of the molar ratio, represented by ⁇ , and Mn content, represented by x, on a c-axis lattice parameter of the compound of Formula (IV), i.e., Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • the data are generated using techniques of X-ray diffraction, as known by those skilled in the art.
  • the (003) peak in the R 3 m diffraction pattern for LiCoO 2 characteristically shifts according x and ⁇ .
  • the c-lattice contracts with increasing ⁇ (i.e., as ⁇ increases from 1.0062 to 1.0925).
  • excess Li moves into a transition metal layer of Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ due to the presence of Mn 4+ . This displacement increases the lithium capacity and stability of the material.
  • FIG. 15 presents a plot of data representing a change in the c-axis lattice parameter with molar ratio for Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • the molar ratio, ⁇ is indicated on the abscissa as “ICP Li/TM”).
  • the cathode active material was characterized chemically using ICP-OES, as known to those skilled in the art.
  • the change in the c-axis lattice parameter follows a sigmoidal curve.
  • the sigmoidal curve tends to become asymptotic at extremes of a (i.e., the lowest and highest values of ⁇ shown in FIG. 15 ).
  • the disclosure is further directed to methods of producing a powder comprising Li ⁇ Co 1-x Mn x O ⁇ .
  • the method includes the steps of mixing a lithium source with precursor particles to produce a reactant, and then heating the reactant to a high temperature.
  • Precursors of the lithium-ion cathode materials can be calcined to obtain the positive electrode material.
  • it can be difficult to control the particle sintering process to produce high density particles and at the same time produce a high capacity material.
  • State of the art procedures add a variable amount of extra lithium of up to 10 wt % due to its high evaporation rate at high temperatures.
  • the precursor particles comprise a transition-metal hydroxide comprising Co and Mn.
  • the lithium source include lithium hydroxide (i.e., LiOH) and lithium carbonate (i.e., Li 2 Co 3 ).
  • LiOH lithium hydroxide
  • Li 2 Co 3 lithium carbonate
  • other lithium sources are possible.
  • the method also includes heating the reactant to a temperature equal to or greater than 800° C.
  • the ratio of the lithium source to the precursor particles is selected such that 0.95 ⁇ 1.10. This ratio may be equal to or greater than the molar ratio, ⁇ , due to evaporative losses of lithium during heating.
  • the temperature is between 800-1200° C.
  • the temperature of heating is from about 800 to about 1000° C. In other aspects, the temperature of heating is from about 1000 to about 1100° C. In other aspects, the temperature of heating is from about 1100 to about 1200° C. In still other aspects, the temperature of heating is from about 900 to about 1000° C. In still yet other aspects, the temperature of heating is from about 800 to about 900° C.
  • temperatures in the aforementioned ranges allow particles of powder to exhibit gravimetric density and strength sufficient for lithium-ion battery applications. These ranges also correspond to improved capacities and first-cycle efficiencies. Again, without wishing to be limited to any mechanism or mode of action, it will be appreciated that high gravimetric densities allow increased energy densities for the cathode active material. Particle strength can improve efficient handling during battery manufacturing and for cycle stability during battery operation.
  • the molar ratio (i.e., a), the temperature, and corresponding heating periods can control particle sintering and densification.
  • additional lithium content controls a degree of sintering of the precursor particles.
  • additional lithium content also controls a capacity of the powder, when included as a cathode active material. It will be understood that sufficient lithium should be present to react with and sinter the precursor particles, but not risk over-sintering the precursor particles. Over-sintering can produce a solid mass. Even if a solid mass can be avoided, excessive lithium may lower capacity and efficiency of the cathode active material.
  • FIG. 17 presents a series of scanning electron micrographs showing an influence of temperature and molar ratio ( ⁇ ) on particle morphology, according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • a composition of the powder i.e., particles therein
  • ⁇ increasing progressively from 1.00, to 1.04, to 1.06, to 1.08, and to 1.10 (i.e., from left to right in FIG. 17 ).
  • Two temperatures are presented, i.e., 1050° C. and 1100° C.
  • the heating temperature can have an effect on the surface morphology and increased tap density of the powder.
  • the secondary particles are free-flowing after calcination.
  • primary grains are not well bonded for strength.
  • individual grains fused together better.
  • the secondary particles had smooth surfaces and well-bonded grains.
  • the molar ratio is increased (i.e., at 1100° C.)
  • the secondary particles begin to bond together, forming a rigid sintered mass of particles. This rigid sintered mass may be broken apart by grinding.
  • 1.01 ⁇ 1.05 and 0.02 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.05. In further embodiments, 1.01 ⁇ 1.05 and x 0.04.
  • FIG. 18 presents a plot of data representing an influence of mixing ratio on a capacity and an efficiency of a cathode active material comprising Li ⁇ Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O ⁇ , according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • the mixing ratio corresponds to the ratio of lithium source mixed the precursor particles.
  • the abscissa shows an increase of the mixing ratio from 1.00 to 1.10.
  • the compound of Formula (VII) is single phase.
  • the compound can have a trigonal R 3 m crystal structure.
  • 0.98 ⁇ 1.16 and 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.16 0.98 ⁇ 1.16, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.16, 0 ⁇ 0.05, 1.98 ⁇ 2.04.
  • the compounds represented by Formula (VIII) have 0.98 ⁇ 1.01, 0.02 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.04, 0 ⁇ 0.03, and 1.98 ⁇ 2.04.
  • the compound of Formula (VIII) is a single phase.
  • the compound can have trigonal R 3 m crystal structure.
  • This solid solution can be represented by xLi 2 MnO 3 .(1-x)LiCo 1-y M y O 2 , and xLi 2 MnO 3 .(1-x)Li1-yCo 1-y M y O 2 , or in compact notation, Li 1+x Co 1-x-y+xy M (1-x) * y Mn x O 2+x or Li 1+x-y+xy Co 1 ⁇ x-y+xy M (1-x) * y Mn x O 2+x
  • the various compounds do not include a second phase, such as a second phase having a different crystal structure.
  • Li 2 MnO 3 is a “rock salt” phase having a monoclinic C2/m. crystal structure.
  • cathode active materials based on the solid solution between Li 2 MnO 3 and LiCo 1-y M y O 2 have portions of “rock salt” phase that exhibit the monoclinic C2/m. crystal structure.
  • This “rock salt” phase occurs in addition to any phases associated with LiCo 1-y M y O 2 , making the solid solution hi-phasic (or multi-phasic).
  • the cathode active materials represented by Formulas (VII) & (VIII), and variations thereof are single phase and have only a trigonal R 3 m crystal structure.
