US20030201098A1 - In situ recovery from a hydrocarbon containing formation using one or more simulations - Google Patents

In situ recovery from a hydrocarbon containing formation using one or more simulations

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Publication number
US20030201098A1
US20030201098A1 US10/279,224 US27922402A US2003201098A1 US 20030201098 A1 US20030201098 A1 US 20030201098A1 US 27922402 A US27922402 A US 27922402A US 2003201098 A1 US2003201098 A1 US 2003201098A1
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United States
Prior art keywords
formation
condensable hydrocarbons
heaters
weight
heat
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US10/279,224
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English (en)
Inventor
John Karanikas
Ilya Berchenko
Eric Rouffignac
Jean-Charles Ginestra
Kirk Hansen
Lanny Schoeling
Gordon Shahin
Meliha Sumnu-Dindoruk
Harold Vinegar
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Shell USA Inc
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Individual
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Priority to US10/279,224 priority Critical patent/US20030201098A1/en
Assigned to SHELL OIL COMPANY reassignment SHELL OIL COMPANY ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: BERCHENKO, ILYA EMIL, DE ROUFFIGNAC, ERIC PIERRE, GINESTRA, JEAN-CHARLES, HANSEN, KIRK SAMUEL, KARANIKAS, JOHN MICHAEL, SCHOELING, LANNY GENE, SHAHIN, GORDON THOMAS, JR., SUMNU-DINDORUK, MELIHA DENIZ, VINEGAR, HAROLD J.
Publication of US20030201098A1 publication Critical patent/US20030201098A1/en
Abandoned legal-status Critical Current

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    • E—FIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21—EARTH DRILLING; MINING
    • E21B—EARTH DRILLING, e.g. DEEP DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B43/00—Methods or apparatus for obtaining oil, gas, water, soluble or meltable materials or a slurry of minerals from wells
    • E21B43/16—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons
    • E21B43/24—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons using heat, e.g. steam injection
    • E21B43/2401—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons using heat, e.g. steam injection by means of electricity
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B09—DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE; RECLAMATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL
    • B09C—RECLAMATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL
    • B09C1/00—Reclamation of contaminated soil
    • B09C1/02—Extraction using liquids, e.g. washing, leaching, flotation
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B09—DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE; RECLAMATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL
    • B09C—RECLAMATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL
    • B09C1/00—Reclamation of contaminated soil
    • B09C1/06—Reclamation of contaminated soil thermally
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10G—CRACKING HYDROCARBON OILS; PRODUCTION OF LIQUID HYDROCARBON MIXTURES, e.g. BY DESTRUCTIVE HYDROGENATION, OLIGOMERISATION, POLYMERISATION; RECOVERY OF HYDROCARBON OILS FROM OIL-SHALE, OIL-SAND, OR GASES; REFINING MIXTURES MAINLY CONSISTING OF HYDROCARBONS; REFORMING OF NAPHTHA; MINERAL WAXES
    • C10G45/00—Refining of hydrocarbon oils using hydrogen or hydrogen-generating compounds
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10G—CRACKING HYDROCARBON OILS; PRODUCTION OF LIQUID HYDROCARBON MIXTURES, e.g. BY DESTRUCTIVE HYDROGENATION, OLIGOMERISATION, POLYMERISATION; RECOVERY OF HYDROCARBON OILS FROM OIL-SHALE, OIL-SAND, OR GASES; REFINING MIXTURES MAINLY CONSISTING OF HYDROCARBONS; REFORMING OF NAPHTHA; MINERAL WAXES
    • C10G9/00—Thermal non-catalytic cracking, in the absence of hydrogen, of hydrocarbon oils
    • C10G9/24—Thermal non-catalytic cracking, in the absence of hydrogen, of hydrocarbon oils by heating with electrical means
    • E—FIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21—EARTH DRILLING; MINING
    • E21B—EARTH DRILLING, e.g. DEEP DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B43/00—Methods or apparatus for obtaining oil, gas, water, soluble or meltable materials or a slurry of minerals from wells
    • E21B43/16—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons
    • E21B43/166—Injecting a gaseous medium; Injecting a gaseous medium and a liquid medium
    • E21B43/168—Injecting a gaseous medium
    • E—FIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21—EARTH DRILLING; MINING
    • E21B—EARTH DRILLING, e.g. DEEP DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B43/00—Methods or apparatus for obtaining oil, gas, water, soluble or meltable materials or a slurry of minerals from wells
    • E21B43/16—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons
    • E21B43/24—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons using heat, e.g. steam injection
    • E—FIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21—EARTH DRILLING; MINING
    • E21B—EARTH DRILLING, e.g. DEEP DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B43/00—Methods or apparatus for obtaining oil, gas, water, soluble or meltable materials or a slurry of minerals from wells
    • E21B43/16—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons
    • E21B43/24—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons using heat, e.g. steam injection
    • E21B43/243—Combustion in situ
    • E—FIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21—EARTH DRILLING; MINING
    • E21B—EARTH DRILLING, e.g. DEEP DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B43/00—Methods or apparatus for obtaining oil, gas, water, soluble or meltable materials or a slurry of minerals from wells
    • E21B43/30—Specific pattern of wells, e.g. optimizing the spacing of wells
    • E21B43/305—Specific pattern of wells, e.g. optimizing the spacing of wells comprising at least one inclined or horizontal well
    • E—FIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21—EARTH DRILLING; MINING
    • E21B—EARTH DRILLING, e.g. DEEP DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B47/00—Survey of boreholes or wells
    • E21B47/02—Determining slope or direction
    • E21B47/022—Determining slope or direction of the borehole, e.g. using geomagnetism
    • E21B47/0224—Determining slope or direction of the borehole, e.g. using geomagnetism using seismic or acoustic means
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01V—GEOPHYSICS; GRAVITATIONAL MEASUREMENTS; DETECTING MASSES OR OBJECTS; TAGS
    • G01V3/00—Electric or magnetic prospecting or detecting; Measuring magnetic field characteristics of the earth, e.g. declination, deviation
    • G01V3/18—Electric or magnetic prospecting or detecting; Measuring magnetic field characteristics of the earth, e.g. declination, deviation specially adapted for well-logging
    • G01V3/26—Electric or magnetic prospecting or detecting; Measuring magnetic field characteristics of the earth, e.g. declination, deviation specially adapted for well-logging operating with magnetic or electric fields produced or modified either by the surrounding earth formation or by the detecting device
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B09—DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE; RECLAMATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL
    • B09C—RECLAMATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL
    • B09C2101/00—In situ
    • E—FIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21—EARTH DRILLING; MINING
    • E21B—EARTH DRILLING, e.g. DEEP DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B17/00—Drilling rods or pipes; Flexible drill strings; Kellies; Drill collars; Sucker rods; Cables; Casings; Tubings
    • E21B17/02—Couplings; joints
    • E21B17/028—Electrical or electro-magnetic connections
    • E21B17/0285—Electrical or electro-magnetic connections characterised by electrically insulating elements
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
    • Y02P30/00—Technologies relating to oil refining and petrochemical industry
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
    • Y02P30/00—Technologies relating to oil refining and petrochemical industry
    • Y02P30/40—Ethylene production
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10S—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10S210/00—Liquid purification or separation
    • Y10S210/901—Specified land fill feature, e.g. prevention of ground water fouling
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
    • Y10T137/00—Fluid handling
    • Y10T137/0318—Processes
    • Y10T137/0391—Affecting flow by the addition of material or energy

Definitions

  • the present invention relates generally to methods and systems for production of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other products from various hydrocarbon containing formations. Certain embodiments relate to in situ conversion of hydrocarbons to produce hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or novel product streams from underground hydrocarbon containing formations.
  • Hydrocarbons obtained from subterranean (e.g., sedimentary) formations are often used as energy resources, as feedstocks, and as consumer products.
  • Concerns over depletion of available hydrocarbon resources and over declining overall quality of produced hydrocarbons have led to development of processes for more efficient recovery, processing and/or use of available hydrocarbon resources.
  • In situ processes may be used to remove hydrocarbon materials from subterranean formations. Chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material within a subterranean formation may need to be changed to allow hydrocarbon material to be more easily removed from the subterranean formation.
  • the chemical and physical changes may include in situ reactions that produce removable fluids, composition changes, solubility changes, density changes, phase changes, and/or viscosity changes of the hydrocarbon material within the formation.
  • a fluid may be, but is not limited to, a gas, a liquid, an emulsion, a slurry, and/or a stream of solid particles that has flow characteristics similar to liquid flow.
  • Heat may be applied to the oil shale formation to pyrolyze kerogen within the oil shale formation.
  • the heat may also fracture the formation to increase permeability of the formation.
  • the increased permeability may allow formation fluid to travel to a production well where the fluid is removed from the oil shale formation.
  • an oxygen containing gaseous medium is introduced to a permeable stratum, preferably while still hot from a preheating step, to initiate combustion.
  • a heat source may be used to heat a subterranean formation.
  • Electric heaters may be used to heat the subterranean formation by radiation and/or conduction.
  • An electric heater may resistively heat an element.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 2,548,360 to Germain which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating element placed within a viscous oil within a wellbore. The heater element heats and thins the oil to allow the oil to be pumped from the wellbore.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 6,023,554 to Vinegar et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating element that is positioned within a casing.
  • the heating element generates radiant energy that heats the casing.
  • a granular solid fill material may be placed between the casing and the formation.
  • the casing may conductively heat the fill material, which in turn conductively heats the formation.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 4,570,715 to Van Meurs et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating element.
  • the heating element has an electrically conductive core, a surrounding layer of insulating material, and a surrounding metallic sheath.
  • the conductive core may have a relatively low resistance at high temperatures.
  • the insulating material may have electrical resistance, compressive strength, and heat conductivity properties that are relatively high at high temperatures.
  • the insulating layer may inhibit arcing from the core to the metallic sheath.
  • the metallic sheath may have tensile strength and creep resistance properties that are relatively high at high temperatures.
  • Combustion of a fuel may be used to heat a formation. Combusting a fuel to heat a formation may be more economical than using electricity to heat a formation.
  • Several different types of heaters may use fuel combustion as a heat source that heats a formation. The combustion may take place in the formation, in a well, and/or near the surface. Combustion in the formation may be a fireflood.
  • An oxidizer may be pumped into the formation. The oxidizer may be ignited to advance a fire front towards a production well. Oxidizer pumped into the formation may flow through the formation along fracture lines in the formation. Ignition of the oxidizer may not result in the fire front flowing uniformly through the formation.
  • a flameless combustor may be used to combust a fuel within a well.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,255,742 to Mikus U.S. Pat. No. 5,404,952 to Vinegar et al.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,862,858 to Wellington et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,899,269 to Wellington et al., which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe flameless combustors.
  • Flameless combustion may be accomplished by preheating a fuel and combustion air to a temperature above an auto-ignition temperature of the mixture.
  • the fuel and combustion air may be mixed in a heating zone to combust.
  • a catalytic surface may be provided to lower the auto-ignition temperature of the fuel and air mixture.
  • Heat may be supplied to a formation from a surface heater.
  • the surface heater may produce combustion gases that are circulated through wellbores to heat the formation.
  • a surface burner may be used to heat a heat transfer fluid that is passed through a wellbore to heat the formation. Examples of fired heaters, or surface burners that may be used to heat a subterranean formation, are illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,056,057 to Vinegar et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 6,079,499 to Mikus et al., which are both incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.
  • Coal is often mined and used as a fuel within an electricity generating power plant. Most coal that is used as a fuel to generate electricity is mined. A significant number of coal formations are, however, not suitable for economical mining. For example, mining coal from steeply dipping coal seams, from relatively thin coal seams (e.g., less than about 1 meter thick), and/or from deep coal seams may not be economically feasible. Deep coal seams include coal seams that are at, or extend to, depths of greater than about 3000 feet (about 914 m) below surface level. The energy conversion efficiency of burning coal to generate electricity is relatively low, as compared to fuels such as natural gas. Also, burning coal to generate electricity often generates significant amounts of carbon dioxide, oxides of sulfur, and oxides of nitrogen that are released into the atmosphere.
  • Synthesis gas may be produced in reactors or in situ within a subterranean formation. Synthesis gas may be produced within a reactor by partially oxidizing methane with oxygen. In situ production of synthesis gas may be economically desirable to avoid the expense of building, operating, and maintaining a surface synthesis gas production facility.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 4,250,230 to Terry which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes a system for in situ gasification of coal. A subterranean coal seam is burned from a first well towards a production well. Methane, hydrocarbons, H 2 , CO, and other fluids may be removed from the formation through the production well. The H 2 and CO may be separated from the remaining fluid. The H 2 and CO may be sent to fuel cells to generate electricity.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 4,057,293 to Garrett which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, discloses a process for producing synthesis gas.
  • a portion of a rubble pile is burned to heat the rubble pile to a temperature that generates liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons by pyrolysis. After pyrolysis, the rubble is further heated, and steam or steam and air are introduced to the rubble pile to generate synthesis gas.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,554,453 to Steinfeld et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an ex situ coal gasifier that supplies fuel gas to a fuel cell.
  • the fuel cell produces electricity.
  • a catalytic burner is used to burn exhaust gas from the fuel cell with an oxidant gas to generate heat in the gasifier.
  • Carbon dioxide may be produced from combustion of fuel and from many chemical processes. Carbon dioxide may be used for various purposes, such as, but not limited to, a feed stream for a dry ice production facility, supercritical fluid in a low temperature supercritical fluid process, a flooding agent for coal bed demethanation, and a flooding agent for enhanced oil recovery. Although some carbon dioxide is productively used, many tons of carbon dioxide are vented to the atmosphere.
  • Retorting processes for oil shale may be generally divided into two major types: aboveground (surface) and underground (in situ). Aboveground retorting of oil shale typically involves mining and construction of metal vessels capable of withstanding high temperatures. The quality of oil produced from such retorting may typically be poor, thereby requiring costly upgrading. Aboveground retorting may also adversely affect environmental and water resources due to mining, transporting, processing, and/or disposing of the retorted material. Many U.S. patents have been issued relating to aboveground retorting of oil shale. Currently available aboveground retorting processes include, for example, direct, indirect, and/or combination heating methods.
  • In situ retorting typically involves retorting oil shale without removing the oil shale from the ground by mining.
  • “Modified” in situ processes typically require some mining to develop underground retort chambers.
  • An example of a “modified” in situ process includes a method developed by Occidental Petroleum that involves mining approximately 20% of the oil shale in a formation, explosively rubblizing the remainder of the oil shale to fill up the mined out area, and combusting the oil shale by gravity stable combustion in which combustion is initiated from the top of the retort.
  • modified in situ processes include the “Rubble In Situ Extraction” (“RISE”) method developed by the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory (“LLL”) and radio-frequency methods developed by IIT Research Institute (“IITRI”) and LLL, which involve tunneling and mining drifts to install an array of radio-frequency antennas in an oil shale formation.
  • RISE Rule In Situ Extraction
  • LLL Lawrence Livermore Laboratory
  • IITRI IIT Research Institute
  • the natural gas carrier fluid accompanied by decomposition product vapors and gases, passes upwardly through extraction wells into product recovery lines, and into and through condensers interposed in such lines, where the decomposition vapors condense, leaving the natural gas carrier fluid to flow through a heater and into an injection well drilled into the deposit of oil shale.
  • Tar sand deposits may, for example, first be mined. Surface milling processes may further separate the bitumen from sand. The separated bitumen may be converted to light hydrocarbons using conventional refinery methods. Mining and upgrading tar sand is usually substantially more expensive than producing lighter hydrocarbons from conventional oil reservoirs.
  • heavy hydrocarbons e.g., heavy oil and/or tar
  • lighter hydrocarbons such as crude oil, naphtha, kerosene, and/or gas oil.
  • Tar sand deposits may, for example, first be mined. Surface milling processes may further separate the bitumen from sand. The separated bitumen may be converted to light hydrocarbons using conventional refinery methods. Mining and upgrading tar sand is usually substantially more expensive than producing lighter hydrocarbons from conventional oil reservoirs.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,340,467 to Gregoli et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,316,467 to Gregoli et al. which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe adding water and a chemical additive to tar sand to form a slurry.
  • the slurry may be separated into hydrocarbons and water.
  • In situ production of hydrocarbons from tar sand may be accomplished by heating and/or injecting a gas into the formation.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,211,230 to Ostapovich et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,339,897 to Leaute which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe a horizontal production well located in an oil-bearing reservoir.
  • a vertical conduit may be used to inject an oxidant gas into the reservoir for in situ combustion.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 2,780,450 to Ljungstrom describes heating bituminous geological formations in situ to convert or crack a liquid tar-like substance into oils and gases.
  • Substantial reserves of heavy hydrocarbons are known to exist in formations that have relatively low permeability. For example, billions of barrels of oil reserves are known to exist in diatomaceous formations in California. Several methods have been proposed and/or used for producing heavy hydrocarbons from relatively low permeability formations.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,415,231 to Northrop et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes a method for recovering hydrocarbons (e.g., oil) from a low permeability subterranean reservoir of the type comprised primarily of diatomite.
  • a first slug or volume of a heated fluid e.g., 60% quality steam
  • the well is then shut in and the reservoir is allowed to soak for a prescribed period (e.g., 10 days or more) to allow the oil to be displaced by the steam into the fractures.
  • the well is then produced until the production rate drops below an economical level.
  • a second slug of steam is then injected and the cycles are repeated.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,339,897 to Leaute describes a method and apparatus for recovering and/or upgrading hydrocarbons utilizing in situ combustion and horizontal wells.
  • U.S. Pat. No. RE36,569 to Kuckes which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes a method for determining distance from a borehole to a nearby, substantially parallel target well for use in guiding the drilling of the borehole.
  • the method includes positioning a magnetic field sensor in the borehole at a known depth and providing a magnetic field source in the target well.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,725,059 to Kuckes et al. which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes a method and apparatus for steering boreholes for use in creating a subsurface barrier layer.
  • the method includes drilling a first reference borehole, retracting the drill stem while injecting a sealing material into the earth around the borehole, and simultaneously pulling a guide wire into the borehole.
  • the guide wire is used to produce a corresponding magnetic field in the earth around the reference borehole.
  • the vector components of the magnetic field are used to determine the distance and direction from the borehole being drilled to the reference borehole in order to steer the borehole being drilled.
  • hydrocarbons within a hydrocarbon containing formation may be converted in situ within the formation to yield a mixture of relatively high quality hydrocarbon products, hydrogen, and/or other products.
  • One or more heat sources may be used to heat a portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation to temperatures that allow pyrolysis of the hydrocarbons.
  • Hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and other formation fluids may be removed from the formation through one or more production wells.
  • formation fluids may be removed in a vapor phase.
  • formation fluids may be removed in liquid and vapor phases or in a liquid phase. Temperature and pressure in at least a portion of the formation may be controlled during pyrolysis to yield improved products from the formation.
  • one or more heat sources may be installed into a formation to heat the formation.
  • Heat sources may be installed by drilling openings (well bores) into the formation.
  • openings may be formed in the formation using a drill with a steerable motor and an accelerometer.
  • an opening may be formed into the formation by geosteered drilling.
  • an opening may be formed into the formation by sonic drilling.
  • One or more heat sources may be disposed within the opening such that the heat sources transfer heat to the formation.
  • a heat source may be placed in an open wellbore in the formation. Heat may conductively and radiatively transfer from the heat source to the formation.
  • a heat source may be placed within a heater well that may be packed with gravel, sand, and/or cement. The cement may be a refractory cement.
  • one or more heat sources may be placed in a pattern within the formation.
  • an in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons may include heating at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation with an array of heat sources disposed within the formation.
  • the array of heat sources can be positioned substantially equidistant from a production well. Certain patterns (e.g., triangular arrays, hexagonal arrays, or other array patterns) may be more desirable for specific applications.
  • the array of heat sources may be disposed such that a distance between each heat source may be less than about 70 feet (21 m).
  • the in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons may include heating at least a portion of the formation with heat sources disposed substantially parallel to a boundary of the hydrocarbons. Regardless of the arrangement of or distance between the heat sources, in certain embodiments, a ratio of heat sources to production wells disposed within a formation may be greater than about 3, 5, 8, 10, 20, or more.
  • Certain embodiments may also include allowing heat to transfer from one or more of the heat sources to a selected section of the heated portion.
  • the selected section may be disposed between one or more heat sources.
  • the in situ conversion process may also include allowing heat to transfer from one or more heat sources to a selected section of the formation such that heat from one or more of the heat sources pyrolyzes at least some hydrocarbons within the selected section.
  • the in situ conversion process may include heating at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation above a pyrolyzation temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation.
  • a pyrolyzation temperature may include a temperature of at least about 270° C. Heat may be allowed to transfer from one or more of the heat sources to the selected section substantially by conduction.
  • One or more heat sources may be located within the formation such that superposition of heat produced from one or more heat sources may occur.
  • Superposition of heat may increase a temperature of the selected section to a temperature sufficient for pyrolysis of at least some of the hydrocarbons within the selected section.
  • Superposition of heat may vary depending on, for example, a spacing between heat sources. The spacing between heat sources may be selected to optimize heating of the section selected for treatment. Therefore, hydrocarbons may be pyrolyzed within a larger area of the portion. Spacing between heat sources may be selected to increase the effectiveness of the heat sources, thereby increasing the economic viability of a selected in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons.
  • Superposition of heat tends to increase the uniformity of heat distribution in the section of the formation selected for treatment.
  • a natural distributed combustor system and method may heat at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the system and method may first include heating a first portion of the formation to a temperature sufficient to support oxidation of at least some of the hydrocarbons therein.
  • One or more conduits may be disposed within one or more openings.
  • One or more of the conduits may provide an oxidizing fluid from an oxidizing fluid source into an opening in the formation.
  • the oxidizing fluid may oxidize at least a portion of the hydrocarbons at a reaction zone within the formation. Oxidation may generate heat at the reaction zone.
  • the generated heat may transfer from the reaction zone to a pyrolysis zone in the formation.
  • the heat may transfer by conduction, radiation, and/or convection.
  • a heated portion of the formation may include the reaction zone and the pyrolysis zone. The heated portion may also be located adjacent to the opening.
  • One or more of the conduits may remove one or more oxidation products from the reaction zone and/or the opening in the formation. Alternatively, additional conduits may remove one or more oxidation products from the reaction zone and/or formation.
  • the flow of oxidizing fluid may be controlled along at least a portion of the length of the reaction zone.
  • hydrogen may be allowed to transfer into the reaction zone.
  • a natural distributed combustor may include a second conduit.
  • the second conduit may remove an oxidation product from the formation.
  • the second conduit may remove an oxidation product to maintain a substantially constant temperature in the formation.
  • the second conduit may control the concentration of oxygen in the opening such that the oxygen concentration is substantially constant.
  • the first conduit may include orifices that direct oxidizing fluid in a direction substantially opposite a direction oxidation products are removed with orifices on the second conduit.
  • the second conduit may have a greater concentration of orifices toward an upper end of the second conduit.
  • the second conduit may allow heat from the oxidation product to transfer to the oxidizing fluid in the first conduit.
  • the pressure of the fluids within the first and second conduits may be controlled such that a concentration of the oxidizing fluid along the length of the first conduit is substantially uniform.
  • a system and a method may include an opening in the formation extending from a first location on the surface of the earth to a second location on the surface of the earth.
  • the opening may be substantially U-shaped.
  • Heat sources may be placed within the opening to provide heat to at least a portion of the formation.
  • a conduit may be positioned in the opening extending from the first location to the second location.
  • a heat source may be positioned proximate and/or in the conduit to provide heat to the conduit. Transfer of the heat through the conduit may provide heat to a selected section of the formation.
  • an additional heater may be placed in an additional conduit to provide heat to the selected section of the formation through the additional conduit.
  • an annulus is formed between a wall of the opening and a wall of the conduit placed within the opening extending from the first location to the second location.
  • a heat source may be place proximate and/or in the annulus to provide heat to a portion the opening. The provided heat may transfer through the annulus to a selected section of the formation.
  • a system and method for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include one or more insulated conductors disposed in one or more openings in the formation.
  • the openings may be uncased.
  • the openings may include a casing.
  • the insulated conductors may provide conductive, radiant, or convective heat to at least a portion of the formation.
  • the system and method may allow heat to transfer from the insulated conductor to a section of the formation.
  • the insulated conductor may include a copper-nickel alloy.
  • the insulated conductor may be electrically coupled to two additional insulated conductors in a 3-phase Y configuration.
  • An embodiment of a system and method for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include a conductor placed within a conduit (e.g., a conductor-in-conduit heat source).
  • the conduit may be disposed within the opening.
  • An electric current may be applied to the conductor to provide heat to a portion of the formation.
  • the system may allow heat to transfer from the conductor to a section of the formation during use.
  • an oxidizing fluid source may be placed proximate an opening in the formation extending from the first location on the earth's surface to the second location on the earth's surface.
  • the oxidizing fluid source may provide oxidizing fluid to a conduit in the opening.
  • the oxidizing fluid may transfer from the conduit to a reaction zone in the formation.
  • an electrical current may be provided to the conduit to heat a portion of the conduit.
  • the heat may transfer to the reaction zone in the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Oxidizing fluid may then be provided to the conduit.
  • the oxidizing fluid may oxidize hydrocarbons in the reaction zone, thereby generating heat.
  • the generated heat may transfer to a pyrolysis zone and the transferred heat may pyrolyze hydrocarbons within the pyrolysis zone.
  • an insulation layer may be coupled to a portion of the conductor.
  • the insulation layer may electrically insulate at least a portion of the conductor from the conduit during use.
  • a conductor-in-conduit heat source having a desired length may be assembled.
  • a conductor may be placed within the conduit to form the conductor-in-conduit heat source.
  • Two or more conductor-in-conduit heat sources may be coupled together to form a heat source having the desired length.
  • the conductors of the conductor-in-conduit heat sources may be electrically coupled together.
  • the conduits may be electrically coupled together.
  • a desired length of the conductor-in-conduit may be placed in an opening in the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • individual sections of the conductor-in-conduit heat source may be coupled using shielded active gas welding.
  • a centralizer may be used to inhibit movement of the conductor within the conduit.
  • a centralizer may be placed on the conductor as a heat source is made.
  • a protrusion may be placed on the conductor to maintain the location of a centralizer.
  • a heat source of a desired length may be assembled proximate the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the assembled heat source may then be coiled.
  • the heat source may be placed in the hydrocarbon containing formation by uncoiling the heat source into the opening in the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • portions of the conductors may include an electrically conductive material.
  • Use of the electrically conductive material on a portion (e.g., in the overburden portion) of the conductor may lower an electrical resistance of the conductor.
  • a conductor placed in a conduit may be treated to increase the emissivity of the conductor, in some embodiments.
  • the emissivity of the conductor may be increased by roughening at least a portion of the surface of the conductor.
  • the conductor may be treated to increase the emissivity prior to being placed within the conduit.
  • the conduit may be treated to increase the emissivity of the conduit.
  • a system and method may include one or more elongated members disposed in an opening in the formation. Each of the elongated members may provide heat to at least a portion of the formation.
  • One or more conduits may be disposed in the opening. One or more of the conduits may provide an oxidizing fluid from an oxidizing fluid source into the opening. In certain embodiments, the oxidizing fluid may inhibit carbon deposition on or proximate the elongated member.
  • an expansion mechanism may be coupled to a heat source.
  • the expansion mechanism may allow the heat source to move during use.
  • the expansion mechanism may allow for the expansion of the heat source during use.
  • an in situ method and system for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include providing oxidizing fluid to a first oxidizer placed in an opening in the formation. Fuel may be provided to the first oxidizer and at least some fuel may be oxidized in the first oxidizer. Oxidizing fluid may be provided to a second oxidizer placed in the opening in the formation. Fuel may be provided to the second oxidizer and at least some fuel may be oxidized in the second oxidizer. Heat from oxidation of fuel may be allowed to transfer to a portion of the formation.
  • An opening in a hydrocarbon containing formation may include a first elongated portion, a second elongated portion, and a third elongated portion.
  • Certain embodiments of a method and system for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include providing heat from a first heater placed in the second elongated portion.
  • the second elongated portion may diverge from the first elongated portion in a first direction.
  • the third elongated portion may diverge from the first elongated portion in a second direction.
  • the first direction may be substantially different than the second direction.
  • Heat may be provided from a second heater placed in the third elongated portion of the opening in the formation. Heat from the first heater and the second heater may be allowed to transfer to a portion of the formation.
  • An embodiment of a method and system for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include providing oxidizing fluid to a first oxidizer placed in an opening in the formation. Fuel may be provided to the first oxidizer and at least some fuel may be oxidized in the first oxidizer. The method may further include allowing heat from oxidation of fuel to transfer to a portion of the formation and allowing heat to transfer from a heater placed in the opening to a portion of the formation.
  • a system and method for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include oxidizing a fuel fluid in a heater.
  • the method may further include providing at least a portion of the oxidized fuel fluid into a conduit disposed in an opening in the formation.
  • additional heat may be transferred from an electric heater disposed in the opening to the section of the formation. Heat may be allowed to transfer uniformly along a length of the opening.
  • Energy input costs may be reduced in some embodiments of systems and methods described above.
  • an energy input cost may be reduced by heating a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation by oxidation in combination with heating the portion of the formation by an electric heater.
  • the electric heater may be turned down and/or off when the oxidation reaction begins to provide sufficient heat to the formation.
  • Electrical energy costs associated with heating at least a portion of a formation with an electric heater may be reduced.
  • a more economical process may be provided for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation in comparison to heating by a conventional method.
  • the oxidation reaction may be propagated slowly through a greater portion of the formation such that fewer heat sources may be required to heat such a greater portion in comparison to heating by a conventional method.
  • Certain embodiments as described herein may provide a lower cost system and method for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation. For example, certain embodiments may more uniformly transfer heat along a length of a heater. Such a length of a heater may be greater than about 300 m or possibly greater than about 600 m. In addition, in certain embodiments, heat may be provided to the formation more efficiently by radiation. Furthermore, certain embodiments of systems may have a substantially longer lifetime than presently available systems.
  • an in situ conversion system and method for hydrocarbons may include maintaining a portion of the formation in a substantially unheated condition.
  • the portion may provide structural strength to the formation and/or confinement/isolation to certain regions of the formation.
