Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/04—Processes of manufacture in general
  • H01M4/0438—Processes of manufacture in general by electrochemical processing
  • H01M4/044—Activating, forming or electrochemical attack of the supporting material
  • H01M4/0445—Forming after manufacture of the electrode, e.g. first charge, cycling
  • H01M4/0447—Forming after manufacture of the electrode, e.g. first charge, cycling of complete cells or cells stacks
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
  • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
  • H01M10/0525—Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/42—Methods or arrangements for servicing or maintenance of secondary cells or secondary half-cells
  • H01M10/44—Methods for charging or discharging
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
  • H01M4/50—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese
  • H01M4/505—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing manganese for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiMn2O4 or LiMn2OxFy
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
  • H01M4/52—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron
  • H01M4/525—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing iron, cobalt or nickel for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiNiO2, LiCoO2 or LiCoOxFy
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
  • H01M4/583—Carbonaceous material, e.g. graphite-intercalation compounds or CFx
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
  • H01M4/583—Carbonaceous material, e.g. graphite-intercalation compounds or CFx
  • H01M4/587—Carbonaceous material, e.g. graphite-intercalation compounds or CFx for inserting or intercalating light metals
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02J—CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS OR SYSTEMS FOR SUPPLYING OR DISTRIBUTING ELECTRIC POWER; SYSTEMS FOR STORING ELECTRIC ENERGY
  • H02J7/00—Circuit arrangements for charging or depolarising batteries or for supplying loads from batteries
  • H02J7/0069—Charging or discharging for charge maintenance, battery initiation or rejuvenation
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/42—Methods or arrangements for servicing or maintenance of secondary cells or secondary half-cells
  • H01M10/44—Methods for charging or discharging
  • H01M10/446—Initial charging measures
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
  • Y02P70/00—Climate change mitigation technologies in the production process for final industrial or consumer products
  • Y02P70/50—Manufacturing or production processes characterised by the final manufactured product

Definitions

• the invention relates to lithium ion batteries with cathode active materials that provide for relatively high voltage operation and procedures for preparing the batteries and cycling the batteries such that the batteries exhibit good cycling in high voltage operation.
• the invention further relates to control circuitry that operates the battery and associated charging functions such that the battery maintains a higher capacity over longer term cycling.
• Lithium batteries are widely used in consumer electronics due to their relatively high energy density. Rechargeable batteries are also referred to as secondary batteries, and lithium ion secondary batteries generally have a negative electrode material that intercalates lithium.
• the negative electrode material can be graphite
• the positive electrode material can comprise lithium cobalt oxide (LiCo0 2 ).
• LiCo0 2 lithium cobalt oxide
• At least two other lithium-based cathode materials are also currently in commercial use. These two materials are LiMn 2 0 4 , having a spinel structure, and LiFeP0 4 , having an olivine structure. These other materials have not provided any significant improvements in energy density.
• Lithium ion batteries are generally classified into two categories based on their application.
• the first category involves high power battery, whereby lithium ion battery cells are designed to deliver high current (Amperes) for such applications as power tools and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). However, by design, these battery cells are lower in energy since a design providing for high current generally reduces total energy that can be delivered from the battery.
• the second design category involves high energy batteries, whereby lithium ion battery cells are designed to deliver low to moderate current (Amperes) for such applications as cellular phones, lap-top computers, Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) with the delivery of higher total capacity. With either type of battery design, it generally is desirable to have a greater accessible capacity as well as a greater average voltage. _ . provoke
• the invention in a first aspect, pertains to a method for first charging a secondary battery comprising a positive electrode comprising a lithium intercalation composition, a negative electrode comprising elemental carbon, a separator between the electrodes and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions.
• the method comprises performing a first charge of the battery to a voltage no more than about 4.3 volts, after completing the first charge, holding the battery at an open circuit for a time period of at least about 12 hours rest period, and performing a second charge after the completion of the rest period to a voltage of at least about 4.35 volts.
• the invention pertains to a lithium ion battery comprising a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and separator between the positive electrode and the negative electrode, and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions.
• the positive electrode generally comprises a lithium intercalation composition
• the negative electrode generally comprises a lithium intercalation/alloy composition.
• the negative electrode following an initial charge and discharge cycle, exhibits a phase stability to at least 130°C, as determined with reference to an onset temperature in a differential scanning calorimetry evaluation.
• the invention in another aspect, pertains to a battery management system comprising a monitoring circuit, a charge-discharge circuit and a processor.
• the monitoring circuit is operably connected to a lithium ion battery comprising a positive electrode comprising a lithium intercalation composition, a negative electrode comprising elemental carbon, a separator between the electrodes and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions.
• the processor generally is programmed to control the charging of the battery to a voltage of at least about 4.35V and to discharge the battery to a value of no more than about 2.25 volts at least one cycle of every 150 cycles.
• the invention pertains to a battery control system comprising a monitoring circuit, a charge-discharge circuit and a processor.
• the monitoring circuit is operably connected to a lithium ion battery comprising a positive electrode comprising a lithium intercalation composition, a negative electrode comprising elemental carbon, a separator between the electrodes and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions.
• the processor can be programmed to discharge battery to a voltage of no more than about 2.25 volts through a connection to a discharge load distinct from the circuits for an associated electrical device powered by the battery when the device is connected to an external power supply, and subsequently to charge the battery to a voltage of at least about 4.35 volts. , ,
• the invention pertains to a method for cycling a secondary battery comprising a positive electrode comprising a lithium intercalation composition, a negative electrode comprising elemental carbon, a separator between the electrodes and an electrolyte comprising lithium ions.
• the method comprises following the 20th charge-discharge cycle, discharging the battery to a voltage of no more than about 2.25 volts for one or more cycles to increase the capacity of the battery.
• Fig. 1 is a schematic perspective view of battery electrodes assembled within a battery stack.
• Fig. 2 is a schematic diagram of a battery management system.
• Fig. 3 is a schematic diagram of a charge-discharge circuit.
• Fig. 4 is a plot of discharge specific capacity as a function of cycle number for high voltage lithium ion batteries formed with two different formation protocols.
• Fig. 5 is a set of plots of specific discharge capacities as a function of cycle number for batteries formed with 5 different lengths of open circuit rest periods (0 days, 2 days, 4 days, 7 days and 10 days) after an initial charge to 4.2V.
• Fig. 6 is a plot of differential scanning calorimeter measurements for negative electrodes removed from batteries that are formed with different lengths of rest periods, 2 days, 4 days, 7 days or 10 days.
• Fig. 7 is a plot of normalized differential scanning calorimeter measurements for negative electrodes formed with a 7 day rest period along with measurements for the negative electrodes from two commercial batteries.
• Fig. 8 is a set of plots of specific discharge capacity as a function of cycle number for batteries formed with 5 different initial and final charge voltages.
• Fig. 9 is a plot of discharge specific capacity as a function of cycle number, starting from the forth actual discharge, for batteries with two different cut-off discharge voltages.
• Fig. 10 is a plot of discharge specific capacity as a function of cycle number, starting from the fourth actual discharge cycle, for three batteries with two having two different cut- off discharge voltages and a third in which the cut-off discharge voltage is changed after the 1 10th cycle.
• the length of the storage period surprisingly affects significantly the subsequent cycling of the battery. After performing the charge at the lower voltage and storage, the battery is charged at least to the specified operational voltage to activate the battery. Furthermore, it has been surprisingly discovered that the cycling capacity of the high voltage batteries is improved if a deeper discharge is used. Furthermore, it is even more surprising that the battery capacity can be recovered by performing a deeper discharge after initially cycling the battery at a less steep discharge. Thus, battery charging and discharging cycles can be controlled in a way to maintain a higher discharge capacity out to significantly longer numbers of cycles to increase the effective life of the battery. Thus, improved batteries formation and/or battery cycling control can lead to longer battery lifetime, which can cut battery costs significantly over the life of a device, especially if the device undergoes a lot of use involving many battery charge cycles.
• the batteries described herein are lithium ion batteries in which a non-aqueous electrolyte solution comprises lithium ions.
• lithium ions are released from the negative electrode during discharge such that the negative electrode functions as an anode during discharge with the generation of electrons from the oxidation of lithium upon its release from the electrode.
• the positive electrode takes up lithium ions tlirough intercalation or a similar process during discharge such that the positive electrode functions as a cathode which consumes electrons during discharge.
• the flow of lithium ions is reversed tlirough the battery with the negative electrode taking up lithium and with the positive electrode releasing lithium as lithium ions.
• the operation of the battery at a higher charge voltage can provide for increased capacity for a quantity of positive electrode active material as well as potentially an increase in the average voltage such that a greater energy can be delivered.