  • manganese is incorporated into the compounds of Formulas (VII) and (VIII) to stabilize its R 3 m crystal structure, although other constituents of M may also contribute to stabilization.
  • the compounds include a sub-lattice of Co in their R 3 m crystal structures in which Mn is uniformly distributed.
  • clusters of manganese e.g., pairs, triplets, etc.
  • Clustering can be detected, for example, by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) as described herein.
  • Mn in the compounds may limit phase transitions from the R 3 m crystal structure during battery operation (e.g., charging, discharging, etc.).
  • the presence of Mn may also improve an oxidative stability of the compound at higher voltages (e.g., voltages equal to or greater than 4.0V).
  • x corresponds to a degree that Mn substitutes for Co.
  • the degree of Mn substitution can correlate to the stability of compounds when used in cathode active materials.
  • the substitution of Mn for Co can be greater than or equal to a lower substitution limit.
  • the substitution of Mn for Co can be equal to or less than a substitution limit.
  • x is at least 0.001. In some variations, x is at least 0.01. In some variations, x is at least 0.02. In some variations, x is at least 0.03. In some variations, x is at least 0.04. In some variations, x is at least 0.05. In some variations, x is at least 0.06. In some variations, x is at least 0.07. In some variations, x is at least 0.08. In some variations, x is at least 0.09. In some variations, x is at least 0.10. In some variations, x is at least 0.12. In some variations, x is at least 0.14. In some variations, x is at least 0.16. In some variations, x is at least 0.18. In some variations, x is at least 0.20. In some variations, x is at least 0.22. In some variations, x is at least 0.24. In some variations, x is at least 0.26. In some variations, x is at least 0.28.
  • x is less than or equal to an upper substitution limit. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.30. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.28. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.26. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.24. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.22. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.20. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.18. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.16. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.14. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.12. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.10.
  • x is less than or equal to 0.09. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.08. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.07. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.06. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.05. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.04. In some variations, x is less than or equal to 0.03.
  • x may range from 0.001 to 0.01. x may range from 0.02 to 0.05 (i.e., 0.02 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.07). In another non-limiting example, x may range from 0.24 to 0.28 (i.e., 0.06 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.10). In still yet another non-limiting example, x may range from 0.24 to 0.28 (i.e., 0.2.2 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.28). Other combinations of the upper and lower limits are possible.
  • a content of lithium may be selected in the compounds of Formulas (VII) and (VIII) to stabilize its R 3 m crystal structure and improve battery performance.
  • the content of lithium may selectively complement a degree of substitution for Co (i.e., via Mn, M, or Al substitutions).
  • ⁇ may be selected to be greater than 1+x to accommodate substitutes in addition to Mn (i.e., M and y).
  • the lithium content may be selected according to ⁇ 1+x to enhance battery performance.
  • Li 1.003 Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O 2 maintains higher discharge energy after repeated cycling than Li 1.014 Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O 2 , even though the latter has a higher value for a.
  • a corresponds to a ratio of Li to Co and its substitutes (i.e., with reference to Formula (VII), M and Mn, and with reference to Formula (VIII), M, Mn, and Al).
  • the ratio can be depicted as [Li]i[Co 1-x-y M y Mn x ].
  • the ratio can be depicted as [Li]/[Co 1-x-y Al y Mn x ].
  • ⁇ corresponds to a ratio of Li to Co and Mn, i.e., [Li]/[Co 1-x Mn x ]. This latter ratio can be referred as the lithium to transition metal ratio (i.e., Li/TM).
  • the compounds remain single phase and have the trigonal R 3 m crystal structure.
  • ⁇ can be equal to greater than a lower limit. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 0.95. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 0.98. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.00. In some variations, ⁇ is greater than 1.00. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.02. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.04. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.06. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.08. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.10. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.12. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.14. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.16. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.20. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.22. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.24. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.26. In some variations, ⁇ is at least 1.28.
  • ⁇ can be less than or equal to a lower limit. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.30. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.28. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.26. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.24. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.22. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.20. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.16. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.14. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to, 1.12. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.10. in some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.08.
  • ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.06. in some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.04. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.02. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 1.00. In some variations, ⁇ is less than 1.00. In some variations, ⁇ is less than or equal to 0.98. In these variations, the compounds also remain single phase and have the trigonal R 3 m crystal structure.
  • ⁇ may range from 0.95 to 1.00 (i.e., 0.95 ⁇ 1.00). In another non-limiting example, ⁇ may range from 1.00 to 1.06 (i.e., 1.00 ⁇ 1.08). In still yet another non-limiting example, ⁇ may range from 1.22 to 1.28 (i.e., 1.22 ⁇ 1.28). Other combinations of the upper and lower limits are possible.
  • ⁇ approaches 1+x. In these variations, ⁇ may approach 1+x within a tolerance not greater than 5%.
  • the tolerance may correspond to (1 ⁇ t)*(1+x) ⁇ (1+x)*(1+t) where t ⁇ 0.05.
  • the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 5.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 14.5%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 4.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 3.5%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 3.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 2.5%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 2.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 1.5%. In some instances, the tolerance is less than or equal to ⁇ 1.0%.
  • the tolerance is at least ⁇ 1.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 0.5%. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 1.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 1.5%. %. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 2.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 2.5%. In some variations, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 3.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 3.5%. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 4.0%. In some instances, the tolerance is at least ⁇ 4.5%.
  • the corresponding compounds maintain a single-phase character and do not have inclusions of Li 2 MnO 3 therein. Moreover, the compounds can exhibit an improved resistance to phase transitions during charging and discharging, as well as improved discharge energies.
  • Non-limiting examples of such compounds include Li 1.050 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.074 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.197 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , and Li 1.247 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 .
  • the compound is selected from among Li 1.050 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.074 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.081 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.089 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.050 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 1.065 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.100 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.110 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.158 CO 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 0.975 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.050 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.114 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.197 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , Li 1.190 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 , and Li 1.247 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 .
  • manganese substitutes for cobalt without inducing the formation of Li 2 MnO
  • the compound is Li 0.991 Mn 0.03 Co 0.97 O 2 . In some variations, the compound is Li 0.985 Mn 0.03 Co 0.97 O 2 .
  • the disclosure is further directed to powders comprising compounds described herein.
  • the disclosure is directed to a powder that includes particles comprising any compound identified above.
  • the powder may serve as part or all of a cathode active material (i.e., the cathode active material includes the powder).
  • the compounds and powders can be in a cathode active material for lithium ion batteries, as described herein. These cathode active materials assist energy storage by releasing and storing lithium ions during, respectively, charging and discharging of a lithium-ion battery.