  • a processed hydrocarbon containing formation may have alternating heated and substantially unheated portions arranged in a pattern that may, in some embodiments, resemble a checkerboard pattern, or a pattern of alternating areas (e.g., strips) of heated and unheated portions.
  • a heat source may advantageously heat only along a selected portion or selected portions of a length of the heater.
  • a formation may include several hydrocarbon containing layers. One or more of the hydrocarbon containing layers may be separated by layers containing little or no hydrocarbons.
  • a heat source may include several discrete high heating zones that may be separated by low heating zones. The high heating zones may be disposed proximate hydrocarbon containing layers such that the layers may be heated. The low heating zones may be disposed proximate layers containing little or no hydrocarbons such that the layers may not be substantially heated.
  • an electric heater may include one or more low resistance heater sections and one or more high resistance heater sections.
  • Low resistance heater sections of the electric heater may be disposed in and/or proximate layers containing little or no hydrocarbons.
  • high resistance heater sections of the electric heater may be disposed proximate hydrocarbon containing layers.
  • a fueled heater e.g., surface burner
  • insulated sections Insulated sections of the fueled heater may be placed proximate or adjacent to layers containing little or no hydrocarbons.
  • a heater with distributed air and/or fuel may be configured such that little or no fuel may be combusted proximate or adjacent to layers containing little or no hydrocarbons.
  • Such a fueled heater may include flameless combustors and natural distributed combustors.
  • the permeability of a hydrocarbon containing formation may vary within the formation.
  • a first section may have a lower permeability than a second section.
  • heat may be provided to the formation to pyrolyze hydrocarbons within the lower permeability first section. Pyrolysis products may be produced from the higher permeability second section in a mixture of hydrocarbons.
  • a heating rate of the formation may be slowly raised through the pyrolysis temperature range.
  • an in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons may include heating at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation to raise an average temperature of the portion above about 270° C. by a rate less than a selected amount (e.g., about 10° C., 5° C., 3° C., 1° C., 0.5° C., or 0.1° C.) per day.
  • the portion may be heated such that an average temperature of the selected section may be less than about 375° C. or, in some embodiments, less than about 400° C.
  • a temperature of the portion may be monitored through a test well disposed in a formation.
  • the test well may be positioned in a formation between a first heat source and a second heat source.
  • Certain systems and methods may include controlling the heat from the first heat source and/or the second heat source to raise the monitored temperature at the test well at a rate of less than about a selected amount per day.
  • a temperature of the portion may be monitored at a production well.
  • An in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons may include controlling the heat from the first heat source and/or the second heat source to raise the monitored temperature at the production well at a rate of less than a selected amount per day.
  • An embodiment of an in situ method of measuring a temperature within a wellbore may include providing a pressure wave from a pressure wave source into the wellbore.
  • the wellbore may include a plurality of discontinuities along a length of the wellbore.
  • the method further includes measuring a reflection signal of the pressure wave and using the reflection signal to assess at least one temperature between at least two discontinuities.
  • Certain embodiments may include heating a selected volume of a hydrocarbon containing formation. Heat may be provided to the selected volume by providing power to one or more heat sources. Power may be defined as heating energy per day provided to the selected volume. A power (Pwr) required to generate a heating rate (h, in units of, for example, ° C./day) in a selected volume (V) of a hydrocarbon containing formation may be determined by EQN. 1:
  • an average heat capacity of the formation (C ⁇ ) and an average bulk density of the formation ( ⁇ B ) may be estimated or determined using one or more samples taken from the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Certain embodiments may include raising and maintaining a pressure in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Pressure may be, for example, controlled within a range of about 2 bars absolute to about 20 bars absolute.
  • the process may include controlling a pressure within a majority of a selected section of a heated portion of the formation.
  • the controlled pressure may be above about 2 bars absolute during pyrolysis.
  • an in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons may include raising and maintaining the pressure in the formation within a range of about 20 bars absolute to about 36 bars absolute.
  • compositions and properties of formation fluids produced by an in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons may vary depending on, for example, conditions within a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Certain embodiments may include controlling the heat provided to at least a portion of the formation such that production of less desirable products in the portion may be inhibited. Controlling the heat provided to at least a portion of the formation may also increase the uniformity of permeability within the formation. For example, controlling the heating of the formation to inhibit production of less desirable products may, in some embodiments, include controlling the heating rate to less than a selected amount (e.g., 10° C., 5° C., 3° C., 1° C., 0.5° C., or 0.1° C.) per day.
  • a selected amount e.g. 10° C., 5° C., 3° C., 1° C., 0.5° C., or 0.1° C.
  • Controlling pressure, heat and/or heating rates of a selected section in a formation may increase production of selected formation fluids.
  • the amount and/or rate of heating may be controlled to produce formation fluids having an American Petroleum Institute (“API”) gravity greater than about 25°.
  • API American Petroleum Institute
  • Heat and/or pressure may be controlled to inhibit production of olefins in the produced fluids.
  • Controlling formation conditions to control the pressure of hydrogen in the produced fluid may result in improved qualities of the produced fluids. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to control formation conditions so that the partial pressure of hydrogen in a produced fluid is greater than about 0.5 bars absolute, as measured at a production well.
  • a method of treating a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include adding hydrogen to the selected section after a temperature of the selected section is at least about 270° C.
  • Other embodiments may include controlling a temperature of the formation by selectively adding hydrogen to the formation.
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation may be treated in situ with a heat transfer fluid such as steam.
  • a method of formation may include injecting a heat transfer fluid into a formation. Heat from the heat transfer fluid may transfer to a selected section of the formation. The heat from the heat transfer fluid may pyrolyze a substantial portion of the hydrocarbons within the selected section of the formation.
  • the produced gas mixture may include hydrocarbons with an average API gravity greater than about 25°.
  • treating a hydrocarbon containing formation with a heat transfer fluid may also mobilize hydrocarbons in the formation.
  • a method of treating a formation may include injecting a heat transfer fluid into a formation, allowing the heat from the heat transfer fluid to transfer to a selected first section of the formation, and mobilizing and pyrolyzing at least some of the hydrocarbons within the selected first section of the formation. At least some of the mobilized hydrocarbons may flow from the selected first section of the formation to a selected second section of the formation. The heat may pyrolyze at least some of the hydrocarbons within the selected second section of the formation.
  • a gas mixture may be produced from the formation.
  • a method may include injecting a heat transfer fluid into a formation and allowing the heat transfer fluid to migrate through the formation.
  • a size of a selected section may increase as a heat transfer fluid front migrates through an untreated portion of the formation.
  • the selected section is a portion of the formation treated by the heat transfer fluid.
  • Heat from the heat transfer fluid may transfer heat to the selected section.
  • the heat may pyrolyze at least some of the hydrocarbons within the selected section of the formation.
  • the heat may also mobilize at least some of the hydrocarbons at the heat transfer fluid front.
  • the mobilized hydrocarbons may flow substantially parallel to the heat transfer fluid front.
  • the heat may pyrolyze at least a portion of the hydrocarbons in the mobilized fluid and a gas mixture may be produced from the formation.
  • Simulations may be utilized to increase an understanding of in situ processes. Simulations may model heating of the formation from heat sources and the transfer of heat to a selected section of the formation. Simulations may require the input of model parameters, properties of the formation, operating conditions, process characteristics, and/or desired parameters to determine operating conditions. Simulations may assess various aspects of an in situ process. For example, various aspects may include, but not be limited to, deformation characteristics, heating rates, temperatures within the formation, pressures, time to first produced fluids, and/or compositions of produced fluids.
  • Systems utilized in conducting simulations may include a central processing unit (CPU), a data memory, and a system memory.
  • the system memory and the data memory may be coupled to the CPU.
  • Computer programs executable to implement simulations may be stored on the system memory.
  • Carrier mediums may include program instructions that are computer-executable to simulate the in situ processes.
  • a computer-implemented method and system of treating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include providing to a computational system at least one set of operating conditions of an in situ system being used to apply heat to a formation.
  • the in situ system may include at least one heat source.
  • the method may further include providing to the computational system at least one desired parameter for the in situ system.
  • the computational system may be used to determine at least one additional operating condition of the formation to achieve the desired parameter.
  • operating conditions may be determined by measuring at least one property of the formation. At least one measured property may be input into a computer executable program. At least one property of formation fluids selected to be produced from the formation may also be input into the computer executable program.
  • the program may be operable to determine a set of operating conditions from at least the one or more measured properties.
  • the program may also determine the set of operating conditions from at least one property of the selected formation fluids. The determined set of operating conditions may increase production of selected formation fluids from the formation.
  • a property of the formation and an operating condition used in the in situ process may be provided to a computer system to model the in situ process to determine a process characteristic.
  • a heat input rate for an in situ process from two or more heat sources may be simulated on a computer system.
  • a desired parameter of the in situ process may be provided to the simulation.
  • the heat input rate from the heat sources may be controlled to achieve the desired parameter.
  • a heat input property may be provided to a computer system to assess heat injection rate data using a simulation.
  • a property of the formation may be provided to the computer system. The property and the heat injection rate data may be utilized by a second simulation to determine a process characteristic for the in situ process as a function of time.
  • Values for the model parameters may be adjusted using process characteristics from a series of simulations.
  • the model parameters may be adjusted such that the simulated process characteristics correspond to process characteristics in situ.
  • a process characteristic or a set of process characteristics based on the modified model parameters may be determined.
  • multiple simulations may be run such that the simulated process characteristics correspond to the process characteristics in situ.
  • operating conditions may be supplied to a simulation to assess a process characteristic.
  • a desired value of a process characteristic for the in situ process may be provided to the simulation to assess an operating condition that yields the desired value.
  • databases in memory on a computer may be used to store relationships between model parameters, properties of the formation, operating conditions, process characteristics, desired parameters, etc. These databases may be accessed by the simulations to obtain inputs. For example, after desired values of process characteristics are provided to simulations, an operating condition may be assessed to achieve the desired values using these databases.
  • computer systems may utilize inputs in a simulation to assess information about the in situ process.
  • the assessed information may be used to operate the in situ process.
  • the assessed information and a desired parameter may be provided to a second simulation to obtain information. This obtained information may be used to operate the in situ process.
  • a method of modeling may include simulating one or more stages of the in situ process. Operating conditions from the one or more stages may be provided to a simulation to assess a process characteristic of the one or more stages.
  • operating conditions may be assessed by measuring at least one property of the formation. At least the measured properties may be input into a computer executable program. At least one property of formation fluids selected to be produced from the formation may also be input into the computer executable program.
  • the program may be operable to assess a set of operating conditions from at least the one or more measured properties.
  • the program may also determine the set of operating conditions from at least one property of the selected formation fluids. The assessed set of operating conditions may increase production of selected formation fluids from the formation.
  • a method for controlling an in situ system of treating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include monitoring at least one acoustic event within the formation using at least one acoustic detector placed within a wellbore in the formation. At least one acoustic event may be recorded with an acoustic monitoring system. The method may also include analyzing the at least one acoustic event to determine at least one property of the formation. The in situ system may be controlled based on the analysis of the at least one acoustic event.
  • An embodiment of a method of determining a heating rate for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include conducting an experiment at a relatively constant heating rate. The results of the experiment may be used to determine a heating rate for treating the formation in situ. The determined heating rate may be used to determine a well spacing in the formation.
  • a method of predicting characteristics of a formation fluid may include determining an isothermal heating temperature that corresponds to a selected heating rate for the formation. The determined isothermal temperature may be used in an experiment to determine at least one product characteristic of the formation fluid produced from the formation for the selected heating rate. Certain embodiments may include altering a composition of formation fluids produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation by altering a location of a production well with respect to a heater well. For example, a production well may be located with respect to a heater well such that a non-condensable gas fraction of produced hydrocarbon fluids may be larger than a condensable gas fraction of the produced hydrocarbon fluids.
  • Condensable hydrocarbons produced from the formation will typically include paraffins, cycloalkanes, mono-aromatics, and di-aromatics as major components. Such condensable hydrocarbons may also include other components such as tri-aromatics, etc.
  • a majority of the hydrocarbons in produced fluid may have a carbon number of less than approximately 25.
  • less than about 15 weight % of the hydrocarbons in the fluid may have a carbon number greater than approximately 25.
  • fluid produced may have a weight ratio of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers from 2 through 4, to methane, of greater than approximately 1 (e.g., for oil shale and heavy hydrocarbons) or greater than approximately 0.3 (e.g., for coal).
  • the non-condensable hydrocarbons may include, but are not limited to, hydrocarbons having carbon numbers less than 5.
  • the API gravity of the hydrocarbons in produced fluid may be approximately 25° or above (e.g., 30°, 40°, 50°, etc.).
  • the hydrogen to carbon atomic ratio in produced fluid may be at least approximately 1.7 (e.g., 1.8, 1.9, etc.).
  • fluid produced from a formation may include oxygenated hydrocarbons.
  • the condensable hydrocarbons may include an amount of oxygenated hydrocarbons greater than about 5 weight % of the condensable hydrocarbons.
  • Condensable hydrocarbons of a produced fluid may also include olefins.
  • the olefin content of the condensable hydrocarbons may be from about 0.1 weight % to about 15 weight %.
  • the olefin content of the condensable hydrocarbons may be from about 0.1 weight % to about 2.5 weight % or, in some embodiments, less than about 5 weight %.
  • Non-condensable hydrocarbons of a produced fluid may also include olefins.
  • the olefin content of the non-condensable hydrocarbons may be gauged using the ethene/ethane molar ratio.
  • the ethene/ethane molar ratio may range from about 0.001 to about 0.15.
  • Fluid produced from the formation may include aromatic compounds.
  • the condensable hydrocarbons may include an amount of aromatic compounds greater than about 20 weight % or about 25 weight % of the condensable hydrocarbons.
  • the condensable hydrocarbons may also include relatively low amounts of compounds with more than two rings in them (e.g., tri-aromatics or above).
  • the condensable hydrocarbons may include less than about 1 weight %, 2 weight %, or about 5 weight % of tri-aromatics or above in the condensable hydrocarbons.
  • asphaltenes make up less than about 0.1 weight % of the condensable hydrocarbons.
  • the condensable hydrocarbons may include an asphaltene component of from about 0.0 weight % to about 0.1 weight % or, in some embodiments, less than about 0.3 weight %.
  • Condensable hydrocarbons of a produced fluid may also include relatively large amounts of cycloalkanes.
  • the condensable hydrocarbons may include a cycloalkane component of up to 30 weight % (e.g., from about 5 weight % to about 30 weight %) of the condensable hydrocarbons.
  • the condensable hydrocarbons of the fluid produced from a formation may include compounds containing nitrogen.
  • nitrogen e.g., typically the nitrogen is in nitrogen containing compounds such as pyridines, amines, amides, etc.
  • the condensable hydrocarbons of the fluid produced from a formation may include compounds containing oxygen.
  • oxygen e.g., typically the oxygen is in oxygen containing compounds such as phenols, substituted phenols, ketones, etc.
  • between about 5 weight % and about 30 weight % of the condensable hydrocarbons are typically oxygen containing compounds such as phenols, substituted phenols, ketones, etc.
  • certain compounds containing oxygen e.g., phenols
  • the condensable hydrocarbons of the fluid produced from a formation may include compounds containing sulfur.
  • sulfur e.g., typically the sulfur is in sulfur containing compounds such as thiophenes, mercaptans, etc.
  • the fluid produced from the formation may include ammonia (typically the ammonia condenses with the water, if any, produced from the formation).
  • ammonia typically the ammonia condenses with the water, if any, produced from the formation.
  • the fluid produced from the formation may in certain embodiments include about 0.05 weight % or more of ammonia.
  • Certain formations may produce larger amounts of ammonia (e.g., up to about 10 weight % of the total fluid produced may be ammonia).
  • a produced fluid from the formation may also include molecular hydrogen (H 2 ), water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, etc.
  • the fluid may include a H 2 content between about 10 volume % and about 80 volume % of the non-condensable hydrocarbons.
  • Certain embodiments may include heating to yield at least about 15 weight % of a total organic carbon content of at least some of the hydrocarbon containing formation into formation fluids.
  • an in situ conversion process for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include providing heat to a section of the formation to yield greater than about 60 weight % of the potential hydrocarbon products and hydrogen, as measured by the Fischer Assay.
  • heating of the selected section of the formation may be controlled to pyrolyze at least about 20 weight % (or in some embodiments about 25 weight %) of the hydrocarbons within the selected section of the formation.
  • Formation fluids produced from a section of the formation may contain one or more components that may be separated from the formation fluids.
  • conditions within the formation may be controlled to increase production of a desired component.
  • a method of converting pyrolysis fluids into olefins may include converting formation fluids into olefins.
  • An embodiment may include separating olefins from fluids produced from a formation.
  • a method of enhancing phenol production from a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include controlling at least one condition within at least a portion of the formation to enhance production of phenols in formation fluid.
  • production of phenols from a hydrocarbon containing formation may be controlled by converting at least a portion of formation fluid into phenols.
  • phenols may be separated from fluids produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • An embodiment of a method of enhancing BTEX compounds (i.e., benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene compounds) produced in situ in a hydrocarbon containing formation may include controlling at least one condition within a portion of the formation to enhance production of BTEX compounds in formation fluid.
  • a method may include separating at least a portion of the BTEX compounds from the formation fluid.
  • the BTEX compounds may be separated from the formation fluids after the formation fluids are produced.
  • at least a portion of the produced formation fluids may be converted into BTEX compounds.
  • a method of enhancing naphthalene production from a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include controlling at least one condition within at least a portion of the formation to enhance production of naphthalene in formation fluid.
  • naphthalene may be separated from produced formation fluids.
  • Certain embodiments of a method of enhancing anthracene production from a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include controlling at least one condition within at least a portion of the formation to enhance production of anthracene in formation fluid.
  • anthracene may be separated from produced formation fluids.
  • a method of separating ammonia from fluids produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include separating at least a portion of the ammonia from the produced fluid.
  • an embodiment of a method of generating ammonia from fluids produced from a formation may include hydrotreating at least a portion of the produced fluids to generate ammonia.
  • a method of enhancing pyridines production from a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include controlling at least one condition within at least a portion of the formation to enhance production of pyridines in formation fluid. Additionally, pyridines may be separated from produced formation fluids.
  • a method of selecting a hydrocarbon containing formation to be treated in situ such that production of pyridines is enhanced may include examining pyridines concentrations in a plurality of samples from hydrocarbon containing formations. The method may further include selecting a formation for treatment at least partially based on the pyridines concentrations. Consequently, the production of pyridines to be produced from the formation may be enhanced.
  • a method of enhancing pyrroles production from a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include controlling at least one condition within at least a portion of the formation to enhance production of pyrroles in formation fluid.
  • pyrroles may be separated from produced formation fluids.
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation to be treated in situ may be selected such that production of pyrroles is enhanced.
  • the method may include examining pyrroles concentrations in a plurality of samples from hydrocarbon containing formations.
  • the formation may be selected for treatment at least partially based on the pyrroles concentrations, thereby enhancing the production of pyrroles to be produced from such formation.
  • thiophenes production a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may be enhanced by controlling at least one condition within at least a portion of the formation to enhance production of thiophenes in formation fluid. Additionally, the thiophenes may be separated from produced formation fluids.
  • An embodiment of a method of selecting a hydrocarbon containing formation to be treated in situ such that production of thiophenes is enhanced may include examining thiophenes concentrations in a plurality of samples from hydrocarbon containing formations. The method may further include selecting a formation for treatment at least partially based on the thiophenes concentrations, thereby enhancing the production of thiophenes from such formations.
  • Certain embodiments may include providing a reducing agent to at least a portion of the formation.
  • a reducing agent provided to a portion of the formation during heating may increase production of selected formation fluids.
  • a reducing agent may include, but is not limited to, molecular hydrogen.
  • pyrolyzing at least some hydrocarbons in a hydrocarbon containing formation may include forming hydrocarbon fragments. Such hydrocarbon fragments may react with each other and other compounds present in the formation. Reaction of these hydrocarbon fragments may increase production of olefin and aromatic compounds from the formation. Therefore, a reducing agent provided to the formation may react with hydrocarbon fragments to form selected products and/or inhibit the production of non-selected products.
  • a hydrogenation reaction between a reducing agent provided to a hydrocarbon containing formation and at least some of the hydrocarbons within the formation may generate heat.
  • the generated heat may be allowed to transfer such that at least a portion of the formation may be heated.
  • a reducing agent such as molecular hydrogen may also be autogenously generated within a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation during an in situ conversion process for hydrocarbons.
  • the autogenously generated molecular hydrogen may hydrogenate formation fluids within the formation. Allowing formation waters to contact hot carbon in the spent formation may generate molecular hydrogen. Cracking an injected hydrocarbon fluid may also generate molecular hydrogen.
  • Certain embodiments may also include providing a fluid produced in a first portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation to a second portion of the formation.
  • a fluid produced in a first portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation may be used to produce a reducing environment in a second portion of the formation.
  • molecular hydrogen generated in a first portion of a formation may be provided to a second portion of the formation.
  • at least a portion of formation fluids produced from a first portion of the formation may be provided to a second portion of the formation to provide a reducing environment within the second portion.
  • a method for hydrotreating a compound in a heated formation in situ may include controlling the H 2 partial pressure in a selected section of the formation, such that sufficient H 2 may be present in the selected section of the formation for hydrotreating.
  • the method may further include providing a compound for hydrotreating to at least the selected section of the formation and producing a mixture from the formation that includes at least some of the hydrotreated compound.
  • the fluids may be hydrotreated in situ in a heated formation.
  • In situ treatment may include providing a fluid to a selected section of a formation.
  • the in situ process may include controlling a H 2 partial pressure in the selected section of the formation.
  • the H 2 partial pressure may be controlled by providing hydrogen to the part of the formation.
  • the temperature within the part of the formation may be controlled such that the temperature remains within a range from about 200° C. to about 450° C.
  • At least some of the fluid may be hydrotreated within the part of the formation.
  • a mixture including hydrotreated fluids may be produced from the formation.
  • the produced mixture may include less than about 1% by weight ammonia.
  • the produced mixture may include less than about 1% by weight hydrogen sulfide.
  • the produced mixture may include less than about 1% oxygenated compounds.
  • the heating may be controlled such that the mixture may be produced as a vapor.
  • a method for hydrotreating a compound in a heated formation in situ may include controlling the H 2 partial pressure in a selected section of the formation, such that sufficient H 2 may be present in the selected section of the formation for hydrotreating.
  • the method may further include providing a compound for hydrotreating to at least the selected section of the formation and producing a mixture from the formation that includes at least some of the hydrotreated compound.
  • a method of separating ammonia from fluids produced from an in situ hydrocarbon containing formation may include separating at least a portion of the ammonia from the produced fluid. Fluids produced from a formation may, in some embodiments, be hydrotreated to generate ammonia. In certain embodiments, ammonia may be converted to other products.
  • Certain embodiments may include controlling heat provided to at least a portion of the formation such that a thermal conductivity of the portion may be increased to greater than about 0.5 W/(m ° C.) or, in some embodiments, greater than about 0.6 W/(m ° C.).
  • a mass of at least a portion of the formation may be reduced due, for example, to the production of formation fluids from the formation.
  • a permeability and porosity of at least a portion of the formation may increase.
  • removing water during the heating may also increase the permeability and porosity of at least a portion of the formation.
  • Certain embodiments may include increasing a permeability of at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation to greater than about 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 20, or 50 darcy. In addition, certain embodiments may include substantially uniformly increasing a permeability of at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation. Some embodiments may include increasing a porosity of at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation substantially uniformly.
  • In situ processes may be used to produce hydrocarbons, hydrogen and other formation fluids from a relatively permeable formation that includes heavy hydrocarbons (e.g., from tar sands). Heating may be used to mobilize the heavy hydrocarbons within the formation and then to pyrolyze heavy hydrocarbons within the formation to form pyrolyzation fluids. Formation fluids produced during pyrolyzation may be removed from the formation through production wells.
  • heavy hydrocarbons e.g., from tar sands.
  • fluid e.g., gas
  • the gas may be used to pressurize the formation.
  • Pressure in the formation may be selected to control mobilization of fluid within the formation. For example, a higher pressure may increase the mobilization of fluid within the formation such that fluids may be produced at a higher rate.
  • a portion of a relatively permeable formation may be heated to reduce a viscosity of the heavy hydrocarbons within the formation.
  • the reduced viscosity heavy hydrocarbons may be mobilized.
  • the mobilized heavy hydrocarbons may flow to a selected pyrolyzation section of the formation.
  • a gas may be provided into the relatively permeable formation to increase a flow of the mobilized heavy hydrocarbons into the selected pyrolyzation section.
  • Such a gas may be, for example, carbon dioxide.
  • the carbon dioxide may, in some embodiments, be stored in the formation after removal of the heavy hydrocarbons.
  • a majority of the heavy hydrocarbons within the selected pyrolyzation section may be pyrolyzed.
  • Pyrolyzation of the mobilized heavy hydrocarbons may upgrade the heavy hydrocarbons to a more desirable product.
  • the pyrolyzed heavy hydrocarbons may be removed from the formation through a production well.
  • the mobilized heavy hydrocarbons may be removed from the formation through a production well without upgrading or pyrolyzing the heavy hydrocarbons.
  • Hydrocarbon fluids produced from the formation may vary depending on conditions within the formation. For example, a heating rate of a selected pyrolyzation section may be controlled to increase the production of selected products. In addition, pressure within the formation may be controlled to vary the composition of the produced fluids.
  • An embodiment of a method for producing a selected product composition from a relatively permeable formation containing heavy hydrocarbons in situ may include providing heat from one or more heat sources to at least one portion of the formation and allowing the heat to transfer to a selected section of the formation.
  • the method may further include producing a product from one or more of the selected sections and blending two or more of the products to produce a product having about the selected product composition.
  • heat is provided from a first set of heat sources to a first section of a hydrocarbon containing formation to pyrolyze a portion of the hydrocarbons in the first section.
  • Heat may also be provided from a second set of heat sources to a second section of the formation. The heat may reduce the viscosity of hydrocarbons in the second section so that a portion of the hydrocarbons in the second section are able to move.
  • a portion of the hydrocarbons from the second section may be induced to flow into the first section.
  • a mixture of hydrocarbons may be produced from the formation. The produced mixture may include at least some pyrolyzed hydrocarbons.
  • heat is provided from heat sources to a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the heat may transfer from the heat sources to a selected section of the formation to decrease a viscosity of hydrocarbons within the selected section.
  • a gas may be provided to the selected section of the formation. The gas may displace hydrocarbons from the selected section towards a production well or production wells. A mixture of hydrocarbons may be produced from the selected section through the production well or production wells.
  • a method for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include providing heat from one or more heaters to at least a portion of the formation.
  • the method may include allowing the heat to transfer from the one or more heaters to a part of the formation.
  • the heat, which transfers to the part of the formation may pyrolyze at least some of the hydrocarbons within the part of the formation.
  • the method may include selectively limiting a temperature proximate a selected portion of a heater wellbore. Selectively limiting the temperature may inhibit coke formation at or near the selected portion.
  • the method may also include producing at least some hydrocarbons through the selected portion of the heater wellbore.
  • a method may include producing a mixture from the part of the formation through a production well.
  • a quality of a produced mixture may be controlled by varying a location for producing the mixture.
  • the location of production may be varied by varying the depth in the formation from which fluid is produced relative to an overburden or underburden.
  • the location of production may also be varied by varying which production wells are used to produce fluid.
  • the production wells used to remove fluid may be chosen based on a distance of the production wells from activated heat sources.
  • a blending agent may be produced from a selected section of a formation.
  • a portion of the blending agent may be mixed with heavy hydrocarbons to produce a mixture having a selected characteristic (e.g., density, viscosity, and/or stability).
  • the heavy hydrocarbons may be produced from another section of the formation used to produce the blending agent.
  • the heavy hydrocarbons may be produced from another formation.
  • heat may be provided to a selected section of a hydrocarbon containing formation to pyrolyze some hydrocarbons in a lower portion of the formation.
  • a mixture of hydrocarbons may be produced from an upper portion of the formation.
  • the mixture of hydrocarbons may include at least some pyrolyzed hydrocarbons from the lower portion of the formation.
  • a production rate of fluid from the formation may be controlled to adjust an average time that hydrocarbons are in, or flowing into, a pyrolysis zone or exposed to pyrolysis temperatures. Controlling the production rate may allow for production of a large quantity of hydrocarbons of a desired quality from the formation.
  • Certain systems and methods may be used to treat heavy hydrocarbons in at least a portion of a relatively low permeability formation (e.g., in “tight” formations that contain heavy hydrocarbons).
  • Such heavy hydrocarbons may be heated to pyrolyze at least some of the heavy hydrocarbons in a selected section of the formation. Heating may also increase the permeability of at least a portion of the selected section. Fluids generated from pyrolysis may be produced from the formation.
  • Certain embodiments for treating heavy hydrocarbons in a relatively low permeability formation may include providing heat from one or more heat sources to pyrolyze some of the heavy hydrocarbons and then to vaporize a portion of the heavy hydrocarbons.
  • the heat sources may pyrolyze at least some heavy hydrocarbons in a selected section of the formation and may pressurize at least a portion of the selected section.
  • the pressure within the formation may increase substantially.
  • the pressure in the formation may be controlled such that the pressure in the formation may be maintained to produce a fluid of a desired composition.
  • Pyrolyzation fluid may be removed from the formation as vapor from one or more heater wells by using the back pressure created by heating the formation.
  • Certain embodiments for treating heavy hydrocarbons in at least a portion of a relatively low permeability formation may include heating to create a pyrolysis zone and heating a selected second section to less than the average temperature within the pyrolysis zone.
  • Heavy hydrocarbons may be pyrolyzed in the pyrolysis zone.
  • Heating the selected second section may decrease the viscosity of some of the heavy hydrocarbons in the selected second section to create a low viscosity zone.
  • the decrease in viscosity of the fluid in the selected second section may be sufficient such that at least some heated heavy hydrocarbons within the selected second section may flow into the pyrolysis zone.
  • Pyrolyzation fluid may be produced from the pyrolysis zone.
  • the density of the heat sources in the pyrolysis zone may be greater than in the low viscosity zone.