• element is used herein in its conventional way as referring to a member of the periodic table in which the element has the appropriate oxidation state if the element is in a composition and in which the element is in its elemental form, M°, only when stated to be in an elemental form. Therefore, a metal element generally is only in a metallic state in its elemental form or a corresponding alloy of the metal's elemental form. In other words, a metal oxide or other metal composition, other than metal alloys, generally is not metallic.
• Lithium ion batteries described herein have achieved improved cycling performance while exhibiting high specific capacity and high overall capacity.
• High capacity positive electrode materials for the long cycle life batteries described herein can be produced using techniques that are scalable for commercial production. Suitable synthesis techniques include, for example, co-precipitation approaches or sol-gel synthesis. Use of a metal fluoride coating, metal oxide coating or other suitable coatings on the positive electrode active materials also can contribute to enhanced cycling performance.
• the positive electrode materials can also exhibit a high average voltage over a discharge cycle so that the batteries have high energy output along with a high specific capacity. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the positive electrode materials demonstrate a reduced irreversible capacity loss after the first charge and discharge of the battery so that negative electrode material can be correspondingly reduced.
• the high voltage operation While operating a battery at a greater voltage results in a correspondingly larger capacity, the high voltage operation generally results in poorer cycling performance. Specifically, the battery capacity tends to fade more quickly as a result of greater lithium extraction from the positive electrode to achieve the high capacity and high voltage performance.
• the improved procedures described herein provide for improvement in the cycling performance when the batteries are operated at a greater operating voltage. As a result of a relatively high tap density and excellent cycling performance, corresponding batteries can exhibit continuing high total capacity when cycled.
• the combination of excellent cycling performance, high specific capacity, and high overall capacity make these resulting lithium ion batteries an improved power source, particularly for high energy applications, such as electric vehicles, plug in hybrid vehicles and the like.
• the lithium ion batteries can use a positive electrode active material that is lithium rich relative to a reference homogenous electroactive lithium metal oxide composition.
• the reference material can be represented by the formula LiM0 2 , where M is a metal or combination thereof with an average valance of +3.
• LiCo0 2 and LiNi0 2 are positive electrode active materials in which Co and Ni are respectively in a +3 oxidation state, and corresponding mixed Ni and Co compositions . ⁇ , n i
• Attorney Docket JNo.: i>024.1 WU01 can also be used in lithium ion batteries.
• the presence of the additional lithium in the lithium rich materials can contribute further to the capacity of the positive electrode material even though irreversible changes to the positive electrode material during the initial charge step may make at least some of the additional lithium unavailable for cycling.
• lithium ions leave the positive electrode material while lithium ions are taken up by the negative electrode active materials.
• the other metals change oxidation state accordingly to maintain electrical neutrality and the released electrons flow from the positive electrode. If more lithium is available to leave the positive electrode active material, the capacity correspondingly can be greater.
• the positive electrode active materials of particular interest herein generally comprise manganese, nickel and cobalt as well as additional optional metals.
• the initial target composition and approximate final composition of the lithium rich compositions can be represented by the formula Lii +x M y 0 2 , where M can be generally a mixture of metal ions. If y— 1-x, then M has an average valance of (3-x)/(l-x). The overall valance of M then is greater than +3.
• the material can comprise a small amount of a fluorine anion dopant that replaces a portion of the oxygen.
• the fluorine doped materials can be represented by the formula Lii +x M y 0 2-z F z , where z ranges from 0 to about 0.2.
• the positive electrode material can be represented in two component notation as b Li 2 M0 3 - (1-b) LiM'0 2 where M' is one or more metal cations with an average valance of +3 with at least one cation being Mn +3 or Ni +3 and where M is one or more metal cations with an average valance of +4.
• a Li 2 Mn0 3 material may be structurally integrated with a layered LiM0 2 component with generally representing a combination of transition metal elements, e.g.
• the voltage of the battery depends on the composition of the active materials. The voltage changes during the discharge cycle, as lithium is depleted form the negative electrode and lithium is loaded within the positive electrode active material.
• the cycling voltage is established to some degree during the initial charging of the battery. If the battery is charged to a higher voltage, a greater amount of lithium is depleted from the positive electrode and loaded into the negative electrode. While some materials are capable of charging to higher voltages, the batteries are observed to have inferior cycling properties if they are charged to higher voltages. Thus, when longer term cycling is desired, these materials can be cycled at lower voltages to achieve long term cycling with reasonable performance.
• lithium rich materials have been stably cycled at a lower voltage of 4.2V beyond 1000 charge/ discharge cycles with relatively high capacity, as described further in copending U.S. Publication No. 2011/0017528 to Kumar et al., entitled “Lithium Ion Batteries With Long Cycling Performance,” incorporated herein by reference.
• the cycling at lower voltage can sacrifice a significant portion of the battery capacity.
• the cycling properties of the batteries can be significantly improved while operating at higher voltages.
• irreversible changes in the battery generally are observed.
• a solid electrolyte interphase layer has been observed to form on the negative electrode active material.
• the solid electrolyte interphase layer can comprise lithium ions and the reaction product of the electrolyte, organic solvent or the like.
• the positive electrode active materials may also undergo irreversible structural changes during the first charge of the battery.
• the charge voltage also determines to some degree the irreversible changes to the positive electrode active material, which can also change the cycling properties, and greater irreversible changes are generally expected with a greater charge voltage.
• irreversible structural changes generally result in a significant difference between the first charge capacity and the first discharge capacity, which is referred to as irreversible capacity loss.
• the initial battery performance generally exceeds performance specification so that decreased fade from a slightly reduced initial performance can significantly increase the lifetime of the battery at the expense of a slightly reduced initial discharge capacity.
• An increased cycling specific capacity can also more than compensate for the inclusion of a slight increase in the amount of negative electrode active material, which can be provided in the battery to absorb at least some of the lithium that represents the irreversible capacity loss.
• the SEI layer can be formed very stably during the low voltage open circuit rest period following an initial low voltage charge of the cell. The stability of the SEI layer can be measured through differential scanning calorimeter measurements.
• the irreversible changes that take place in the first charging of the cell produces changes to the cell that are generally maintained to a significant degree as the cell cycles.
• the first charge cycle as a formation step in which the cycling form of the battery is at least partially formed. More gradual changes to the battery may proceed after the formation step.
• the capacity of the battery With longer cycling of the battery, the capacity of the battery generally fades, which may be assumed to result from further irreversible changes to the battery material such as the active materials, the electrolyte, the solvent, the solid electrolyte interphase layer or other components or interaction of components. However, for shorter numbers of cycles the capacity may increase, decrease or remain roughly constant.
• high voltage batteries can be formed for improved long term cycling using a procedure that involves a formation step at a voltage below the specified operational voltage of the battery.
• the initial charge of the battery generally sets the voltage range for further cycling of the battery.
• the charging of the battery to its specified operating voltage or higher can be performed in steps to activate the battery 4 ⁇ , rt 1
• an initial charging step or formation charge can be performed at a voltage, for example, of no more than about 4.3 volts.
• a voltage for example, of no more than about 4.3 volts.
• this voltage can be held for a period time to enable the formation process.
• the irreversible changes to the battery presumably take place.
• the rest period is generally at least about 12 hours. Based on chemical kinetic principles, it is expected that the length of the rest period to achieve a desired formation process decreases with an increase in the temperature during the rest phase.
• the rest period can be performed within a temperature range from about 15°C to about 75°C.
• the battery is further charged, for example at a constant voltage, to a voltage value generally greater than about 4.35 volts, and this charging can be continued, for example, at least until the battery reaches a voltage at the higher selected voltage.
• this charging procedure can be further divided into further steps. Once the battery is fully charged, the battery can be discharged to a selected voltage.
• the conventional wisdom has been that a deep discharge of a lithium ion battery reduces the cycle life of the battery. Specifically, it is believed that the battery should not be discharged to a voltage that is too low as the battery is cycled to maintain a long cycle life. Furthermore, it has been believed that a particularly deep discharge of a lithium ion cell kills the battery so that it does not cycle properly after such a discharge. However, it has been discovered that with lithium rich high voltage materials described herein, the cycling of the battery actually improves with a deep discharge. Specifically, the batteries have better cycling properties if they are discharged down to a voltage of no more than about 2.25 volts, which is close to 100% of the capacity of the battery, based on the discharge curve.
• the battery control system can comprise a monitoring circuit, a charging circuit, a processor and appropriate switches.
• the processor can be programmed to control battery charging and discharging to achieve desirable long term cycling performance of the battery.
• conventional control systems can be adapted with appropriate programming to implement the improved battery control.
• the battery control system can comprise a dissipation load that can be used to drain the battery down to a particular state of discharge prior to performing the charging of the battery. With respect to the programming, the control system can monitor that state of discharge at a time when a charging voltage is provided to charge the battery.
