CN1954131B - 使用氮化物绝缘的地下电加热器 - Google Patents

使用氮化物绝缘的地下电加热器 Download PDF

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CN1954131B
CN1954131B CN2005800127270A CN200580012727A CN1954131B CN 1954131 B CN1954131 B CN 1954131B CN 2005800127270 A CN2005800127270 A CN 2005800127270A CN 200580012727 A CN200580012727 A CN 200580012727A CN 1954131 B CN1954131 B CN 1954131B
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H·J·维内加
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    • E21B43/00—Methods or apparatus for obtaining oil, gas, water, soluble or meltable materials or a slurry of minerals from wells
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    • E21B43/24—Enhanced recovery methods for obtaining hydrocarbons using heat, e.g. steam injection
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Abstract

本发明提供一种系统，该系统包括电导体，电导体构造为当施加电流至电导体时产生电阻热输出。电绝缘体至少部分地围绕电导体。电绝缘体包括一种氮化物。护套至少部分地围绕电导体。

Description

使用氮化物绝缘的地下电加热器
背景
发明领域
本发明总体上涉及由各种地下地层，比如由含碳氢化合物的地层生产碳氢化合物、氢和/或其它产品用的方法和系统。尤其是，所述的某些实施例涉及使用氮化物电绝缘的加热器。
相关技术的说明
由地下地层获得的碳氢化合物经常被用作能量资源、原料以及消费产品。对于可获取的碳氢资源日益贫化以及生产的碳氢化合物的整体质量改变的担心，导致处理过程的发展，以便更有效地回收、加工和/或使用可获取的碳氢化合物资源。原地处理可以用于由地下地层清除碳氢材料。在地层内的碳氢化合物材料的化学和/或物理性能可能需要改变，以允许碳氢材料可以更容易地由地层清除。化学和物理改变可以包括：原地反应，它在地层内产生可清除的液体，成分改变，溶解度改变，密度改变，相变和/或粘度改变。一种流体可能是，但不局限于一种气体，一种液体，一种乳剂，一种料浆和/或一种固体颗粒的细流，该细流具有类似于液体流动的流动特性。
电加热器可以借助辐射和/或传导使用于加热地层。授予Germain的美国专利No.2,548,360描述一种电加热器，其适于以这样的一种方式和这样的效果下降入一个油井套管和浸在油内，以致重比重油-这种油通常在自然状态下是不能由油井泵送的，至少不能以足够的体积被泵送来使井变得有利或有效-可以被加热并因此稀化至一个可以以完全和有利的体积被泵送的稠度。授予Eastlund等人的美国专利No.4,716,960描述一种石油钻井井管的电加热，它是借助电流通过井管以防止形成固体，比如石蜡。授予Van Egmond的美国专利No.5,065,818描述一种地下加热器，它不需要一个套管。