  • the heat sources in a region near a desired pyrolysis zone may be activated first, resulting in establishment of a substantially uniform pyrolysis zone after a period of time. Once the pyrolysis zone is established, heat sources in the low viscosity zone may be activated sequentially from nearest to farthest from the pyrolysis zone.
  • a heated formation may also be used to produce synthesis gas.
  • Synthesis gas may be produced from the formation prior to or subsequent to producing a formation fluid from the formation. For example, synthesis gas generation may be commenced before and/or after formation fluid production decreases to an uneconomical level.
  • Heat provided to pyrolyze hydrocarbons within the formation may also be used to generate synthesis gas. For example, if a portion of the formation is at a temperature from approximately 270° C. to approximately 375° C. (or 400° C. in some embodiments) after pyrolyzation, then less additional heat is generally required to heat such portion to a temperature sufficient to support synthesis gas generation.
  • synthesis gas is produced after production of pyrolysis fluids.
  • synthesis gas may be produced from carbon and/or hydrocarbons remaining within the formation.
  • Pyrolysis of the portion may produce a relatively high, substantially uniform permeability throughout the portion.
  • Such a relatively high, substantially uniform permeability may allow generation of synthesis gas from a significant portion of the formation at relatively low pressures.
  • the portion may also have a large surface area and/or surface area/volume. The large surface area may allow synthesis gas producing reactions to be substantially at equilibrium conditions during synthesis gas generation.
  • the relatively high, substantially uniform permeability may result in a relatively high recovery efficiency of synthesis gas, as compared to synthesis gas generation in a hydrocarbon containing formation that has not been so treated.
  • Pyrolysis of at least some hydrocarbons may in some embodiments convert about 15 weight % or more of the carbon initially available.
  • Synthesis gas generation may convert approximately up to an additional 80 weight % or more of carbon initially available within the portion.
  • In situ production of synthesis gas from a hydrocarbon containing formation may allow conversion of larger amounts of carbon initially available within the portion. The amount of conversion achieved may, in some embodiments, be limited by subsidence concerns.
  • Certain embodiments may include providing heat from one or more heat sources to heat the formation to a temperature sufficient to allow synthesis gas generation (e.g., in a range of approximately 400° C. to approximately 1200° C. or higher).
  • synthesis gas generation e.g., in a range of approximately 400° C. to approximately 1200° C. or higher.
  • generated synthesis gas may have a high hydrogen (H 2 ) to carbon monoxide (CO) ratio.
  • generated synthesis gas may include mostly H 2 and CO in lower ratios (e.g., approximately a 1:1 ratio).
  • Heat sources for synthesis gas production may include any of the heat sources as described in any of the embodiments set forth herein.
  • heating may include transferring heat from a heat transfer fluid (e.g., steam or combustion products from a burner) flowing within a plurality of wellbores within the formation.
  • a heat transfer fluid e.g., steam or combustion products from a burner
  • a synthesis gas generating fluid (e.g., liquid water, steam, carbon dioxide, air, oxygen, hydrocarbons, and mixtures thereof) may be provided to the formation.
  • the synthesis gas generating fluid mixture may include steam and oxygen.
  • a synthesis gas generating fluid may include aqueous fluid produced by pyrolysis of at least some hydrocarbons within one or more other portions of the formation.
  • Providing the synthesis gas generating fluid may alternatively include raising a water table of the formation to allow water to flow into it.
  • Synthesis gas generating fluid may also be provided through at least one injection wellbore. The synthesis gas generating fluid will generally react with carbon in the formation to form H 2 , water, methane, CO 2 , and/or CO.
  • a portion of the carbon dioxide may react with carbon in the formation to generate carbon monoxide.
  • Hydrocarbons such as ethane may be added to a synthesis gas generating fluid. When introduced into the formation, the hydrocarbons may crack to form hydrogen and/or methane. The presence of methane in produced synthesis gas may increase the heating value of the produced synthesis gas.
  • Synthesis gas generation is, in some embodiments, an endothermic process. Additional heat may be added to the formation during synthesis gas generation to maintain a high temperature within the formation. The heat may be added from heater wells and/or from oxidizing carbon and/or hydrocarbons within the formation.
  • an oxidant may be added to a synthesis gas generating fluid.
  • the oxidant may include, but is not limited to, air, oxygen enriched air, oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, other oxidizing fluids, or combinations thereof.
  • the oxidant may react with carbon within the formation to exothermically generate heat. Reaction of an oxidant with carbon in the formation may result in production of CO 2 and/or CO. Introduction of an oxidant to react with carbon in the formation may economically allow raising the formation temperature high enough to result in generation of significant quantities of H 2 and CO from hydrocarbons within the formation.
  • Synthesis gas generation may be via a batch process or a continuous process.
  • Synthesis gas may be produced from the formation through one or more producer wells that include one or more heat sources. Such heat sources may operate to promote production of the synthesis gas with a desired composition.
  • Certain embodiments may include monitoring a composition of the produced synthesis gas and then controlling heating and/or controlling input of the synthesis gas generating fluid to maintain the composition of the produced synthesis gas within a desired range.
  • a desired composition of the produced synthesis gas may have a ratio of hydrogen to carbon monoxide of about 1.8:1 to 2.2:1 (e.g., about 2:1 or about 2.1:1). In some embodiments (such as when the synthesis gas will be used as a feedstock to make methanol), such ratio may be about 3:1 (e.g., about 2.8:1 to 3.2:1).
  • Certain embodiments may include blending a first synthesis gas with a second synthesis gas to produce synthesis gas of a desired composition.
  • the first and the second synthesis gases may be produced from different portions of the formation.
  • Synthesis gases may be converted to heavier condensable hydrocarbons.
  • a Fischer-Tropsch hydrocarbon synthesis process may convert synthesis gas to branched and unbranched paraffins. Paraffins produced from the Fischer-Tropsch process may be used to produce other products such as diesel, jet fuel, and naphtha products.
  • the produced synthesis gas may also be used in a catalytic methanation process to produce methane.
  • the produced synthesis gas may be used for production of methanol, gasoline and diesel fuel, ammonia, and middle distillates.
  • Produced synthesis gas may be used to heat the formation as a combustion fuel. Hydrogen in produced synthesis gas may be used to upgrade oil.
  • Synthesis gas may also be used for other purposes. Synthesis gas may be combusted as fuel. Synthesis gas may also be used for synthesizing a wide range of organic and/or inorganic compounds, such as hydrocarbons and ammonia. Synthesis gas may be used to generate electricity by combusting it as a fuel, by reducing the pressure of the synthesis gas in turbines, and/or using the temperature of the synthesis gas to make steam (and then run turbines). Synthesis gas may also be used in an energy generation unit such as a molten carbonate fuel cell, a solid oxide fuel cell, or other type of fuel cell.
  • an energy generation unit such as a molten carbonate fuel cell, a solid oxide fuel cell, or other type of fuel cell.
  • Certain embodiments may include separating a fuel cell feed stream from fluids produced from pyrolysis of at least some of the hydrocarbons within a formation.
  • the fuel cell feed stream may include H 2 , hydrocarbons, and/or carbon monoxide.
  • certain embodiments may include directing the fuel cell feed stream to a fuel cell to produce electricity.
  • the electricity generated from the synthesis gas or the pyrolyzation fluids in the fuel cell may power electric heaters, which may heat at least a portion of the formation.
  • Certain embodiments may include separating carbon dioxide from a fluid exiting the fuel cell. Carbon dioxide produced from a fuel cell or a formation may be used for a variety of purposes.
  • synthesis gas produced from a heated formation may be transferred to an additional area of the formation and stored within the additional area of the formation for a length of time.
  • the conditions of the additional area of the formation may inhibit reaction of the synthesis gas.
  • the synthesis gas may be produced from the additional area of the formation at a later time.
  • treating a formation may include injecting fluids into the formation.
  • the method may include providing heat to the formation, allowing the heat to transfer to a selected section of the formation, injecting a fluid into the selected section, and producing another fluid from the formation. Additional heat may be provided to at least a portion of the formation, and the additional heat may be allowed to transfer from at least the portion to the selected section of the formation. At least some hydrocarbons may be pyrolyzed within the selected section and a mixture may be produced from the formation.
  • Another embodiment may include leaving a section of the formation proximate the selected section substantially unleached. The unleached section may inhibit the flow of water into the selected section.
  • heat may be provided to the formation.
  • the heat may be allowed to transfer to a selected section of the formation such that dissociation of carbonate minerals is inhibited. At least some hydrocarbons may be pyrolyzed within the selected section and a mixture produced from the formation.
  • the method may further include reducing a temperature of the selected section and injecting a fluid into the selected section. Another fluid may be produced from the formation.
  • a method may include injecting a fluid into the selected section and producing another fluid from the formation.
  • a method may include injecting a fluid into the selected section and pyrolyzing at least some hydrocarbons within the selected section of the formation after providing heat and allowing heat to transfer to the selected section.
  • a method of treating a formation may include providing heat from one or more heat sources and allowing the heat to transfer to a selected section of the formation such that a temperature of the selected section is less than about a temperature at which nahcolite dissociates.
  • a fluid may be injected into the selected section and another fluid may be produced from the formation.
  • the method may further include providing additional heat to the formation, allowing the additional heat to transfer to the selected section of the formation, and pyrolyzing at least some hydrocarbons within the selected section. A mixture may then be produced from the formation.
  • Certain embodiments that include injecting fluids may also include controlling the heating of the formation.
  • a method may include providing heat to the formation, controlling the heat such that a selected section is at a first temperature, injecting a fluid into the selected section, and producing another fluid from the formation.
  • the method may further include controlling the heat such that the selected section is at a second temperature that is greater than the first temperature. Heat may be allowed to transfer from the selected section, and at least some hydrocarbons may be pyrolyzed within the selected section of the formation. A mixture may be produced from the formation.
  • a further embodiment that includes injecting fluids may include providing heat to a formation, allowing the heat to transfer to a selected section of the formation, injecting a first fluid into the selected section, and producing a second fluid from the formation.
  • the method may further include providing additional heat, allowing the additional heat to transfer to the selected section of the formation, pyrolyzing at least some hydrocarbons within the selected section of the formation, and producing a mixture from the formation.
  • a temperature of the selected section may be reduced and a third fluid may be injected into the selected section.
  • a fourth fluid may be produced from the formation.
  • migration of fluids into and/or out of a treatment area may be inhibited. Inhibition of migration of fluids may occur before, during, and/or after an in situ treatment process. For example, migration of fluids may be inhibited while heat is provided from one or more heat sources to at least a portion of the treatment area. The heat may be allowed to transfer to at least a portion of the treatment area. Fluids may be produced from the treatment area.
  • Barriers may be used to inhibit migration of fluids into and/or out of a treatment area in a formation.
  • Barriers may include, but are not limited to naturally occurring portions (e.g., overburden and/or underburden), frozen barrier zones, low temperature barrier zones, grout walls, sulfur wells, dewatering wells, and/or injection wells. Barriers may define the treatment area. Alternatively, barriers may be provided to a portion of the treatment area.
  • a method of treating a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include providing a refrigerant to a plurality of barrier wells to form a low temperature barrier zone. The method may further include establishing a low temperature barrier zone. In some embodiments, the temperature within the low temperature barrier zone may be lowered to inhibit the flow of water into or out of at least a portion of a treatment area in the formation.
  • Certain embodiments of treating a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include providing a refrigerant to a plurality of barrier wells to form a frozen barrier zone.
  • the frozen barrier zone may inhibit migration of fluids into and/or out of the treatment area.
  • a portion of the treatment area is below a water table of the formation.
  • the method may include controlling pressure to maintain a fluid pressure within the treatment area above a hydrostatic pressure of the formation and producing a mixture of fluids from the formation.
  • Barriers may be provided to a portion of the formation prior to, during, and after providing heat from one or more heat sources to the treatment area.
  • a barrier may be provided to a portion of the formation that has previously undergone a conversion process.
  • migration of fluids into and/or out of a treatment area may be inhibited. Inhibition of migration of fluids may occur before, during, and/or after an in situ treatment process. For example, migration of fluids may be inhibited while heat is provided from heat sources to at least a portion of the treatment area. Barriers may be used to inhibit migration of fluids into and/or out of a treatment area in a formation. Barriers may include, but are not limited to naturally occurring portions and/or installed portions. In some embodiments, the barrier is a low temperature zone or frozen barrier formed by freeze wells installed around a perimeter of a treatment area.
  • Fluid may be introduced to a portion of the formation that has previously undergone an in situ conversion process.
  • the fluid may be produced from the formation in a mixture, which may contain additional fluids present in the formation.
  • the produced mixture may be provided to an energy producing unit.
  • one or more conditions in a selected section may be controlled during an in situ conversion process to inhibit formation of carbon dioxide. Conditions may be controlled to produce fluids having a carbon dioxide emission level that is less than a selected carbon dioxide level. For example, heat provided to the formation may be controlled to inhibit generation of carbon dioxide, while increasing production of molecular hydrogen.
  • a method for producing methane from a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ while minimizing production of CO 2 may include controlling the heat from the one or more heat sources to enhance production of methane in the produced mixture and generating heat via at least one or more of the heat sources in a manner that minimizes CO 2 production.
  • the methane may further include controlling a temperature proximate the production wellbore at or above a decomposition temperature of ethane.
  • a method for producing products from a heated formation may include controlling a condition within a selected section of the formation to produce a mixture having a carbon dioxide emission level below a selected baseline carbon dioxide emission level.
  • the mixture may be blended with a fluid to generate a product having a carbon dioxide emission level below the baseline.
  • a method for producing methane from a heated formation in situ may include providing heat from one or more heat sources to at least one portion of the formation and allowing the heat to transfer to a selected section of the formation.
  • the method may further include providing hydrocarbon compounds to at least the selected section of the formation and producing a mixture including methane from the hydrocarbons in the formation.
  • One embodiment of a method for producing hydrocarbons in a heated formation may include forming a temperature gradient in at least a portion of a selected section of the heated formation and providing a hydrocarbon mixture to at least the selected section of the formation. A mixture may then be produced from a production well.
  • a method for upgrading hydrocarbons in a heated formation may include providing hydrocarbons to a selected section of the heated formation and allowing the hydrocarbons to crack in the heated formation.
  • the cracked hydrocarbons may be a higher grade than the provided hydrocarbons.
  • the upgraded hydrocarbons may be produced from the formation.
  • Cooling a portion of the formation after an in situ conversion process may provide certain benefits, such as increasing the strength of the rock in the formation (thereby mitigating subsidence), increasing absorptive capacity of the formation, etc.
  • a portion of a formation that has been pyrolyzed and/or subjected to synthesis gas generation may be allowed to cool or may be cooled to form a cooled, spent portion within the formation.
  • a heated portion of a formation may be allowed to cool by transference of heat to an adjacent portion of the formation. The transference of heat may occur naturally or may be forced by the introduction of heat transfer fluids through the heated portion and into a cooler portion of the formation.
  • recovering thermal energy from a post treatment hydrocarbon containing formation may include injecting a heat recovery fluid into a portion of the formation. Heat from the formation may transfer to the heat recovery fluid.
  • the heat recovery fluid may be produced from the formation. For example, introducing water to a portion of the formation may cool the portion. Water introduced into the portion may be removed from the formation as steam. The removed steam or hot water may be injected into a hot portion of the formation to create synthesis gas
  • hydrocarbons may be recovered from a post treatment hydrocarbon containing formation by injecting a heat recovery fluid into a portion of the formation. Heat may vaporize at least some of the heat recovery fluid and at least some hydrocarbons in the formation. A portion of the vaporized recovery fluid and the vaporized hydrocarbons may be produced from the formation.
  • fluids in the formation may be removed from a post treatment hydrocarbon formation by injecting a heat recovery fluid into a portion of the formation. Heat may transfer to the heat recovery fluid and a portion of the fluid may be produced from the formation.
  • the heat recovery fluid produced from the formation may include at least some of the fluids in the formation.
  • a method of recovering excess heat from a heated formation may include providing a product stream to the heated formation, such that heat transfers from the heated formation to the product stream.
  • the method may further include producing the product stream from the heated formation and directing the product stream to a processing unit. The heat of the product stream may then be transferred to the processing unit.
  • the heated product stream may be directed to another formation, such that heat transfers from the product stream to the other formation.
  • a method of utilizing heat of a heated formation may include placing a conduit in the formation, such that conduit input may be located separately from conduit output.
  • the conduit may be heated by the heated formation to produce a region of reaction in at least a portion of the conduit.
  • the method may further include directing a material through the conduit to the region of reaction. The material may undergo change in the region of reaction. A product may be produced from the conduit.
  • An embodiment of a method of utilizing heat of a heated formation may include providing heat from one or more heat sources to at least one portion of the formation and allowing the heat to transfer to a region of reaction in the formation. Material may be directed to the region of reaction and allowed to react in the region of reaction. A mixture may then be produced from the formation.
  • a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation may be used to store and/or sequester materials (e.g., formation fluids, carbon dioxide).
  • the conditions within the portion of the formation may inhibit reactions of the materials.
  • Materials may be stored in the portion for a length of time.
  • materials may be produced from the portion at a later time. Materials stored within the portion may have been previously produced from the portion of the formation, and/or another portion of the formation.
  • a portion of pyrolyzation fluids removed from a formation may be stored in an adjacent spent portion when treatment facilities that process removed pyrolyzation fluid are not able to process the portion.
  • removal of pyrolyzation fluids stored in a spent formation may be facilitated by heating the spent formation.
  • a portion of synthesis gas removed from a formation may be stored in an adjacent or nearby spent portion when treatment facilities that process removed synthesis gas are not able to process the portion.
  • removal of synthesis gas stored in a spent formation may be facilitated by heating the spent formation.
  • fluid may be sequestered within the formation.
  • a temperature of the formation will often need to be less than about 100° C.
  • Water may be introduced into at least a portion of the formation to generate steam and reduce a temperature of the formation.
  • the steam may be removed from the formation.
  • the steam may be utilized for various purposes, including, but not limited to, heating another portion of the formation, generating synthesis gas in an adjacent portion of the formation, generating electricity, and/or as a steam flood in a oil reservoir.
  • fluid e.g., carbon dioxide
  • Sequestering fluid within the formation may result in a significant reduction or elimination of fluid that is released to the environment due to operation of the in situ conversion process.
  • carbon dioxide may be injected under pressure into the portion of the formation.
  • the injected carbon dioxide may adsorb onto hydrocarbons in the formation and/or reside in void spaces such as pores in the formation.
  • the carbon dioxide may be generated during pyrolysis, synthesis gas generation, and/or extraction of useful energy.
  • carbon dioxide may be stored in relatively deep hydrocarbon containing formations and used to desorb methane.
  • a method for sequestering carbon dioxide in a heated formation may include precipitating carbonate compounds from carbon dioxide provided to a portion of the formation.
  • the portion may have previously undergone an in situ conversion process.
  • Carbon dioxide and a fluid may be provided to the portion of the formation. The fluid may combine with carbon dioxide in the portion to precipitate carbonate compounds.
  • methane may be recovered from a hydrocarbon containing formation by providing heat to the formation.
  • the heat may desorb a substantial portion of the methane within the selected section of the formation. At least a portion of the methane may be produced from the formation.
  • a method for purifying water in a spent formation may include providing water to the formation and filtering the provided water in the formation. The filtered water may then be produced from the formation.
  • treating a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ may include injecting a recovery fluid into the formation.
  • Heat may be provided from one or more heat sources to the formation.
  • the heat may transfer from one or more of the heat sources to a selected section of the formation and vaporize a substantial portion of recovery fluid in at least a portion of the selected section.
  • the heat from the heat sources and the vaporized recovery fluid may pyrolyze at least some hydrocarbons within the selected section.
  • a gas mixture may be produced from the formation.
  • the produced gas mixture may include hydrocarbons with an average API gravity greater than about 25°.
  • a method of shutting-in an in situ treatment process in a hydrocarbon containing formation may include terminating heating from one or more heat sources providing heat to a portion of the formation.
  • a pressure may be monitored and controlled in at least a portion of the formation. The pressure may be maintained approximately below a fracturing or breakthrough pressure of the formation.
  • One embodiment of a method of shutting-in an in situ treatment process in a hydrocarbon containing formation may include terminating heating from one or more heat sources providing heat to a portion of the formation. Hydrocarbon vapor may be produced from the formation. At least a portion of the produced hydrocarbon vapor may be injected into a portion of a storage formation. The hydrocarbon vapor may be injected into a relatively high temperature formation. A substantial portion of injected hydrocarbons may be converted to coke and H 2 in the relatively high temperature formation. Alternatively, the hydrocarbon vapor may be stored in a depleted formation.
  • one or more openings may be formed in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • a first opening may be formed in the formation.
  • a plurality of magnets may be provided to the first opening.
  • the plurality of magnets may be positioned along a portion of the first opening.
  • the plurality of magnets may produce a series of magnetic fields along the portion of the first opening.
  • a second opening may be formed in the formation using magnetic tracking of the series of magnetic fields produced by the plurality of magnets in the first opening. Magnetic tracking may be used to form the second opening an approximate desired distance from the first opening. In certain embodiments, the deviation in spacing between the first opening and the second opening may be less than or equal to about ⁇ 0.5 m.
  • the plurality of magnets may form a magnetic string.
  • the magnetic string may include one or more magnetic segments.
  • each magnetic segment may include a plurality of magnets.
  • the magnetic segments may include an effective north pole and an effective south pole.
  • two adjacent magnetic segments are positioned with opposing poles to form a junction of opposing poles.
  • a current may be passed into a casing of a well.
  • the current in the casing may generate a magnetic field.
  • the magnetic field may be detected and utilized to guide drilling of an adjacent well or wells.
  • a portion of the casing may be insulated to inhibit current loss to the formation.
  • an insulated wire may be positioned in a well.
  • a current passed through the insulated wire may generate a magnetic field.
  • the magnetic field may be detected and utilized to guide drilling of an adjacent well or wells.
  • acoustics may be used to guide placement of a well in a formation. For example, reflections of a noise signal generated from a noise source in a well being drilled may be used to determine an approximate position of the drill bit relative to a geological discontinuity in the formation.
  • Multiple openings may be formed in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the multiple openings may form a pattern of openings.
  • a first opening may be formed in the formation.
  • a magnetic string may be placed in the first opening to produce magnetic fields in a portion of the formation.
  • a first set of openings may be formed using magnetic tracking of the magnetic string.
  • the magnetic string may be moved to a first opening in the first set of openings.
  • a second set of openings may be formed using magnetic tracking of the magnetic string located in the first opening in the first set of openings.
  • a third set of openings may be formed by using magnetic tracking of the magnetic string, where the magnetic string is located in an opening in the second set of openings.
  • a third set of openings may be formed by using magnetic tracking of the magnetic string, where the magnetic string is located in another opening in the first set of openings.
  • a system for forming openings in a hydrocarbon containing formation may include a drilling apparatus, a magnetic string, and a sensor.
  • the magnetic string may include two or more magnetic segments positioned within a conduit. Each of the magnetic segments may include a plurality of magnets.
  • the sensor may be used to detect magnetic fields within the formation produced by the magnetic string.
  • the magnetic string may be placed in a first opening and the drilling apparatus and sensor in a second opening.
  • One or more heaters may be disposed within an opening in a hydrocarbon containing formation such that the heaters transfer heat to the formation.
  • a heater may be placed in an open wellbore in the formation.
  • An “open wellbore” in a formation may be a wellbore without casing or an “uncased wellbore.” Heat may conductively and radiatively transfer from the heater to the formation.
  • a heater may be placed within a heater well that may be packed with gravel, sand, and/or cement or a heater well with a casing.
  • a conductor-in-conduit heater having a desired length may be assembled.
  • a conductor may be placed within a conduit to form the conductor-in-conduit heater.
  • Two or more conductor-in-conduit heaters may be coupled together to form a heater having the desired length.
  • the conductors of the conductor-in-conduit heaters may be electrically coupled together.
  • the conduits may be electrically coupled together.
  • a desired length of the conductor-in-conduit may be placed in an opening in the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • individual sections of the conductor-in-conduit heater may be coupled using shielded active gas welding.
  • a heater of a desired length may be assembled proximate the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the assembled heater may then be coiled.
  • the heater may be placed in the hydrocarbon containing formation by uncoiling the heater into the opening in the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • a system and a method may include an opening in the formation extending from a first location on the surface of the earth to a second location on the surface of the earth. Heat sources may be placed within the opening to provide heat to at least a portion of the formation.
  • a conduit may be positioned in the opening extending from the first location to the second location.
  • a heat source may be positioned proximate and/or in the conduit to provide heat to the conduit. Transfer of the heat through the conduit may provide heat to a part of the formation.
  • an additional heater may be placed in an additional conduit to provide heat to the part of the formation through the additional conduit.
  • an annulus is formed between a wall of the opening and a wall of the conduit placed within the opening extending from the first location to the second location.
  • a heat source may be place proximate and/or in the annulus to provide heat to a portion the opening. The provided heat may transfer through the annulus to a part of the formation.
  • a method for controlling an in situ system of treating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include monitoring at least one acoustic event within the formation using at least one acoustic detector placed within a wellbore in the formation. At least one acoustic event may be recorded with an acoustic monitoring system. In an embodiment, an acoustic source may be used to generate at least one acoustic event. The method may also include analyzing the at least one acoustic event to determine at least one property of the formation. The in situ system may be controlled based on the analysis of the at least one acoustic event.
  • subjecting hydrocarbons to an in situ conversion process may mature portions of the hydrocarbons.
  • application of heat to a coal formation may alter properties of coal in the formation.
  • portions of the coal formation may be converted to a higher rank of coal.
  • Application of heat may reduce water content and/or volatile compound content of coal in the coal formation.
  • Formation fluids e.g., water and/or volatile compounds
  • Formation fluids may be removed in a vapor phase.
  • formation fluids may be removed in liquid and vapor phases or in a liquid phase.
  • Temperature and pressure in at least a portion of the formation may be controlled during pyrolysis to yield improved products from the formation.
  • coal may be produced from the formation.
  • the coal may be anthracitic.
  • a recovery fluid may be used to remediate hydrocarbon containing formation treated by in situ conversion process.
  • hydrocarbons may be recovered from a hydrocarbon containing formation before, during, and/or after treatment by injecting a recovery fluid into a portion of the formation.
  • the recovery fluid may cause fluids within the formation to be produced.
  • the formation fluids may be separated from the recovery fluid at the surface.
  • non-hydrocarbon materials such as minerals, metals, and other economically viable materials contained within the formation may be economically produced from the formation.
  • non-hydrocarbon materials may be recovered and/or produced prior to, during, and/or after the in situ conversion process for treating hydrocarbons using an additional in situ process of treating the formation for producing the non-hydrocarbon materials.
  • hydrocarbons within a kerogen and liquid hydrocarbon containing formation may be converted in situ within the formation to yield a mixture of relatively high quality hydrocarbon products, hydrogen, and/or other products.
  • One or more heaters may be used to heat a portion of the kerogen and liquid hydrocarbon containing formation to temperatures that allow pyrolysis of the hydrocarbons.
  • a portion of the kerogen in the portion may be pyrolyzed.
  • at least a portion of the liquid hydrocarbons in the portion of the formation may be mobilized (e.g., the liquid hydrocarbons may be mobilized after kerogen in the formation is pyrolyzed).
  • Hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and other formation fluids may be removed from the formation through one or more production wells.
  • formation fluids may be removed in a vapor phase.
  • formation fluids may be removed in liquid and vapor phases or in a liquid phase.
  • Temperature and pressure in at least a portion of the formation may be controlled during pyrolysis to yield improved products from the formation.
  • electrical heaters in a formation may be temperature limited heaters.
  • the use of temperature limited heaters may eliminate the need for temperature controllers to regulate energy input into the formation from the heaters.
  • the temperature limited heaters may be Curie temperature heaters. Heat dissipation from portions of a Curie temperature heater may adjust to local conditions so that energy input to the entire heater does not need to be adjusted (i.e., reduced) to compensate for localized hot spots adjacent to the heater.
  • temperature limited heaters may be used to efficiently heat formations that have low thermal conductivity layers.
  • wells in the formation may have two entries into the formation at the surface.
  • wells with two entries into the formation are formed using river crossing rigs to drill the wells.
  • heating of regions in a volume may be started at selected times. Starting heating of regions in the volume at selected times may allow for accommodation of geomechanical motion that will occur as the formation is heated.
  • FIG. 1 depicts an illustration of stages of heating a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 2 depicts a diagram that presents several properties of kerogen resources.
  • FIG. 3 shows a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of an in situ conversion system for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 4 depicts an embodiment of a heater well.
  • FIG. 5 depicts an embodiment of a heater well.
  • FIG. 6 depicts an embodiment of a heater well.
  • FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic view of multiple heaters branched from a single well in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic of an elevated view of multiple heaters branched from a single well in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 9 depicts an embodiment of heater wells located in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 10 depicts an embodiment of a pattern of heater wells in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 11 depicts an embodiment of a heated portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 12 depicts an embodiment of superposition of heat in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 13 illustrates an embodiment of a production well placed in a formation.
  • FIG. 14 depicts an embodiment of a pattern of heat sources and production wells in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 15 depicts an embodiment of a pattern of heat sources and a production well in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 16 illustrates a computational system
  • FIG. 17 depicts a block diagram of a computational system.
  • FIG. 18 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a computer-implemented method for treating a formation based on a characteristic of the formation.
  • FIG. 19 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment used to control an in situ conversion process in a formation.
  • FIG. 20 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for modeling an in situ process for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation using a computer system.
  • FIG. 21 illustrates a plot of a porosity-permeability relationship.
  • FIG. 22 illustrates a method for simulating heat transfer in a formation.
  • FIG. 23 illustrates a model for simulating a heat transfer rate in a formation.
  • FIG. 24 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for using a computer system to model an in situ conversion process.
  • FIG. 25 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for calibrating model parameters to match laboratory or field data for an in situ process.
  • FIG. 26 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for calibrating model parameters.
  • FIG. 27 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for calibrating model parameters for a second simulation method using a simulation method.
  • FIG. 28 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for design and/or control of an in situ process.
  • FIG. 29 depicts a method of modeling one or more stages of a treatment process.
  • FIG. 30 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for designing and controlling an in situ process with a simulation method on a computer system.