• the control system can comiect the battery to a dissipation load to lower the voltage below a selected value prior to charging the battery.
• the dissipation load can be selected to provide a desired current during the dissipation.
• the user may pick various states of charge at which to perform a recharging step.
• the dissipation of the battery can be performed prior to each charge if the voltage is not below a desired value when the charging voltage is supplied.
• the dissipation can be performed intermittently to maintain the capacity of the battery with cycling. The intermittent dissipation can be performed, for example, after a certain number of battery cycles in which the voltage at charging is above the selected cut off value or after a certain number of cycles without reference to the parameters relating to previous charging steps or using an alternative algorithm. It may be desirable to repeat the deep discharge prior to charging for a plurality of cycles to achieve a desired level of improvement in battery capacity.
• the electronic device powered by the battery uses a voltage for the particular battery that is above the selected cut off value so that the device does not provide for natural discharge of the battery below the cut off value in standard use of the device.
• the device indicates a discharged battery at the value of the sau , ,
• the battery control system controls whether or not the battery is discharged to the desired discharge value either with each charging or intermittently.
• the charging components can be designed to at least periodically discharge the battery down to a low voltage, such as below 2.2 volts such that the capacity can be improved for longer term cycling.
• the cycling performance of high voltage lithium ion batteries can be significantly improved such that the increased capacity available with a deeper charge can be exploited during the battery cycling. Since reasonable cycling performance is an important criterion for most battery applications, these improvements provide for the advantages provided by the increased capacity for appropriate applications while obtaining an appropriate number of cycles over the life of the battery.
• a battery 100 is shown schematically having a negative electrode 102, a positive electrode 104 and a separator 106 between negative electrode 102 and positive electrode 104.
• a battery can comprise multiple positive electrodes and multiple negative electrodes, such as in a stack, with appropriately placed separators. Electrolyte in contact with the electrodes provides ionic conductivity through the separator between electrodes of opposite polarity.
• a battery generally comprises current collectors 108, 1 10 associated respectively with negative electrode 102 and positive electrode 104.
• Lithium has been used in both primary and secondary batteries. An attractive feature of lithium metal is its light weight and the fact that it is the most electropositive metal, and aspects of these features can be advantageously captured in lithium ion batteries also. Certain forms of metals, metal oxides, and carbon materials are known to incorporate lithium ions into its structure through intercalation, alloying or similar mechanisms. Desirable mixed metal oxides are described further herein to function as electroactive materials for positive electrodes in secondary lithium ion batteries. Lithium ion batteries refer to batteries in which the negative electrode active material is also a lithium intercalation/alloying material. If lithium metal itself is used as the anode, the resulting battery generally is referred to as a lithium battery.
• the nature of the negative electrode intercalation material influences the resulting voltage of the battery since the voltage is the difference between the half cell potentials at the réelle , 1
• Suitable negative electrode lithium intercalation compositions can include, for example, graphite, synthetic graphite, coke, fullerenes, niobium pentoxide, tin alloys, silicon, titanium oxide, tin oxide, and lithium titanium oxide, such as Li x Ti0 2 , 0.5 ⁇ x ⁇ l or Lii +x Ti2 -x 04, 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 1/3. Additional negative electrode materials are described in copending U.S. Publication No. 2010/0119942 to Kumar, entitled “Composite Compositions, Negative Electrodes with Composite Compositions and Corresponding Batteries," and U.S. Publication No. 2009/0305131 to Kumar et al., entitled “Lithium Ion Batteries with Particular Negative Electrode Compositions,” both of which are incorporated herein by reference.
• the negative electrodes can generally comprise elemental carbon materials, e.g., graphite, synthetic graphite, coke, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, other graphitic carbon and combinations thereof, which are expected to be able to achieve the long term cycling at higher voltages.
• the negative electrodes generally comprise an active elemental carbon material.
• Graphitic carbon generally comprises graphene sheets of sp 2 bonded carbon atoms.
• graphitic carbon refers to any elemental carbon material comprising substantial domains of graphene sheets.
• the positive electrode active compositions and negative electrode active compositions generally are powder compositions that are held together in the respective electrode with a polymer binder.
• the binder provides ionic conductivity to the active particles when in contact with the electrolyte.
• Suitable polymer binders include, for example, polyvinylidine fluoride, polyethylene oxide, polyethylene, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyacrylates, rubbers, e.g. ethylene-propylene-diene monomer (EPDM) rubber or styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), copolymers thereof, or mixtures thereof.
• the active particle loading in the binder can be large, such as greater than about 80 weight percent, in further embodiments at least about 83 weight percent and in other embodiments form about 85 to about 97 weight percent active material.
• the powders can be blended with the polymer in a suitable liquid, such as a solvent for the polymer. The resulting paste can be pressed into the electrode structure.
• the positive electrode composition and in some embodiments the negative electrode composition, generally can also comprise an electrically conductive powder distinct from the electroactive composition.
• Suitable supplemental electrically conductive powders include, for example, graphite, carbon black, metal powders, such as silver powders, metal fibers, ii
• a positive electrode can comprise from about 1 weight percent to about 25 weight percent, and in further embodiments from about 2 weight percent to about 20 weight percent and in other embodiments from about 3 weight percent to about 15 weight percent distinct electrically conductive powder.
• a person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional ranges of amounts of electrically conductive powders within the explicit ranges above are contemplated and are within the present disclosure.
• Each electrode generally is associated with an electrically conductive current collector to facilitate the flow of electrons between the electrode and an exterior circuit.
• a current collector can comprise metal, such as a metal foil or a metal grid.
• a current collector can be formed from nickel, aluminum, stainless steel, copper or the like.
• An electrode material can be cast as a thin film onto a current collector. The electrode material with the current collector can then be dried, for example in an oven, to remove solvent from the electrode.
• a dried electrode material in contact with a current collector foil or other structure can be subjected to a pressure from about 2 to about 10 kg/cm 2 (kilograms per square centimeter).
• the separator is located between the positive electrode and the negative electrode.
• the separator is electrically insulating while providing for at least selected ion conduction between the two electrodes.
• a variety of materials can be used as separators.
• Commercial separator materials are generally formed from polymers, such as polyethylene and/or polypropylene that are porous sheets that provide for ionic conduction.
• Commercial polymer separators include, for example, the Celgard ® line of separator material from Hoechst Celanese, Charlotte, N.C.
• Suitable separator materials include, for example, 12 micron to 40 micron thick trilayer polypropylene-polyethylene-polypropylene sheets, such as Celgard ® M824, which has a thickness of 12 microns.
• ceramic-polymer composite materials have been developed for separator applications. These composite separators can be stable at higher temperatures, and the composite materials can significantly reduce the fire risk.
• the polymer-ceramic composites for separator materials are described further in U.S. Publication No. 2005/0031942A to Hennige et al., entitled “Electric Separator, Method for Producing the Same and the Use Thereof," incorporated herein by reference.
• Polymer-ceramic composites for lithium ion battery separators are sold under the trademark Separion ® by Evonik Industries, Germany.
• Electrolytes for lithium ion batteries can comprise one or more selected lithium salts.
• Appropriate lithium salts generally have relatively inert anions.
• Suitable lithium salts include, for example, lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium hexafluoroarsenate, lithium bis(trifluoromethyl sulfonyl imide), lithium trifluoromethane sulfonate, lithium tris(trifluoromethyl sulfonyl) methide, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithium perchlorate, lithium tetrachloroaluminate, lithium chloride and combinations thereof.
• the electrolyte comprises a 1 M concentration of the lithium salts, although other larger and smaller concentrations can be used.
• electrolytes comprising ionic metal complexes and lithium salts, as described above, may provide added thermal stability and/or cycling stability to a battery.
• a class of ionic metal complexes that are of particular interest include lithium(chelato)borates and are described in U.S. Patent No. 6,783,896 to Tsujioka et al. ("the '896 patent"), entitled “Electrolyte for Electrochemical Device,” incorporated herein by reference.
• the ionic metal complexes in the '896 patent are formed as lithium salts for the formation of a lithium-based electrolyte with
• a is a number from 1 to 3
• b is a number from 1 to 3
• p b/a
• m is a number from 1 to 4
• n is a number from 1 to 8
• q is 0 or 1
• M is a transition metal or an element selected from groups 13-15 of the periodic table
• a a+ is a metal ion, onium ion or a hydrogen ion
• R 1 is an organic group
• R 2 is a halogen or an organic group
• X 1 and X 2 are independently O, S or NR 4
• R 4 is a halogen or an organic group. Suitable organic groups for R 1 , R 2 and R 3 are discussed further in '896 patent.
• compositions of particular interest are represented by formulas where A a+ is Li + , the R 2 groups are halogen atoms and X 1 and X 2 are O atoms.