  • the compounds can improve volumetric energy density, energy retention, and/or cyclability of cathode active materials during charge and discharge of battery cells.
  • the compounds can improve the thermal stability of the cathode active materials.
  • the particles have a mean particle diameter greater than or equal to a first lower limit. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 5 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 10 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 15 mm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 20 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 25 ⁇ m.
  • the particles have a mean particle diameter less than or equal to a first upper limit. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 30 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 25 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 20 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 15 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 10 ⁇ m. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 5 ⁇ m.
  • the first lower and upper limits may be combined in any variation as above to define a first range for the mean particle diameter.
  • the mean particle diameter may range from 10 mm to 20 ⁇ m. In another non-limiting example, the mean particle diameter may range from 20 mm to 25 ⁇ m. Other ranges are possible.
  • the particles having the aforementioned mean particle diameters, whether characterized by the first lower limit, the first upper limit, or both (i.e., the first range), may be processed according to a co-precipitation method.
  • the particles have a mean particle diameter greater than or equal to a second lower limit. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 200 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 300 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 400 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 500 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 600 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of at least 700 nm.
  • the particles have a mean particle diameter less than or equal to a second upper limit. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 800 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 700 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 600 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 500 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 400 nm. In some variations, the particle has a mean diameter of less than or equal to 300 nm.
  • the second lower and upper limits may be combined in any variation as above to define a second range for the mean particle diameter.
  • the mean particle diameter may range from 300 nm to 500 nm. In another non-limiting example, the mean particle diameter may range from 400 nm to 800 nm. Other ranges are possible.
  • the particles having the aforementioned mean particle diameters, whether characterized by the second lower limit, the second upper limit, or both (i.e., the second range), may be processed according to a sol-gel method.
  • the particles are secondary particles are formed of agglomerated primary particles.
  • the agglomerated primary particles may be sintered together.
  • the secondary particles have a mean particle diameter greater than or equal to a lower limit.
  • the lower limit include 15 ⁇ m, 20 ⁇ m, and 25 ⁇ m.
  • the secondary particles have a mean particle diameter less than or equal to an upper limit.
  • Non-limiting examples of the upper limit include 30 ⁇ m, 25 ⁇ m, and 20 ⁇ m. It will be understood that the lower and upper limits may be combined in any variation as above to define a range for the mean particle diameter.
  • the mean particle diameter may range from 15 ⁇ m to 20 ⁇ m.
  • the mean particle diameter may range from 20 ⁇ m to 25 ⁇ m. Other ranges are possible.
  • a single primary particle occupies a percentage of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some instances, the percentage is greater or equal to a lower limit. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies at least 30% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies at least 35% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies at least 40% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies at least 45% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies at least 50% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle.
  • a single primary particle occupies at least 55% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies at least 60 of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies at least 65% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle.
  • a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 70% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 65% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 60% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 55% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 50% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 45% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 40% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle. In some variations, a single primary particle occupies less than or equal to 35% of a volume occupied by a corresponding secondary particle.
  • the lower and upper limits may be combined in any variation as above to define a range for the percentage.
  • the percentage may range from 30-50%. However, other ranges are possible.
  • the larger particle sizes, and percentage of secondary particles occupied by a singled primary particle can be formed by using higher sintering temperatures. Without wishing to be held to a particular mechanism or mode of action, in some instances the particles do not fracture as readily, and thereby can provide increased stability than conventional particles.
  • Including Mn and/or Al in the compound in place of Co, altering the amount of Li, and/or including an Al 2 O 3 coating can reduce, or reduce the likelihood of, a destabilizing phase transition.
  • the additional elements also give greater oxidative stability to the compounds at higher battery upper cut-off voltages.
  • the compounds, particles, and/or cathode active materials can have increased stability for at least 4.4V vs. Li 0 /Li + .
  • the particles have increased particle strength.
  • the increased particle strength results in increased energy retention when the particles are used in a cathode active material.
  • increased amount of manganese in cathode active materials provides for improved battery stability.
  • the increased amount of Mn increases the onset temperature of decomposition.
  • increased amounts of Mn can result in reduced amount of heat release at a decomposition temperature of the compound.
  • the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at least 700 Wh/kg. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at least 725 Wh/kg. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at least 750 Wh/kg. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at least 775 Wh/kg. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at least 800 Wh/kg. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at, least, 825 Wh/kg. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at least 850 Wh/kg. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge energy of at least 875 Wh/kg.
  • the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 180 mAh/g. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 185 mAh/g. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 190 mAh/g. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 195 mAh/g. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 200 mAh/g. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 205 mAh/g. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 210 mAh/g. In some variations, the cathode active materials have a first-cycle discharge capacity of at least 215 mAh/g.
  • the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 65% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 67% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 69% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 71% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 73% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 75% after 52 charge-discharge cycles.
  • the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 77% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 79% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 81% after 52 charge-discharge cycles. In some variations, the cathode active materials have an energy capacity retention of at least 83% after 52 charge-discharge cycles.
  • the compounds, powders, and cathode active materials can be used in batteries as described herein.
  • the materials can be used in electronic devices.
  • An electronic device herein can refer to any electronic device known in the art, including a portable electronic device.
  • the electronic device can be a telephone, such as a cell phone, and a land-line phone, or any communication device, such as a smart phone, including, for example an iPhone®, an electronic email sending/receiving device.
  • the electronic device can also be an entertainment device, including a portable DVD player, conventional DVD player, Blue-Ray disk player, video game console, music player, such as a portable music player (e.g., iPod®), etc.
  • the electronic device can be a part of a display, such as a digital display, a TV monitor, an electronic-book reader, a portable web-browser (e.g., iPad®), watch (e.g., AppleWatch), or a computer monitor.
  • the electronic device can also be a part of a device that provides control, such as controlling the streaming of images, videos, sounds (e.g., Apple TV®), or it can be a remote control for an electronic device.
  • the electronic device can be a part of a computer or its accessories, such as the hard drive tower housing or casing, laptop housing, laptop keyboard, laptop track pad, desktop keyboard, mouse, and speaker.
  • the battery and battery packs can also be applied to a device such as a watch or a clock.
  • the components powered by a battery or battery pack can include, but are not limited to, microprocessors, computer readable storage media, in-put and/or out-put devices such as a keyboard, track pad, touch-screen, mouse, speaker, and the like.