  • FIG. 31 illustrates a model of a formation that may be used in simulations of deformation characteristics according to one embodiment.
  • FIG. 32 illustrates a schematic of a strip development according to one embodiment.
  • FIG. 33 depicts a schematic illustration of a treated portion that may be modeled with a simulation.
  • FIG. 34 depicts a horizontal cross section of a model of a formation for use by a simulation method according to one embodiment.
  • FIG. 35 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for modeling deformation due to in situ treatment of a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 36 depicts a profile of richness versus depth in a model of an oil shale formation.
  • FIG. 37 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for using a computer system to design and control an in situ conversion process.
  • FIG. 38 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for determining operating conditions to obtain desired deformation characteristics.
  • FIG. 39 illustrates the influence of operating pressure on subsidence in a cylindrical model of a formation from a finite element simulation.
  • FIG. 40 illustrates the influence of an untreated portion between two treated portions.
  • FIG. 41 illustrates the influence of an untreated portion between two treated portions.
  • FIG. 42 represents shear deformation of a formation at the location of selected heat sources as a function of depth.
  • FIG. 43 illustrates a method for controlling an in situ process using a computer system.
  • FIG. 44 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment for controlling an in situ process in a formation using a computer simulation method.
  • FIG. 45 illustrates several ways that information may be transmitted from an in situ process to a remote computer system.
  • FIG. 46 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment for controlling an in situ process in a formation using information.
  • FIG. 47 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment for controlling an in situ process in a formation using a simulation method and a computer system.
  • FIG. 48 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a computer-implemented method for determining a selected overburden thickness.
  • FIG. 49 illustrates a schematic diagram of a plan view of a zone being treated using an in situ conversion process.
  • FIG. 50 illustrates a schematic diagram of a cross-sectional representation of a zone being treated using an in situ conversion process.
  • FIG. 51 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method used to monitor treatment of a formation.
  • FIG. 52 depicts an embodiment of a natural distributed combustor heat source.
  • FIG. 53 depicts an embodiment of a natural distributed combustor system for heating a formation.
  • FIG. 54 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a natural distributed combustor having a second conduit.
  • FIG. 55 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a heater well positioned within a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 56 depicts a portion of an overburden of a formation with a natural distributed combustor heat source.
  • FIG. 57 depicts an embodiment of a natural distributed combustor heat source.
  • FIG. 58 depicts an embodiment of a natural distributed combustor heat source.
  • FIG. 59 depicts an embodiment of a natural distributed combustor system for heating a formation.
  • FIG. 60 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor heat source.
  • FIG. 61 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor heat source.
  • FIG. 62 depicts an embodiment of a transition section of an insulated conductor assembly.
  • FIG. 63 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor heat source.
  • FIG. 64 depicts an embodiment of a wellhead of an insulated conductor heat source.
  • FIG. 65 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heat source in a formation.
  • FIG. 66 depicts an embodiment of three insulated conductor heaters placed within a conduit.
  • FIG. 67 depicts an embodiment of a centralizer.
  • FIG. 68 depicts an embodiment of a centralizer.
  • FIG. 69 depicts an embodiment of a centralizer.
  • FIG. 70 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a removable conductor-in-conduit heat source.
  • FIG. 71 depicts an embodiment of a sliding connector.
  • FIG. 72 depicts an embodiment of a wellhead with a conductor-in-conduit heat source.
  • FIG. 73 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heater, where a portion of the heater is placed substantially horizontally within a formation.
  • FIG. 74 illustrates an enlarged view of an embodiment of a junction of a conductor-in-conduit heater.
  • FIG. 75 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heater, wherein a portion of the heater is placed substantially horizontally within a formation.
  • FIG. 76 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heater, wherein a portion of the heater is placed substantially horizontally within a formation.
  • FIG. 77 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heater, wherein a portion of the heater is placed substantially horizontally within a formation.
  • FIG. 78 depicts a cross-sectional view of a portion of an embodiment of a cladding section coupled to a heater support and a conduit.
  • FIG. 79 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a centralizer placed on a conductor.
  • FIG. 80 depicts a portion of an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heat source with a cutout view showing a centralizer on the conductor.
  • FIG. 81 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a centralizer.
  • FIG. 82 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a centralizer.
  • FIG. 83 depicts a top view of an embodiment of a centralizer.
  • FIG. 84 depicts a top view of an embodiment of a centralizer.
  • FIG. 85 depicts a cross-sectional representation of a portion of an embodiment of a section of a conduit of a conductor-in-conduit heat source with an insulation layer wrapped around the conductor.
  • FIG. 86 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a cladding section coupled to a low resistance conductor.
  • FIG. 87 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heat source in a formation.
  • FIG. 88 depicts an embodiment for assembling a conductor-in-conduit heat source and installing the heat source in a formation.
  • FIG. 89 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heat source to be installed in a formation.
  • FIG. 90 shows a cross-sectional representation of an end of a tubular around which two pairs of diametrically opposite electrodes are arranged.
  • FIG. 91 depicts an embodiment of ends of two adjacent tubulars before forge welding.
  • FIG. 92 illustrates an end view of an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heat source heated by diametrically opposite electrodes.
  • FIG. 93 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of two conductor-in-conduit heat source sections before forge welding.
  • FIG. 94 depicts an embodiment of heat sources installed in a formation.
  • FIG. 95 depicts an embodiment of a heat source in a formation.
  • FIG. 96 depicts an embodiment of a heat source in a formation.
  • FIG. 97 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a heater with two oxidizers.
  • FIG. 98 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a heater with an oxidizer and an electric heater.
  • FIG. 99 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a heater with an oxidizer and a flameless distributed combustor heater.
  • FIG. 100 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a multilateral downhole combustor heater.
  • FIG. 101 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a downhole combustor heater with two conduits.
  • FIG. 102 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a downhole combustor.
  • FIG. 102A depicts an embodiment of a heat source for a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 103 depicts a representation of a portion of a piping layout for heating a formation using downhole combustors.
  • FIG. 104 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a heater well positioned within a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 105 depicts an embodiment of a heat source positioned in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 106 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a heat source positioned in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 107 depicts an embodiment of a surface combustor heat source.
  • FIG. 108 depicts an embodiment of a conduit for a heat source with a portion of an inner conduit shown cut away to show a center tube.
  • FIG. 109 depicts an embodiment of a flameless combustor heat source.
  • FIG. 110 illustrates a representation of an embodiment of an expansion mechanism coupled to a heat source in an opening in a formation.
  • FIG. 111 illustrates a schematic of a thermocouple placed in a wellbore.
  • FIG. 112 depicts a schematic of a well embodiment for using pressure waves to measure temperature within a wellbore.
  • FIG. 113 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment that uses wind to generate electricity to heat a formation.
  • FIG. 114 depicts an embodiment of a windmill for generating electricity.
  • FIG. 115 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment for using solar power to heat a formation.
  • FIG. 116 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment for treating a lean zone and a rich zone of a formation.
  • FIG. 117 depicts an embodiment of using pyrolysis water to generate synthesis gas in a formation.
  • FIG. 118 depicts an embodiment of synthesis gas production in a formation.
  • FIG. 119 depicts an embodiment of continuous synthesis gas production in a formation.
  • FIG. 120 depicts an embodiment of batch synthesis gas production in a formation.
  • FIG. 121 depicts an embodiment of producing energy with synthesis gas produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 122 depicts an embodiment of producing energy with pyrolyzation fluid produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 123 depicts an embodiment of synthesis gas production from a formation.
  • FIG. 124 depicts an embodiment of sequestration of carbon dioxide produced during pyrolysis in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 125 depicts an embodiment of producing energy with synthesis gas produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 126 depicts an embodiment of a Fischer-Tropsch process using synthesis gas produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 127 depicts an embodiment of a Shell Middle Distillates process using synthesis gas produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 128 depicts an embodiment of a catalytic methanation process using synthesis gas produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 129 depicts an embodiment of production of ammonia and urea using synthesis gas produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 130 depicts an embodiment of production of ammonia and urea using synthesis gas produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 131 depicts an embodiment of preparation of a feed stream for an ammonia and urea process.
  • FIG. 132 depicts an embodiment for treating a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 133 depicts an embodiment for treating a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 134 depicts an embodiment of heat sources in a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 135 depicts an embodiment of heat sources in a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 136 depicts an embodiment for treating a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 137 depicts an embodiment for treating a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 138 depicts an embodiment for treating a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 139 depicts an embodiment of a heater well with selective heating.
  • FIG. 140 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment for treating a formation with multiple heating sections.
  • FIG. 141 depicts an end view schematic of an embodiment for treating a relatively permeable formation using a combination of producer and heater wells in the formation.
  • FIG. 142 depicts a side view schematic of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 141.
  • FIG. 143 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for injecting a pressurizing fluid in a formation.
  • FIG. 144 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for injecting a pressurizing fluid in a formation.
  • FIG. 145A depicts a schematic of an embodiment for injecting a pressurizing fluid in a formation.
  • FIG. 145B depicts a schematic of an embodiment for injecting a pressurizing fluid in a formation.
  • FIG. 146 depicts a schematic of an embodiment for injecting a pressurizing fluid in a formation.
  • FIG. 147 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment for treating a relatively permeable formation.
  • FIG. 148 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of production well placed in a formation.
  • FIG. 149 depicts linear relationships between total mass recovery versus API gravity for three different tar sand formations.
  • FIG. 150 depicts schematic of an embodiment of a relatively permeable formation used to produce a first mixture that is blended with a second mixture.
  • FIG. 151 depicts asphaltene content (on a whole oil basis) in a blend versus percent blending agent.
  • FIG. 152 depicts SARA results (saturate/aromatic ratio versus asphaltene/resin ratio) for several blends.
  • FIG. 153 illustrates near infrared transmittance versus volume of n-heptane added to a first mixture.
  • FIG. 154 illustrates near infrared transmittance versus volume of n-heptane added to a second mixture.
  • FIG. 155 illustrates near infrared transmittance versus volume of n-heptane added to a third mixture.
  • FIG. 156 depicts changes in density with increasing temperature for several mixtures.
  • FIG. 157 depicts changes in viscosity with increasing temperature for several mixtures.
  • FIG. 158 depicts an embodiment of heat sources and production wells in a relatively low permeability formation.
  • FIG. 159 depicts an embodiment of heat sources in a relatively low permeability formation.
  • FIG. 160 depicts an embodiment of heat sources in a relatively low permeability formation.
  • FIG. 161 depicts an embodiment of heat sources in a relatively low permeability formation.
  • FIG. 162 depicts an embodiment of heat sources in a relatively low permeability formation.
  • FIG. 163 depicts an embodiment of heat sources in a relatively low permeability formation.
  • FIG. 164 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 165 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 166 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 167 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 168 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 169 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 170 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 171 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 172 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 173 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 174 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 175 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 176 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 177 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 178 depicts an embodiment of a square pattern of heat sources and production wells.
  • FIG. 179 depicts an embodiment of a heat source and production well pattern.
  • FIG. 180 depicts an embodiment of a triangular pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 181 depicts an embodiment of a square pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 182 depicts an embodiment of a hexagonal pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 183 depicts an embodiment of a 12 to 1 pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 184 depicts an embodiment of treatment facilities for treating a formation fluid.
  • FIG. 185 depicts an embodiment of a catalytic flameless distributed combustor.
  • FIG. 186 depicts an embodiment of treatment facilities for treating a formation fluid.
  • FIG. 187 depicts a temperature profile for a triangular pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 188 depicts a temperature profile for a square pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 189 depicts a temperature profile for a hexagonal pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 190 depicts a comparison plot between the average pattern temperature and temperatures at the coldest spots for various patterns of heat sources.
  • FIG. 191 depicts a comparison plot between the average pattern temperature and temperatures at various spots within triangular and hexagonal patterns of heat sources.
  • FIG. 192 depicts a comparison plot between the average pattern temperature and temperatures at various spots within a square pattern of heat sources.
  • FIG. 193 depicts a comparison plot between temperatures at the coldest spots of various patterns of heat sources.
  • FIG. 194 depicts in situ temperature profiles for electrical resistance heaters and natural distributed combustion heaters.
  • FIG. 195 depicts extension of a reaction zone in a heated formation over time.
  • FIG. 196 depicts the ratio of conductive heat transfer to radiative heat transfer in a formation.
  • FIG. 197 depicts the ratio of conductive heat transfer to radiative heat transfer in a formation.
  • FIG. 198 depicts temperatures of a conductor, a conduit, and an opening in a formation versus a temperature at the face of a formation.
  • FIG. 199 depicts temperatures of a conductor, a conduit, and an opening in a formation versus a temperature at the face of a formation.
  • FIG. 200 depicts temperatures of a conductor, a conduit, and an opening in a formation versus a temperature at the face of a formation.
  • FIG. 201 depicts temperatures of a conductor, a conduit, and an opening in a formation versus a temperature at the face of a formation.
  • FIG. 202 depicts a retort and collection system.
  • FIG. 203 depicts percentage of hydrocarbon fluid having carbon numbers greater than 25 as a function of pressure and temperature for oil produced from an oil shale formation.
  • FIG. 204 depicts quality of oil as a function of pressure and temperature for oil produced from an oil shale formation.
  • FIG. 205 depicts ethene to ethane ratio produced from an oil shale formation as a function of temperature and pressure.
  • FIG. 206 depicts yield of fluids produced from an oil shale formation as a function of temperature and pressure.
  • FIG. 207 depicts a plot of oil yield produced from treating an oil shale formation.
  • FIG. 208 depicts yield of oil produced from treating an oil shale formation.
  • FIG. 209 depicts hydrogen to carbon ratio of hydrocarbon condensate produced from an oil shale formation as a function of temperature and pressure.
  • FIG. 210 depicts olefin to paraffin ratio of hydrocarbon condensate produced from an oil shale formation as a function of pressure and temperature.
  • FIG. 211 depicts relationships between properties of a hydrocarbon fluid produced from an oil shale formation as a function of hydrogen partial pressure.
  • FIG. 212 depicts quantity of oil produced from an oil shale formation as a function of partial pressure of H 2 .
  • FIG. 213 depicts ethene to ethane ratios of fluid produced from an oil shale formation as a function of temperature and pressure.
  • FIG. 214 depicts hydrogen to carbon atomic ratios of fluid produced from an oil shale formation as a function of temperature and pressure.
  • FIG. 215 depicts a heat source and production well pattern for a field experiment in an oil shale formation.
  • FIG. 216 depicts a cross-sectional representation of the field experiment.
  • FIG. 217 depicts a plot of temperature within the oil shale formation during the field experiment.
  • FIG. 218 depicts a plot of hydrocarbon liquids production over time for the in situ field experiment.
  • FIG. 219 depicts a plot of production of hydrocarbon liquids, gas, and water for the in situ field experiment.
  • FIG. 220 depicts pressure within the oil shale formation during the field experiment.
  • FIG. 221 depicts a plot of API gravity of a fluid produced from the oil shale formation during the field experiment versus time.
  • FIG. 222 depicts average carbon numbers of fluid produced from the oil shale formation during the field experiment versus time.
  • FIG. 223 depicts density of fluid produced from the oil shale formation during the field experiment versus time.
  • FIG. 224 depicts a plot of weight percent of hydrocarbons within fluid produced from the oil shale formation during the field experiment.
  • FIG. 225 depicts a plot of weight percent versus carbon number of produced oil from the oil shale formation during the field experiment.
  • FIG. 226 depicts oil recovery versus heating rate for experimental and laboratory oil shale data.
  • FIG. 227 depicts total hydrocarbon production and liquid phase fraction versus time of a fluid produced from an oil shale formation.
  • FIG. 228 depicts weight percent of paraffins versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 229 depicts weight percent of cycloalkanes in produced oil versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 230 depicts weight percentages of paraffins and cycloalkanes in produced oil versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 231 depicts phenol weight percent in produced oil versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 232 depicts aromatic weight percent in produced oil versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 233 depicts ratios of paraffins to aromatics and aliphatics to aromatics versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 234 depicts the compositions of condensable hydrocarbons produced when various ranks of coal were treated.
  • FIG. 235 depicts yields of paraffins versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 236 depicts yields of cycloalkanes versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 237 depicts yields of cycloalkanes and paraffins versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 238 depicts yields of phenols versus vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 239 depicts API gravity as a function of vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 240 depicts yield of oil from a coal formation as a function of vitrinite reflectance.
  • FIG. 241 depicts CO 2 yield from coal having various vitrinite reflectances.
  • FIG. 242 depicts CO 2 yield versus atomic O/C ratio for a coal formation.
  • FIG. 243 depicts a schematic of a coal cube experiment.
  • FIG. 244 depicts an embodiment of an apparatus for a drum experiment.
  • FIG. 245 depicts equilibrium gas phase compositions produced from experiments on a coal cube and a coal drum.
  • FIG. 246 depicts cumulative condensable hydrocarbons as a function of temperature produced by heating a coal in a cube and coal in a drum.
  • FIG. 247 depicts cumulative production of gas as a function of temperature produced by heating a coal in a cube and coal in a drum.
  • FIG. 248 depicts thermal conductivity of coal versus temperature.
  • FIG. 249 depicts locations of heat sources and wells in an experimental field test.
  • FIG. 250 depicts a cross-sectional representation of the in situ experimental field test.
  • FIG. 251 depicts temperature versus time in the experimental field test.
  • FIG. 252 depicts temperature versus time in the experimental field test.
  • FIG. 253 depicts volume of oil produced from the experimental field test as a function of time.
  • FIG. 254 depicts volume of gas produced from a coal formation in the experimental field test as a function of time.
  • FIG. 255 depicts carbon number distribution of fluids produced from the experimental field test.
  • FIG. 256 depicts weight percentages of various fluids produced from a coal formation for various heating rates in laboratory experiments.
  • FIG. 257 depicts weight percent of a hydrocarbon produced from two laboratory experiments on coal from the field test site versus carbon number distribution.
  • FIG. 258 depicts fractions from separation of coal oils treated by Fischer Assay and treated by slow heating in a coal cube experiment.
  • FIG. 259 depicts percentage ethene to ethane produced from a coal formation as a function of heating rate in laboratory experiments.
  • FIG. 260 depicts a plot of ethene to ethane ratio versus hydrogen concentration.
  • FIG. 261 depicts product quality of fluids produced from a coal formation as a function of heating rate in laboratory experiments.
  • FIG. 262 depicts CO 2 produced at three different locations versus time in the experimental field test.
  • FIG. 263 depicts volatiles produced from a coal formation in the experimental field test versus cumulative energy content.
  • FIG. 264 depicts volume of oil produced from a coal formation in the experimental field test as a function of energy input.
  • FIG. 265 depicts synthesis gas production from the coal formation in the experimental field test versus the total water inflow.
  • FIG. 266 depicts additional synthesis gas production from the coal formation in the experimental field test due to injected steam.
  • FIG. 267 depicts the effect of methane injection into a heated formation.
  • FIG. 268 depicts the effect of ethane injection into a heated formation.
  • FIG. 269 depicts the effect of propane injection into a heated formation.
  • FIG. 270 depicts the effect of butane injection into a heated formation.
  • FIG. 271 depicts composition of gas produced from a formation versus time.
  • FIG. 272 depicts synthesis gas conversion versus time.
  • FIG. 273 depicts calculated equilibrium gas dry mole fractions for a reaction of coal with water.
  • FIG. 274 depicts calculated equilibrium gas wet mole fractions for a reaction of coal with water.
  • FIG. 275 depicts an embodiment of pyrolysis and synthesis gas production stages in a coal formation.
  • FIG. 276 depicts an embodiment of low temperature in situ synthesis gas production.
  • FIG. 277 depicts an embodiment of high temperature in situ synthesis gas production.
  • FIG. 278 depicts an embodiment of in situ synthesis gas production in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 279 depicts a plot of cumulative sorbed methane and carbon dioxide versus pressure in a coal formation.
  • FIG. 280 depicts pressure at a wellhead as a function of time from a numerical simulation.
  • FIG. 281 depicts production rate of carbon dioxide and methane as a function of time from a numerical simulation.
  • FIG. 282 depicts cumulative methane produced and net carbon dioxide injected as a function of time from a numerical simulation.
  • FIG. 283 depicts pressure at wellheads as a function of time from a numerical simulation.
  • FIG. 284 depicts production rate of carbon dioxide as a function of time from a numerical simulation.
  • FIG. 285 depicts cumulative net carbon dioxide injected as a function of time from a numerical simulation.
  • FIG. 286 depicts an embodiment of in situ synthesis gas production integrated with a Fischer-Tropsch process.
  • FIG. 287 depicts a comparison between numerical simulation data and experimental field test data of synthesis gas composition produced as a function of time.
  • FIG. 288 depicts weight percentages of carbon compounds versus carbon number produced from a heavy hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 289 depicts weight percentages of carbon compounds produced from a heavy hydrocarbon containing formation for various pyrolysis heating rates and pressures.
  • FIG. 290 depicts H 2 mole percent in gases produced from heavy hydrocarbon drum experiments.
  • FIG. 291 depicts API gravity of liquids produced from heavy hydrocarbon drum experiments.
  • FIG. 292 depicts percentage of hydrocarbon fluid having carbon numbers greater than 25 as a function of pressure and temperature for oil produced from a retort experiment.
  • FIG. 293 illustrates oil quality produced from a tar sands formation as a function of pressure and temperature in a retort experiment.
  • FIG. 294 illustrates an ethene to ethane ratio produced from a tar sands formation as a function of pressure and temperature in a retort experiment.
  • FIG. 295 depicts the dependence of yield of equivalent liquids produced from a tar sands formation as a function of temperature and pressure in a retort experiment.
  • FIG. 296 illustrates a plot of percentage oil recovery versus temperature for a laboratory experiment and a simulation.
  • FIG. 297 depicts temperature versus time for a laboratory experiment and a simulation.
  • FIG. 298 depicts a plot of cumulative oil production versus time in a heavy hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 299 depicts ratio of heat content of fluids produced from a heavy hydrocarbon containing formation to heat input versus time.
  • FIG. 300 depicts numerical simulation data of weight percentage versus carbon number for a heavy hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 301 illustrates percentage cumulative oil recovery versus time for a simulation using horizontal heaters.
  • FIG. 302 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons in a simulation.
  • FIG. 303 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons with production inhibited for the first 500 days of heating in a simulation.
  • FIG. 304 depicts average pressure in a formation versus time in a simulation.
  • FIG. 305 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time for a vertical producer and a horizontal producer in a simulation.
  • FIG. 306 illustrates percentage cumulative oil recovery versus time for three different horizontal producer well locations in a simulation.
  • FIG. 307 illustrates production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons for middle and bottom producer locations in a simulation.
  • FIG. 308 illustrates percentage cumulative oil recovery versus time in a simulation.
  • FIG. 309 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons in a simulation.
  • FIG. 310 illustrates a pattern of heater/producer wells used to heat a relatively permeable formation in a simulation.
  • FIG. 311 illustrates a pattern of heater/producer wells used in the simulation with three heater/producer wells, a cold producer well, and three heater wells used to heat a relatively permeable formation in a simulation.
  • FIG. 312 illustrates a pattern of six heater wells and a cold producer well used in a simulation.
  • FIG. 313 illustrates a plot of oil production versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 310.
  • FIG. 314 illustrates a plot of oil production versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 311.
  • FIG. 315 illustrates a plot of oil production versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 312.
  • FIG. 316 illustrates gas production and water production versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 310.
  • FIG. 317 illustrates gas production and water production versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 311.
  • FIG. 318 illustrates gas production and water production versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 312.
  • FIG. 319 illustrates an energy ratio versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 310.
  • FIG. 320 illustrates an energy ratio versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 311.
  • FIG. 321 illustrates an energy ratio versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 312.
  • FIG. 322 illustrates an average API gravity of produced fluid versus time for the simulations with the well patterns depicted in FIGS. 310 - 312 .
  • FIG. 323 depicts a heater well pattern used in a 3-D STARS simulation.
  • FIG. 324 illustrates an energy out/energy in ratio versus time for production through a middle producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 325 illustrates percentage cumulative oil recovery versus time for production using a middle producer location and a bottom producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 326 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time using a middle producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 327 illustrates API gravity of oil produced and oil production rate for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons for a middle producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 328 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time for a bottom producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 329 illustrates API gravity of oil produced and oil production rate for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons for a bottom producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 330 illustrates cumulative oil produced versus temperature for lab pyrolysis experiments and for a simulation.
  • FIG. 331 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons produced through a middle producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 332 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time for a wider horizontal heater spacing with production through a middle producer location in a simulation.
  • FIG. 333 depicts a heater well pattern used in a 3-D STARS simulation.
  • FIG. 334 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons produced through a production well located in the middle of the formation in a simulation.
  • FIG. 335 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time for a triangular heater pattern used in a simulation.
  • FIG. 336 illustrates a pattern of wells used for a simulation.
  • FIG. 337 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons for production using a bottom production well in a simulation.
  • FIG. 338 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time for production through a bottom production well in a simulation.
  • FIG. 339 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons for production using a middle production well in a simulation.
  • FIG. 340 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time for production through a middle production well in a simulation.
  • FIG. 341 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbon production and light hydrocarbon production for production using a top production well in a simulation.
  • FIG. 342 illustrates cumulative oil production versus time for production through a top production well in a simulation.
  • FIG. 343 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons produced in a simulation.
  • FIG. 344 depicts an embodiment of a well pattern used in a simulation.
  • FIG. 345 illustrates oil production rate versus time for heavy hydrocarbons and light hydrocarbons for three production wells in a simulation.
  • FIG. 346 and FIG. 347 illustrate coke deposition near heater wells.
  • FIG. 348 depicts a large pattern of heater and producer wells used in a 3-D STARS simulation of an in situ process for a tar sands formation.
  • FIG. 349 depicts net heater output versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 350 depicts average pressure and average temperature versus time in a section of the formation for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 351 depicts oil production rate versus time as calculated in the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 352 depicts cumulative oil production versus time as calculated in the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 353 depicts gas production rate versus time as calculated in the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 354 depicts cumulative gas production versus time as calculated in the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 355 depicts energy ratio versus time as calculated in the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 356 depicts average oil density versus time for the simulation with the well pattern depicted in FIG. 348.
  • FIG. 357 depicts a schematic of a surface treatment configuration that separates formation fluid as it is being produced from a formation.
  • FIG. 358 depicts a schematic of a treatment facility configuration that heats a fluid for use in an in situ treatment process and/or a treatment facility configuration.
  • FIG. 359 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a fractionator that separates component streams from a synthetic condensate.
  • FIG. 360 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a series of separation units used to separate component streams from synthetic condensate.
  • FIG. 361 depicts a schematic an embodiment of a series of separation units used to separate bottoms into fractions.
  • FIG. 362 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration used to reactively distill a synthetic condensate.
  • FIG. 363 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that separates formation fluid through condensation.
  • FIG. 364 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that hydrotreats untreated formation fluid.
  • FIG. 365 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that converts formation fluid into olefins.
  • FIG. 366 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that removes a component and converts formation fluid into olefins.
  • FIG. 367 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that converts formation fluid into olefins using a heating unit and a quenching unit.
  • FIG. 368 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that separates ammonia and hydrogen sulfide from water produced in the formation.
  • FIG. 369 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration used to produce and separate ammonia.
  • FIG. 370 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that separates ammonia and hydrogen sulfide from water produced in the formation.
  • FIG. 371 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that produces ammonia on site.
  • FIG. 372 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration used for the synthesis of urea.
  • FIG. 373 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that synthesizes ammonium sulfate.
  • FIG. 374 depicts an embodiment of surface treatment units used to separate phenols from formation fluid.
  • FIG. 375 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration used to separate BTEX compounds from formation fluid.
  • FIG. 376 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration used to recover BTEX compounds from a naphtha fraction.
  • FIG. 377 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a surface treatment configuration that separates a component from a heart cut.
  • FIG. 378 illustrates experiments performed in a batch mode.
  • FIG. 379 depicts a plan view representation of an embodiment of treatment areas formed by perimeter barriers.
  • FIG. 380 depicts a side representation of an embodiment of an in situ conversion process system used to treat a thin rich formation.
  • FIG. 381 depicts a side representation of an embodiment of an in situ conversion process system used to treat a thin rich formation.
  • FIG. 382 depicts a side representation of an embodiment of an in situ conversion process system.
  • FIG. 383 depicts a side representation of an embodiment of an in situ conversion process system with an installed upper perimeter barrier and an installed lower perimeter barrier.
  • FIG. 384 depicts a plan view representation of an embodiment of treatment areas formed by perimeter barriers having arced portions, wherein the centers of the arced portions are in an equilateral triangle pattern.
  • FIG. 385 depicts a plan view representation of an embodiment of treatment areas formed by perimeter barriers having arced portions, wherein the centers of the arced portions are in a square pattern.
  • FIG. 386 depicts a plan view representation of an embodiment of treatment areas formed by perimeter barriers radially positioned around a central point.
  • FIG. 387 depicts a plan view representation of a portion of a treatment area defined by a double ring of freeze wells.
  • FIG. 388 depicts a side representation of a freeze well that is directionally drilled in a formation so that the freeze well enters the formation in a first location and exits the formation in a second location.
  • FIG. 389 depicts a side representation of freeze wells that form a barrier along sides and ends of a dipping hydrocarbon containing layer in a formation.
  • FIG. 390 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a freeze well and an embodiment of a heat source that may be used during an in situ conversion process.
  • FIG. 391 depicts an embodiment of a batch operated freeze well.
  • FIG. 392 depicts an embodiment of a batch operated freeze well having an open wellbore portion.
  • FIG. 393 depicts a plan view representation of a circulated fluid refrigeration system.
  • FIG. 394 shows simulation results as a plot of time to reduce a temperature midway between two freeze wells versus well spacing.
  • FIG. 395 depicts an embodiment of a freeze well for a circulated liquid refrigeration system, wherein a cutaway view of the freeze well is represented below ground surface.
  • FIG. 396 depicts an embodiment of a freeze well for a circulated liquid refrigeration system.
  • FIG. 397 depicts an embodiment of a freeze well for a circulated liquid refrigeration system.
  • FIG. 398 depicts results of a simulation for Green River oil shale presented as temperature versus time for a formation cooled with a refrigerant.