• the '896 patent exemplified LiBF 2 C 2 0 4 (lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate as an electrolyte salt or in an electrolyte blend with a distinct lithium salt.
• Other lithium salts with anions based on metal complexes without a halogen are described further in U.S. Patent No. 6,787,267 to Tsujioka et al. (the '267 patent), entitled “Electrolyte for Electrochemical Device,” incorporated herein by reference.
• the '267 patent describes electrolytes represented by a formula:
• LiB(C 2 0 4 )2 i.e. lithium bis(oxalato)borate.
• the combination of lithium bis(oxalato)borate with a solvent comprising a lactone is described further in U.S. Patent No. 6,787,268 to Koike et al, entitled “Electrolyte,” incorporated herein by reference.
• Additional or alternative useful additives for use in high voltage lithium ion batteries are described in U.S. Patent Application No. 12/630,992 to Amiruddin et al., entitled “Lithium Ion Battery With High Voltage Electrolyte and Additives,” incorporated herein by reference.
• a non-aqueous liquid is generally used to dissolve the lithium salt(s).
• the solvent is generally inert and does not dissolve the electroactive materials.
• Appropriate solvents generally include, for example, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran, dioxolane, tetrahydrofuran, methyl ethyl carbonate, ⁇ -butyrolactone, dimethyl sulfoxide, acetonitrile, formamide, dimethyl formamide, triglyme (tri(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether), diglyme (diethylene glycol dimethyl ether), DME (glyme or 1 ,2-dimethyloxyethane or ethylene glycol dimethyl ether), nitromethane and mixtures thereof.
• solvents comprising mixtures of ethylene carbonate, a room temperature liquid solvent, such as dimethylcarbonate, methylethylcarbonate, ⁇ - butyrolactone, ⁇ -valerolactone or a mixture thereof, can be used to provide for a lithium ion battery to cycle more stably to higher voltage. It has been found that appropriately selected solvent compositions avoid oxidation at higher voltages and, therefore, these solvent combinations allow a battery to be charged to higher voltage values with improved stability.
• the solvent can comprise ethyl carbonate: diethyl ⁇ _ , ⁇ 1
• the electrodes described herein can be incorporated into various commercial battery designs.
• the cathode compositions can be used for prismatic shaped batteries, wound cylindrical batteries, coin batteries or other reasonable battery shapes.
• the testing in the Examples below is performed using coin cell batteries.
• the batteries can comprise a single cathode structure or a plurality of cathode structures assembled in parallel and/or series electrical connection(s).
• the positive electrode active materials can be used in batteries for primary, or single charge use, the resulting batteries generally have desirable cycling properties for secondary battery use over multiple cycling of the batteries.
• the positive electrode and negative electrode can be stacked with the separator between them, and the resulting stacked structure can be rolled into a cylindrical or prismatic configuration to form the battery structure.
• Appropriate electrically conductive tabs can be welded or the like to the current collectors, and the resulting jellyroll structure can be placed into a metal canister or polymer package, with the negative tab and positive tab welded to appropriate external contacts. Electrolyte is added to the canister, and the canister is sealed to complete the battery.
• Some presently used rechargeable commercial batteries include, for example, the cylindrical 18650 batteries (18 mm in diameter and 65 mm long) and 26700 batteries (26 mm in diameter and 70 mm long), although other battery sizes can be used, as well as prismatic cells and foil pouch batteries of selected sizes.
• the positive electrode active materials comprise lithium intercalating metal oxide compositions.
• the lithium metal oxide compositions can comprise lithium rich compositions that generally are believed to form a layered composite structure.
• the positive electrode active compositions can exhibit surprisingly high specific capacities and high tap densities in lithium ion battery cells under realistic discharge conditions.
• the desired electrode active materials can be synthesized using synthesis approaches described herein.
• the lithium rich metal oxides can be approximately represented by a formula Lii +x M y 02 -z F z , where x ranges from about 0.05 to about 0.25, y ranges from about 0.99 to about 0.65 and z ranges from 0 to about 0.2. In some compositions of particular _ . .
• the initial target compositions and final approximate compositions can be described by the formula Lii +x Ni a MnpCo Y A502 -z F z , where x ranges from about 0.05 to about 0.3, a ranges from about 0.1 to about 0.4, ⁇ range from about 0.3 to about 0.65, ⁇ ranges from about 0 (or about 0.001 if not zero) to about 0.4, ⁇ ranges from about 0 to about 0.15 and z ranges from about 0 to about 0.2, and where M is Mg, Sr, Ba, Cd, Zn, Al, Ga, B, Zr, Ti, Ca, Ce, Y, Nb, Cr, Fe, V, Li or combinations thereof.
• the fluorine is a dopant that can contribute to cycling stability as well as improved safety of the materials.
• this formula reduces to Lii+xNi a Mn Co Y Ag0 2 .
• suitable coatings provide desirable improvements in cycling properties without the use of a fluorine dopant, although it may be desirable to have a fluorine dopant in some embodiments.
• ⁇ 0.
• the formula simplifies to Lii +x Ni a MnpCo y 0 2 , with the parameters outlined above.
• Thackery and coworkers have proposed a composite crystal structure for some lithium rich metal oxide compositions in which a Li 2 M'0 3 composition is structurally integrated into a layered structure with a LiM0 2 component.
• the electrode materials can be represented in two component notation as b Li 2 M'0 3 (1-b) LiM0 2 , where M is one or more metal elements with an average valance of +3 and with at least one element being Mn or Ni and M 1 is a metal element with an average valance of +4 and 0 ⁇ b ⁇ l .
• M is one or more metal elements with an average valance of +3 and with at least one element being Mn or Ni
• M 1 is a metal element with an average valance of +4 and 0 ⁇ b ⁇ l .
• 0.01 ⁇ b ⁇ 0.4 0.02 ⁇ b ⁇ 0.3.
• M can be a combination of Ni +2 , Co +3 and Mn and M' can be Mn +4 .
• the approximate overall formula for these compositions can be written as Lii+b/(2+b)M' 2 b/( 2 +b)M2(i-b)/(2+b)02.
• the sum ⁇ + + ⁇ + ⁇ + ⁇ of the positive electrode active material approximately equals 1.0. Batteries formed from these materials have been observed to cycle at higher voltages and with higher capacities relative to batteries formed with corresponding L1MO2 compositions. These materials are described further in U.S. Patent No.
• Thackeray identified Mn, Ti and Zr as being of particular interest as M' and Mn and Ni for M.
• the examples below are based on the performance of a material with an initial target composition and the approximate final composition Li [Lio.2Mno.525Nio.175Coo.1JO2. These materials can be synthesized as described below, and modified with a coating. The synthesis approach and the coating provide for superior performance of the materials with respect to capacity as well as cycling properties. These improved properties of the active material along with the approach for cell construction as well as the electrolyte additive provide for the improved battery performance described herein.
• Synthesis approaches described herein can be used to form layered lithium rich cathode active materials with improved specific capacity upon cycling and a high tap density.
• the synthesis methods have been adapted for the synthesis of metal oxide compositions described herein.
• the synthesis approaches are also suitable for commercial scale up.
• co-precipitation process can be used to synthesize the desired lithium rich positive electrode materials with desirable results.
• a hydroxide co-precipitation approach as well as a carbonate co-precipitation approach has yielded active materials with very desirable properties.
• the synthesis of fluorine doped compositions is summarized below.
• metal salts are dissolved into an aqueous solvent, such as purified water, with a desired molar ratio.
• Suitable metal salts include, for example, metal acetates, metal sulfates, metal nitrates, and combination thereof.
• the concentration of the solution is generally selected between 1M and 3M.
• the relative molar quantities of metal salts can be selected based on the desired formula for the product materials.
• the pH of the solution can then be adjusted, such as with the addition of Na 2 C0 3 and/or other soluble carbonate salt, and optionally ammonium hydroxide, to precipitate a metal carbonate or metal hydroxide with the desired amounts of metal elements.
• the pH can be adjusted to a value between about 6.0 to about 12.0.
• the solution can be heated and stirred to facilitate the precipitation of the precursor metal carbonate or hydroxide.
• the precipitated metal carbonate or metal hydroxide can then be separated from the solution, washed and dried to . ⁇ ⁇ . n .
• the collected metal carbonate powder or metal hydroxide can then be subjected to a heat treatment to convert the carbonate composition to the corresponding oxide composition with the elimination of carbon dioxide or water.
• the heat treatment can be performed in an oven, furnace or the like.
• the heat treatment can be performed in an inert atmosphere or an atmosphere with oxygen present.
• the material can be heated to a temperature of at least about 350°C and in some embodiments from about 400°C to about 800°C to convert the carbonate precursor or hydroxide precursor to an oxide.