  • De-ionized water (Millipore ultra-pure water, 18 M ⁇ cm) was added drop-wise to 10 g of base powder (i.e., 10 g of Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2.04 base powder) while stirring. When the powder was wetted yet still loose, the stirring was stopped. (The addition of de-ionized water was stopped before the powder formed a watery or sticky mass.) A ratio, R, was then calculated that equaled an amount (either weight or volume) of added water divided by an amount of base powder. The amount of water needed to wet the powder to a suitable dampness depends on the surface area of the base powder used. In general, higher surface areas require more water.
  • a quantity (e.g., weight) of base powder was selected.
  • An amount of aluminum salt precursor e.g., aluminum nitrate nonahydrate
  • An amount of de-ionized water was then calculated using the ratio (i.e., multiplying R times the weight of the base powder).
  • TABLE 1 presents types and quantities of base powder, solvent (i.e., de-ionized water), and aluminum salt precursor.
  • the quantities given in TABLE 1 were then measured, including the de-ionized water whose amount was predetermined.
  • Aluminum nitrate nonahydrate was dissolved in the de-ionized water to form a clear solution. Drops of the clear solution were added to the base powder in a glass container under stirring. Once the clear solution was consumed, the base powder was stirred continuously for a few minutes to ensure well-mixing. A wetted, loose powder was formed.
  • the wetted, loose powder was dried in an oven overnight at 80° C.
  • the dried powder was then transferred to an Al 2 O 3 crucible and heat-treated at 120° C. for 2 hours. This heat treatment was followed by a subsequent heat treatment at 500° C. for 4 hours in stagnant air.
  • the heat-treated powder was passed through 325-mesh sieve. Occasionally, light grinding with mortar and pestle was needed to break up agglomerated portions of the heated-treated powder.
  • a ratio, R was determined according to procedures described in relation to Example 1.
  • a quantity (e.g., weight) of base powder was selected.
  • An amount of aluminum salt precursor (e.g., aluminum nitrate nonahydrate) and fluoride salt precursor (e.g., ammonium fluoride) was determined that would correspond to a level of AlF 3 coating on the desired quantity base powder (e.g., 0.1 wt. %).
  • the amount of fluoride salt precursor was doubled relative to a stoichiometric amount of fluoride in AlF 3 (i.e., a mole ratio of Al to F was selected to be 1:6).
  • a needed amount of de-ionized water was then calculated using the ratio (i.e., multiplying R times the weight of the base powder).
  • Aluminum nitrate nonahydrate was dissolved in a first portion of the de-ionized water to form a first clear solution.
  • Ammonium fluoride was dissolved in a second portion of de-ionized water to form a second clear solution.
  • the base powder was transferred to a glass container and drops of the first clear solution were added quickly therein (i.e., to “flood” the base powder). The base powder was stirred for 2 minutes and the dried at 105° C. to yield a powder cake.
  • the powder cake was broken up into a loose powder (e.g., with a mortar and pestle) and then transferred into a fresh glass container.
  • the fresh glass container was gently tapped to pack the loose powder therein.
  • the second clear solution was quickly added to the packed powder while stirring (i.e., similar to the first clear solution). This mixture was stirred for 2 minutes before drying at 105° C.
  • the dried powder was transferred to an alumina saggar for heat treatment for 2 hours at 120° C. in flowing nitrogen.
  • the heat-treated powder was then heated at 400° C. for 5 hours, resulting in a heat-treated powder cake.
  • the heat-treated powder cake readily broke apart and was lightly ground and sieved through a 325 mesh.
  • a predetermined amount of base powder i.e., Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2
  • An amount of aluminum and phosphate precursor needed for a desired amount of AlPO 4 coating (e.g., 5 wt. %) was calculated based on the weighed amount of base powder.
  • the aluminum precursor used included various aluminum salts such as aluminum nitrate, aluminum acetate, or other aluminum salt soluble in water or alcohol.
  • the phosphate precursor used was either ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH 4 H 2 PO 4 ), diammonium hydrogen phosphate [(NH 4 ) 2 HPO 4 ], or a combination of both.
  • a mole ratio of Al to P was kept between 0.9 and 1.1.
  • the aluminum precursor and phosphate precursor were dissolved separately in a small amount of water or alcohol to form solutions.
  • the two solutions were then mixed together.
  • the pH of the mixed solution was adjusted by varying a ratio of the ammonium phosphate salts to prevent precipitation.
  • the mixed solution was added drop-wise onto the base powder while stirring with a glass rod or spatula.
  • the volume of solution was such that the base powder was incipiently wet and well mixed (i.e., exhibited a damp consistency). After drying at 50-80° C., the dried base powder was heat-treated at 700° C. for 5 h in stagnant air.
  • a predetermined amount of base powder i.e., Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2
  • An amount of cobalt and phosphate precursor needed for a desired amount of Co 3 (PO 4 ) 2 coating e.g., 5 wt. %) was calculated based on the weighed amount of base powder.
  • the cobalt precursor used included various cobalt salts such as cobalt nitrate, cobalt acetate, or other cobalt salt soluble in water or alcohol.
  • the phosphate precursor used was either ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH 4 H 2 PO 4 ), diammonium hydrogen phosphate [(NH 4 ) 2 HPO 4 ], or a combination of both.
  • a mole ratio of Co to P was kept between 1.4 and 1.6.
  • the cobalt precursor and the phosphate precursor were dissolved separately in a small amount of water or alcohol to form solutions.
  • the two solutions were then mixed together.
  • a pH of the mixed solution was adjusted by varying a ratio of the ammonium phosphate salts to prevent precipitation.
  • the mixed solution was added drop-wise onto the base powder while stirring with a glass rod or spatula.
  • the volume of solution added was such that the base powder was incipiently wet and well mixed (i.e., exhibited a damp consistency). After drying at 50-80° C., the dried base powder was then heat-treated at 700° C. for 5 h in stagnant air.
  • a predetermined amount of base powder i.e., Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2
  • An amount of aluminum precursor needed for the desired amount of coating e.g., 0.5 wt. %) was calculated based on the weighed amount of base powder.
  • the aluminum precursor included various aluminum salts such as aluminum nitrate, aluminum acetate, or other aluminum salts soluble in water or alcohol.
  • the aluminum precursor was dissolved in a small amount of water or alcohol to form a first clear solution.
  • a desired amount of lithium precursor was calculated using a molar ratio of Li to Al between 0.25 and 1.05.
  • the lithium precursor used was lithium hydroxide, lithium nitrate, lithium acetate, or other lithium salts soluble in water or alcohol.
  • the desired amount of lithium precursor was dissolved in a small amount of water or alcohol to form a second clear solution.
  • the first and second clear solutions were mixed together. This mixed solution was then added drop-wise to the base powder while stirring. The volume of solution added was such that the base powder became incipiently wet but not watery (i.e., exhibited a damp consistency). After drying at 50-80° C., the dried base powder was then heat-treated to 500° C. for 4 h in stagnant air.