授予Vinegar等人的美国专利No.6,023,554描述一种加热元件，围绕加热元件的一个套管以及支承材料，该支承材料分隔电阻加热元件和套管。支承材料对于电阻加热元件产生的辐射能是半透明的，因此由电加热元件至套管的热传递是辐射的和传导的。该加热元件使用作为一个油井加热器，用于这样的目的，比如碳氢化合物回收和土壤修复。
授予Van Meurs等人的美国专利No.4,570,715描述一种电加热元件。一个电加热器设置为具有至少一个加热元件，位于准备加热的间距中。所述的一个或多个加热元件基本上包括：(a)电传导芯子或导体，它在一个高温具有一个较低的电阻，(b)芯子围绕绝缘材料，它在一个高温具有较高的电阻性能、压缩强度和热传导率，以及(c)芯子和绝缘围绕金属护套，该金属护套在一个高温具有较高的拉伸强度性能，抗蠕变性和抗软化性。所述的电加热器也可设置为这样，使沿着准备加热的间距加热器具有随着距离改变的一个电阻图案(例如，由于芯子横截面面积和每单位长度电阻的组合)，该电阻图案与沿着准备加热的地层的间距随着距离改变的一个热传导率图案相关联。
某些加热器使用的绝缘体不是非常致密的并具有低的拉伸强度、低的抗弯力学强度和/或低的热冲击应力特性。还有，某些加热器可以在高温下使用，这种高温足以引起某些类型的绝缘体破坏或失效。因此，这里所述的某些加热器内使用的绝缘体是非常致密的材料，具有高的拉伸强度，高的抗弯力学强度和高的热冲击应力特性。这里所述的某些绝缘体也是优良的高温电绝缘体。
发明概述
本发明提供一种系统，包括：电导体，其被构造为在施加电流至该电导体的过程中产生电阻热输出；电绝缘体，至少部分地围绕该电导体，其中该电绝缘体包括氮化物；以及护套，至少部分地围绕该电导体。
本发明还提供与上述的发明的组合，其中：(a)该氮化物是氮化硅或氮化硼；(b)该电导体是铜-镍合金；和/或(c)该护套是一种耐腐蚀材料。
本发明还提供一种使用上述发明的系统加热地层用的原地方法。
附图的简要说明
本发明的优点对于本领域技术人员在参照附图阅读下列的详细说明之后变得明确，其中：
图1示出在地层内加热碳氢化合物的各阶段的一个示意图；
图2示出处理一个含碳氢地层用的一个原地转换系统的一部分的一个实施例的一个示意图；
图3，4和5示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个外导体，具有一个铁磁段和一个非铁磁段；
图6，7，8和9示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个外导体，具有一个铁磁段和一个非铁磁段，放置在一个护套内；
图10，11和12示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个外导体；
图13，14，15和16示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的横剖面图；
图17A和图17B示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的横剖面图；
图18A和图18B示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的横剖面图；
图19示出一个导体在导管内热源的一个实施例的一个横剖面图；
图20示出一个可拆卸的导体在导管内热源的一个实施例的一个横剖面图；
图21A和图21B示出一个绝缘的导体加热器的一个实施例；
图22示出一个导体在导管内温度限制加热器的一个实施例；
图23示出一个三相温度限制加热器的一个实施例，一部分以横剖面图示出；
图24示出一个三相温度限制加热器的一个实施例，一部分以横剖面图示出；
图25示出选择温度下氧化铝和氮化硅定中心器的电压与泄漏电流测量值的关系曲线；
图26示出泄漏电流测量值与两种不同类型的氮化硅的温度的关系曲线。