• the heat treatment generally can be performed for at least about 15 minutes, in further embodiments from about 30 minutes to 24 hours or longer, and in additional embodiments from about 45 minutes to about 15 hours.
• a further heat treatment can be performed to improve the crystallinity of the product material.
• This calcination step for forming the crystalline product generally is performed at temperatures of at least about 650°C, and in some embodiments from about 700°C to about 1200°C, and in further embodiments from about 700°C to about 1100°C.
• the calcination step to improve the structural properties of the powder generally can be performed for at least about 15 minutes, in further embodiments from about 20 minutes to about 30 hours or longer, and in other embodiments from about 1 hour to about 36 hours.
• the heating steps can be combined, if desired, with appropriate ramping of the temperature to yield desired materials.
• the lithium element can be incorporated into the material at one or more selected steps in the process.
• a lithium salt can be incorporated into the solution prior to or upon performing the precipitation step tlirough the addition of a hydrated lithium salt, hi this approach, the lithium species is incorporated into the carbonate or hydroxide material in the same way as the other metals.
• the lithium element can be incorporated into the material in a solid state reaction without adversely affecting the resulting properties of the product composition.
• an appropriate amount of lithium source generally as a powder, such as LiOHTI 2 0, LiOH, Li 2 C0 3 , or a combination thereof, can be mixed with the precipitated metal precursor. The powder mixture is then advanced tlirough the heating step(s) to form the oxide and then the crystalline final product . 4 ⁇ . ,
• fluorine dopants can be introduced using, for example, LiF and/or MgF 2 during an oxide formation step or, for example, reacting NH 4 HF 2 with the already formed oxide at a temperature on the order of 450°C.
• Inert inorganic coatings such as metal fluoride coatings or metal oxide coatings, have been found to significantly improve the performance of the lithium rich layered positive electrode active materials described herein.
• the cycling properties of the batteries formed from the metal fluoride coated lithium metal oxide have been found to significantly improve from the uncoated material.
• the overall capacity of the batteries also shows desirable properties with the fluoride coating, and the irreversible capacity loss of the first cycle of the battery is reduced.
• the first cycle irreversible capacity loss of a battery is the difference between the charge capacity of the new battery and its first _ . nie ,
• the coating provides an unexpected improvement in the performance of the high capacity lithium rich compositions described herein.
• a selected metal fluoride or metalloid fluoride can be used for the coating.
• Metal/metalloid fluoride coatings have been proposed to stabilize the performance of positive electrode active materials for lithium secondary batteries.
• a metal oxide coating can be used.
• Suitable metals and metalloid elements for the fluoride coatings include, for example, Al, Bi, Ga, Ge, In, Mg, Pb, Si, Sn, Ti, Tl, Zn, Zr and combinations thereof.
• Aluminum fluoride can be a desirable coating material since it has a reasonable cost and is considered environmentally benign.
• the metal fluoride coating are described generally in PCT Publication No.
• the Sun PCT application referenced above specifically refers to the following fluoride compositions, CsF, KF, LiF, NaF, RbF, TiF, AgF, AgF 2 , BaF 2 , CaF 2 , CuF 2 , CdF 2 , FeF 2 , HgF 2 , Hg 2 F 2 , MnF 2 , MgF 2 , NiF 2 , PbF 2 , SnF 2 , SrF 2 , XeF 2 , ZnF 2 , A1F 3 , BF 3 , BiF 3 , CeF 3 , CrF 3 , DyF 3 , EuF 3 , GaF 3 , GdF 3 , FeF 3 , HoF 3 , InF 3 , LaF 3 , LuF 3 , MnF 3 , NdF 3 , VOF 3 , PrF 3 , SbF 3 , ScF 3 , SmF 3 , TbF 3 , Ti
• metal/metalloid fluoride coatings can significantly improve the performance of lithium rich layered compositions for lithium ion secondary batteries. Generally, the coating improves the capacity of the batteries. See, for example, in copending U.S. Publication No. 2010/0086853 to Venkatachalam et al., entitled “Positive Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion Batteries Having a High Specific Discharge Capacity and Processes for the Synthesis of These Materials," copending U.S. Publication No. 2010/0151332 to Lopez et al, entitled “Positive Electrode Materials for High Discharge Capacity Lithium Ion Batteries,” and copending U.S. Patent Application No. 12/616,226 to Lopez et al, entitled “Coated Positive Electrode Materials for Lithium Ion Batteries,” all three of which are incorporated herein by reference.
• the coating itself is not electrochemically active.
• the amount of coating can be selected to balance the beneficial stabilization resulting from the coating with the loss of specific capacity due to the weight of the coating material that generally does not contribute directly to a high specific capacity of the material.
• the coatings can have an average thickness of no more than 25 nm, in some embodiments from about 0.5 nm to about 20 nm, in other embodiments from about 1 nm to about 12 nm, in further embodiments from 1.25 nm to about 10 nm and in additional embodiments from about 1.5 nm to about 8 nm.
• additional ranges of coating material within the explicit ranges above are contemplated and are within the present disclosure.
• the fluoride coating can be deposited using a solution based precipitation approach.
• a powder of the positive electrode material can be mixed in a suitable solvent, such as an aqueous solvent.
• a soluble composition of the desired metal/metalloid can be dissolved in the solvent.
• NH 4 F can be gradually added to the dispersion/solution to precipitate the metal fluoride.
• the total amount of coating reactants can be selected to form the desired amount of coating, and the ratio of coating reactants can be based on the stoichiometry of the coating material.
• the coating mixture can be heated during the coating process to reasonable . ⁇ ,
• the high voltage batteries described herein can be initially prepared using a multiple step charging procedure for the first cycle involving an initial charge to a voltage below the operational voltage of the battery followed by a subsequent charge at least to the specified charged voltage of the battery. Between the charging steps, the battery is stored in an open circuit at the initial charge voltage to provide for desired formation of the battery.
• the initial charge can comprise a period with the application of a constant voltage, and the optional rest period with an open circuit can be used prior to a subsequent charging step.
• the improved preparation procedure during the first cycle provides surprisingly improved battery performance over longer term cycling of the battery.
• the expression high voltage battery refers to batteries that are designed to operate at a voltage value of at least 4.35 volts, in other embodiments at least about 3.375V, in additional embodiments at least about 4.4V and in further embodiments from about 4.425V to about 4.8V. While not wanting to be limited by theory, it is generally believed that irreversible changes occur during the first charging of the battery, and that some of these changes can stabilize the battery for subsequent cycling. In particular, a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer is believed to generally form on the active material of the negative electrode. In addition, the lithium rich positive electrode active materials can undergo irreversible changes also during the first charge of the battery as lithium is removed from the material. The multiple steps charging process described herein may facilitate the formation of a more stable structure during the irreversible changes of the first charge cycle, which can be referred to as the formation cycle or the battery activation.
• SEI solid electrolyte interphase
• the first charge/discharge cycle of a high voltage battery comprises an initial charge step in which a battery is charged to a selected voltage value that is less than the specified fully charged voltage of the battery, A iJ ⁇ .
• the battery can be allowed to rest in an open circuit configuration prior to undergoing a second charge step to a terminal voltage value that is at least equal to the specified fully charged voltage of the battery such that the battery is activated relative to its specified operational voltage.
• activation involves insertion of lithium into negative electrode active material, such as through intercalation or alloying of lithium with the negative electrode active material, and the lithium associated with the negative electrode active material is then available to leave the negative electrode active material during discharge.
• the battery can be discharged.
• additional charging steps can be included in the first charge of the battery. It is found that using this improved procedure for the initial cycle of the cell provides for improved battery cycle lifetime.
• the battery is prepared for subsequent cycling.
• the battery electrodes undergo irreversible changes to the materials in the first cycle that can affect the performance characteristics of a battery.
• the first charge/discharge cycle can be referred to as the formation or activation cycle, and the procedure for the first cycle can be referred to as the formation of the cell.
• compositions in the battery e.g., a solvent composition and the electrolyte salt, can decompose and deposit on the negative electrode during charging and form a layer of material known as a solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer.
• SEI solid electrolyte interface
• the SEI layer can reduce further electrolyte decomposition on subsequent charging cycles of the battery.
• successive charge cycles may further irreversibly consume the battery electrolyte material or a component thereof, and the decomposition of the electrolyte can lead to a shortened battery cycle lifetime.
• the positive electrode active materials also generally undergo irreversible changes during the first charge of the battery. These irreversible changes can contribute to the irreversible capacity loss of the battery, which can be greater than the irreversible capacity loss attributable to the SEI layer. It has been found that coating the lithium rich materials can result in a decrease in the irreversible capacity loss, presumably related to the irreversible changes to the positive electrode active material. Nevertheless, significant irreversible changes occur in relationship with the lithium rich composition, and the loss of molecular oxygen has been observed in this context.