  • the pH of the first clear solution i.e., the aluminum solution
  • Example 6 Wet Impregnation to Form a Li—Co 3 (PO 4 ) 2 Coating
  • a predetermined amount of base powder i.e., Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2
  • An amount of cobalt, phosphate, and lithium precursors needed for a desired amount of coating e.g., 0.5 wt. %) was calculated based on the weighed amount of base powder.
  • the cobalt precursor included various cobalt salts such as cobalt nitrate, cobalt acetate, or other cobalt salts soluble in water or alcohol.
  • the phosphate precursor used was either ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH 4 H 2 PO 4 ), diammonium hydrogen phosphate [(NH 4 ) 2 HPO 4 ], lithium phosphates, or combinations of such.
  • a mole ratio of Co to P is kept between 1.4 and 1.6.
  • a desired amount of lithium precursor was calculated using a molar ratio of Li to Co between 0.3 and 1.05.
  • the lithium precursor used was lithium hydroxide, lithium nitrate, lithium acetate, or other lithium salts soluble in water or alcohol.
  • the cobalt, phosphate and lithium precursors were dissolved separately in a small amount of water or alcohol to form corresponding clear solutions.
  • the three solutions were then mixed together. This mixed solution was then added drop-wise to the base powder while stirring. The volume of solution added was such that the base powder became incipiently wet but not watery (i.e., exhibited a damp consistency). After drying at 50-80° C., the dried base powder was heat-treated to 700° C. for 5 h in stagnant air.
  • An aqueous solution of Al(NO 3 ) 3 was mixed with a suspension of base powder (Li 1.02 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 ) and then pumped into a stirred-tank reactor. While stirring, an ammonia solution was used to hold a reaction pH value at 9 . 3 using a feedback pump. The suspension was stirred for 2 h, filtered, dried, and calcined at 400° C. for 5 h in air.
  • Example 8 Suspension Processing to Form a Co 3 (PO 4 ) 2 Coating
  • a first aqueous solution of Co(NO 3 ) 3 and a second aqueous solution of ammonium dihydrogen solution were pumped into a suspension of base powder (Li 1.02 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 ) in a stirred-tank reactor. The combined volume was stirred for 2 h, filtered, and dried. The dried powder was calcined at 700° C. for 5 h in air.
  • a first aqueous solution of Al(NO 3 ) 3 and a second solution of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate were pumped into a suspension of base powder (Li 1.02 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 ) in a stirred-tank reactor. The combined volume was stirred for 2 h, filtered, and dried. The dried powder was calcined at 700° C. for 5 h in air.
  • a predetermined amount of base powder (Li 1.02 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 ) was weighed out and poured into a dry coater (Nobilta, NOB-130, Hosokawa Micron Ltd).
  • nanocrystalline Al 2 O 3 powder was weighed out according to a desired amount of coating on the predetermined base powder (e.g., 0.5 wt. %).
  • the weighed nanocrystalline Al 2 O 3 powder was poured into the dry coater.
  • the dry coater included a high speed rotary mixer that bonds, via a mechanofusion process, particles of the nanocrystalline Al 2 O 3 powder to particles in the base powder (i.e., along a surface thereof).
  • For a 0.5 wt. % coating 2.5 g of nanocrystalline Al 2 O 3 powder was mixed thoroughly with 500 g of base powder. The speed was controlled at 4000 rpm. After 5 min, an Al 2 O 3 -coated base powder was formed.
  • a predetermined amount of base powder (Li 1.02 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 ) was weighed out and poured into a dry coater (Nobilta, NOB-130, Hosokawa Micron Ltd).
  • nanocrystalline AlF 3 powder was weighed out according to a desired amount of coating on the predetermined base powder (e.g., 0.1 wt. %).
  • the weighed nanocrystalline AlF 3 powder was poured into the dry coater.
  • For a 0.1 wt. % coating 0.5 g of AlF 3 was mixed thoroughly with 500 g of base powder. The speed was controlled at 4000 rpm. After 5 min, an AlF 3 -coated base powder was formed.
  • Example 12 Dry Processing to Form a Coating of Al 2 O 3 and AlF 3
  • a predetermined amount of base powder (Li 1.02 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 ) was weighed out and poured into a dry coater (Nobilta, NOB-130, Hosokawa Micron Ltd). Next, nanocrystalline Al 2 O 3 powder and nanocrystalline AlF 3 powder were weighed out according to a desired amount of coating on the predetermined base powder (e.g., 0.1 wt. %). The weighed nanocrystalline powders were poured into the dry coater. For a 0.1 wt. % coating, 0.25 g of Al 2 O 3 and 0.05 g of AlF 3 were mixed thoroughly with 500 g of base powder. The speed was controlled at 4000 rpm. After 5 min, a base powder coated with Al 2 O 3 and AlF 3 was formed.
  • a dry coater Nobilta, NOB-130, Hosokawa Micron Ltd.
  • nanocrystalline Al 2 O 3 powder and nanocrystalline AlF 3 powder were weighed out according to a desired amount of coating on the predetermined base powder (
  • the morphology, composition, and electrochemical performance of certain coated powders were evaluated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), and a Maccor tester.
  • SEM scanning electron microscopy
  • ICP-OES inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy
  • Maccor tester a Maccor tester
  • FIGS. 3A-3C present a series of scanning electron micrographs showing, respectively, a base powder, a 0.1 wt. % AlF 3 -coated base powder, and a 0.1 wt. % Al 2 O 3 -coated base powder, according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • the base powder corresponds to particles comprising Li 1.02 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 . Only a subtle difference is shown for the powders before and after wet impregnation.
  • surfaces of the coated powders appear furry and rough as indicated by stains or bumps, i.e., FIGS. 3B and 3C .
  • Electrochemical tests were conducted on 2032 coin half-cells having a cathode active material loading of approximately 15 mg/cm 2 .
  • An electrolyte used by the 2032 coin half-cells included 1.2 M LiPF 6 in an EC:EMC solvent of 3:7 ratio by weight.
  • the cells were placed on a Maccor Series 2000 tester and cycled in galvanostatic mode at room temperature with the voltage windows of 4.5V to 2.75V.
  • a series of electrochemical tests of formation, rate, and cycling were conducted under each voltage window.
  • a constant current (0.2C) was applied to the cell during the charge process, followed by a constant voltage charge until the current was equal to or less than 0.05C.
  • the cells were discharged at constant current (0.2C) until the end of discharge.