虽然本发明易于有不同的改变和代替形式，在各图中以实例方式示出它的特定的实施例以及在此处详细地说明。这些附图可以不按比例。然而，应该理解，这些附图和详细的说明不是有意地限制本发明为公开的特定的形式，与此相反，本发明应覆盖在本发明的精神和范围内的全部改变、等同和代替，本发明的精神和范围如所附权利要求书所限定。
本发明的详细说明
上述的问题可以使用这里所述的系统，方法和加热器解决。例如，一种系统，包括电导体，电导体构造为当施加电流至电导体时产生电阻热输出。电绝缘体至少部分地围绕该电导体以及与该电导体直接物理接触。该电绝缘体可以包括氮化物。护套至少部分地围绕该电导体以及与该电导体直接物理接触。
下列的说明总的涉及在地层内处理碳氢化合物用的系统和方法。这种地层可以处理以获得碳氢产品、氢和其它产品。本文中使用的术语定义如下。
“碳氢化合物”一般定义为主要由碳和氢原子形成的分子。碳氢化合物还可以包括其它元素，比如，但不局限于卤族元素，金属元素，氮，氧和/或硫。碳氢化合物可以是，但不局限于油页岩，沥青，焦沥青，油类，天然矿蜡和沥青岩。碳氢化合物可以位于地球的矿物岩脉内或与其邻接。岩脉可以包括，但不局限于沉积岩，砂，硅质盐，碳酸盐，硅藻土，以及其它硫松介质。“碳氢化合物流体”是包含碳氢化合物的流体。碳氢化合物流体可以包括掺杂，或被掺杂在非碳氢化合物流体内(例如，氢，氮，一氧化碳，二氧化碳，硫化氢，水和氨水)。
“API比重”是指在15.5℃(60)下API(美国石油学会)的比重。API比重是按照美国标准试验和材料学会方法D6822(ASTMMethod D6822)测定的。
“地层”包括一个或多个含碳氢化合物层，一个或多个非碳氢化合物层，上覆岩层和/或下伏岩层。上覆岩层和/或下伏岩层包括一个或多个不同类型的不渗透材料。例如，上覆岩层和/或下伏岩层可以包括岩石，油页岩，泥石或湿/致密碳酸盐。在原地转换过程的某些实施例中，上覆岩层和/或下伏岩层可以包括一个或多个含碳氢化合物层，它们是较不渗透的和在原地转换过程中不经受温度，该过程导致上覆岩层和/或下伏岩层的含碳氢化合物层显著的特性改变。例如，上覆岩层可能含有油页岩或泥石，但是下伏岩层不允许在原地转换过程中加热至热解温度。在某些情况下，上覆岩层和/或下伏岩层可以是稍微可渗透的。
“地层流体和生产的流体”是指由地层清除的流体，以及可以包括热解流体，合成气体，移动的碳氢和水(蒸汽)。地层流体可以包括碳氢化合物流体以及非碳氢化合物流体。
“加热器”是在一个油井内或邻近钻井区内的产生热量用的任何系统。加热器可以是，但不局限于电加热器，循环热传送流体或蒸汽，燃烧器，燃烧器，它们与地层内的或由其产生的材料反应。术语“钻井”是指在地层内钻出的一个孔或插入一个导管。在本文中使用的术语“油井”和“孔”当指在地层内的一个孔时，可以与术语“钻井”互相交换使用。
“温度限制加热器”一般是指一个加热器，当超过一个规定的温度时，它调节热输出(例如减少热输出)，而不使用外部控制器，比如温度控制器，功率调节器，整流器或其它器件。温度限制加热器可以是AC(交流)或调制(例如斩波)DC(直流)功率电阻加热器。
“居里温度”是一个温度，超过它铁磁材料丧失其全部铁磁性能。除在超过居里温度丧失其全部铁磁性能外，当一个增加的电流前进通过铁磁材料时，铁磁材料开始丧失其铁磁性能。
“随时间改变电流是指一种电流，它的大小随时间改变。随时间改变电流包括交流(AC)和调制的直流(DC)。”
“交流(AC)是指一个随时间改变电流，它基本上按正弦反向。交流产生电  表皮效应，在一个铁磁导体内流动。”
“调制的直流(DC)是指任何基本上非正弦的随时间改变电流，它产生电表皮效应，在一个铁磁导体内流动。”
温度限制加热器的“调节比”是指对于一个给定的电流在低于居里温度时最高的AC或调制的DC电阻与高于居里温度时最低的电阻的比率。
“氮化物”是指氮和周期表的一个或多个元素的一个化合物。氮化物包括，但不局限于氮化硅、氮化硼或氮氧化铝。