  • FIG. 399 depicts a plan view representation of low temperature zones formed by freeze wells placed in a formation through which fluid flows slowly enough to allow for formation of an interconnected low temperature zone.
  • FIG. 400 depicts a plan view representation of low temperature zones formed by freeze wells placed in a formation through which fluid flows at too high a flow rate to allow for formation of an interconnected low temperature zone.
  • FIG. 401 depicts thermal simulation results of a heat source surrounded by a ring of freeze wells.
  • FIG. 402 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a ground cover.
  • FIG. 403 depicts an embodiment of a treatment area surrounded by a ring of dewatering wells.
  • FIG. 404A depicts an embodiment of a treatment area surrounded by two rings of dewatering wells.
  • FIG. 404B depicts an embodiment of a treatment area surrounded by two rings of freeze wells.
  • FIG. 405 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of an injection wellbore and a production wellbore.
  • FIG. 406 depicts an embodiment of a remediation process used to treat a treatment area.
  • FIG. 407 illustrates an embodiment of a temperature gradient formed in a section of heated formation.
  • FIG. 408 depicts an embodiment of a heated formation used for separation of hydrocarbons and contaminants.
  • FIG. 409 depicts an embodiment for recovering heat from a heated formation and transferring the heat to an above-ground processing unit.
  • FIG. 410 depicts an embodiment for recovering heat from one formation and providing heat to another formation with an intermediate production step.
  • FIG. 411 depicts an embodiment for recovering heat from one formation and providing heat to another formation in situ.
  • FIG. 412 depicts an embodiment of a region of reaction within a heated formation.
  • FIG. 413 depicts an embodiment of a conduit placed within a heated formation.
  • FIG. 414 depicts an embodiment of a U-shaped conduit placed within a heated formation.
  • FIG. 415 depicts an embodiment for sequestration of carbon dioxide in a heated formation.
  • FIG. 416 depicts an embodiment for solution mining a formation.
  • FIG. 417 illustrates cumulative oil production and cumulative heat input versus time using an in situ conversion process for solution mined oil shale and for non-solution mined oil shale.
  • FIG. 418 is a flow chart illustrating options for produced fluids from a shut-in formation.
  • FIG. 419 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of an injection wellbore and a production wellbore.
  • FIG. 420 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of in situ treatment of a formation with steam injection according to one embodiment.
  • FIG. 421 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of in situ treatment of a formation with steam injection according to one embodiment.
  • FIG. 422 illustrates a cross-sectional representation of in situ treatment of a formation with steam injection according to one embodiment.
  • FIG. 423 illustrates a schematic of a portion of a kerogen and liquid hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 424 illustrates an expanded view of a selected section.
  • FIG. 425 depicts a schematic illustration of one embodiment of production versus time or temperature from a production well as shown in FIG. 423.
  • FIG. 426 illustrates a schematic of a temperature profile of the Rock-Eval pyrolysis process.
  • FIG. 427 illustrates a plan view of horizontal heater wells and horizontal production wells.
  • FIG. 428 illustrates an end view schematic of the horizontal heater wells and horizontal production wells depicted in FIG. 427.
  • FIG. 429 illustrates a plan view of horizontal heater wells and vertical production wells.
  • FIG. 430 illustrates an end view schematic of the horizontal heater wells and vertical production wells depicted in FIG. 429.
  • FIG. 431 illustrates the production of condensables and non-condensables per pattern as a function of time from an in situ conversion process as calculated by a simulator.
  • FIG. 432 illustrates the total production of condensables and non-condensables as a function of time from an in situ conversion process as calculated by a simulator.
  • FIG. 433 shows the annual heat injection rate per pattern versus time calculated by the simulator.
  • FIG. 434 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of in situ treatment of an oil containing formation.
  • FIG. 435 depicts an embodiment for using acoustic reflections to determine a location of a wellbore in a formation.
  • FIG. 436 depicts an embodiment for using acoustic reflections and magnetic tracking to determine a location of a wellbore in a formation.
  • FIG. 437 depicts raw data obtained from an acoustic sensor in a formation.
  • FIGS. 438, 439, and 440 show magnetic field components as a function of hole depth in neighboring observation wells.
  • FIG. 441 shows magnetic field components for a build-up section of a wellbore.
  • FIG. 442 depicts a ratio of magnetic field components for a build-up section of a wellbore.
  • FIG. 443 depicts a ratio of magnetic field components for a build-up section of a wellbore.
  • FIG. 444 depicts comparisons of magnetic field components determined from experimental data and magnetic field components modeled using analytical equations versus distance between wellbores.
  • FIG. 445 depicts the difference between the two curves in FIG. 444.
  • FIG. 446 depicts comparisons of magnetic field components determined from experimental data and magnetic field components modeled using analytical equations versus distance between wellbores.
  • FIG. 447 depicts the difference between the two curves in FIG. 446.
  • FIG. 448 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a magnetostatic drilling operation.
  • FIG. 449 depicts an embodiment of a section of a conduit with two magnetic segments.
  • FIG. 450 depicts a schematic of a portion of a magnetic string.
  • FIG. 451 depicts an embodiment of a magnetic string.
  • FIG. 452 depicts magnetic field strength versus radial distance using analytical calculations.
  • FIG. 453 depicts an embodiment an opening in a hydrocarbon containing formation that has been formed with a river crossing rig.
  • FIG. 454 depicts an embodiment for forming a portion of an opening in an overburden at a first end of the opening.
  • FIG. 455 depicts an embodiment of reinforcing material placed in a portion of an opening in an overburden at a first end of the opening.
  • FIG. 456 depicts an embodiment for forming an opening in a hydrocarbon layer and an overburden.
  • FIG. 457 depicts an embodiment of a reamed out portion of an opening in an overburden at a second end of the opening.
  • FIG. 458 depicts an embodiment of reinforcing material placed in the reamed out portion of an opening.
  • FIG. 459 depicts an embodiment of reforming an opening through a reinforcing material in a portion of an opening.
  • FIG. 460 depicts an embodiment for installing equipment into an opening.
  • FIG. 461 depicts an embodiment of a wellbore with a casing that may be energized to produce a magnetic field.
  • FIG. 462 depicts a plan view for an embodiment of forming one or more wellbores using magnetic tracking of a previously formed wellbore.
  • FIG. 463 depicts another embodiment of a wellbore with a casing that may be energized to produce a magnetic field.
  • FIG. 464 shows distances between wellbores and the surface used for a analytical equations.
  • FIG. 465 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heat source with a lead-out conductor coupled to a sliding connector.
  • FIG. 466 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit heat source with lead-in and lead-out conductors in the overburden.
  • FIG. 467 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore of a hydrocarbon containing formation with a rich layer.
  • FIG. 468 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore of a hydrocarbon containing formation with an expanded rich layer.
  • FIG. 469 depicts calculations of wellbore radius change versus time for heating in an open wellbore.
  • FIG. 470 depicts calculations of wellbore radius change versus time for heating in an open wellbore.
  • FIG. 471 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore of a hydrocarbon containing formation with an expanded wellbore proximate a rich layer.
  • FIG. 472 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore with a liner placed in the opening.
  • FIG. 473 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore with a liner placed in the opening and the formation expanded against the liner.
  • FIG. 474 depicts maximum stress and hole size versus richness for calculations of heating in an open wellbore.
  • FIG. 475 depicts an embodiment of a plan view of a pattern of heaters for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 476 depicts an embodiment of a plan view of a pattern of heaters for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 477 shows DC resistivity versus temperature for a 1% carbon steel temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 478 shows relative permeability versus temperature for a 1% carbon steel temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 479 shows skin depth versus temperature for a 1% carbon steel temperature limited heater at 60 Hz.
  • FIG. 480 shows AC resistance versus temperature for a 1% carbon steel temperature limited heater at 60 Hz.
  • FIG. 481 shows heater power per meter versus temperature for a 1% carbon steel rod at 350 A at 60 Hz.
  • FIG. 482 depicts an embodiment for forming a composite conductor.
  • FIG. 483 depicts an embodiment of an inner conductor and an outer conductor formed by a tube-in-tube milling process.
  • FIG. 484 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 485 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 486 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.5 cm diameter iron conductor.
  • FIG. 487 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.5 cm diameter composite conductor of iron and copper.
  • FIG. 488 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.3 cm diameter composite conductor of iron and copper and a 1.5 cm diameter composite conductor of iron and copper.
  • FIG. 489 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 490 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 491 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 492 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 493 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 494 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater with an insulated conductor as the conductor.
  • FIG. 495 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 496 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 497 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 498 depicts an embodiment of an “S” bend for a heater.
  • FIG. 499 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 500 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limited heater.
  • FIG. 501 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with current return through the earth formation.
  • FIG. 502 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limited heater with current connection through the earth formation.
  • FIG. 503 depicts a plan view of the embodiment of FIG. 502.
  • FIG. 504 depicts heater temperature versus depth for heaters used in a simulation for heating oil shale.
  • FIG. 505 depicts heat flux versus time for heaters used in a simulation for heating oil shale.
  • FIG. 506 depicts accumulated heat input versus time in a simulation for heating oil shale.
  • FIG. 507 depicts AC resistance versus temperature using an analytical solution.
  • FIG. 508 depicts an embodiment of a freeze well for a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 509 depicts an embodiment of a freeze well for inhibiting water flow.
  • the following description generally relates to systems and methods for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation (e.g., a formation containing coal (including lignite, sapropelic coal, etc.), oil shale, carbonaceous shale, shungites, kerogen, bitumen, oil, kerogen and oil in a low permeability matrix, heavy hydrocarbons, asphaltites, natural mineral waxes, formations wherein kerogen is blocking production of other hydrocarbons, etc.).
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation e.g., a formation containing coal (including lignite, sapropelic coal, etc.), oil shale, carbonaceous shale, shungites, kerogen, bitumen, oil, kerogen and oil in a low permeability matrix, heavy hydrocarbons, asphaltites, natural mineral waxes, formations wherein kerogen is blocking production of other hydrocarbons, etc.
  • Such formations may be treated to yield relatively high quality hydrocarbon products,
  • Hydrocarbons are generally defined as molecules formed primarily by carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons may also include other elements, such as, but not limited to, halogens, metallic elements, nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur. Hydrocarbons may be, but are not limited to, kerogen, bitumen, pyrobitumen, oils, natural mineral waxes, and asphaltites. Hydrocarbons may be located within or adjacent to mineral matrices within the earth. Matrices may include, but are not limited to, sedimentary rock, sands, silicilytes, carbonates, diatomites, and other porous media. “Hydrocarbon fluids” are fluids that include hydrocarbons.
  • Hydrocarbon fluids may include, entrain, or be entrained in non-hydrocarbon fluids (e.g., hydrogen (“H 2 ”), nitrogen (“N 2 ”), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, and ammonia).
  • non-hydrocarbon fluids e.g., hydrogen (“H 2 ”), nitrogen (“N 2 ”), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, and ammonia.
  • a “formation” includes one or more hydrocarbon containing layers, one or more non-hydrocarbon layers, an overburden, and/or an underburden.
  • An “overburden” and/or an “underburden” includes one or more different types of impermeable materials.
  • overburden and/or underburden may include rock, shale, mudstone, or wet/tight carbonate (i.e., an impermeable carbonate without hydrocarbons).
  • an overburden and/or an underburden may include a hydrocarbon containing layer or hydrocarbon containing layers that are relatively impermeable and are not subjected to temperatures during in situ conversion processing that results in significant characteristic changes of the hydrocarbon containing layers of the overburden and/or underburden.
  • an underburden may contain shale or mudstone.
  • the overburden and/or underburden may be somewhat permeable.
  • Kerogen is a solid, insoluble hydrocarbon that has been converted by natural degradation (e.g., by diagenesis) and that principally contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Coal and oil shale are typical examples of materials that contain kerogens.
  • Biten is a non-crystalline solid or viscous hydrocarbon material that is substantially soluble in carbon disulfide.
  • Oil is a fluid containing a mixture of condensable hydrocarbons.
  • formation fluids and “produced fluids” refer to fluids removed from a hydrocarbon containing formation and may include pyrolyzation fluid, synthesis gas, mobilized hydrocarbon, and water (steam).
  • mobilized fluid refers to fluids within the formation that are able to flow because of thermal treatment of the formation. Formation fluids may include hydrocarbon fluids as well as non-hydrocarbon fluids.
  • Carbon number refers to a number of carbon atoms within a molecule.
  • a hydrocarbon fluid may include various hydrocarbons having varying numbers of carbon atoms.
  • the hydrocarbon fluid may be described by a carbon number distribution.
  • Carbon numbers and/or carbon number distributions may be determined by true boiling point distribution and/or gas-liquid chromatography.
  • a “heat source” is any system for providing heat to at least a portion of a formation substantially by conductive and/or radiative heat transfer.
  • a heat source may include electric heaters such as an insulated conductor, an elongated member, and/or a conductor disposed within a conduit, as described in embodiments herein.
  • a heat source may also include heat sources that generate heat by burning a fuel external to or within a formation, such as surface burners, downhole gas burners, flameless distributed combustors, and natural distributed combustors, as described in embodiments herein.
  • heat provided to or generated in one or more heat sources may be supplied by other sources of energy.
  • the other sources of energy may directly heat a formation, or the energy may be applied to a transfer media that directly or indirectly heats the formation. It is to be understood that one or more heat sources that are applying heat to a formation may use different sources of energy. Thus, for example, for a given formation some heat sources may supply heat from electric resistance heaters, some heat sources may provide heat from combustion, and some heat sources may provide heat from one or more other energy sources (e.g., chemical reactions, solar energy, wind energy, biomass, or other sources of renewable energy). A chemical reaction may include an exothermic reaction (e.g., an oxidation reaction). A heat source may also include a heater that may provide heat to a zone proximate and/or surrounding a heating location such as a heater well.
  • a “heater” is any system for generating heat in a well or a near wellbore region.
  • Heaters may be, but are not limited to, electric heaters, burners, combustors (e.g., natural distributed combustors) that react with material in or produced from a formation, and/or combinations thereof.
  • a “unit of heat sources” refers to a number of heat sources that form a template that is repeated to create a pattern of heat sources within a formation.
  • wellbore refers to a hole in a formation made by drilling or insertion of a conduit into the formation.
  • a wellbore may have a substantially circular cross section, or other cross-sectional shapes (e.g., circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles, slits, or other regular or irregular shapes).
  • wellbore and opening when referring to an opening in the formation may be used interchangeably with the term “wellbore.”
  • Natural distributed combustor refers to a heater that uses an oxidant to oxidize at least a portion of the carbon in the formation to generate heat, and wherein the oxidation takes place in a vicinity proximate a wellbore. Most of the combustion products produced in the natural distributed combustor are removed through the wellbore.
  • openings refer to openings (e.g., openings in conduits) having a wide variety of sizes and cross-sectional shapes including, but not limited to, circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles, slits, or other regular or irregular shapes.
  • reaction zone refers to a volume of a hydrocarbon containing formation that is subjected to a chemical reaction such as an oxidation reaction.
  • Insulated conductor refers to any elongated material that is able to conduct electricity and that is covered, in whole or in part, by an electrically insulating material.
  • self-controls refers to controlling an output of a heater without external control of any type.
  • Pyrolysis is the breaking of chemical bonds due to the application of heat.
  • pyrolysis may include transforming a compound into one or more other substances by heat alone. Heat may be transferred to a section of the formation to cause pyrolysis.
  • “Pyrolyzation fluids” or “pyrolysis products” refers to fluid produced substantially during pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. Fluid produced by pyrolysis reactions may mix with other fluids in a formation. The mixture would be considered pyrolyzation fluid or pyrolyzation product.
  • “pyrolysis zone” refers to a volume of a formation (e.g., a relatively permeable formation such as a tar sands formation) that is reacted or reacting to form a pyrolyzation fluid.
  • Cracking refers to a process involving decomposition and molecular recombination of organic compounds to produce a greater number of molecules than were initially present. In cracking, a series of reactions take place accompanied by a transfer of hydrogen atoms between molecules. For example, naphtha may undergo a thermal cracking reaction to form ethene and H 2 .
  • Superposition of heat refers to providing heat from two or more heat sources to a selected section of a formation such that the temperature of the formation at least at one location between the heat sources is influenced by the heat sources.
  • Fingering refers to injected fluids bypassing portions of a formation because of variations in transport characteristics of the formation (e.g., permeability or porosity).
  • Thermal conductivity is a property of a material that describes the rate at which heat flows, in steady state, between two surfaces of the material for a given temperature difference between the two surfaces.
  • Fluid pressure is a pressure generated by a fluid within a formation.
  • “Lithostatic pressure” (sometimes referred to as “lithostatic stress”) is a pressure within a formation equal to a weight per unit area of an overlying rock mass.
  • “Hydrostatic pressure” is a pressure within a formation exerted by a column of water.
  • Condensable hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that condense at 25° C. at one atmosphere absolute pressure. Condensable hydrocarbons may include a mixture of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers greater than 4. “Non-condensable hydrocarbons” are hydrocarbons that do not condense at 25° C. and one atmosphere absolute pressure. Non-condensable hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having carbon numbers less than 5.
  • Olefins are molecules that include unsaturated hydrocarbons having one or more non-aromatic carbon-to-carbon double bonds.
  • Urea describes a compound represented by the molecular formula of NH 2 —CO—NH 2 . Urea may be used as a fertilizer.
  • Synthesis gas is a mixture including hydrogen and carbon monoxide used for synthesizing a wide range of compounds. Additional components of synthesis gas may include water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and other gases. Synthesis gas may be generated by a variety of processes and feedstocks.
  • Reforming is a reaction of hydrocarbons (such as methane or naphtha) with steam to produce CO and H 2 as major products. Generally, it is conducted in the presence of a catalyst, although it can be performed thermally without the presence of a catalyst.
  • “Sequestration” refers to storing a gas that is a by-product of a process rather than venting the gas to the atmosphere.
  • “Dipping” refers to a formation that slopes downward or inclines from a plane parallel to the earth's surface, assuming the plane is flat (i.e., a “horizontal” plane).
  • a “dip” is an angle that a stratum or similar feature makes with a horizontal plane.
  • a “steeply dipping” hydrocarbon containing formation refers to a hydrocarbon containing formation lying at an angle of at least 20° from a horizontal plane.
  • “Down dip” refers to downward along a direction parallel to a dip in a formation.
  • Up dip refers to upward along a direction parallel to a dip of a formation.
  • “Strike” refers to the course or bearing of hydrocarbon material that is normal to the direction of dip.
  • Subsidence is a downward movement of a portion of a formation relative to an initial elevation of the surface.
  • Thickness of a layer refers to the thickness of a cross section of a layer, wherein the cross section is normal to a face of the layer.
  • Coring is a process that generally includes drilling a hole into a formation and removing a substantially solid mass of the formation from the hole.
  • a “surface unit” is an ex situ treatment unit.
  • Middle distillates refers to hydrocarbon mixtures with a boiling point range that corresponds substantially with that of kerosene and gas oil fractions obtained in a conventional atmospheric distillation of crude oil material.
  • the middle distillate boiling point range may include temperatures between about 150° C. and about 360° C., with a fraction boiling point between about 200° C. and about 360° C.
  • Middle distillates may be referred to as gas oil.
  • a “boiling point cut” is a hydrocarbon liquid fraction that may be separated from hydrocarbon liquids when the hydrocarbon liquids are heated to a boiling point range of the fraction.
  • Select mobilized section refers to a section of a formation that is at an average temperature within a mobilization temperature range.
  • selected pyrolyzation section refers to a section of a formation (e.g., a relatively permeable formation such as a tar sands formation) that is at an average temperature within a pyrolyzation temperature range.
  • Enriched air refers to air having a larger mole fraction of oxygen than air in the atmosphere. Enrichment of air is typically done to increase its combustion-supporting ability.
  • Heavy hydrocarbons are viscous hydrocarbon fluids. Heavy hydrocarbons may include highly viscous hydrocarbon fluids such as heavy oil, tar, and/or asphalt. Heavy hydrocarbons may include carbon and hydrogen, as well as smaller concentrations of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Additional elements may also be present in heavy hydrocarbons in trace amounts. Heavy hydrocarbons may be classified by API gravity. Heavy hydrocarbons generally have an API gravity below about 20°. Heavy oil, for example, generally has an API gravity of about 10-200, whereas tar generally has an API gravity below about 10°. The viscosity of heavy hydrocarbons is generally greater than about 100 centipoise at 15° C. Heavy hydrocarbons may also include aromatics or other complex ring hydrocarbons.
  • Heavy hydrocarbons may be found in a relatively permeable formation.
  • the relatively permeable formation may include heavy hydrocarbons entrained in, for example, sand or carbonate.
  • “Relatively permeable” is defined, with respect to formations or portions thereof, as an average permeability of 10 millidarcy or more (e.g., 10 or 100 millidarcy).
  • “Relatively low permeability” is defined, with respect to formations or portions thereof, as an average permeability of less than about 10 millidarcy.
  • One darcy is equal to about 0.99 square micrometers.
  • An impermeable layer generally has a permeability of less than about 0.1 millidarcy.
  • Tar is a viscous hydrocarbon that generally has a viscosity greater than about 10,000 centipoise at 15° C.
  • the specific gravity of tar generally is greater than 1.000.
  • Tar may have an API gravity less than 10°.
  • a “tar sands formation” is a formation in which hydrocarbons are predominantly present in the form of heavy hydrocarbons and/or tar entrained in a mineral grain framework or other host lithology (e.g., sand or carbonate).
  • a portion or all of a hydrocarbon portion of a relatively permeable formation may be predominantly heavy hydrocarbons and/or tar with no supporting mineral grain framework and only floating (or no) mineral matter (e.g., asphalt lakes).
  • Certain types of formations that include heavy hydrocarbons may also be, but are not limited to, natural mineral waxes (e.g., ozocerite), or natural asphaltites (e.g., gilsonite, albertite, impsonite, wurtzilite, grahamite, and glance pitch).
  • Natural mineral waxes typically occur in substantially tubular veins that may be several meters wide, several kilometers long, and hundreds of meters deep.
  • Natural asphaltites include solid hydrocarbons of an aromatic composition and typically occur in large veins.
  • In situ recovery of hydrocarbons from formations such as natural mineral waxes and natural asphaltites may include melting to form liquid hydrocarbons and/or solution mining of hydrocarbons from the formations.
  • “Upgrade” refers to increasing the quality of hydrocarbons. For example, upgrading heavy hydrocarbons may result in an increase in the API gravity of the heavy hydrocarbons.
  • Off peak times refers to times of operation when utility energy is less commonly used and, therefore, less expensive.
  • Low viscosity zone refers to a section of a formation where at least a portion of the fluids are mobilized.
  • Thermal fracture refers to fractures created in a formation caused by expansion or contraction of a formation and/or fluids within the formation, which is in turn caused by increasing/decreasing the temperature of the formation and/or fluids within the formation, and/or by increasing/decreasing a pressure of fluids within the formation due to heating.
  • “Vertical hydraulic fracture” refers to a fracture at least partially propagated along a vertical plane in a formation, wherein the fracture is created through injection of fluids into a formation.
  • FIG. 1 illustrates several stages of heating a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • FIG. 1 also depicts an example of yield (barrels of oil equivalent per ton) (y axis) of formation fluids from a hydrocarbon containing formation versus temperature (° C.) (x axis) of the formation.
  • stage 1 heating Desorption of methane and vaporization of water occurs during stage 1 heating. Heating of the formation through stage 1 may be performed as quickly as possible. For example, when a hydrocarbon containing formation is initially heated, hydrocarbons in the formation may desorb adsorbed methane. The desorbed methane may be produced from the formation. If the hydrocarbon containing formation is heated further, water within the hydrocarbon containing formation may be vaporized. Water may occupy, in some hydrocarbon containing formations, between about 10% to about 50% of the pore volume in the formation. In other formations, water may occupy larger or smaller portions of the pore volume. Water typically is vaporized in a formation between about 160° C. and about 285° C. for pressures of about 6 bars absolute to 70 bars absolute.
  • the vaporized water may produce wettability changes in the formation and/or increase formation pressure.
  • the wettability changes and/or increased pressure may affect pyrolysis reactions or other reactions in the formation.
  • the vaporized water may be produced from the formation.
  • the vaporized water may be used for steam extraction and/or distillation in the formation or outside the formation. Removing the water from and increasing the pore volume in the formation may increase the storage space for hydrocarbons within the pore volume.
  • stage 1 heating the formation may be heated further, such that a temperature within the formation reaches (at least) an initial pyrolyzation temperature (e.g., a temperature at the lower end of the temperature range shown as stage 2). Hydrocarbons within the formation may be pyrolyzed throughout stage 2.
  • a pyrolysis temperature range may vary depending on types of hydrocarbons within the formation.
  • a pyrolysis temperature range may include temperatures between about 250° C. and about 900° C.
  • a pyrolysis temperature range for producing desired products may extend through only a portion of the total pyrolysis temperature range.
  • a pyrolysis temperature range for producing desired products may include temperatures between about 250° C. to about 400° C.
  • a temperature of hydrocarbons in a formation is slowly raised through a temperature range from about 250° C. to about 400° C.
  • production of pyrolysis products may be substantially complete when the temperature approaches 400° C.
  • Heating the hydrocarbon containing formation with a plurality of heat sources may establish thermal gradients around the heat sources that slowly raise the temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation through a pyrolysis temperature range.
  • a temperature of the hydrocarbons to be subjected to pyrolysis may not be slowly increased throughout a temperature range from about 250° C. to about 400° C.
  • the hydrocarbons in the formation may be heated to a desired temperature (e.g., about 325° C.). Other temperatures may be selected as the desired temperature.
  • Superposition of heat from heat sources may allow the desired temperature to be relatively quickly and efficiently established in the formation.
  • Energy input into the formation from the heat sources may be adjusted to maintain the temperature in the formation substantially at the desired temperature.
  • the hydrocarbons may be maintained substantially at the desired temperature until pyrolysis declines such that production of desired formation fluids from the formation becomes uneconomical.
  • Parts of a formation that are subjected to pyrolysis may include regions brought into a pyrolysis temperature range by heat transfer from only one heat source.
  • Formation fluids including pyrolyzation fluids may be produced from the formation.
  • the pyrolyzation fluids may include, but are not limited to, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrogen, water, and mixtures thereof.
  • hydrocarbons hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrogen, water, and mixtures thereof.
  • the formation may produce mostly methane and/or hydrogen. If a hydrocarbon containing formation is heated throughout an entire pyrolysis range, the formation may produce only small amounts of hydrogen towards an upper limit of the pyrolysis range. After all of the available hydrogen is depleted, a minimal amount of fluid production from the formation will typically occur.
  • Synthesis gas generation may take place during stage 3 heating depicted in FIG. 1.
  • Stage 3 may include heating a hydrocarbon containing formation to a temperature sufficient to allow synthesis gas generation.
  • synthesis gas may be produced within a temperature range from about 400° C. to about 1200° C.
  • the temperature of the formation when the synthesis gas generating fluid is introduced to the formation may determine the composition of synthesis gas produced within the formation. If a synthesis gas generating fluid is introduced into a formation at a temperature sufficient to allow synthesis gas generation, synthesis gas may be generated within the formation.
  • the generated synthesis gas may be removed from the formation through a production well or production wells. A large volume of synthesis gas may be produced during generation of synthesis gas.
  • Total energy content of fluids produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation may stay relatively constant throughout pyrolysis and synthesis gas generation.
  • a significant portion of the produced fluid may be condensable hydrocarbons that have a high energy content.
  • less of the formation fluid may include condensable hydrocarbons.
  • More non-condensable formation fluids may be produced from the formation.
  • Energy content per unit volume of the produced fluid may decline slightly during generation of predominantly non-condensable formation fluids.
  • energy content per unit volume of produced synthesis gas declines significantly compared to energy content of pyrolyzation fluid. The volume of the produced synthesis gas, however, will in many instances increase substantially, thereby compensating for the decreased energy content.
  • FIG. 2 depicts a van Krevelen diagram.
  • the van Krevelen diagram is a plot of atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio (y axis) versus atomic oxygen to carbon ratio (x axis) for various types of kerogen.
  • the van Krevelen diagram shows the maturation sequence for various types of kerogen that typically occurs over geologic time due to temperature, pressure, and biochemical degradation. The maturation sequence may be accelerated by heating in situ at a controlled rate and/or a controlled pressure.
  • a van Krevelen diagram may be useful for selecting a resource for practicing various embodiments.
  • Treating a formation containing kerogen in region 500 may produce carbon dioxide, non-condensable hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and water, along with a relatively small amount of condensable hydrocarbons.
  • Treating a formation containing kerogen in region 502 may produce condensable and non-condensable hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and water.
  • Treating a formation containing kerogen in region 504 will in many instances produce methane and hydrogen.
  • a formation containing kerogen in region 502 may be selected for treatment because treating region 502 kerogen may produce large quantities of valuable hydrocarbons, and low quantities of undesirable products such as carbon dioxide and water.
  • a region 502 kerogen may produce large quantities of valuable hydrocarbons and low quantities of undesirable products because the region 502 kerogen has already undergone dehydration and/or decarboxylation over geological time.
  • region 502 kerogen can be further treated to make other useful products (e.g., methane, hydrogen, and/or synthesis gas) as the kerogen transforms to region 504 kerogen.
  • in situ thermal treatment may accelerate maturation of the kerogen along paths represented by arrows in FIG. 2.
  • region 500 kerogen may transform to region 502 kerogen and possibly then to region 504 kerogen.
  • Region 502 kerogen may transform to region 504 kerogen.
  • In situ conversion may expedite maturation of kerogen and allow production of valuable products from the kerogen.
  • region 500 kerogen is treated, a substantial amount of carbon dioxide may be produced due to decarboxylation of hydrocarbons in the formation.
  • region 500 kerogen may produce some hydrocarbons (e.g., methane).
  • Treating region 500 kerogen may produce substantial amounts of water due to dehydration of kerogen in the formation.
  • Production of water from kerogen may leave hydrocarbons remaining in the formation enriched in carbon.
  • Oxygen content of the hydrocarbons may decrease faster than hydrogen content of the hydrocarbons during production of such water and carbon dioxide from the formation. Therefore, production of such water and carbon dioxide from region 500 kerogen may result in a larger decrease in the atomic oxygen to carbon ratio than a decrease in the atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio (see region 500 arrows in FIG. 2 which depict more horizontal than vertical movement).