  • Charging and discharging of the cells were repeated three times. During rate testing, the charging rate was fixed to 0.7C for all the rate tests, and then followed by constant voltage charge until the current was equal to or less than 0.05C. Five different discharge rates of 0.1C, 0.2C, 0.5C, 1C, and 2C were applied until the cells were completely discharged. Three cycles were conducted for each rate. Finally, 50 cycles were conducted to investigate cycle life. The same charging conditions as those of the rate test were applied. The discharge rate was fixed to 0.5C for all the cycles.
  • FIG. 4 presents a plot of data representing a performance of three coin half-cells, each incorporating a single cathode active material, during a first cycle of charging and discharging, according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • the single cathode active material for each of three coin half-cells corresponds to, respectively, the base powder Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 (i.e. “HW168”), 0.05 wt. % Al 2 O 3 -coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , (i.e., “HW168-Al 2 O 3 0.05 wt. %) and 0.1 wt.
  • the performance of the three coin half-cells is characterized by two bars: A leftmost bar indicates a first cycle charge capacity and a rightmost bar indicates a first cycle discharge capacity.
  • FIGS. 5 and 6 present a plot of data representing a change in capacity, over extended cycling, of the three coin half-cells of FIG. 4 , according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • FIGS. 7 and 26 present a plot of data representing a change in energy density, over extended cycling, of the three coin half-cells of FIG. 4 , according to an illustrative embodiment.
  • FIGS. 5 and 7 correspond to rate testing and FIGS. 6 and 8 correspond to life testing.
  • FIG. 5 shows that, up to a 1C rate, the presence of coatings did not affect the performance of coin half-cells incorporating Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Al 2 O 3 -coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , and AlF 3 -coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 .
  • Their capacities are similar up to a 1C rate (i.e., for C/10, C/5, C/2, and 1C).
  • the coin half-cell corresponding to Al 2 O 3 -coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 showed a reduced (relative) performance at a 2C rate.
  • Coating benefits are more clearly highlighted in FIG. 6 , which presents life testing.
  • Coin half-cells corresponding to coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 variants show improved capacities relative to uncoated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 .
  • the coin half-cells associated with coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 lose only 4-5 mAh/g.
  • the coin half-cell incorporating uncoated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 started with lower capacity, i.e., relative to those incorporating coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , because this cell half-cell was already cycled 19 times after the aging and the rate tests. Such pre-aging resulted in quicker degradation than those not pre-aged (i.e., those utilizing coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 ). More than 15 mAh/g of capacity was lost over a 26 life cycle test.
  • FIGS. 7 and 8 A similar trend was observed in FIGS. 7 and 8 for energy density as described in relation to FIGS. 5 and 6 .
  • the coin half-cell associated with uncoated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 starts at a lower energy density than those the two coated sample ( FIGS. 7 and 8 ).
  • the AlF 3 -coated samples maintain a higher energy density than the Al 2 O 3 -coated sample.
  • FIGS. 9 and 10 present plots of data representing to charge-discharge profiles for each the three coin half-cells of FIG. 4 .
  • FIG. 9 presents rate testing and
  • FIG. 10 presents life testing.
  • These profiles demonstrate an advantage of the coatings disclosed herein.
  • the shape of curves was more preserved for coin half-cells incorporating Al 2 O 3 - and AlF 3 -coated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 than those base powder Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 .
  • the variant corresponding to uncoated Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 shows the fastest decay in capacity with increasing cycle number.
  • FIGS. 11 and 12 present plots of data representing dQ/dV profiles for each the three coin half-cells of FIG. 4 .
  • FIG. 11 presents rate testing and
  • FIG. 12 presents life testing. Curves in each profile were plotted every 5 cycles for both rate and life tests.
  • a reduction peak at approximately 3.85V characterizes a structural stability of the cathode active material in each coin half-cell during progressive cycling.
  • a degradation of the cathode active material is reflected by shifting and broadening of the reduction peak toward lower voltages.
  • the coin half-cell corresponding to base powder Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 showed the highest degradation with a relatively fast shift away from 3.85V and a large peak broadening.
  • the coin half-cells corresponding to its coated variants showed slower shifts and weaker broadening. Peak shifting and broadening are less evident during rate testing than life testing. This behavior results from lower amounts of lithium ions being cycled back and forth as a charge/discharge rate progressively increases.
  • the coin half-cell incorporating baseline LiCoO 2 showed further degradation while those incorporating Li 1.04 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 and its coated variants showed almost no degradation.
  • a 3.5-liter stirred tank reactor was filled with distilled water and heated to 60° C. A flow of nitrogen gas was introduced into the tank reactor while stirring the distilled water at a rate of 1100 rpm. Separately, manganese and cobalt sulfate were dissolved in distilled water to produce a first aqueous solution having a total concentration of 2.0M and a predetermined molar ratio (i.e., [Mn]:[Co]). The ratio included representative examples, such as [Mn][Co], 0.00:1.00, 0.04:0.96, 0.07:0.93, 0.10:0.90, 0.16:0.84, and 0.28:0.72.
  • the first aqueous solution was continuously dripped into distilled water of the tank reactor at a flow rate of 100 ml/h to produce a combined aqueous solution.
  • the pH of the combined aqueous solution was fixed at 11.5 by adding a second aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide and ammonia using a pH controller coupled to a. pump. Over a 300 hour run-time, particles nucleated and grew in the combined aqueous solution, thereby forming final precursor particles.
  • the final precursor particles were washed, filtered, and dried at 175° C. for 12 h.
  • a solid-state reaction was carried out with Li 2 CO 3 powder and powders of the final precursor particles.
  • the molar ratio of Li 2 CO 3 and the final precursor particles with was varied to yield cathode active materials having variations in ratios of [Li]:[Mn x Co 1-x ] (i.e., ratios of lithium to total transition-metal content).
  • the Li 2 Co 3 powder and powders of the final precursor particles were blended in an orbital mixer to produce a mixed powder.
  • the mixed powder was transferred to an alumina tray and heated in flowing air at 700° C. for 10 hours.
  • the ramp rate of the furnace was 5° C. per minute.
  • the mixed powder, now reacted was allowed to cool in the furnace to ambient temperature via natural heat losses.
  • the resulting intermediate powder was ground by mortar and pestle, sieved, and re-fired at 1050° C. in flowing air for 15 hours.
  • the ramp rate was 5° C. per minute, and after firing, the resulting sintered powder was allowed to cool in the furnace to ambient temperature via natural heat losses.
  • the sintered powder was broken up, ground by mortar and pestle, and sieved to produce a cathode active material. Samples of the cathode active materials were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction using a Bruker D 8 (see FIGS. 20 and 21 ).