• the selected voltage value of the initial charge is no greater than about 4.3 volts, in further embodiments no more than about 4.275 volts and in additional embodiments from about 4.0 volts to about 4.25 volts.
• the initial lower voltage charge can be performed under a constant current charge, a constant voltage charge or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, it is desirable to use a constant voltage charge for this step.
• the parameters of the charge can be adjusted such that the overall rate of performing this charge is at least about 30 minutes, in further embodiments for at least about 45 minutes, in additional embodiments from about 1.0 hours to about 12 hours and in other embodiments from about 1.5 hours to about 8 hours.
• the initial charge may be selected so that the battery experiences essentially no voltage drop during a subsequent resting stage of the formation cycle.
• the first charge/discharge cycle described herein comprises a rest period wherein a battery is held in an open circuit configuration for a particular duration. In an open circuit configuration, no charge flows between the poles of the battery. It is expected that comparable results can be obtained with shorter rest periods at elevated temperatures, hi general, the rest period for the battery can be performed at a temperature up to about 75°C, in further embodiments from about 15°C to 65°C, in other embodiments from about 18°C to about 60°C, and in additional embodiments from about 20°C to about 55°C. The rest period can be performed at room temperature, e.g. 22°C to 25°C. A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional ranges of temperatures within the explicit ranges above are contemplated and are within the present disclosure.
• the rest period comprises placing the battery in an open circuit configuration for at least about 0.5 days. In other embodiments, the rest period comprises placing the battery in an open circuit configuration for at least about 1 day. In further embodiments, the rest period comprises placing the battery in an open circuit configuration for from about 2 days to about 20 days, in additional embodiments from about 3 days to about 10 days, and in some embodiments from about 4 days to about 8 days. As the experimental results indicate below, a rest period of about 7 days at room temperature provides surprisingly improved cycling results, although shorter rest periods would be _ . n 1
• the DSC plot as a function of temperature indicates that the negative electrode compositions can be stable to temperatures of at least about 128°C, in further embodiments at least about 130°C and in additional embodiments from about 132°C to about 160°C.
• the stability temperature is taken as the onset temperature.
• the onset temperature is obtained by drawing a tangent through the inilection point along the leading edge of a peak of the DSC curve, and the onset temperature is the temperature at which the tangent line intersects the baseline that reflects the heat capacity of the material.
• the tip or highest point of a peak in the DSC plot can provide another reference point.
• a peak generally indicates a change, e.g., decomposition in the SEI layer associated with the negative electrode material.
• the DSC measurements are taken by starting at a temperature of 30°C and the temperature is increased at a rate of 10°C per minute.
• a subsequent charge step of a first charge/discharge cycle generally comprises charging a battery to a terminal voltage value that is at least as great as the specified fully charged cycling voltage of the battery, which generally follows the rest period.
• the battery is further activated with respect to increasing the capacity due to incorporation of additional lithium into the negative electrode active material.
• This voltage for the subsequent charge step is greater than the initial charge of the first charge cycle.
• the terminal voltage can be selected so as to avoid overcharge conditions wherein a battery undergoes undesirable irreversible processes.
• the voltage value at which overcharge conditions are present can be determined with reference to the particular battery chemistry.
• the subsequent charge voltage generally is at least about 4.35 volts, in further embodiments from about 4.40 volts to about 4.8 volts, in additional embodiments from about 4.425 volts to about 4.75 volts and in other embodiments from about 4.45 volts to about 4.7 volts.
• additional charge steps can be used to bring the battery up to the selected voltage for full activation during the first cycle.
• three, four or more charging steps can be used to step the voltage up to the voltage for full activation.
• additional steps can be used before the rest step, after the rest step or a combination thereof. However, if greater than two charge steps are used, one or a plurality of these charge steps generally combine to reproduce the conditions described above for the initial charge step with a rest prior to charge to the full cycling voltage. If a plurality of rest steps is used between charging steps, the rest steps may or may not be performed at the same temperature. Similarly, a rest step may not be performed at a constant temperature through the rest step, and the reference to a temperature of a rest step is considered the approximate average temperature unless indicated otherwise.
• the battery is discharged to complete the first charge/ discharge cycle.
• the battery can be discharged relatively deeply to a voltage of 2 volts.
• the battery is discharged to a voltage below 2.75 volts, in other embodiments to a voltage from 1.5 volts to 2.65 volts, in additional embodiments from about 1.75 to about 2.6 volts and in further embodiments from about 1.8 volts to about 2.5 volts.
• the battery generally is then charged again when ready for use.
• the battery can be partially charged to a selected voltage for distribution.
• the charging of the battery generally is performed through the application of a suitable voltage across the poles of the battery.
• the charging can be controlled in appropriate A i ⁇
• the charge steps can comprises standard charging methods known in the art such as constant current (CC) charging, constant voltage (CV) charging, and mixed charging methods.
• CC constant current
• CV constant voltage
• a battery is charged to the selected voltage value by introducing an approximately constant current through the battery until the selected voltage value is reached.
• CV charging process a battery can be charged to the selected voltage value by applying a constant voltage across the battery until the open circuit voltage reaches the selected voltage value and/or until a selected induced current is reached and/or a selected period of time has passed.
• the particular charging steps can be divided, if desired, into multiple steps with different constant currents and/or constant voltages used for the respective steps.
• a constant current can be used for a portion of a charge step and a constant voltage can be used for another part of the charge step.
• the initial charge can comprises a constant current charge to the selected initial charge voltage, which is followed after the rest period by the constant voltage formation step.
• the steps combined are effectively a mixed charging process in which a battery can be charged by first using a constant current step until the selected voltage value is reached and subsequently, the battery can be further charged using a constant voltage charging method by applying a voltage across the battery at the selected voltage value for a selected amount of time and/or until a selected current value is induced in the battery.
• the battery can be charged at a current from about C/40 to about 5C, in other embodiments from about C/20 to about 3C and in further embodiments from about C/15 to about 2C, until a selected voltage value is reached.
• a person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional ranges of current within the explicit ranges above are contemplated and are within the present disclosure.
• the subsequent charging step to activate the battery can be performed using a constant voltage charge, although a constant current can be used in principle. Use of the multiple step formation procedure described herein can improve the cycle life of high voltage lithium ion batteries.
• the battery management system (BMS) that is described herein is designed to improve the performance of high voltage lithium ion batteries by advantageously managing charge/discharge cycling of the battery. It is generally observed that secondary batteries undergo capacity fade during charge/discharge cycling at large numbers of cycles.
• capacity fade refers to capacity loss of a battery with use. Factors including, for omey oc e example, rate of charge/discharge and depth of charge/discharge, are generally thought to affect the amount of capacity fade a battery experiences at high numbers of charge/discharge cycles. Specifically, deep discharge of lithium ion batteries has been generally believed to increase capacity fade such that the battery can experience fewer cycles before the battery no longer achieves a satisfactory performance.
• the BMS described herein manages battery charge/discharge cycling so that capacity fade during this process is reduced.
• the improved battery management is based on the unexpected result that a deeper discharge improves the long term cycling performance for the high voltage lithium ion batteries described herein incorporating lithium rich positive electrode active materials.
• Such an improved BMS comprises a monitoring circuit, a processor, and a charging circuit, which is interfaced with a high voltage battery, and the BMS is designed to implement discharge/charge procedures that take advantage of the unexpected discovery that deeper discharges can improve cycling life.
• Using such a BMS has been shown to increase the capacity of a high voltage battery at relatively large numbers of cycles.
• a battery During normal operation after formation/preparation of the battery, a battery generally is discharged to provide electrical current to power an electrical device, such as a communication device, a motor, a digital processor or the like. At some time, the battery is recharged. In general, the operator of the corresponding electrical device selects the time to charge the battery, although the device or associated system may provide information to the user. In some embodiments herein, the charging process can be at least in part automatically controlled. The selected time for charging may or may not correspond with a state of discharge at which the battery properties are below the operational specifications of the electrical device that is powered by the battery.
• a BMS 120 that is designed to perform the improved battery management generally comprises a processor 122, a monitoring circuit 124, and a charge-discharge circuit 126, in which the BMS is interfaced with a high voltage lithium ion battery 128, electrical ground 130, functional device 132 and at appropriate times an external power source 134 for charging.
• Monitoring circuit 124 is designed to monitor the state of the battery and to relay that information to processor 122 of BMS 120.
• Processor 122 receives battery status information from monitoring circuit 124 as well as charging power availability information from charging circuit 126, and processor 122 is programmed to control battery discharging and charging to reduce battery fade.
• processor 122 may determine if battery discharge is performed prior to charging the battery, and the processor may communicate appropriate charge or discharge parameters to the charging circuit.