  • region 502 kerogen is treated, some of the hydrocarbons in the formation may be pyrolyzed to produce condensable and non-condensable hydrocarbons.
  • treating region 502 kerogen may result in production of oil from hydrocarbons, as well as some carbon dioxide and water.
  • In situ conversion of region 502 kerogen may produce significantly less carbon dioxide and water than is produced during in situ conversion of region 500 kerogen. Therefore, the atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio of the kerogen may decrease rapidly as the kerogen in region 502 is treated.
  • the atomic oxygen to carbon ratio of region 502 kerogen may decrease much slower than the atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio of region 502 kerogen.
  • Kerogen in region 504 may be treated to generate methane and hydrogen. For example, if such kerogen was previously treated (e.g., it was previously region 502 kerogen), then after pyrolysis longer hydrocarbon chains of the hydrocarbons may have cracked and been produced from the formation. Carbon and hydrogen, however, may still be present in the formation.
  • kerogen in region 504 were heated to a synthesis gas generating temperature and a synthesis gas generating fluid (e.g., steam) were added to the region 504 kerogen, then at least a portion of remaining hydrocarbons in the formation may be produced from the formation in the form of synthesis gas.
  • a synthesis gas generating fluid e.g., steam
  • the atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio and the atomic oxygen to carbon ratio in the hydrocarbons may significantly decrease as the temperature rises. Hydrocarbons in the formation may be transformed into relatively pure carbon in region 504 . Heating region 504 kerogen to still higher temperatures will tend to transform such kerogen into graphite 506 .
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation may have a number of properties that depend on a composition of the hydrocarbons within the formation. Such properties may affect the composition and amount of products that are produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation during in situ conversion. Properties of a hydrocarbon containing formation may be used to determine if and/or how a hydrocarbon containing formation is to be subjected to in situ conversion.
  • Kerogen is composed of organic matter that has been transformed due to a maturation process.
  • Hydrocarbon containing formations that include kerogen may include, but are not limited to, coal formations and oil shale formations. Examples of hydrocarbon containing formations that may not include significant amounts of kerogen are formations containing oil or heavy hydrocarbons (e.g., tar sands).
  • the maturation process for kerogen may include two stages: a biochemical stage and a geochemical stage.
  • the biochemical stage typically involves degradation of organic material by aerobic and/or anaerobic organisms.
  • the geochemical stage typically involves conversion of organic matter due to temperature changes and significant pressures.
  • oil and gas may be produced as the organic matter of the kerogen is transformed.
  • the van Krevelen diagram shown in FIG. 2 classifies various natural deposits of kerogen.
  • kerogen may be classified into four distinct groups: type I, type II, type III, and type IV, which are illustrated by the four branches of the van Krevelen diagram.
  • the van Krevelen diagram shows the maturation sequence for kerogen that typically occurs over geological time due to temperature and pressure. Classification of kerogen type may depend upon precursor materials of the kerogen. The precursor materials transform over time into macerals. Macerals are microscopic structures that have different structures and properties depending on the precursor materials from which they are derived. Oil shale may be described as a kerogen type I or type II, and may primarily contain macerals from the liptinite group.
  • Liptinites are derived from plants, specifically the lipid rich and resinous parts.
  • the concentration of hydrogen within liptinite may be as high as 9 weight %.
  • liptinite has a relatively high hydrogen to carbon ratio and a relatively low atomic oxygen to carbon ratio.
  • a type I kerogen may be classified as an alginite, since type I kerogen developed primarily from algal bodies. Type I kerogen may result from deposits made in lacustrine environments. Type II kerogen may develop from organic matter that was deposited in marine environments.
  • Type III kerogen may generally include vitrinite macerals. Vitrinite is derived from cell walls and/or woody tissues (e.g., stems, branches, leaves, and roots of plants). Type III kerogen may be present in most humic coals. Type III kerogen may develop from organic matter that was deposited in swamps. Type IV kerogen includes the inertinite maceral group. The inertinite maceral group is composed of plant material such as leaves, bark, and stems that have undergone oxidation during the early peat stages of burial diagenesis. Inertinite maceral is chemically similar to vitrinite, but has a high carbon and low hydrogen content.
  • Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of maturation. As kerogen undergoes maturation, the composition of the kerogen usually changes due to expulsion of volatile matter (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, and oil) from the kerogen. Rank classifications of kerogen indicate the level to which kerogen has matured. For example, as kerogen undergoes maturation, the rank of kerogen increases. As rank increases, the volatile matter within, and producible from, the kerogen tends to decrease. In addition, the moisture content of kerogen generally decreases as the rank increases. At higher ranks, the moisture content may reach a relatively constant value. Higher rank kerogens that have undergone significant maturation, such as semi-anthracite or anthracite coal, tend to have a higher carbon content and a lower volatile matter content than lower rank kerogens such as lignite.
  • volatile matter e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, and oil
  • Rank stages of coal formations include the following classifications, which are listed in order of increasing rank and maturity for type III kerogen: wood, peat, lignite, sub-bituminous coal, high volatile bituminous coal, medium volatile bituminous coal, low volatile bituminous coal, semi-anthracite, and anthracite. As rank increases, kerogen tends to exhibit an increase in aromatic nature.
  • Hydrocarbon containing formations may be selected for in situ conversion based on properties of at least a portion of the formation.
  • a formation may be selected based on richness, thickness, and/or depth (i.e., thickness of overburden) of the formation.
  • the types of fluids producible from the formation may be a factor in the selection of a formation for in situ conversion.
  • the quality of the fluids to be produced may be assessed in advance of treatment. Assessment of the products that may be produced from a formation may generate significant cost savings since only formations that will produce desired products need to be subjected to in situ conversion.
  • Properties that may be used to assess hydrocarbons in a formation include, but are not limited to, an amount of hydrocarbon liquids that may be produced from the hydrocarbons, a likely API gravity of the produced hydrocarbon liquids, an amount of hydrocarbon gas producible from the formation, and/or an amount of carbon dioxide and water that in situ conversion will generate.
  • Vitinite reflectance Another property that may be used to assess the quality of fluids produced from certain kerogen containing formations is vitrinite reflectance.
  • Such formations include, but are not limited to, coal formations and oil shale formations.
  • Hydrocarbon containing formations that include kerogen may be assessed/selected for treatment based on a vitrinite reflectance of the kerogen.
  • Vitrinite reflectance is often related to a hydrogen to carbon atomic ratio of a kerogen and an oxygen to carbon atomic ratio of the kerogen, as shown by the dashed lines in FIG. 2.
  • a van Krevelen diagram may be useful in selecting a resource for an in situ conversion process.
  • Vitrinite reflectance of a kerogen in a hydrocarbon containing formation may indicate which fluids are producible from a formation upon heating. For example, a vitrinite reflectance of approximately 0.5% to approximately 1.5% may indicate that the kerogen will produce a large quantity of condensable fluids. In addition, a vitrinite reflectance of approximately 1.5% to 3.0% may indicate a kerogen in region 504 as described above. If a hydrocarbon containing formation having such kerogen is heated, a significant amount (e.g., a majority) of the fluid produced by such heating may include methane and hydrogen. The formation may be used to generate synthesis gas if the temperature is raised sufficiently high and a synthesis gas generating fluid is introduced into the formation.
  • a kerogen containing formation to be subjected to in situ conversion may be chosen based on a vitrinite reflectance.
  • the vitrinite reflectance of the kerogen may indicate that the formation will produce high quality fluids when subjected to in situ conversion.
  • a portion of the kerogen containing formation to be subjected to in situ conversion may have a vitrinite reflectance in a range between about 0.2% and about 3.0%.
  • a portion of the kerogen containing formation may have a vitrinite reflectance from about 0.5% to about 2.0%.
  • a portion of the kerogen containing formation may have a vitrinite reflectance from about 0.5% to about 1.0%.
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation may be selected for treatment based on a hydrogen content within the hydrocarbons in the formation.
  • a method of treating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include selecting a portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation for treatment having hydrocarbons with a hydrogen content greater than about 3 weight %, 3.5 weight %, or 4 weight % when measured on a dry, ash-free basis.
  • a selected section of a hydrocarbon containing formation may include hydrocarbons with an atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio that falls within a range from about 0.5 to about 2, and in many instances from about 0.70 to about 1.65.
  • Hydrogen content of a hydrocarbon containing formation may significantly influence a composition of hydrocarbon fluids producible from the formation. Pyrolysis of hydrocarbons within heated portions of the formation may generate hydrocarbon fluids that include a double bond or a radical. Hydrogen within the formation may reduce the double bond to a single bond. Reaction of generated hydrocarbon fluids with each other and/or with additional components in the formation may be inhibited. For example, reduction of a double bond of the generated hydrocarbon fluids to a single bond may reduce polymerization of the generated hydrocarbons. Such polymerization may reduce the amount of fluids produced and may reduce the quality of fluid produced from the formation.
  • Hydrogen within the formation may neutralize radicals in the generated hydrocarbon fluids. Hydrogen present in the formation may inhibit reaction of hydrocarbon fragments by transforming the hydrocarbon fragments into relatively short chain hydrocarbon fluids.
  • the hydrocarbon fluids may enter a vapor phase. Vapor phase hydrocarbons may move relatively easily through the formation to production wells. Increase in the hydrocarbon fluids in the vapor phase may significantly reduce a potential for producing less desirable products within the selected section of the formation.
  • a lack of bound and free hydrogen in the formation may negatively affect the amount and quality of fluids that can be produced from the formation. If too little hydrogen is naturally present, then hydrogen or other reducing fluids may be added to the formation.
  • oxygen within the portion may form carbon dioxide.
  • a formation may be chosen and/or conditions in a formation may be adjusted to inhibit production of carbon dioxide and other oxides.
  • production of carbon dioxide may be reduced by selecting and treating a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation having a vitrinite reflectance of greater than about 0.5%.
  • An amount of carbon dioxide that can be produced from a kerogen containing formation may be dependent on an oxygen content initially present in the formation and/or an atomic oxygen to carbon ratio of the kerogen.
  • formations to be subjected to in situ conversion may include kerogen with an atomic oxygen weight percentage of less than about 20 weight %, 15 weight %, and/or 10 weight %.
  • formations to be subjected to in situ conversion may include kerogen with an atomic oxygen to carbon ratio of less than about 0.15.
  • a formation selected for treatment may have an atomic oxygen to carbon ratio of about 0.03 to about 0.12.
  • Heating a hydrocarbon containing formation may include providing a large amount of energy to heat sources located within the formation.
  • Hydrocarbon containing formations may also contain some water.
  • a significant portion of energy initially provided to a formation may be used to heat water within the formation.
  • An initial rate of temperature increase may be reduced by the presence of water in the formation.
  • Excessive amounts of heat and/or time may be required to heat a formation having a high moisture content to a temperature sufficient to pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the formation.
  • water may be inhibited from flowing into a formation subjected to in situ conversion.
  • a formation to be subjected to in situ conversion may have a low initial moisture content.
  • the formation may have an initial moisture content that is less than about 15 weight %.
  • Some formations that are to be subjected to in situ conversion may have an initial moisture content of less than about 10 weight %.
  • Other formations that are to be processed using an in situ conversion process may have initial moisture contents that are greater than about 15 weight %. Formations with initial moisture contents above about 15 weight % may incur significant energy costs to remove the water that is initially present in the formation during heating to pyrolysis temperatures.
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation may be selected for treatment based on additional factors such as, but not limited to, thickness of hydrocarbon containing layers within the formation, assessed liquid production content, location of the formation, and depth of hydrocarbon containing layers.
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation may include multiple layers. Such layers may include hydrocarbon containing layers, as well as layers that are hydrocarbon free or have relatively low amounts of hydrocarbons. Conditions during formation may determine the thickness of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon layers in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation to be subjected to in situ conversion will typically include at least one hydrocarbon containing layer having a thickness sufficient for economical production of formation fluids.
  • Richness of a hydrocarbon containing layer may be a factor used to determine if a formation will be treated by in situ conversion.
  • a thin and rich hydrocarbon layer may be able to produce significantly more valuable hydrocarbons than a much thicker, less rich hydrocarbon layer. Producing hydrocarbons from a formation that is both thick and rich is desirable.
  • Each hydrocarbon containing layer of a formation may have a potential formation fluid yield or richness.
  • the richness of a hydrocarbon layer may vary in a hydrocarbon layer and between different hydrocarbon layers in a formation. Richness may depend on many factors including the conditions under which the hydrocarbon containing layer was formed, an amount of hydrocarbons in the layer, and/or a composition of hydrocarbons in the layer. Richness of a hydrocarbon layer may be estimated in various ways. For example, richness may be measured by a Fischer Assay. The Fischer Assay is a standard method which involves heating a sample of a hydrocarbon containing layer to approximately 500° C. in one hour, collecting products produced from the heated sample, and quantifying the amount of products produced. A sample of a hydrocarbon containing layer may be obtained from a hydrocarbon containing formation by a method such as coring or any other sample retrieval method.
  • An in situ conversion process may be used to treat formations with hydrocarbon layers that have thicknesses greater than about 10 m. Thick formations may allow for placement of heat sources so that superposition of heat from the heat sources efficiently heats the formation to a desired temperature. Formations having hydrocarbon layers that are less than 10 m thick may also be treated using an in situ conversion process. In some in situ conversion embodiments of thin hydrocarbon layer formations, heat sources may be inserted in or adjacent to the hydrocarbon layer along a length of the hydrocarbon layer (e.g., with horizontal or directional drilling). Heat losses to layers above and below the thin hydrocarbon layer or thin hydrocarbon layers may be offset by an amount and/or quality of fluid produced from the formation.
  • FIG. 3 shows a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of an in situ conversion system for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Heat sources 508 may be placed within at least a portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Heat sources 508 may include, for example, electric heaters such as insulated conductors, conductor-in-conduit heaters, surface burners, flameless distributed combustors, and/or natural distributed combustors. Heat sources 508 may also include other types of heaters. Heat sources 508 may provide heat to at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Energy may be supplied to the heat sources 508 through supply lines 510 .
  • Supply lines 510 may be structurally different depending on the type of heat source or heat sources being used to heat the formation.
  • Supply lines 510 for heat sources may transmit electricity for electric heaters, may transport fuel for combustors, or may transport heat exchange fluid that is circulated within the formation.
  • Production wells 512 may be used to remove formation fluid from the formation. Formation fluid produced from production wells 512 may be transported through collection piping 514 to treatment facilities 516 . Formation fluids may also be produced from heat sources 508 . For example, fluid may be produced from heat sources 508 to control pressure within the formation adjacent to the heat sources. Fluid produced from heat sources 508 may be transported through tubing or piping to collection piping 514 or the produced fluid may be transported through tubing or piping directly to treatment facilities 516 .
  • Treatment facilities 516 may include separation units, reaction units, upgrading units, fuel cells, turbines, storage vessels, and other systems and units for processing produced formation fluids.
  • An in situ conversion system for treating hydrocarbons may include barrier wells 518 .
  • Barrier wells may be used to form a barrier around a treatment area. The barrier may inhibit fluid flow into and/or out of the treatment area.
  • Barrier wells may be, but are not limited to, dewatering wells (vacuum wells), capture wells, injection wells, grout wells, or freeze wells.
  • barrier wells 518 may be dewatering wells. Dewatering wells may remove liquid water and/or inhibit liquid water from entering a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation to be heated, or to a formation being heated.
  • a plurality of water wells may surround all or a portion of a formation to be heated. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 3, the dewatering wells are shown extending only along one side of heat sources 508 , but dewatering wells typically encircle all heat sources 508 used, or to be used, to heat the formation.
  • Dewatering wells may be placed in one or more rings surrounding selected portions of the formation. New dewatering wells may need to be installed as an area being treated by the in situ conversion process expands. An outermost row of dewatering wells may inhibit a significant amount of water from flowing into the portion of formation that is heated or to be heated. Water produced from the outermost row of dewatering wells should be substantially clean, and may require little or no treatment before being released. An innermost row of dewatering wells may inhibit water that bypasses the outermost row from flowing into the portion of formation that is heated or to be heated. The innermost row of dewatering wells may also inhibit outward migration of vapor from a heated portion of the formation into surrounding portions of the formation.
  • Water produced by the innermost row of dewatering wells may include some hydrocarbons.
  • the water may need to be treated before being released.
  • water with hydrocarbons may be stored and used to produce synthesis gas from a portion of the formation during a synthesis gas phase of the in situ conversion process.
  • the dewatering wells may reduce heat loss to surrounding portions of the formation, may increase production of vapors from the heated portion, and/or may inhibit contamination of a water table proximate the heated portion of the formation.
  • pressure differences between successive rows of dewatering wells may be minimized (e.g., maintained relatively low or near zero) to create a “no or low flow” boundary between rows.
  • a fluid may be injected in the innermost row of wells.
  • the injected fluid may maintain a sufficient pressure around a pyrolysis zone to inhibit migration of fluid from the pyrolysis zone through the formation.
  • the fluid may act as an isolation barrier between the outermost wells and the pyrolysis fluids. The fluid may improve the efficiency of the dewatering wells.
  • wells initially used for one purpose may be later used for one or more other purposes, thereby lowering project costs and/or decreasing the time required to perform certain tasks.
  • production wells and in some circumstances heater wells
  • dewatering wells can later be used as production wells (and in some circumstances heater wells).
  • the dewatering wells may be placed and/or designed so that such wells can be later used as production wells and/or heater wells.
  • the heater wells may be placed and/or designed so that such wells can be later used as production wells and/or dewatering wells.
  • the production wells may be placed and/or designed so that such wells can be later used as dewatering wells and/or heater wells.
  • injection wells may be wells that initially were used for other purposes (e.g., heating, production, dewatering, monitoring, etc.), and injection wells may later be used for other purposes.
  • monitoring wells may be wells that initially were used for other purposes (e.g., heating, production, dewatering, injection, etc.), and monitoring wells may later be used for other purposes.
  • Hydrocarbons to be subjected to in situ conversion may be located under a large area.
  • the in situ conversion system may be used to treat small portions of the formation, and other sections of the formation may be treated as time progresses.
  • a field layout for 24 years of development may be divided into 24 individual plots that represent individual drilling years.
  • Each plot may include 120 “tiles” (repeating matrix patterns) wherein each plot is made of 6 rows by 20 columns of tiles.
  • Each tile may include 1 production well and 12 or 18 heater wells.
  • the heater wells may be placed in an equilateral triangle pattern with a well spacing of about 12 m.
  • Production wells may be located in centers of equilateral triangles of heater wells, or the production wells may be located approximately at a midpoint between two adjacent heater wells.
  • heat sources will be placed within a heater well formed within a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the heater well may include an opening through an overburden of the formation.
  • the heater may extend into or through at least one hydrocarbon containing section (or hydrocarbon containing layer) of the formation.
  • an embodiment of heater well 520 may include an opening in hydrocarbon layer 522 that has a helical or spiral shape.
  • a spiral heater well may increase contact with the formation as opposed to a vertically positioned heater.
  • a spiral heater well may provide expansion room that inhibits buckling or other modes of failure when the heater well is heated or cooled.
  • heater wells may include substantially straight sections through overburden 524 . Use of a straight section of heater well through the overburden may decrease heat loss to the overburden and reduce the cost of the heater well.
  • a heat source embodiment may be placed into heater well 520 .
  • Heater well 520 may be substantially “U” shaped. The legs of the “U” may be wider or more narrow depending on the particular heater well and formation characteristics.
  • First portion 526 and third portion 528 of heater well 520 may be arranged substantially perpendicular to an upper surface of hydrocarbon layer 522 in some embodiments. In addition, the first and the third portion of the heater well may extend substantially vertically through overburden 524 .
  • Second portion 530 of heater well 520 may be substantially parallel to the upper surface of the hydrocarbon layer.
  • Heat sources 508 A, 508 B, and 508 C may extend through overburden 524 into hydrocarbon layer 522 from heater well 520 .
  • Multiple wells extending from a single wellbore may be used when surface considerations (e.g., aesthetics, surface land use concerns, and/or unfavorable soil conditions near the surface) make it desirable to concentrate well platforms in a small area. For example, in areas where the soil is frozen and/or marshy, it may be more cost-effective to have a minimal number of well platforms located at selected sites.
  • a first portion of a heater well may extend from the ground surface, through an overburden, and into a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • a second portion of the heater well may include one or more heater wells in the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the one or more heater wells may be disposed within the hydrocarbon containing formation at various angles.
  • at least one of the heater wells may be disposed substantially parallel to a boundary of the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • at least one of the heater wells may be substantially perpendicular to the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • one of the one or more heater wells may be positioned at an angle between perpendicular and parallel to a layer in the formation.
  • FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic of view of multilateral or side tracked lateral heaters branched from a single well in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • a hydrocarbon containing formation e.g., in a coal, oil shale, or tar sands formation
  • an oil shale layer may have a richness greater than about 0.06 L/kg and a relatively low initial thermal conductivity. Heat provided to a thin layer with a low thermal conductivity from a horizontal wellbore may be more effectively trapped within the thin layer and reduce heat losses from the layer.
  • Substantially vertical opening 532 may be placed in hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Substantially vertical opening 532 may be an elongated portion of an opening formed in hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Hydrocarbon layer 522 may be below overburden 524 .
  • One or more substantially horizontal openings 534 may also be placed in hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Horizontal openings 534 may, in some embodiments, contain perforated liners.
  • the horizontal openings 534 may be coupled to vertical opening 532 .
  • Horizontal openings 534 may be elongated portions that diverge from the elongated portion of vertical opening 532 .
  • Horizontal openings 534 may be formed in hydrocarbon layer 522 after vertical opening 532 has been formed. In certain embodiments, openings 534 may be angled upwards to facilitate flow of formation fluids towards the production conduit.
  • Each horizontal opening 534 may lie above or below an adjacent horizontal opening.
  • six horizontal openings 534 may be formed in hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Three horizontal openings 534 may face 180°, or in a substantially opposite direction, from three additional horizontal openings 534 .
  • Two horizontal openings facing substantially opposite directions may lie in a substantially identical vertical plane within the formation. Any number of horizontal openings 534 may be coupled to a single vertical opening 532 , depending on, but not limited to, a thickness of hydrocarbon layer 522 , a type of formation, a desired heating rate in the formation, and a desired production rate.
  • Production conduit 536 may be placed substantially vertically within vertical opening 532 .
  • Production conduit 536 may be substantially centered within vertical opening 532 .
  • Pump 538 may be coupled to production conduit 536 .
  • Such a pump may be used, in some embodiments, to pump formation fluids from the bottom of the well.
  • Pump 538 may be a rod pump, progressing cavity pump (PCP), centrifugal pump, jet pump, gas lift pump, submersible pump, rotary pump, etc.
  • One or more heaters 540 may be placed within each horizontal opening 534 . Heaters 540 may be placed in hydrocarbon layer 522 through vertical opening 532 and into horizontal opening 534 .
  • heater 540 may be used to generate heat along a length of the heater within vertical opening 532 and horizontal opening 534 . In other embodiments, heater 540 may be used to generate heat only within horizontal opening 534 . In certain embodiments, heat generated by heater 540 may be varied along its length and/or varied between vertical opening 532 and horizontal opening 534 . For example, less heat may be generated by heater 540 in vertical opening 532 and more heat may be generated by the heater in horizontal opening 534 . It may be advantageous to have at least some heating within vertical opening 532 . This may maintain fluids produced from the formation in a vapor phase in production conduit 536 and/or may upgrade the produced fluids within the production well. Having production conduit 536 and heaters 540 installed into a formation through a single opening in the formation may reduce costs associated with forming openings in the formation and installing production equipment and heaters within the formation.
  • FIG. 8 depicts a schematic view from an elevated position of the embodiment of FIG. 7.
  • One or more vertical openings 532 may be formed in hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Each of vertical openings 532 may lie along a single plane in hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Horizontal openings 534 may extend in a plane substantially perpendicular to the plane of vertical openings 532 .
  • Additional horizontal openings 534 may lie in a plane below the horizontal openings as shown in the schematic depiction of FIG. 7.
  • a number of vertical openings 532 and/or a spacing between vertical openings 532 may be determined by, for example, a desired heating rate or a desired production rate. In some embodiments, spacing between vertical openings may be about 4 m to about 30 m.
  • a length of a horizontal opening 534 may be up to about 1600 m. However, a length of horizontal openings 534 may vary depending on, for example, a maximum installation cost, an area of hydrocarbon layer 522 , or a maximum producible heater length.
  • a formation having one or more thin hydrocarbon layers may be treated.
  • the hydrocarbon layer may be, but is not limited to, a rich, thin coal seam; a rich, thin oil shale; or a relatively thin hydrocarbon layer in a tar sands formation.
  • such formations may be treated with heat sources that are positioned substantially horizontal within and/or adjacent to the thin hydrocarbon layer or thin hydrocarbon layers.
  • a relatively thin hydrocarbon layer may be at a substantial depth below a ground surface.
  • a formation may have an overburden of up to about 650 m in depth. The cost of drilling a large number of substantially vertical wells within a formation to a significant depth may be expensive. It may be advantageous to place heaters horizontally within these formations to heat large portions of the formation for lengths up to about 1600 m. Using horizontal heaters may reduce the number of vertical wells that are needed to place a sufficient number of heaters within the formation.
  • FIG. 9 illustrates an embodiment of hydrocarbon containing layer 522 that may be at a near-horizontal angle with respect to surface 542 of the ground.
  • An angle of hydrocarbon containing layer 522 may vary.
  • hydrocarbon containing layer 522 may dip or be steeply dipping. Economically viable production of a steeply dipping hydrocarbon containing layer may not be possible using presently available mining methods.
  • a dipping or relatively steeply dipping hydrocarbon containing layer may be subjected to an in situ conversion process.
  • a set of production wells may be disposed near a highest portion of a dipping hydrocarbon layer of a hydrocarbon containing formation. Hydrocarbon portions adjacent to and below the production wells may be heated to pyrolysis temperatures. Pyrolysis fluid may be produced from the production wells. As production from the top portion declines, deeper portions of the formation may be heated to pyrolysis temperatures. Vapors may be produced from the hydrocarbon containing layer by transporting vapor through the previously pyrolyzed hydrocarbons. High permeability resulting from pyrolysis and production of fluid from the upper portion of the formation may allow for vapor phase transport with minimal pressure loss.
  • Vapor phase transport of fluids produced in the formation may eliminate a need to have deep production wells in addition to the set of production wells. A number of production wells required to process the formation may be reduced. Reducing the number of production wells required for production may increase economic viability of an in situ conversion process.
  • directional drilling may be used to form an opening in the formation for a heater well or production well.
  • Directional drilling may include drilling an opening in which the route/course of the opening may be planned before drilling. Such an opening may usually be drilled with rotary equipment.
  • a route/course of an opening may be controlled by deflection wedges, etc.
  • a wellbore may be formed using a drill equipped with a steerable motor and an accelerometer.
  • the steerable motor and accelerometer may allow the wellbore to follow a layer in the hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • a steerable motor may maintain a substantially constant distance between heater well 520 and a boundary of hydrocarbon containing layer 522 throughout drilling of the opening.
  • geosteered drilling may be used to drill a wellbore in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • Geosteered drilling may include determining or estimating a distance from an edge of hydrocarbon containing layer 522 to the wellbore with a sensor.
  • the sensor may monitor variations in characteristics or signals in the formation. The characteristic or signal variance may allow for determination of a desired drill path.
  • the sensor may monitor resistance, acoustic signals, magnetic signals, gamma rays, and/or other signals within the formation.
  • a drilling apparatus for geosteered drilling may include a steerable motor. The steerable motor may be controlled to maintain a predetermined distance from an edge of a hydrocarbon containing layer based on data collected by the sensor.
  • wellbores may be formed in a formation using other techniques.
  • Wellbores may be formed by impaction techniques and/or by sonic drilling techniques.
  • the method used to form wellbores may be determined based on a number of factors. The factors may include, but are not limited to, accessibility of the site, depth of the wellbore, properties of the overburden, and properties of the hydrocarbon containing layer or layers.
  • FIG. 10 illustrates an embodiment of a plurality of heater wells 520 formed in hydrocarbon containing layer 522 .
  • Hydrocarbon containing layer 522 may be a steeply dipping layer.
  • Heater wells 520 may be formed in the formation such that two or more of the heater wells are substantially parallel to each other, and/or such that at least one heater well is substantially parallel to a boundary of hydrocarbon containing layer 522 .
  • one or more of heater wells 520 may be formed in hydrocarbon containing layer 522 by a magnetic steering method.
  • Magnetic steering may include drilling heater well 520 parallel to an adjacent heater well.
  • the adjacent well may have been previously drilled.
  • Magnetic steering may include directing the drilling by sensing and/or determining a magnetic field produced in an adjacent heater well.
  • the magnetic field may be produced in the adjacent heater well by permanent magnets positioned in the adjacent heater well, by flowing a current through the casing of the adjacent heater well, and/or by flowing a current through an insulated current-carrying wireline disposed in the adjacent heater well.
  • heated portion 590 may extend radially from heat source 508 , as shown in FIG. 11.
  • a width of heated portion 590 in a direction extending radially from heat source 508 , may be about 0 m to about 10 m.
  • a width of heated portion 590 may vary, however, depending upon, for example, heat provided by heat source 508 and the characteristics of the formation. Heat provided by heat source 508 will typically transfer through the heated portion to create a temperature gradient within the heated portion.
  • a temperature proximate the heater well will generally be higher than a temperature proximate an outer lateral boundary of the heated portion.
  • a temperature gradient within the heated portion may vary within the heated portion depending on various factors (e.g., thermal conductivity of the formation, density, and porosity).
  • a temperature within at least a section of the heated portion may be within a pyrolysis temperature range.
  • a front at which pyrolysis occurs will in many instances travel outward from the heat source.
  • heat from the heat source may be allowed to transfer into a selected section of the heated portion such that heat from the heat source pyrolyzes at least some of the hydrocarbons within the selected section.
  • Pyrolysis may occur within selected section 592 of the heated portion, and pyrolyzation fluids will be generated in the selected section.
  • Selected section 592 may have a width radially extending from the inner lateral boundary of the selected section.