  • cathode active materials prepared by the above-described co-precipitation method include LiCoO 2 , Li 0.987 CO 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.050 CO 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.074 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.081 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.089 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 0.981 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 1.050 CO 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 0.984 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.065 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.1000 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.110 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.158 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 0.975 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.050 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.114 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 0.994
  • FIG. 19 presents scanning electron micrographs of cathode active materials prepared according to the co-precipitation method described above.
  • the micrographs indicate secondary particles formed of densely-sintered primary particles. Such densely-sintered secondary particles are typical for cathode active materials prepared by the co-precipitation method.
  • the compositions of the cathode active materials correspond to Li 0.96 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 0.98 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , and Li 1.00 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 .
  • FIG. 20 presents X-ray powder diffraction patterns for cathode active materials represented by compositions of Li 1.074 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.081 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.089 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.065 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.110 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.158 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 0.975 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.050 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , and Li 1.114 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 .
  • These cathode active materials were prepared according to the co-precipitation method described above. In FIG.
  • groups of diffraction patterns are arranged from bottom to top that correspond, respectively, to increasing manganese content, i.e., from 0.04 to 0.10 to 0.16.
  • the lithium to transition-metal ratio i.e., [Li]/[MnCo 1-x ]
  • Reference bars indicating the peaks expected for Li 2 MnO 3 , Co 3 O 4 , and LiMnO 2 are shown in pink, grey, and blue colors, respectively.
  • FIG. 21 presents X-ray powder diffraction patterns for cathode active materials represented by compositions of Li 0.994 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , Li 1.100 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , Li 1.197 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , Li 0.973 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 , Li 1.087 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 , Li 1.19 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 , and Li 1.24 O 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 .
  • These cathode active materials were prepared according to the co-precipitation method described above. In FIG.
  • each cathode active material is R 3 m.
  • the metric 1+x corresponds to an ideal solid-solution stoichiometry for xLi 2 MnO 3 .(1-x)LiCoO 2 (i.e., Li 1+x Co 1 ⁇ x Mn x O 2+x ).
  • a first aqueous solution of manganese acetate and cobalt acetate was prepared at a predetermined molar ratio (i.e., [Mn]:[Co]) and a total of 2 mol.
  • a second aqueous solution of 1.0 M citric acid was added to the first aqueous solution and mixed via magnetic stirring to produce a combined solution.
  • the combined solution was heated to 80° C. to form a gel, which was subsequently kept at 80° C. for 6 hours.
  • the gel was then transferred into a box furnace and calcined at 350° C. for 4 hours.
  • the resulting cake was ground by mortar and pestle, sieved, and re-fired at 900° C. in flowing air for 12 hours.
  • the ramp rate was 5° C. per minute, and after firing, the resulting cathode active material was allowed to cool in the furnace to ambient temperature via natural heat losses.
  • Samples of the cathode active materials were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction using a Bruker D 8 (see FIG. 23 ).
  • cathode active materials produced by the above-described sol-gel method include Li 1.131 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.198 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.241 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , and Li 1.301 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 .
  • FIG. 22 presents scanning electron micrographs of cathode active materials prepared according to the sol-gel method described above.
  • the micrographs indicate sheet-like agglomerations of fine particles having dimensions less than 1 ⁇ m. Such fine particle morphology is typical for cathode active materials prepared by the sol-gel method.
  • the compositions of the cathode active materials correspond to Li 1.1 Co 0.1 Al 0.01 Mg 0.01 Mn 0.89 O 2 and is Li 1.28 Co 0.258 Al 0.02 Mg 0.02 Co 0.68 O 2 .
  • FIG. 23 presents X-ray powder diffraction patterns for cathode active materials represented by compositions of Li 1.131 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , Li 1.198 Co 0.84 Mn 0.16 O 2 , Li 1.241 Co 0.78 Mn 0.22 O 2 , and Li 1.301 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 .
  • These cathode active materials were prepared according to the sol-gel method described above.
  • the cathode active materials are single-phase.
  • the crystal structure of each cathode active material, as represented by space group, is R 3 m.
  • FIG. 24 presents differential capacity curves for cathode active materials represented by compositions of LiCoO 2 , Li 1.05 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.05 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 1.110 Co 0.90 M 0.10 O 2 , and Li 1.19 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 .
  • These cathode active materials were prepared according to the co-precipitation method described above. Measurements of differential capacity were taken of 2032 coin half-cells during a first-cycle charge and discharge at a rate of C/5, In FIG. 24 , the ordinate indicates magnitudes of dQ/dV and the abscissa indicates magnitudes of electrochemical potential, or voltage.
  • FIG. 25 presents voltage profile curves for cathode active materials represented by compositions of Li 1.05 Co 0.96 Mn 0.04 O 2 , Li 1.05 Co 0.93 Mn 0.07 O 2 , Li 1.110 Co 0.90 Mn 0.10 O 2 , and Li 1.19 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 .
  • These cathode active materials were prepared according to the co-precipitation method described above and then packaged into 2032 coin half-cells.
  • the voltage profile corresponds to a first charge-discharge cycle at a C/10 charge-discharge rate in the voltage window of 2.75-4.6V.
  • the ordinate indicates magnitudes of electrochemical potential (i.e., V) for the coin half cells
  • the abscissa indicates magnitudes of storage capacity (i.e., mAh/g).
  • high specific capacities i.e., >150 mAh/g
  • high average voltages i.e., >3.7V
  • cathode active materials of Li 1.19 Co 0.72 Mn 0.28 O 2 a plateau at approximately 4.5V in the first charging curve indicates an activation process for a Li 2 MnO 3 -like phase present in the material.
  • FIG. 26 presents a contour plot of discharge energy density that varies with substitution (i.e., Co 1-x Mn x ) and lithium ratio (i.e., [Li]/[Co 1-x Mn x ]).
  • the discharge energy density corresponds to measurements from 2032 coin half-cells during at first cycle and taken at a charge-discharge rate of C/10.
  • the contour plot was generated from a combination of sample measurements and predictive modeling.
  • the 2032 coin half-cells used cathode active materials prepared according to the sol-gel method described above, where 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.28.
  • two regions are present that indicate high energy density (i.e., >700 Wh/kg): [1] a first region for Mn content up to about 12% (i.e., x ⁇ 0.12.) and a ratio up to about 1.15 (i.e., [Li]/[Co 1-x Mn x ] ⁇ 1.15), and [2] a second region for Mn content higher than about 25% (i.e., x>0.25) and a ratio higher than about 1.25 (i.e., [Li]/[Co 1-x Mn x ]>1.25).