• Charge-discharge circuit 126 controls charge and discharge of battery 128, such as in accordance with instructions received from processor 122.
• Suitable monitoring circuits can be adapted from conventional battery control circuits.
• Monitoring circuit 124 of the BMS can be capable of monitoring the state of the battery and generating a monitoring signal to relate the state of the battery to the processor.
• a monitoring circuit comprises a voltage monitoring circuit that can monitor the voltage of a battery and generate a monitoring signal that communicates the estimated voltage value to the processor.
• a monitoring circuit can comprise a current monitoring circuit that can monitor the battery current and generate a monitoring signal that communicates the estimate of the current value to the processor.
• the monitoring circuit can comprise a voltage monitoring circuit and a current monitoring circuit.
• a specific voltage monitoring circuits and/or current monitoring circuits can be ⁇ , n .
• Charge-discharge circuit 106 of the BMS may be capable of controlling the charging and discharging a battery using, for example, constant charge charging methods and/or constant voltage charging methods.
• charge-discharge circuit 140 can be adapted from conventional battery charge-discharge circuits with appropriate modifications.
• Battery charge-discharge circuits are described further, for example, in U.S. Patent No. 5,493,197 to Eguchi et al., entitled “Battery Charge Control Circuit," and U.S. Patent No. 7,276,881 to Okumura et al., entitled “Protection Method, Control Circuit, and Battery Unit,” both of which are incorporated herein by reference. Battery charging systems for hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles are respectively described in U.S. Patent No.
• a charge-discharge circuit 140 generally can comprise a connection detecting circuit 142, a charging switch 144, a discharging switch 146, and a charge controller 148. As shown in Fig. 3, charging circuit 144 is also connected to battery 160, processor 162, electrical ground 164 and at appropriate times external power source 166. Connection detection circuit 142 can detect if external power supply 166 is available to supply power to the BMS to charge the battery and generates a signal to communicate this power availability information to processor 162.
• Discharge switch 146 can be electrically connected to a device load 168 and a dissipative load 170, where the device load involves the powering of the associated functional electrical device and the dissipative load can correspond with a load used to dissipate battery current prior to charging.
• Dissipative load 170 may comprise a resistor to provide a reasonable current based on the battery capacity or other suitable load.
• Discharge switch 166 can comprise a plurality of switches to provide the desired functionality. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to provide for use of the functional electronic device with power supplied from the external . i ⁇ , n l
• charge controller 148 can signal charging switch 144 to open and discharging switch 146 to close.
• both charging switch 144 and discharge switch 146 can be simultaneously open, with the discharge switch open to the device load, to provide power to the electrical device at the same time in which battery 160 is charged, although the charging time may correspondingly increase.
• Charge controller 148 can charge a battery at a preselected current, 1Q.
• charge controller 148 can charge a battery by applying a preselected voltage, Vo, across a battery.
• charge controller 148 can perform the charging using a sequential combination of constant current and constant voltage steps. Charging switch 144 can be closed when the desired state of charge is achieved for battery 160, which can be evaluated, for example, based on the open current voltage of the battery.
• charge-discharge circuit 140 receives a signal from processor 162 to discharge battery 160 to power the electrical device, the charge-discharge circuit closes charging switch 144 and opens discharging switch 146 to the device load.
• the discharging switch is directly controlled by a user through the pressing of a button, the movement of a manual switch or actuation of another appropriate input component.
• the operation of the device when an external power source is not available can be conventional.
• connection detecting circuit 142 provides an appropriate signal to processor 162.
• processor 162 of the BMS can interpret the state the BMS in view of determining an advantageous approach for charging the battery.
• the processor can determine the state of the BMS by interpreting monitoring signals generated by a monitoring circuit and a charge-discharge circuit.
• the state of the BMS can include, for example, the open circuit voltage of the battery.
• the processor can evaluate the state of the BMS at least in part by interpreting stored charge history data kept by the processor.
• this data can comprise, for example, the battery voltage at which at least some previous charges were initiated and/or the number of times the battery has been charged since last being discharged to lower selected discharge voltage value.
• the processor can determine the state of the battery by interpreting monitoring signals from the monitoring circuits.
• the processor can further evaluate the state of the electronic device, i.e., whether or not the electronic device is in a powered state. If the electronic device is powered on, the processor can open both a discharge switch connected to the device load and a charging switch such that the external power source is both powering the electronic device and charging the battery. If the electronic device is powered down, generally the device operates in at least a low power mode to provide power for at least the processor and charge-discharge circuits as well as possibly status displays.
• the user may determine when to provide an external power source to initiate the battery charging.
• the electronic device generally has a lower cut-off battery voltage to power the electronic device. The user may or may not supply external power when the battery is at or near the lower cut-off voltage for operating the electrical device. Also, the lower cut-off voltage for operating the electrical device may or may not be above the target stabilizing discharge voltage to improve battery longevity.
• the processor of the BMS may control the charging and/or discharging processes by sending control signals to a charge-discharge circuit.
• the processor can control the charging process of a battery, for example, by sending a control signal to the charging circuit communicating appropriate switch connections and/or charging parameters.
• Appropriate charging parameters may include, for example, the charging method and/or charging rate and/or the like.
• the processor can control the discharging process of a battery by sending a control signal to the charge-discharge circuit communicating appropriate discharging parameters.
• Appropriate discharge parameters can include, for example, whether or not a battery should be discharged to a dissipation load prior to performing the battery Attorney Docket No.: i5U . 1 WUOl charging.
• the processor of the BMS generally can continue to receive monitoring signals from a charge-discharge circuit and/or a monitoring circuit of the BMS during the charging and/or discharging processes.
• the processor of the BMS can determine when it is advantageous to stop the charging and discharging processes.
• the processor can stop the charging process by sending a control signal to the charging circuit to stop the charging process, for example, by opening the charging switch termination the application of charging current form the external power source.
• the processor can stop the discharging process by sending a control signal to the charge-discharge circuit to stop the discharging process, for example, by opening a discharge switch. It is generally desired to avoid overcharging the battery since overcharging the battery can damage the battery. Thus, charging is generally stopped once the battery has reached the specified charge voltage for the battery.
• a separate overcharge protection circuit can be used in addition to or as an alternative to the processor controlling the termination of the charging process.
• the processor of the BMS can be programmed to determine when to advantageously charge and discharge a battery. This determination, and therefore the specific embodiment of the processor programming, is highly dependent on the particular embodiment of the BMS.
• the processor can be programmed to operate the system in either of two modes: a charge only mode and a charge/discharge mode.
• the processor may have a default mode involving an evaluation by the processor of whether or not to further discharge the battery prior to charging to decrease battery fade.
• a user can control the operating mode of a processor using an input device that sends a control signal to the processor, which may override a default mode of the processor.
• a processor When operating in a charge only mode, a processor can determine if an external power supply is available such that a battery can be advantageously charged and, subsequently, starts and stops the charging process. When operating in a charge/discharge mode, a processor can first determine whether a battery can be advantageously discharged prior to charging once an external power source is available.
• battery capacity fade can be reduced by discharging the battery to lower voltage values prior to charging.
• the capacity fade of a battery can be reduced by charging the battery when the open circuit voltage of the battery is in a greater depth of discharge.
• even intermittently discharging the battery below a target stabilizing discharge voltage ttomey oc e prior to charging can improve battery capacity and correspondingly reduce battery fade.
• the dissipation is performed with respect to a separate dissipation circuit although the dissipation can be performed with current supplied to the electronic device or other functional circuit if the battery has sufficient voltage for the functional circuit and if the particular functional circuit is in a powered on status.
• the discharge can be performed to a target stabilizing discharge voltage.
• the batteries can be discharged prior to charging to a stabilizing voltage in some embodiments of no more than about 2.25 volts, in other embodiments no more than about 2.2 volts, in further embodiments from about 2.15 volts to about 1.5 volts and in additional embodiments from about 2.05 volts to about 1.75 volts.
• a stabilizing voltage in some embodiments of no more than about 2.25 volts, in other embodiments no more than about 2.2 volts, in further embodiments from about 2.15 volts to about 1.5 volts and in additional embodiments from about 2.05 volts to about 1.75 volts.
• the dissipative discharge to a selected stabilizing discharge voltage can be performed prior to each charge if the initial voltage is greater than the selected target stabilizing discharge voltage when the external power source is provided.
• the dissipative discharge may add to the time to reach a fully charged battery. This additional time may be particularly notable when the charging process is initiated from a relatively charged state of the battery.
• the user can supply an external power source at any desired time, which may be prior to the battery reaching the voltage at which the battery is at the lowest operating voltage of the electrical device.