  • width of the selected section may be dependent on a number of factors. The factors may include, but are not limited to, time that heat source 508 is supplying energy to the formation, thermal conductivity properties of the formation, extent of pyrolyzation of hydrocarbons in the formation.
  • a width of selected section 592 may expand for a significant time after initialization of heat source 508 .
  • a width of selected section 592 may initially be zero and may expand to 10 m or more after initialization of heat source 508 .
  • An inner boundary of selected section 592 may be radially spaced from the heat source.
  • the inner boundary may define a volume of spent hydrocarbons 594 .
  • Spent hydrocarbons 594 may include a volume of hydrocarbon material that is transformed to coke due to the proximity and heat of heat source 508 . Coking may occur by pyrolysis reactions that occur due to a rapid increase in temperature in a short time period. Applying heat to a formation at a controlled rate may allow for avoidance of significant coking, however, some coking may occur in the vicinity of heat sources.
  • Spent hydrocarbons 594 may also include a volume of material that has been subjected to pyrolysis and the removal of pyrolysis fluids.
  • the volume of material that has been subjected to pyrolysis and the removal of pyrolysis fluids may produce insignificant amounts or no additional pyrolysis fluids with increases in temperature.
  • the inner lateral boundary may advance radially outwards as time progresses during operation of an in situ conversion process.
  • a plurality of heated portions may exist within a unit of heat sources.
  • a unit of heat sources refers to a minimal number of heat sources that form a template that is repeated to create a pattern of heat sources within the formation.
  • the heat sources may be located within the formation such that superposition (overlapping) of heat produced from the heat sources occurs. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 12, transfer of heat from two or more heat sources 508 results in superposition of heat to region 596 between the heat sources 508 .
  • Superposition of heat may occur between two, three, four, five, six, or more heat sources.
  • Region 596 is an area in which temperature is influenced by various heat sources. Superposition of heat may provide the ability to efficiently raise the temperature of large volumes of a formation to pyrolysis temperatures. The size of region 596 may be significantly affected by the spacing between heat sources.
  • Superposition of heat may increase a temperature in at least a portion of the formation to a temperature sufficient for pyrolysis of hydrocarbons within the portion.
  • Superposition of heat to region 596 may increase the quantity of hydrocarbons in a formation that are subjected to pyrolysis.
  • Selected sections of a formation that are subjected to pyrolysis may include regions 598 brought into a pyrolysis temperature range by heat transfer from substantially only one heat source.
  • Selected sections of a formation that are subjected to pyrolysis may also include regions 596 brought into a pyrolysis temperature range by superposition of heat from multiple heat sources.
  • a pattern of heat sources will often include many units of heat sources. There will typically be many heated portions, as well as many selected sections within the pattern of heat sources. Superposition of heat within a pattern of heat sources may decrease the time necessary to reach pyrolysis temperatures within the multitude of heated portions. Superposition of heat may allow for a relatively large spacing between adjacent heat sources. In some embodiments, a large spacing may provide for a relatively slow heating rate of hydrocarbon material. The slow heating rate may allow for pyrolysis of hydrocarbon material with minimal coking or no coking within the formation away from areas in the vicinity of the heat sources. Heating from heat sources allows the selected section to reach pyrolysis temperatures so that all hydrocarbons within the selected section may be subject to pyrolysis reactions. In some in situ conversion embodiments, a majority of pyrolysis fluids are produced when the selected section is within a range from about 0 m to about 25 m from a heat source.
  • a heating rate may be controlled to minimize costs associated with heating a selected section.
  • the costs may include, for example, input energy costs and equipment costs.
  • a cost associated with heating a selected section may be minimized by reducing a heating rate when the cost associated with heating is relatively high and increasing the heating rate when the cost associated with heating is relatively low. For example, a heating rate of about 330 watts/m may be used when the associated cost is relatively high, and a heating rate of about 1640 watts/m may be used when the associated cost is relatively low.
  • heating rates may be varied between about 300 watts/m and about 800 watts/m when the associated cost is relatively high and between about 1000 watts/m and 1800 watts/m when the associated cost is relatively low.
  • the cost associated with heating may be relatively high at peak times of energy use, such as during the daytime. For example, energy use may be high in warm climates during the daytime in the summer due to energy use for air conditioning. Low times of energy use may be, for example, at night or during weekends, when energy demand tends to be lower.
  • the heating rate may be varied from a higher heating rate during low energy usage times, such as during the night, to a lower heating rate during high energy usage times, such as during the day.
  • one or more production wells 512 will typically be placed within the portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation. Formation fluids may be produced through production well 512 .
  • production well 512 may include a heat source. The heat source may heat the portions of the formation at or near the production well and allow for vapor phase removal of formation fluids. The need for high temperature pumping of liquids from the production well may be reduced or eliminated. Avoiding or limiting high temperature pumping of liquids may significantly decrease production costs.
  • Providing heating at or through the production well may: (1) inhibit condensation and/or refluxing of production fluid when such production fluid is moving in the production well proximate the overburden, (2) increase heat input into the formation, and/or (3) increase formation permeability at or proximate the production well.
  • an amount of heat supplied to production wells is significantly less than an amount of heat applied to heat sources that heat the formation.
  • production wells may be provided in upper portions of hydrocarbon layers. As shown in FIG. 9, production wells 512 may extend into a hydrocarbon containing formation near the top of heated portion 590 . Extending production wells significantly into the depth of the heated hydrocarbon layer may be unnecessary.
  • Fluid generated within a hydrocarbon containing formation may move a considerable distance through the hydrocarbon containing formation as a vapor.
  • the considerable distance may be over 1000 m depending on various factors (e.g., permeability of the formation, properties of the fluid, temperature of the formation, and pressure gradient allowing movement of the fluid).
  • production wells may only need to be provided in every other unit of heat sources or every third, fourth, fifth, or sixth units of heat sources.
  • Embodiments of a production well may include valves that alter, maintain, and/or control a pressure of at least a portion of the formation.
  • Production wells may be cased wells.
  • Production wells may have production screens or perforated casings adjacent to production zones.
  • the production wells may be surrounded by sand, gravel or other packing materials adjacent to production zones.
  • Production wells 512 may be coupled to treatment facilities 516 , as shown in FIG. 3.
  • production wells may be operated such that the production wells are at a lower pressure than other portions of the formation.
  • a vacuum may be drawn at the production wells. Maintaining the production wells at lower pressures may inhibit fluids in the formation from migrating outside of the in situ treatment area.
  • FIG. 13 illustrates an embodiment of production well 512 placed in hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Production well 512 may be used to produce formation fluids from hydrocarbon layer 522 .
  • Hydrocarbon layer 522 may be treated using an in situ conversion process.
  • Production conduit 536 may be placed within production well 512 .
  • production conduit 536 is a hollow sucker rod placed in production well 512 .
  • Production well 512 may have a casing, or lining, placed along the length of the production well. The casing may have openings, or perforations, to allow formation fluids to enter production well 512 .
  • Formation fluids may include vapors and/or liquids.
  • Production conduit 536 and production well 512 may include non-corrosive materials such as steel.
  • production conduit 536 may include heat source 508 .
  • Heat source 508 may be a heater placed inside or outside production conduit 536 or formed as part of the production conduit.
  • Heat source 508 may be a heater such as an insulated conductor heater, a conductor-in-conduit heater, or a skin-effect heater.
  • a skin-effect heater is an electric heater that uses eddy current heating to induce resistive losses in production conduit 536 to heat the production conduit.
  • An example of a skin-effect heater is obtainable from Dagang Oil Products (China).
  • Heating of production conduit 536 may inhibit condensation and/or refluxing in the production conduit or within production well 512 .
  • heating of production conduit 536 may inhibit plugging of pump 538 by liquids (e.g., heavy hydrocarbons).
  • heat source 508 may heat production conduit 536 to about 35° C. to maintain the mobility of liquids in the production conduit to inhibit plugging of pump 538 or the production conduit.
  • heat source 508 may heat production conduit 536 and/or production well 512 to temperatures of about 200° C. to about 250° C. to maintain produced fluids substantially in a vapor phase by inhibiting condensation and/or reflux of fluids in the production well.
  • Pump 538 may be coupled to production conduit 536 .
  • Pump 538 may be used to pump formation fluids from hydrocarbon layer 522 into production conduit 536 .
  • Pump 538 may be any pump used to pump fluids, such as a rod pump, PCP, jet pump, gas lift pump, centrifugal pump, rotary pump, or submersible pump. Pump 538 may be used to pump fluids through production conduit 536 to a surface of the formation above overburden 524 .
  • pump 538 can be used to pump formation fluids that may be liquids.
  • Liquids may be produced from hydrocarbon layer 522 prior to production well 512 being heated to a temperature sufficient to vaporize liquids within the production well.
  • liquids produced from the formation tend to include water. Removing liquids from the formation before heating the formation, or during early times of heating before pyrolysis occurs, tends to reduce the amount of heat input that is needed to produce hydrocarbons from the formation.
  • formation fluids that are liquids may be produced through production conduit 536 using pump 538 .
  • Formation fluids that are vapors may be simultaneously produced through an annulus of production well 512 outside of production conduit 536 .
  • Insulation may be placed on a wall of production well 512 in a section of the production well within overburden 524 .
  • the insulation may be cement or any other suitable low heat transfer material. Insulating the overburden section of production well 512 may inhibit transfer of heat from fluids being produced from the formation into the overburden.
  • a mixture may be produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the mixture may be produced through a heater well disposed in the formation. Producing the mixture through the heater well may increase a production rate of the mixture as compared to a production rate of a mixture produced through a non-heater well.
  • a non-heater well may include a production well.
  • a production well may be heated to increase a production rate.
  • a heated production well may inhibit condensation of higher carbon numbers (C 5 or above) in the production well.
  • a heated production well may inhibit problems associated with producing a hot, multi-phase fluid from a formation.
  • a heated production well may have an improved production rate as compared to a non-heated production well.
  • Heat applied to the formation adjacent to the production well from the production well may increase formation permeability adjacent to the production well by vaporizing and removing liquid phase fluid adjacent to the production well and/or by increasing the permeability of the formation adjacent to the production well by formation of macro and/or micro fractures.
  • a heater in a lower portion of a production well may be turned off when superposition of heat from heat sources heats the formation sufficiently to counteract benefits provided by heating from within the production well.
  • a heater in an upper portion of a production well may remain on after a heater in a lower portion of the well is deactivated. The heater in the upper portion of the well may inhibit condensation and reflux of formation fluid.
  • heated production wells may improve product quality by causing production through a hot zone in the formation adjacent to the heated production well.
  • a final phase of thermal cracking may exist in the hot zone adjacent to the production well.
  • Producing through a hot zone adjacent to a heated production well may allow for an increased olefin content in non-condensable hydrocarbons and/or condensable hydrocarbons in the formation fluids.
  • the hot zone may produce formation fluids with a greater percentage of non-condensable hydrocarbons due to thermal cracking in the hot zone.
  • the extent of thermal cracking may depend on a temperature of the hot zone and/or on a residence time in the hot zone.
  • a heater can be deliberately run hotter to promote the further in situ upgrading of hydrocarbons. This may be an advantage in the case of heavy hydrocarbons (e.g., bitumen or tar) in relatively permeable formations, in which some heavy hydrocarbons tend to flow into the production well before sufficient upgrading has occurred.
  • heating in or proximate a production well may be controlled such that a desired mixture is produced through the production well.
  • the desired mixture may have a selected yield of non-condensable hydrocarbons.
  • the selected yield of non-condensable hydrocarbons may be about 75 weight % non-condensable hydrocarbons or, in some embodiments, about 50 weight % to about 100 weight %.
  • the desired mixture may have a selected yield of condensable hydrocarbons.
  • the selected yield of condensable hydrocarbons may be about 75 weight % condensable hydrocarbons or, in some embodiments, about 50 weight % to about 95 weight %.
  • a temperature and a pressure may be controlled within the formation to inhibit the production of carbon dioxide and increase production of carbon monoxide and molecular hydrogen during synthesis gas production.
  • the mixture is produced through a production well (or heater well), which may be heated to inhibit the production of carbon dioxide.
  • a mixture produced from a first portion of the formation may be recycled into a second portion of the formation to inhibit the production of carbon dioxide.
  • the mixture produced from the first portion may be at a lower temperature than the mixture produced from the second portion of the formation.
  • a desired volume ratio of molecular hydrogen to carbon monoxide in synthesis gas may be produced from the formation.
  • the desired volume ratio may be about 2.0:1.
  • the volume ratio may be maintained between about 1.8:1 and 2.2:1 for synthesis gas.
  • FIG. 14 illustrates a pattern of heat sources 508 and production wells 512 that may be used to treat a hydrocarbon•containing formation.
  • Heat sources 508 may be arranged in a unit of heat sources such as triangular pattern 600 .
  • Heat sources 508 may be arranged in a variety of patterns including, but not limited to, squares, hexagons, and other polygons.
  • the pattern may include a regular polygon to promote uniform heating of the formation in which the heat sources are placed.
  • the pattern may also be a line drive pattern.
  • a line drive pattern generally includes a first linear array of heater wells, a second linear array of heater wells, and a production well or a linear array of production wells between the first and second linear array of heater wells.
  • a distance from a node of a polygon to a centroid of the polygon is smallest for a 3-sided polygon and increases with increasing number of sides of the polygon.
  • the distance from a node to the centroid for an equilateral triangle is (length/2)/(square root(3)/2) or 0.5774 times the length.
  • the distance from a node to the centroid is (length/2)/(square root(2)/2) or 0.7071 times the length.
  • the distance from a node to the centroid is (length/2)/(1/2) or the length.
  • the difference in distance between a heat source and a midpoint to a second heat source (length/2) and the distance from a heat source to the centroid for an equilateral pattern (0.5774 times the length) is significantly less for the equilateral triangle pattern than for any higher order polygon pattern.
  • the small difference means that superposition of heat may develop more rapidly and that the formation may rise to a more uniform temperature between heat sources using an equilateral triangle pattern rather than a higher order polygon pattern.
  • Triangular patterns tend to provide more uniform heating to a portion of the formation in comparison to other patterns such as squares and/or hexagons. Triangular patterns tend to provide faster heating to a predetermined temperature in comparison to other patterns such as squares or hexagons.
  • the use of triangular patterns may result in smaller volumes of a formation being overheated.
  • a plurality of units of heat sources such as triangular pattern 600 may be arranged substantially adjacent to each other to form a repetitive pattern of units over an area of the formation.
  • triangular patterns 600 may be arranged substantially adjacent to each other in a repetitive pattern of units by inverting an orientation of adjacent triangles 600 .
  • Other patterns of heat sources 508 may also be arranged such that smaller patterns may be disposed adjacent to each other to form larger patterns.
  • Production wells may be disposed in the formation in a repetitive pattern of units.
  • production well 512 may be disposed proximate a center of every third triangle 600 arranged in the pattern.
  • Production well 512 may be disposed in every triangle 600 or within just a few triangles.
  • a production well may be placed within every 13, 20, or 30 heater well triangles.
  • a ratio of heat sources in the repetitive pattern of units to production wells in the repetitive pattern of units may be more than approximately 5 (e.g., more than 6, 7, 8, or 9).
  • three or more production wells may be located within an area defined by a repetitive pattern of units.
  • production wells 602 may be located within an area defined by repetitive pattern of units 604 .
  • Production wells 602 may be located in the formation in a unit of production wells.
  • the location of production wells 512 , 602 within a pattern of heat sources 508 may be determined by, for example, a desired heating rate of the hydrocarbon containing formation, a heating rate of the heat sources, the type of heat sources used, the type of hydrocarbon containing formation (and its thickness), the composition of the hydrocarbon containing formation, permeability of the formation, the desired composition to be produced from the formation, and/or a desired production rate.
  • One or more injection wells may be disposed within a repetitive pattern of units.
  • injection wells 606 may be located within an area defined by repetitive pattern of units 608 .
  • Injection wells 606 may also be located in the formation in a unit of injection wells.
  • the unit of injection wells may be a triangular pattern.
  • Injection wells 606 may be disposed in any other pattern.
  • one or more production wells and one or more injection wells may be disposed in a repetitive pattern of units.
  • production wells 610 and injection wells 612 may be located within an area defined by repetitive pattern of units 614 .
  • Production wells 610 may be located in the formation in a unit of production wells, which may be arranged in a first triangular pattern.
  • injection wells 612 may be located within the formation in a unit of production wells, which are arranged in a second triangular pattern.
  • the first triangular pattern may be different than the second triangular pattern. For example, areas defined by the first and second triangular patterns may be different.
  • One or more monitoring wells may be disposed within a repetitive pattern of units.
  • Monitoring wells may include one or more devices that measure temperature, pressure, and/or fluid properties.
  • logging tools may be placed in monitoring well wellbores to measure properties within a formation. The logging tools may be moved to other monitoring well wellbores as needed.
  • the monitoring well wellbores may be cased or uncased wellbores.
  • Monitoring wells 616 may be located within an area defined by repetitive pattern of units 618 . Monitoring wells 616 may be located in the formation in a unit of monitoring wells, which may be arranged in a triangular pattern. Monitoring wells 616 , however, may be disposed in any of the other patterns within repetitive pattern of units 618 .
  • heat sources 508 and production wells 512 are described herein by example.
  • a pattern of heat sources and production wells will in many instances vary depending on, for example, the type of hydrocarbon containing formation to be treated.
  • heater wells may be aligned along one or more layers along strike or along dip.
  • heat sources may be at an angle to one or more layers (e.g., orthogonally or diagonally).
  • a triangular pattern of heat sources may treat a hydrocarbon layer having a thickness of about 10 m or more.
  • a line and/or staggered line pattern of heat sources may treat the hydrocarbon layer.
  • heating wells may be placed close to an edge of the layer (e.g., in a staggered line instead of a line placed in the center of the layer) to increase the amount of hydrocarbons produced per unit of energy input.
  • a portion of input heating energy may heat non-hydrocarbon portions of the formation, but the staggered pattern may allow superposition of heat to heat a majority of the hydrocarbon layers to pyrolysis temperatures.
  • the thin formation is heated by placing one or more heater wells in the layer along a center of the thickness, a significant portion of the hydrocarbon layers may not be heated to pyrolysis temperatures.
  • placing heater wells closer to an edge of the layer may increase the volume of layer undergoing pyrolysis per unit of energy input.
  • heater wells may be substantially horizontal while production wells may be vertical, or vice versa.
  • wells may be aligned along dip or strike or oriented at an angle between dip and strike.
  • the spacing between heat sources may vary depending on a number of factors. The factors may include, but are not limited to, the type of a hydrocarbon containing formation, the selected heating rate, and/or the selected average temperature to be obtained within the heated portion. In some well pattern embodiments, the spacing between heat sources may be within a range of about 5 m to about 25 m. In some well pattern embodiments, spacing between heat sources may be within a range of about 8 m to about 15 m.
  • the spacing between heat sources may influence the composition of fluids produced from a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • a computer-implemented simulation may be used to determine optimum heat source spacings within a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • At least one property of a portion of hydrocarbon containing formation can usually be measured. The measured property may include, but is not limited to, vitrinite reflectance, hydrogen content, atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio, oxygen content, atomic oxygen to carbon ratio, water content, thickness of the hydrocarbon containing formation, and/or the amount of stratification of the hydrocarbon containing formation into separate layers of rock and hydrocarbons.
  • a computer-implemented simulation may include providing at least one measured property to a computer system.
  • One or more sets of heat source spacings in the formation may also be provided to the computer system.
  • a spacing between heat sources may be less than about 30 m.
  • a spacing between heat sources may be less than about 15 m.
  • the simulation may include determining properties of fluids produced from the portion as a function of time for each set of heat source spacings.
  • the produced fluids may include formation fluids such as pyrolyzation fluids or synthesis gas.
  • the determined properties may include, but are not limited to, API gravity, carbon number distribution, olefin content, hydrogen content, carbon monoxide content, and/or carbon dioxide content.
  • the determined set of properties of the produced fluid may be compared to a set of selected properties of a produced fluid. Sets of properties that match the set of selected properties may be determined.
  • heat source spacings may be matched to heat source spacings associated with desired properties.
  • unit cell 620 will often include a number of heat sources 508 disposed within a formation around each production well 512 .
  • An area of unit cell 620 may be determined by midlines 622 that may be equidistant and perpendicular to a line connecting two production wells 512 . Vertices 624 of the unit cell may be at the intersection of two midlines 622 between production wells 512 .
  • Heat sources 508 may be disposed in any arrangement within the area of unit cell 620 .
  • heat sources 508 may be located within the formation such that a distance between each heat source varies by less than approximately 10%, 20%, or 30%.
  • heat sources 508 may be disposed such that an approximately equal space exists between each of the heat sources.
  • Other arrangements of heat sources 508 within unit cell 620 may be used.
  • a ratio of heat sources 508 to production wells 512 may be determined by counting the number of heat sources 508 and production wells 512 within unit cell 620 or over the total field.
  • FIG. 15 illustrates an embodiment of unit cell 620 .
  • Unit cell 620 includes heat sources 508 D, 508 E and production well 512 .
  • Unit cell 620 may have six full heat sources 508 D and six partial heat sources 508 E.
  • Full heat sources 508 D may be closer to production well 512 than partial heat sources 508 E.
  • an entirety of each of full heat sources 508 b may be located within unit cell 620 .
  • Partial heat sources 508 E may be partially disposed within unit cell 620 . Only a portion of heat source 508 E disposed within unit cell 620 may provide heat to a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation disposed within unit cell 620 .
  • a remaining portion of heat source 508 E disposed outside of unit cell 620 may provide heat to a remaining portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation outside of unit cell 620 .
  • partial heat source 508 E may be counted as one-half of full heat source 508 D.
  • fractions other than 1 ⁇ 2 e.g., 1 ⁇ 3 may more accurately describe the amount of heat applied to a portion from a partial heat source based on geometrical considerations.
  • the total number of heat sources in unit cell 620 may include six full heat sources 508 D that are each counted as one heat source, and six partial heat sources 508 E that are each counted as one-half of a heat source. Therefore, a ratio of heat sources 508 D, 508 E to production wells 512 in unit cell 620 may be determined as 9:1. A ratio of heat sources to production wells may be varied, however, depending on, for example, the desired heating rate of the hydrocarbon containing formation, the heating rate of the heat sources, the type of heat source, the type of hydrocarbon containing formation, the composition of hydrocarbon containing formation, the desired composition of the produced fluid, and/or the desired production rate.
  • An appropriate ratio of heat sources to production wells may include ratios greater than about 5:1. In some embodiments, an appropriate ratio of heat sources to production wells may be about 10:1, 20:1, 50:1, or greater. If larger ratios are used, then project costs tend to decrease since less production wells and accompanying equipment are needed.
  • a selected section is the volume of formation that is within a perimeter defined by the location of the outermost heat sources (assuming that the formation is viewed from above). For example, if four heat sources were located in a single square pattern with an area of about 100 ml (with each source located at a corner of the square), and if the formation had an average thickness of approximately 5 m across this area, then the selected section would be a volume of about 500 m 3 (i.e., the area multiplied by the average formation thickness across the area). In many commercial applications, many heat sources (e.g., hundreds or thousands) may be adjacent to each other to heat a selected section, and therefore only the outermost heat sources (i.e., edge heat sources) would define the perimeter of the selected section.
  • FIG. 16 illustrates computational system 626 suitable for implementing various embodiments of a system and method for in situ processing of a formation.
  • Computational system 626 typically includes components such as one or more central processing units (CPU) 628 with associated memory mediums, represented by floppy disks 630 or compact discs (CDs).
  • the memory mediums may store program instructions for computer programs, wherein the program instructions are executable by CPU 628 .
  • Computational system 626 may further include one or more display devices such as monitor 632 , one or more alphanumeric input devices such as keyboard 634 , and/or one or more directional input devices such as mouse 636 .
  • Computational system 626 is operable to execute the computer programs to implement (e.g., control, design, simulate, and/or operate) in situ processing of formation systems and methods.
  • Computational system 626 preferably includes one or more memory mediums on which computer programs according to various embodiments may be stored.
  • the term “memory medium” may include an installation medium, e.g., CD-ROM or floppy disks 630 , a computational system memory such as DRAM, SRAM, EDO DRAM, SDRAM, DDR SDRAM, Rambus RAM, etc., or a non-volatile memory such as a magnetic media (e.g., a hard drive) or optical storage.
  • the memory medium may include other types of memory as well, or combinations thereof.
  • the memory medium may be located in a first computer that is used to execute the programs.
  • the memory medium may be located in a second computer, or other computers, connected to the first computer (e.g., over a network).
  • the second computer provides the program instructions to the first computer for execution.
  • computational system 626 may take various forms, including a personal computer, mainframe computational system, workstation, network appliance, Internet appliance, personal digital assistant (PDA), television system, or other device.
  • computational system can be broadly defined to encompass any device, or system of devices, having a processor that executes instructions from a memory medium.
  • the memory medium preferably stores a software program or programs for event-triggered transaction processing.
  • the software program(s) may be implemented in any of various ways, including procedure-based techniques, component-based techniques, and/or object-oriented techniques, among others.
  • the software program may be implemented using ActiveX controls, C++ objects, JavaBeans, Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC), or other technologies or methodologies, as desired.
  • a CPU such as host CPU 628 , executing code and data from the memory medium, includes a system/process for creating and executing the software program or programs according to the methods and/or block diagrams described below.
  • the computer programs executable by computational system 626 may be implemented in an object-oriented programming language.
  • object-oriented programming language data and related methods can be grouped together or encapsulated to form an entity known as an object. All objects in an object-oriented programming system belong to a class, which can be thought of as a category of like objects that describes the characteristics of those objects. Each object is created as an instance of the class by a program. The objects may therefore be said to have been instantiated from the class.
  • the class sets out variables and methods for objects that belong to that class. The definition of the class does not itself create any objects.
  • the class may define initial values for its variables, and it normally defines the methods associated with the class (e.g., includes the program code which is executed when a method is invoked).
  • the class may thereby provide all of the program code that will be used by objects in the class, hence maximizing re-use of code that is shared by objects in the class.
  • FIG. 17 depicts a block diagram of one embodiment of computational system 626 including processor 638 coupled to a variety of system components through bus bridge 640 is shown. Other embodiments are possible and contemplated.
  • main memory 642 is coupled to bus bridge 640 through memory bus 644
  • graphics controller 646 is coupled to bus bridge 640 through AGP bus 648 .
  • a plurality of PCI devices 650 and 652 are coupled to bus bridge 640 through PCI bus 654 .
  • Secondary bus bridge 656 may be provided to accommodate an electrical interface to one or more EISA or ISA devices 658 through EISA/ISA bus 660 .
  • Processor 638 is coupled to bus bridge 640 through CPU bus 662 and to optional L2 cache 664 .
  • Bus bridge 640 provides an interface between processor 638 , main memory 642 , graphics controller 646 , and devices attached to PCI bus 654 .
  • bus bridge 640 identifies the target of the operation (e.g., a particular device or, in the case of PCI bus 654 , that the target is on PCI bus 654 ).
  • Bus bridge 640 routes the operation to the targeted device.
  • Bus bridge 640 generally translates an operation from the protocol used by the source device or bus to the protocol used by the target device or bus.
  • secondary bus bridge 656 may further incorporate additional functionality, as desired.
  • An input/output controller (not shown), either external from or integrated with secondary bus bridge 656 , may also be included within computational system 626 to provide operational support for keyboard and mouse 636 and for various serial and parallel ports, as desired.
  • An external cache unit (not shown) may further be coupled to CPU bus 662 between processor 638 and bus bridge 640 in other embodiments. Alternatively, the external cache may be coupled to bus bridge 640 and cache control logic for the external cache may be integrated into bus bridge 640 .
  • L2 cache 664 is further shown in a backside configuration to processor 638 . It is noted that L2 cache 664 may be separate from processor 638 , integrated into a cartridge (e.g., slot 1 or slot A) with processor 638 , or even integrated onto a semiconductor substrate with processor 638 .
  • Main memory 642 is a memory in which application programs are stored and from which processor 638 primarily executes.
  • a suitable main memory 642 comprises DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).
  • DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
  • a plurality of banks of SDRAM Synchronous DRAM
  • DDR Double Data Rate SDRAM
  • RDRAM Rambus DRAM
  • PCI devices 650 and 652 are illustrative of a variety of peripheral devices such as, for example, network interface cards, video accelerators, audio cards, hard or floppy disk drives or drive controllers, SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) adapters, and telephony cards.
  • ISA device 658 is illustrative of various types of peripheral devices, such as a modem, a sound card, and a variety of data acquisition cards such as GPIB or field bus interface cards.
  • Graphics controller 646 is provided to control the rendering of text and images on display 666 .
  • Graphics controller 646 may embody a typical graphics accelerator generally known in the art to render three-dimensional data structures that can be effectively shifted into and from main memory 642 .
  • Graphics controller 646 may therefore be a master of AGP bus 648 in that it can request and receive access to a target interface within bus bridge 640 to thereby obtain access to main memory 642 .
  • a dedicated graphics bus accommodates rapid retrieval of data from main memory 642 .
  • graphics controller 646 may generate PCI protocol transactions on AGP bus 648 .
  • the AGP interface of bus bridge 640 may thus include functionality to support both AGP protocol transactions as well as PCI protocol target and initiator transactions.
  • Display 666 is any electronic display upon which an image or text can be presented.
  • a suitable display 666 includes a cathode ray tube (“CRT”), a liquid crystal display (“LCD”), etc.
  • computational system 626 may be a multiprocessing computational system including additional processors (e.g., processor 668 shown as an optional component of computational system 626 ).
  • processor 668 may be similar to processor 638 . More particularly, processor 668 may be an identical copy of processor 638 .
  • Processor 668 may be connected to bus bridge 640 via an independent bus (as shown in FIG. 17) or may share CPU bus 662 with processor 638 .
  • processor 668 may be coupled to optional L2 cache 670 similar to L2 cache 664 .
  • FIG. 18 illustrates a flowchart of a computer-implemented method for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation based on a characteristic of the formation.
  • At least one characteristic 672 may be input into computational system 626 .
  • Computational system 626 may process at least one characteristic 672 using a software executable to determine a set of operating conditions 676 for treating the formation with in situ process 674 .
  • the software executable may process equations relating to formation characteristics and/or the relationships between formation characteristics.