  • FIG. 27 presents a contour plot of energy retention that varies with substitution (i.e., Co 1-x Mn x ) and lithium ratio (i.e., [Li]i[Co 1-x Mn x ]).
  • the energy retention corresponds to measurements from 2032. coin half-cells after 10 cycles and taken at a charge-discharge rate of C/3.
  • the contour plot was generated from a combination of sample measurements and predictive modeling.
  • the 2032 coin half-cells used cathode active materials prepared according to the sol-gel method described above, where 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 0.28. Similar to FIG. 26 , two regions are present in FIG.
  • FIGS. 28 & 29 show plots of the derivative of the differential capacity with respect to electrochemical potential (i.e., dQ/dV vs V) illustrating the effect of Mn and Li content on battery cell performance.
  • phase transition is also dependent on the Li content in the compound.
  • Mn substitutions as in Li ⁇ Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O 2 , the phase transition can be mitigated if ⁇ 1.0.
  • FIG. 30 demonstrates the effect. of Li content in Li ⁇ Co 0.97 Mn 0.03 O 2 on the discharge energy during cycling between 2.75-4.5 V at a C/5 rate.
  • the sub-stoichiometric compositions i.e., ⁇ 1.0 compositions show lower energies.
  • Solid-state 6 Li nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements have identified Mn—Mn clustering in Li ⁇ Co 1-x Mn x O ⁇ . Which clustering, would eventually lead to the formation of Li 2 MnO 3 as Mn and Li content is increased beyond the phase limit for Li-rich compositions. Without wishing to be held to a particular mechanism or mode of action, Mn clustering stabilized the cathode structure, which can provide materials described herein with high voltage stability as shown in any electrochemical tests.
  • Mn substitution is considered to stabilize the LiCoO 2 R 3 m crystal structure
  • large Mn clusters tend to incorporate Li into the transition metal (TM) layer, so that when Li is extracted from the crystal structure at higher voltage (4.5V), if Li in the transition metal layer drops into the lithium layer, vacancies created in the transition metal layer are destabilizing to the crystal structure.
  • cathode active materials with the composition Li 1.01 Co 0.97-y Al y Mn 0.03 O ⁇ were made, fixing the Li and Mn content to 1.01 and 0.03, respectively, while varying the Al content to 0.077, 0.159 and 0.760 wt. %.
  • the cathode active materials were tested in haft-cells, cycling from 2.75-4.5V at a rate of C/5.
  • FIG. 33 shows that as Al substitution is increased, the discharge energy decreases. However, the energy retention is improved with Al addition, with the largest substitution of 0.76 wt % Al exhibiting the best discharge energy after 25 cycles.
  • cathode active materials of composition of Li ⁇ Co 1-x-y Al y Mn x O ⁇ can be processed at sufficient temperatures and times such that secondary particles contain dense single grains (i.e., primary particles). These dense single grains can impart high strength to withstand calendaring processes during electrode fabrication and battery cell assembly.
  • FIGS. 34A-34B & 35A-35B illustrate the effect of optimum processing to achieve high strength particles.
  • FIG. 34A When precursor powders are processed at sufficient temperature and time, the multigrain structure found in FIG. 34A can be further sintered to gain larger and stronger grains as in FIG. 34B that are more difficult to crush. This improved strength is demonstrated in FIGS. 35A-35B .
  • the size distribution of the precursor powder calcined at 1050° C. grows from 18 to 22 due to the partial interconnection due to sintering.
  • the particle size distribution is reduced into a bimodal distribution due to the breaking of particle-particle bonds (i.e., between primary particles) and particle fracture into smaller primary grains.
  • the calcination temperature not only affects particle strength, but the energy retention of the cathode active material as an electrode. As the calcination temperature increases the energy retention also increases to a maximum between 1075-1080° C. ( FIG. 36 ).
  • the change in surface area after compacting powder calcined at increasing temperatures stabilizes as the particle strength increases and no new surfaces are exposed due to crushing particles.
  • FIG. 36 shows the correlation between strength (stabilized surface area change) and energy retention of the cathode active material.
  • the discharge capacity and coulombic efficiency of first cycle of the cathode material is also correlated to the calcination temperature.
  • FIG. 37 illustrates this relationship.
  • the initial discharge capacity and effectively, the initial energy decreases as the calcination temperature of the material is increased from 1050-1092° C.
  • the coulombic efficiency is a measure of the amount of Li intercalated hack into the cathode during the first discharge, showing the fraction of Li that is eliminated from future charge/discharge cycling.
  • the maximum efficiency occurs at 1080° C., whereas the capacity while regarding the particle strength has an optimum 1070-1080° C.
  • This sensitivity of the temperature of calcination is part of the novelty of the proposed invention, since it is shown to affect particle strength, energy retention, Li content, cyclability, capacity and energy of the material.
  • the Li content (i.e., ⁇ ), critical to the performance of the material, is associated with a change in the c-lattice parameter of the crystal structure varies as shown in FIG. 39 .
  • the Li content will reduce the c-lattice value as Li increases. It also appears that capability of the materials to accommodate for excess lithium in the cathode active material while maintaining the R 3 m crystal structure increases with increasing Mn content.
  • This phase diagram of the LiCo (1-x) MnO 2 system provides a map of the optimum Li addition without forming secondary phases.
  • the Raman spectra of the layered LiCoO 2 and Mn-substituted LiCoO 2 are shown in FIG. 40 .
  • the Raman spectra were obtained using 785-nm photonic excitation.
  • the layered LiCoO 2 with R 3 m crystal structure is predicted to show two Raman-active modes, i.e., one at ca. 596 cm ⁇ 1 with A1 g symmetry due to a symmetric oxygen vibration along the c-axis and one at ca. 486 cm ⁇ 1 with E g symmetry due to two degenerate symmetric oxygen vibrations in the a/b crystallographic plane.
  • Half-cells were charged from an open circuit value to 4.65V and then cycled between 4.0 V and 4.65 V in a continuous cycling run.
  • the 52nd cycle was a full cycle taken between 2.75 to 4.65 V.
  • FIG. 42 the dQ/dV of a half-cell incorporating a cathode active material of Li 1.00 Co 0.93-y Al y Mn 0.07 O ⁇ is plotted with the dQ/dV of a half-cell incorporating a cathode active material of Li 1.025 Co 0.96-y Al y Mn 0.04 O ⁇ .
  • the improvement in coulombic efficiency is better for near stoichiometric values.
  • the greater ⁇ the more Li can be extracted out of the cathode active material.
  • An optimal ⁇ is hence investigated.

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