• the user may supply an external power source, e.g. plug in the device, when a significant amount of battery capacity remains. To then fully discharge the battery prior to charging the battery may be undesirable with respect to the waste of energy as well as the large prior of time would then be needed to discharge the battery at a reasonable rate.
• the battery is dissipatively discharged prior to charging only when the charging process is initiated when the battery voltage is below a selected cutoff value.
• the cutoff value can be selected based on the particular battery design, and in some embodiments the cutoff value can be about 2.8 volts, in further embodiments about 2.75 volts and in additional embodiments about 2.6 volts.
• the battery can be discharged prior to charging at least for one cycle out of a selected number of cycles. For example, the battery can be discharged prior to charging at least for one cycle out A ii _ . n 1
• the battery and BMS influence the charging and discharging rates.
• the battery(ies), BMS and the electronic device are designed to provide appropriate current and voltage to drive the electronic device at the normal operating parameters of the electronic device.
• the impedance of the overall circuit can be adjusted appropriately to provide the appropriate current during powering of the electronic device.
• the average operating current for the electrical device is generally no more than about a 0.5 C discharge rate.
• the dissipative load can have an impedance to provide a reasonable current for dissipating the battery to the target stabilizing voltage.
• the resistance can be selected for the dissipative load such that along with the remaining portions of the circuit the current corresponds with a current approximately no more than an equivalent of a 1C rate discharge, in further embodiments no more than a 0.5 C discharge and in other embodiments no more than about 0.4 C discharge.
• the charge current can be controlled to provide for a current within a desired range.
• the charge current can be no more about 2C, in further embodiments, no more than about 1C and in other embodiments no more than about 0.5 C.
• Positive electrodes comprised coated lithium metal oxide particles, electrically conductive particles and a binder coated onto an aluminum foil current collector.
• I J w metal oxide particles comprises a lithium rich layer-layer composition approximately represented by the formula
• the lithium metal oxide composition was synthesized using a carbonate co-precipitation process, and the lithium metal oxide particles were subsequently coated with aluminum fluoride (A1F 3 ) at a thickness from about 6-8 nm. Further details of the of carbonate co-precipitation and coating processes can be found in co-pending U.S. Publication No. 2010/0151332 to Lopez et al, entitled "Positive Electrode Materials for High Discharge Capacity Lithium Ion Batteries," incorporated herein by reference.
• the aluminum fluoride coated lithium metal oxide powder was mixed thoroughly with acetylene black (Super PTM from Timcal, Ltd, Switzerland) and graphite (KS 6TM from Timcal, Ltd) to form a homogeneous powder mixture.
• acetylene black Super PTM from Timcal, Ltd, Switzerland
• graphite KS 6TM from Timcal, Ltd
• Polyvinylidene fluoride PVDF KF1300TM from Kureha Corp., Japan
• N-methyl-pyrrolidone Honeywell - Riedel-de-Haen
• the mixture comprised at least about 75 weight percent active metal oxide, at least about 3 weight percent acetylene black, at least about 1 weight percent graphite and at least about 2 weight percent polymer binder.
• the homogeneous powder mixture was then added to the PVDF- NMP solution and mixed for about 2 hours to form a homogeneous slurry.
• the slurry was applied onto an aluminum foil current collector to form a thin wet film using a doctor's blade coating process.
• a positive electrode material was formed by drying the aluminum foil current collector with the thin wet film in vacuum oven at 110°C for about two hours to remove NMP.
• the positive electrode material was pressed between rollers of a sheet mill to obtain a positive electrode with desired thickness.
• a coin cell battery was formed from the positive electrodes formed as described above.
• the positive electrode was placed inside an argon filled glove box for the fabrication of the coin cell batteries.
• the negative electrode comprised at least about 75 weight percent graphite and at least about 1 weight percent acetylene black with the remaining portion of the negative electrode being polymer binder.
• the acetylene black was initially mixed with NMP solvent to form a uniform dispersion.
• the graphite and polymer were added to the dispersion to form a slurry.
• the slurry was applied to a copper substrate to form the negative electrode after drying.
• An improved electrolyte was used as described in copending U.S. Patent Application No.
• This example shows the effect of the cell formation protocol on the batteiy capacity fade.
• two batteries were constructed as described above. Subsequently, one battery was formed using formation protocol A and the other battery was formed using formation protocol B.
• Formation protocol A comprised a first charge of a battery to 4.6 volts at a constant current of C/IO. Subsequently, the battery was held at a constant voltage of 4.6 volts for 4 hours prior to resting in an open circuit configuration for 7 days. The battery was then discharged to 2.0 volts at a constant current of C/IO.
• Formation protocol B comprised a first charge of a battery to 4.2 volts at a constant current of C/10.
• the battery was held at a constant voltage of 4.2 volts for 4 hours prior to resting in an open circuit configuration for 7 days. Alternative lengths of the rest period are described further below.
• the battery was then charged to 4.6 volts at a constant current of C/10 prior to being discharged to 2.0 volts at a constant current of C/10.
• the capacity-cycle data was generated for each battery by charging a battery to 4.6 volts at constant current and discharging the battery to 2.0 volts at constant current.
• the batteries were charged and discharged at a rate of C/5. Thereafter, the batteries were charged and discharged at a rate of C/3.
• the formation protocol B results in significantly decreased capacity fade during cycling relative to formation protocol A.
• the battery formed using protocol A has a specific capacity at the 200th cycle of about 158 niAh/g and experiences a 25-26 percent capacity fade between the 5th discharge cycle (210 niAh/g), where the C/3 rate is first used, and the 200th cycle.
• the battery formed with formation protocol B has a specific capacity at the 200th cycle of about 193 niAh/g and experiences a 16-17 percent capacity fade between the 5th discharge cycle (232 mAh/g) and the 200th cycle.
• the batteries formed with formation protocol B have a significantly greater capacity at the 200th cycle as well as a decreased fade during the cycling at the C3 rate and a decreased fade ++
• the properties of the negative electrode were studied to understand better the properties of the electrodes following the formation and the differences resulting from the different lengths of the rest period at an open circuit following charging to an initial voltage. Specifically, differential scanning calorimetry results were obtained on negative electrodes removed from the batteries after completing the formation protocol. The negative electrodes are removed after a complete discharge of the cell to eliminate a substantial amount of the lithium. In the DSC measurement, the temperature was scanned from 30°C to 400°C at a rate of 10°C per minute. Above, 250°C the carbon structure collapses. Measurements indicating a phase change below 250°C can be associated with decomposition of the SEI layer.
• the DSC results are plotted in Fig. 6 for batteries having rest periods of 2 days, 4 days, 7 days and 10 days.
• the raw data was normalized by the weight of the material
• a change in the anode material is observed at an onset temperature of about 74°C and a peak temperature of about 91°C.
• the anode material exhibits a reaction or phase change with an onset temperature of about 109°C with a peak temperature of about 126°C.
• the anode material does not exhibit onset temperatures of about 143°C and 150°C and peak temperatures of about 161°C and about 165°C, respectively.
• This example shows the effect of cycling voltage on battery capacity fade demonstrating that a deeper discharge decreases capacity fade.
• Three equivalent batteries were constructed as described above and formed using formation protocol A described in example 1. Each battery was then cycled using a different cycling protocol.
• the batteries were charged to a voltage of 4.6 volts during the charging phase of cycling.
• the battery cycled using the first cycling protocol was discharged to a voltage of 2.5 volts during the discharge phase of cycling.
• the battery cycled using the second cycling protocol was discharged to a voltage of 2.0 volts during the discharge phase of cycling.
• the battery cycled using the third cycling protocol was discharge to a voltage of 2.5 volts during the 115 cycles and, therefore, discharged to a voltage of 2.0 volts.
• Each battery was cycled more than 203 times following formation. For the first three charge/discharge cycles following formation, the batteries were charge and discharged at a rate of C/5. For the remaining 200 cycles, each battery was charged and discharged at a rate of C/3.
• plots of capacity as a function of cycle number are presented for the first two cycle protocols, with the first three discharge cycled truncated from the plots.
• the battery cycled using the first cycling protocol experienced significantly greater capacity fade than the battery cycled using the second cycling protocol.
• the battery cycled using the first cycling protocol experienced approximately 60 percent capacity fade while the battery cycled using the second cycling protocol experienced only approximately 25 percent capacity fade relative to the capacity at cycle 4.
• the battery cycled using the third cycling protocol regained capacity when the discharge cut-off voltage was decreased during cycling, as shown in Fig. 10.
• the battery capacity-cycle behavior was similar to the battery cycled using the first cycling protocol.
• the discharge cut-off voltage was changed from 2.5 volts to 2.0 volts, the battery capacity increased and the capacity-cycle behavior at longer cycle numbers was similar to the battery cycled using the second cycling protocol.

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• 2010
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