  • At least one characteristic 672 may include, but is not limited to, an overburden thickness, depth of the formation, coal rank, vitrinite reflectance, type of formation, permeability, density, porosity, moisture content, and other organic maturity indicators, oil saturation, water saturation, volatile matter content, kerogen composition, oil chemistry, ash content, net-to-gross ratio, carbon content, hydrogen content, oxygen content, sulfur content, nitrogen content, mineralogy, soluble compound content, elemental composition, hydrogeology, water zones, gas zones, barren zones, mechanical properties, or top seal character.
  • Computational system 626 may be used to control in situ process 674 using determined set of operating conditions 676 .
  • FIG. 19 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment used to control an in situ conversion process (ICP) in formation 678 .
  • Barrier well 518 , monitor well 616 , production well 512 , and heater well 520 may be placed in formation 678 .
  • Barrier well 518 may be used to control water conditions within formation 678 .
  • Monitoring well 616 may be used to monitor subsurface conditions in the formation, such as, but not limited to, pressure, temperature, product quality, or fracture progression.
  • Production well 512 may be used to produce formation fluids (e.g., oil, gas, and water) from the formation.
  • Heater well 520 may be used to provide heat to the formation.
  • Formation conditions such as, but not limited to, pressure, temperature, fracture progression (monitored, for instance, by acoustical sensor data), and fluid quality (e.g., product quality or water quality) may be monitored through one or more of wells 512 , 518 , 520 , and 616 .
  • Surface data such as, but not limited to, pump status (e.g., pump on or off), fluid flow rate, surface pressure/temperature, and/or heater power may be monitored by instruments placed at each well or certain wells.
  • subsurface data such as, but not limited to, pressure, temperature, fluid quality, and acoustical sensor data may be monitored by instruments placed at each well or certain wells.
  • Surface data 680 from barrier well 518 may include pump status, flow rate, and surface pressure/temperature.
  • Surface data 682 from production well 512 may include pump status, flow rate, and surface pressure/temperature.
  • Subsurface data 684 from barrier well 518 may include pressure, temperature, water quality, and acoustical sensor data.
  • Subsurface data 686 from monitoring well 616 may include pressure, temperature, product quality, and acoustical sensor data.
  • Subsurface data 688 from production well 512 may include pressure, temperature, product quality, and acoustical sensor data.
  • Subsurface data 690 from heater well 520 may include pressure, temperature, and acoustical sensor data.
  • Surface data 680 and 682 and subsurface data 684 , 686 , 688 , and 690 may be monitored as analog data 692 from one or more measuring instruments.
  • Analog data 692 may be converted to digital data 694 in analog-to-digital converter 696 .
  • Digital data 694 may be provided to computational system 626 .
  • one or more measuring instruments may provide digital data to computational system 626 .
  • Computational system 626 may include a distributed central processing unit (CPU). Computational system 626 may process digital data 694 to interpret analog data 692 .
  • Output from computational system 626 may be provided to remote display 698 , data storage 700 , display 666 , or to treatment facility 516 .
  • Treatment facility 516 may include, for example, a hydrotreating plant, a liquid processing plant, or a gas processing plant.
  • Computational system 626 may provide digital output 702 to digital-to-analog converter 704 .
  • Digital-to-analog converter 704 may convert digital output 702 to analog output 706 .
  • Analog output 706 may include instructions to control one or more conditions of formation 678 .
  • Analog output 706 may include instructions to control the ICP within formation 678 .
  • Analog output 706 may include instructions to adjust one or more parameters of the ICP. The one or more parameters may include, but are not limited to, pressure, temperature, product composition, and product quality.
  • Analog output 706 may include instructions for control of pump status 708 or flow rate 710 at barrier well 518 .
  • Analog output 706 may include instructions for control of pump status 712 or flow rate 714 at production well 512 .
  • Analog output 706 may also include instructions for control of heater power 716 at heater well 520 .
  • Analog output 706 may include instructions to vary one or more conditions such as pump status, flow rate, or heater power.
  • Analog output 706 may also include instructions to turn on and/or off pumps, heaters, or monitoring instruments located at each well.
  • Remote input data 718 may also be provided to computational system 626 to control conditions within formation 678 .
  • Remote input data 718 may include data used to adjust conditions of formation 678 .
  • Remote input data 718 may include data such as, but not limited to, electricity cost, gas or oil prices, pipeline tariffs, data from simulations, plant emissions, or refinery availability.
  • Remote input data 718 may be used by computational system 626 to adjust digital output 702 to a desired value.
  • treatment facility data 720 may be provided to computational system 626 .
  • An in situ conversion process may be monitored using a feedback control process, feedforward control process, or other type of control process. Conditions within a formation may be monitored and used within the feedback control process.
  • a formation being treated using an in situ conversion process may undergo changes in mechanical properties due to the conversion of solids and viscous liquids to vapors, fracture propagation (e.g., to overburden, underburden, water tables, etc.), increases in permeability or porosity and decreases in density, moisture evaporation, and/or thermal instability of matrix minerals (leading to dehydration and decarbonation reactions and shifts in stable mineral assemblages).
  • Remote monitoring techniques that will sense these changes in reservoir properties may include, but are not limited to, 4D (4 dimension) time lapse seismic monitoring, 3D/3C (3 dimension/3 component) seismic passive acoustic monitoring of fracturing, time lapse 3D seismic passive acoustic monitoring of fracturing, electrical resistivity, thermal mapping, surface or downhole tilt meters, surveying permanent surface monuments, chemical sniffing or laser sensors for surface gas abundance, and gravimetrics.
  • More direct subsurface-based monitoring techniques may include high temperature downhole instrumentation (such as thermocouples and other temperature sensing mechanisms, pressure sensors such as hydrophones, stress sensors, or instrumentation in the producer well to detect gas flows on a finely incremental basis).
  • a “base” seismic monitoring may be conducted, and then subsequent seismic results can be compared to determine changes.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 6,456,566 issued to Aronstam; U.S. Pat. No. 5,418,335 issued to Winbow; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,879,696 issued to Kostelnicek et al. and U.S. Statutory Invention Registration H 1561 to Thompson describe seismic sources for use in active acoustic monitoring of subsurface geophysical phenomena.
  • a time-lapse profile may be generated to monitor temporal and areal changes in a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • active acoustic monitoring may be used to obtain baseline geological information before treatment of a formation.
  • active and/or passive acoustic monitoring may be used to monitor changes within the formation.
  • Simulation methods on a computer system may be used to model an in situ process for treating a formation. Simulations may determine and/or predict operating conditions (e.g., pressure, temperature, etc.), products that may be produced from the formation at given operating conditions, and/or product characteristics (e.g., API gravity, aromatic to paraffin ratio, etc.) for the process.
  • a computer simulation may be used to model fluid mechanics (including mass transfer and heat transfer) and kinetics within the formation to determine characteristics of products produced during heating of the formation.
  • a formation may be modeled using commercially available simulation programs such as STARS, THERM, FLUENT, or CFX. In addition, combinations of simulation programs may be used to more accurately determine or predict characteristics of the in situ process.
  • Results of the simulations may be used to determine operating conditions within the formation prior to actual treatment of the formation. Results of the simulations may also be used to adjust operating conditions during treatment of the formation based on a change in a property of the formation and/or a change in a desired property of a product produced from the formation.
  • FIG. 20 illustrates a flowchart of an embodiment of method 722 for modeling an in situ process for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation using a computer system.
  • Method 722 may include providing at least one property 724 of the formation to the computer system.
  • Properties of the formation may include, but are not limited to, porosity, permeability, saturation, thermal conductivity, volumetric heat capacity, compressibility, composition, and number and types of phases in the formation. Properties may also include chemical components, chemical reactions, and kinetic parameters.
  • At least one operating condition 726 of the process may also be provided to the computer system.
  • operating conditions may include, but are not limited to, pressure, temperature, heating rate, heat input rate, process time, weight percentage of gases, production characteristics (e.g., flow rates, locations, compositions), and peripheral water recovery or injection.
  • operating conditions may include characteristics of the well pattern such as producer well location, producer well orientation, ratio of producer wells to heater wells, heater well spacing, type of heater well pattern, heater well orientation, and distance between an overburden and horizontal heater wells.
  • Method 722 may include assessing at least one process characteristic 728 of the in situ process using simulation method 730 on the computer system. At least one process characteristic may be assessed as a function of time from at least one property of the formation and at least one operating condition.
  • Process characteristics may include, but are not limited to, properties of a produced fluid such as API gravity, olefin content, carbon number distribution, ethene to ethane ratio, atomic carbon to hydrogen ratio, and ratio of non-condensable hydrocarbons to condensable hydrocarbons (gas/oil ratio).
  • Process characteristics may include, but are not limited to, a pressure and temperature in the formation, total mass recovery from the formation, and/or production rate of fluid produced from the formation.
  • simulation method 730 may include a numerical simulation method used/performed on the computer system.
  • the numerical simulation method may employ finite difference methods to solve fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and chemical reaction equations as a function of time.
  • a finite difference method may use a body-fitted grid system with unstructured grids to model a formation.
  • An unstructured grid employs a wide variety of shapes to model a formation geometry, in contrast to a structured grid.
  • a body-fitted finite difference simulation method may calculate fluid flow and heat transfer in a formation. Heat transfer mechanisms may include conduction, convection, and radiation.
  • a finite difference simulation method may determine values for heat injection rate data.
  • a body-fitted finite difference simulation method may be well suited for simulating systems that include sharp interfaces in physical properties or conditions.
  • a body-fitted finite difference simulation method may be more accurate, in certain circumstances, than space-fitted methods due to the use of finer, unstructured grids in body-fitted methods.
  • the temperature profile in and near a heater well may be relatively sharp.
  • a region near a heater well may be referred to as a “near wellbore region.”
  • the size or radius of a near wellbore region may depend on the type of formation.
  • a general criteria for determining or estimating the radius of a “near wellbore region” may be a distance at which heat transfer by the mechanism of convection contributes significantly to overall heat transfer.
  • Heat transfer in the near wellbore region is typically limited to contributions from conductive and/or radiative heat transfer.
  • Convective heat transfer tends to contribute significantly to overall heat transfer at locations where fluids flow within the formation (i.e., convective heat transfer is significant where the flow of mass contributes to heat transfer).
  • the radius of a near wellbore region in a formation decreases with both increasing convection and increasing variation of thermal properties with temperature in the formation.
  • a heavy hydrocarbon containing formation may have a relatively small near wellbore region due to the contribution of convection for heat transfer and a large variation of thermal properties with temperature.
  • the near wellbore region in a heavy hydrocarbon containing formation may have a radius of about 1 m to about 2 m. In other embodiments, the radius may be between about 2 m and about 4 m.
  • a coal formation may also have a relatively small near wellbore region due to a large variation of thermal properties with temperature.
  • an oil shale formation may have a relatively large near wellbore region due to the relatively small contribution of convection for heat transfer and a small variation in thermal properties with temperature.
  • an oil shale formation may have a near wellbore region with a radius between about 5 m and about 7 m. In other embodiments, the radius may be between about 7 m and about 10 m.
  • a body-fitted finite difference simulation method may calculate the heat input rate that corresponds to a given temperature in a heater well. The method may also calculate the temperature distributions both inside the wellbore and at the near wellbore region.
  • CFX supplied by AEA Technologies in the United Kingdom is an example of a commercially available body-fitted finite difference simulation method.
  • FLUENT is another commercially available body-fitted finite difference simulation method from FLUENT, Inc. located in Lebanon, New Hampshire.
  • FLUENT may simulate models of a formation that include porous media and heater wells.
  • the porous media models may include one or more materials and/or phases with variable fractions.
  • the materials may have user-specified temperature dependent thermal properties and densities.
  • the user may also specify the initial spatial distribution of the materials in a model.
  • a combustion reaction may only involve a reaction between carbon and oxygen.
  • the volume fraction and porosity of the formation tend to decrease.
  • a gas phase may be modeled by one or more species in FLUENT, for example, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
  • the simulation method may include a numerical simulation method on a computer system that uses a space-fitted finite difference method with structured grids.
  • the space-fitted finite difference simulation method may be a reservoir simulation method.
  • a reservoir simulation method may calculate, but is not limited to calculating, fluid mechanics, mass balances, heat transfer, and/or kinetics in the formation.
  • a reservoir simulation method may be particularly useful for modeling multiphase porous media in which convection (e.g., the flow of hot fluids) is a relatively important mechanism of heat transfer.
  • STARS is an example of a reservoir simulation method provided by Computer Modeling Group, Ltd. of Alberta, Canada. STARS is designed for simulating steam flood, steam cycling, steam-with-additives, dry and wet combustion, along with many types of chemical additive processes, using a wide range of grid and porosity models in both field and laboratory scales. STARS includes options such as thermal applications, steam injection, fireflood, horizontal wells, dual porosity/permeability, directional permeability, and flexible grids. STARS allows for complex temperature dependent models of thermal and physical properties. STARS may also simulate pressure dependent chemical reactions. STARS may simulate a formation using a combination of structured space-fitted grids and unstructured body-fitted grids. Additionally, THERM is an example of a reservoir simulation method provided by Scientific Software Intercomp.
  • a simulation method may use properties of a formation.
  • the properties of a formation for a model of an in situ process depend on the type of formation.
  • a porosity value may be used to model an amount of kerogen and hydrated mineral matter in the formation.
  • the kerogen and hydrated mineral matter used in a model may be determined or approximated by the amount of kerogen and hydrated mineral matter necessary to generate the oil, gas and water produced in laboratory experiments.
  • the remainder of the volume of the oil shale may be modeled as inert mineral matter, which may be assumed to remain intact at all simulated temperatures.
  • hydrated mineral matter decomposes to produce water and minerals.
  • kerogen pyrolyzes during the simulation to produce hydrocarbons and other compounds resulting in a rise in fluid porosity.
  • the change in porosity during a simulation may be determined by monitoring the amount of solids that are treated/transformed, and fluids that are generated.
  • the amount of coal in the formation for the model may be determined by laboratory pyrolysis experiments. Laboratory pyrolysis experiments may determine the amount of coal in an actual formation. The remainder of the volume may be modeled as inert mineral matter or ash. In some embodiments, the porosity of the ash may be between approximately 5% and approximately 10%. Absorbed and/or adsorbed fluid components, such as initial moisture, may be modeled as part of a solid phase. As moisture desorbs, the fluid porosity tends to increase. The value of the fluid porosity affects the results of the simulation since it may be used to model the change in permeability.
  • An embodiment of a model of a tar sands formation may include an inert mineral matter phase and a fluid phase that includes heavy hydrocarbons.
  • the porosity of a tar sands formation may be modeled as a function of the pressure of the formation and its mechanical properties. For example, the porosity, ⁇ , at a pressure, P, in a tar sands formation may be given by EQN. 2:
  • Some embodiments of a simulation method may require an initial permeability of a formation and a relationship for the dependence of permeability on conditions of the formation.
  • An initial permeability of a formation may be determined from experimental measurements of a sample (e.g., a core sample) of a formation.
  • a ratio of vertical permeability to horizontal permeability may be adjusted to take into consideration cleating in the formation.
  • the porosity of a formation may be used to model the change in permeability of the formation during a simulation.
  • the permeability of oil shale often increases with temperature due to the loss of solid matter from the decomposition of mineral matter and the pyrolysis of kerogen.
  • the permeability of a coal formation often increases with temperature due to the loss of solid matter from pyrolysis.
  • the dependence of porosity on permeability may be described by an analytical relationship.
  • the effect of pyrolysis on permeability, K may be governed by a Carman-Kozeny type formula shown in EQN. 3:
  • ⁇ f is the current fluid porosity
  • ⁇ f,0 is the initial fluid porosity
  • K 0 is the permeability at initial fluid porosity
  • CKpower is a user-defined exponent.
  • the value of CKpower may be fitted by matching or approximating the pressure gradient in an experiment in a formation.
  • the permeability dependence may be expressed as shown in EQN. 4:
  • K ( ⁇ f ) K 0 ⁇ exp[k mul ⁇ ( ⁇ f ⁇ f,0 )/(1 ⁇ f,0 )] (4)
  • K 0 and ⁇ f,0 are the initial permeability and porosity
  • k mul is a user-defined grid dependent permeability multiplier.
  • a tabular relationship rather than an analytical expression may be used to model the dependence of permeability on porosity.
  • the ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability for tar sands formations may be determined from experimental data.
  • the thermal conductivity of a model of a formation may be expressed in terms of the thermal conductivities of constituent materials.
  • the thermal conductivity may be expressed in terms of solid phase components and fluid phase components.
  • the solid phase in oil shale formations and coal formations may be composed of inert mineral matter and organic solid matter.
  • One or more fluid phases in the formations may include, for example, a water phase, an oil phase, and a gas phase.
  • the dependence of the thermal conductivity on constituent materials in an oil shale formation may be modeled according to EQN.
  • k th ⁇ f ⁇ ( k th , w ⁇ S w + k th , o ⁇ S o + k th , g ⁇ S g ) + ( 1 - ⁇ ) ⁇ k th , r + ( ⁇ - ⁇ f ) ⁇ k th , s ( 5 )
  • ⁇ is the porosity of the formation
  • ⁇ f is the instantaneous fluid porosity
  • k th,r is the thermal conductivity of rock (inert mineral matter)
  • k th,s is the thermal conductivity of solid-phase components.
  • the thermal conductivity, from EQN. 5, may be a function of temperature due to the temperature dependence of the solid phase components. The thermal conductivity also changes with temperature due to the change in composition of the fluid phase and porosity.
  • a model may take into account the effect of different geological strata on properties of the formation.
  • a property of a formation may be calculated for a given mineralogical composition.
  • k ⁇ f is the thermal conductivity of the fluid phase at porosity ⁇
  • k i is the thermal conductivity of geological layer i
  • c i is the compressibility of geological layer i.
  • the volumetric heat capacity, ⁇ b C p may also be modeled as a direct function of temperature.
  • the volumetric heat capacity also depends on the composition of the formation material through the density, which is affected by temperature.
  • properties of the formation may include one or more phases with one or more chemical components.
  • fluid phases may include water, oil, and gas.
  • Solid phases may include mineral matter and organic matter.
  • Each of the fluid phases in an in situ process may include a variety of chemical components such as hydrocarbons, H 2 , CO 2 , etc.
  • the chemical components may be products of one or more chemical reactions, such as pyrolysis reactions, that occur in the formation.
  • Some embodiments of a model of an in situ process may include modeling individual chemical components known to be present in a formation. However, inclusion of chemical components in a model of an in situ process may be limited by available experimental composition and kinetic data for the components. In addition, a simulation method may also place numerical and solution time limitations on the number of components that may be modeled.
  • one or more chemical components may be modeled as a single component called a pseudo-component.
  • the oil phase may be modeled by two volatile pseudo-components, a light oil and a heavy oil.
  • the oil and at least some of the gas phase components are generated by pyrolysis of organic matter in the formation.
  • the light oil and the heavy oil may be modeled as having an API gravity that is consistent with laboratory or experimental field data.
  • the light oil may have an API gravity of between about 20° and about 70°.
  • the heavy oil may have an API gravity less than about 20°.
  • hydrocarbon gases in a formation of one or more carbon numbers may be modeled as a single pseudo-component.
  • non-hydrocarbon gases and hydrocarbon gases may be modeled as a single component.
  • hydrocarbon gases between a carbon number of one to a carbon number of five and nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide may be modeled as a single component.
  • the multiple components modeled as a single component have relatively similar molecular weights.
  • a molecular weight of the hydrocarbon gas pseudo-component may be set such that the pseudo-component is similar to a hydrocarbon gas generated in a laboratory pyrolysis experiment at a specified pressure.
  • the composition of the generated hydrocarbon gas may vary with pressure.
  • pressure increases, the ratio of a higher molecular weight component to a lower molecular component tends to increase.
  • the ratio of hydrocarbon gases with carbon numbers between about three and about five to hydrocarbon gases with one and two carbon numbers tends to increase. Consequently, the molecular weight of the pseudo-component that models a mixture of component gases may vary with pressure.
  • TABLE 1 lists components in a model of in situ process in a coal formation according to one embodiment.
  • TABLE 2 lists components in a model of an in situ process in an oil shale formation according to an embodiment.
  • TABLE 1 CHEMICAL COMPONENTS IN A MODEL OF A COAL FORMATION. Component Phase MW H 2 0 Aqueous 18.016 heavy oil Oil 291.37 light oil Oil 155.21 HCgas Gas 19.512 H 2 Gas 2.016 CO 2 Gas 44.01 CO Gas 28.01 N 2 Gas 28.02 O 2 Gas 32.0 Coal Solid 15.153 Coalbtm Solid 14.786 Prechar Solid 14.065 Char Solid 12.72
  • the hydrocarbon gases produced by the pyrolysis of coal may be grouped into a pseudo-component, HCgas.
  • the HCgas component may have critical properties intermediate between methane and ethane.
  • the pseudo-component, HCgas, generated from pyrolysis in an oil shale formation, as shown in TABLE 2 may have critical properties very close to those of ethane.
  • the HCgas pseudo-components may model hydrocarbons between a carbon number of about one and a carbon number of about five.
  • the molecular weight of the pseudo-component in TABLE 2 generally reflects the composition of the hydrocarbon gas that was generated in a laboratory experiment at a pressure of about 6.9 bars absolute.
  • the solid phase in a formation may be modeled with one or more components.
  • the components may include coal and char, as shown in TABLE 1.
  • the components in a kerogen formation may include kerogen and a hydrated mineral phase (hydramin), as shown in TABLE 2.
  • the hydrated mineral component may be included to model water and carbon dioxide generated in an oil shale formation at temperatures below a pyrolysis temperature of kerogen.
  • the hydrated minerals for example, may include illite and nahcolite.
  • Kerogen may be the source of most or all of the hydrocarbon fluids generated by the pyrolysis. Kerogen may also be the source of some of the water and carbon dioxide that is generated at temperatures below a pyrolysis temperature.
  • the solid phase model may also include one or more intermediate components that are artifacts of the reactions that model the pyrolysis.
  • a coal formation may include two intermediate components, coalbtm and prechar, as shown in TABLE 1.
  • An oil shale formation may include at least one intermediate component, prechar, as shown in TABLE 2.
  • the prechar solid-phase components may model carbon residue in a formation that may contain H 2 and low molecular weight hydrocarbons.
  • Coalbtm accounts for intermediate unpyrolyzed compounds that tend to appear and disappear during the course of pyrolysis.
  • the number of intermediate components may be increased to improve the match or agreement between simulation results and experimental results.
  • a model of an in situ process may include one or more chemical reactions.
  • a number of chemical reactions are known to occur in an in situ process for a hydrocarbon containing formation.
  • the chemical reactions may belong to one of several categories of reactions. The categories may include, but not be limited to, generation of pre-pyrolysis water and carbon dioxide, generation of hydrocarbons, coking and cracking of hydrocarbons, formation of synthesis gas, and combustion and oxidation of coke.
  • the rate of change of the concentration of species X due to a chemical reaction for example:
  • Species X in the chemical reaction undergoes chemical transformation to the products.
  • [X] is the concentration of species X
  • t is the time
  • k is the reaction rate constant
  • n is the order of the reaction.
  • the reaction rate constant, k may be defined by the Arrhenius equation:
  • A is the frequency factor
  • E a is the activation energy
  • R is the universal gas constant
  • T is the temperature.
  • Kinetic parameters such as k, A, E a , and n, may be determined from experimental measurements.
  • a simulation method may include one or more rate laws for assessing the change in concentration of species in an in situ process as a function of time. Experimentally determined kinetic parameters for one or more chemical reactions may be used as input to the simulation method.
  • the number and categories of reactions in a model of an in situ process may depend on the availability of experimental kinetic data and/or numerical limitations of a simulation method. Generally, chemical reactions and kinetic parameters for a model may be chosen such that simulation results match or approximate quantitative and qualitative experimental trends.
  • reactions that model the generation of pre-pyrolysis water and carbon dioxide account for the bound water, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide generated in a temperature range below a pyrolysis temperature.
  • pre-pyrolysis water may be generated from hydrated mineral matter.
  • the temperature range may be between about 100° C. and about 270° C. In other embodiments, the temperature range may be between about 80° C. and about 300° C.
  • Reactions in the temperature range below a pyrolysis temperature may account for between about 45% and about 60% of the total water generated and up to about 30% of the total carbon dioxide observed in laboratory experiments of pyrolysis.
  • the pressure dependence of the chemical reactions may be modeled.
  • a single reaction with variable stoichiometric coefficients may be used to model the generation of pre-pyrolysis fluids.
  • the pressure dependence may be modeled with two or more reactions with pressure dependent kinetic parameters such as frequency factors.
  • reaction that generates pre-pyrolysis fluids from oil shale is a function of pressure.
  • the amount of water generated generally decreases with pressure while the amount of carbon dioxide generated generally increases with pressure.
  • the generation of pre-pyrolysis fluids may be modeled with two reactions to account for the pressure dependence.
  • One reaction may be dominant at high pressures while the other may be prevalent at lower pressures.
  • a molar stoichiometry of two reactions according to one embodiment may be written as follows:
  • a reaction enthalpy may be used by a simulation method such as STARS to assess the thermodynamic properties of a formation.
  • the reaction enthalpy is a negative number if a chemical reaction is endothermic and positive if a chemical reaction is exothermic.
  • TABLE 3 KINETIC PARAMETERS OF PRE-PYROLYSIS FLUID GENERATION REACTIONS IN AN OIL SHALE FORMATION.
  • the generation of hydrocarbons in a pyrolysis temperature range in a formation may be modeled with one or more reactions.
  • One or more reactions may model the amount of hydrocarbon fluids and carbon residue that are generated in a pyrolysis temperature range.
  • Hydrocarbons generated may include light oil, heavy oil, and non-condensable gases.
  • Pyrolysis reactions may also generate water, H 2 , and CO 2 .
  • composition of products generated in a pyrolysis temperature range may depend on operating conditions such as pressure.
  • the production rate of hydrocarbons generally decreases with pressure.
  • the amount of produced hydrogen gas generally decreases substantially with pressure
  • the amount of carbon residue generally increases with pressure
  • the amount of condensable hydrocarbons generally decreases with pressure.
  • the amount of non-condensable hydrocarbons generally increases with pressure such that the sum of condensable hydrocarbons and non-condensable hydrocarbons generally remains approximately constant with a change in pressure.
  • the API gravity of the generated hydrocarbons increases with pressure.
  • the generation of hydrocarbons in a pyrolysis temperature range in an oil shale formation may be modeled with two reactions.
  • One of the reactions may be dominant at high pressures, the other prevailing at low pressures.
  • the molar stoichiometry of the two reactions may be as follows:
  • one or more reactions may model the cracking and coking in a formation.
  • Cracking reactions involve the reaction of condensable hydrocarbons (e.g., light oil and heavy oil) to form lighter compounds (e.g., light oil and non-condensable gases) and carbon residue.
  • the coking reactions model the polymerization and condensation of hydrocarbon molecules.
  • Coking reactions lead to formation of char, lower molecular weight hydrocarbons, and hydrogen.
  • Gaseous hydrocarbons may undergo coking reactions to form carbon residue and H 2 .
  • Coking and cracking may account for the deposition of coke in the vicinity of heater wells where the temperature may be substantially greater than a pyrolysis temperature.
  • the molar stoichiometry of the cracking and coking reactions in an oil shale formation may be as follows:
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US10/279,226 Abandoned US20030196789A1 (en) 2001-10-24 2002-10-24 In situ thermal processing of a hydrocarbon containing formation and upgrading of produced fluids prior to further treatment
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US10/279,292 Expired - Fee Related US7063145B2 (en) 2001-10-24 2002-10-24 Methods and systems for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation in situ with an opening contacting the earth's surface at two locations
US10/279,228 Expired - Fee Related US7051808B1 (en) 2001-10-24 2002-10-24 Seismic monitoring of in situ conversion in a hydrocarbon containing formation
US10/279,289 Expired - Lifetime US6991045B2 (en) 2001-10-24 2002-10-24 Forming openings in a hydrocarbon containing formation using magnetic tracking
US10/279,220 Expired - Fee Related US7114566B2 (en) 2001-10-24 2002-10-24 In situ thermal processing of a hydrocarbon containing formation using a natural distributed combustor
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US7051808B1 (en) 2006-05-30
US20100126727A1 (en) 2010-05-27
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AU2002349904A1 (en) 2003-05-19
US7461691B2 (en) 2008-12-09
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WO2003036032A2 (fr) 2003-05-01
CN100594287C (zh) 2010-03-17
CN1575373A (zh) 2005-02-02
US6991045B2 (en) 2006-01-31
CN1666006A (zh) 2005-09-07
WO2003036033A1 (fr) 2003-05-01
CN100513740C (zh) 2009-07-15
WO2003036024A2 (fr) 2003-05-01
NZ532090A (en) 2006-10-27
US7100994B2 (en) 2006-09-05
CA2462794A1 (fr) 2003-05-01
CN1636108A (zh) 2005-07-06
US7066257B2 (en) 2006-06-27
US20030196789A1 (en) 2003-10-23
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CA2462971A1 (fr) 2003-05-01
AU2002342140B2 (en) 2007-09-20
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CN1575374A (zh) 2005-02-02
AU2002353888B1 (en) 2008-03-13
CA2462957C (fr) 2011-03-01
CA2463104C (fr) 2010-12-14
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CA2462805C (fr) 2011-03-15
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US7128153B2 (en) 2006-10-31
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US7077198B2 (en) 2006-07-18
US20030183390A1 (en) 2003-10-02
US7063145B2 (en) 2006-06-20
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US20040040715A1 (en) 2004-03-04
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US20050092483A1 (en) 2005-05-05
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US6932155B2 (en) 2005-08-23
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US7086465B2 (en) 2006-08-08
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AU2002356854A1 (en) 2003-05-06
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US20030196788A1 (en) 2003-10-23
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US7156176B2 (en) 2007-01-02
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US7114566B2 (en) 2006-10-03
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US20030196801A1 (en) 2003-10-23
US20140190691A1 (en) 2014-07-10
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AU2002349904A8 (en) 2009-07-30
US20040211569A1 (en) 2004-10-28
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US20030196810A1 (en) 2003-10-23
US20030192691A1 (en) 2003-10-16

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