“热解”是由于施加热量引起化学键的破坏。热解包括仅借助热量转换一个化合物成为一个或多个其它物质。热量可以传送至地层的一段以引起热解。热解流体或热解产品是指在碳氢化合物热解时产生的流体。热解反应产生的流体可以与地层内的其它流体混合。该混合物应考虑为热解流体或热解产品。热解流体包括，但不局限于碳氢化合物，氢，二氧化碳，一氧化碳，硫化氢，氨水，氮，水以及它们的混合物。
“可凝结碳氢化合物”是在25℃和101kPa绝对压力下凝结的碳氢化合物。可凝结碳氢化合物可以包括具有碳数大于4的碳氢化合物的一种混合物。“不可凝结碳氢化合物”是在25℃和101kPa绝对压力下不凝结的碳氢化合物。不可凝结碳氢化合物可以包括具有碳数小于5的碳氢化合物。
在地层中的碳氢化合物可以借助不同的方式处理，以产生许多不同的产品。在某些实施例中，这样的地层分阶段处理。图l示出含有碳氢化合物的地层的一部分的几个加热阶段。图1还示出地层流体的产量(“Y”)与地层加热温度(“T”)关系的一个实例，产量(“Y”)以每吨所相当的油的桶数(barrels of oil equivalent per ton)(y-轴)计，地层加热温度(“T”)以℃(x-轴)计。
在加热的阶段1产生甲烷的解除吸附和水的蒸发。整个阶段1地层的加热应尽可能迅速地进行。当地层开始加热时，在地层内的碳氢化合物使吸附的甲烷解除吸附。解除吸附的甲烷可以由地层产出。如果地层继续加热，在地层内的水蒸发。在一些地层内水可以占据地层内松孔体积的10％和50％之间。在其它的地层内，水占据松孔体积的较大或较小部分。水典型地在160℃和285℃之间，在绝对压力600kPa至7000kPa下在地层内蒸发。在某些实施例中，蒸发的水产生地层内的可浸湿性改变和/或增加的地层压力。可浸湿性改变和/或增加的压力可能影响地层内的热解或其它反应。在某些实施例中，由地层产生蒸发的水。在其它实施例中，蒸发的水使用于地层内或地层外的蒸汽提取和/或蒸馏。由地层消除水和增加地层内的松孔体积增加了松孔体积内的碳氢化合物的存储空间。
在某些实施例中，在加热阶段1之后，地层的部分继续加热，从而使构造部分内的温度达到(至少)一个开始热解温度(比如阶段2所示的温度范围的低端温度)。地层内的碳氢化合物可以在整个阶段2内热解。热解温度范围根据地层内的碳氢化合物的类型改变。热解温度范围可以包括温度在250℃和900℃之间。产生希望的产品用的热解温度范围可以延伸仅通过整个热解温度范围的一部分。在某些实施例中，产生希望的产品用的热解温度范围可以包括温度在250℃和400℃之间，温度在250℃和350℃之间，或温度在325℃和400℃之间。如果地层内的碳氢化合物的温度缓慢地升高，通过温度范围由250℃至400℃，热解产品的生产基本上可以在温度达到400℃时完成。使用一组热源加热地层可以建立围绕热源的热梯度，它可以在整个热解温度范围内缓慢地升高地层内碳氢化合物的温度。
在某些转换实施例中，地层的一部分加热至希望的温度，以代替在通过热解温度范围缓慢的加热温度。在某些实施例中，希望的温度为300℃。在某些实施例中，希望的温度为325℃。在某些实施例中，希望的温度为350℃。其它的温度也可以选择作为希望的温度。来自各热源热量的叠加允许希望的温度较迅速地和有效地在地层内建立。由各热源进入地层内的能量输入可以调节，以保持地层内的温度在希望的温度。构造的加热部分保持在基本上希望的温度，直到热解降低至这样，由地层生产希望的地层流体变得不经济。经受热解的构造的各部分可以包括各区域，它借助于仅由一个热源的热传输达到热解温度范围。
在某些实施例中，地层流体包括由地层产生的热解流体。当地层的温度增加时，在产生的地层流体内的可凝结碳氢量可能减少。在高温时，地层可以主要产生甲烷和/或氢。如果地层加热经过整个热解范围，该构造可能在接近热解范围的上限时仅产生少量的氢。在最多的可提取的氢贫化后，发生由地层产生最少量流体。
在碳氢化合物热解之后，大量的碳和一些氢可能仍存在于地层的加热部分内。保留在构造的加热部分内的一些碳能够以合成气体的形式由地层产生。合成气体的产生可以在图1所示的加热阶段3进行。阶段3包括加热地层的加热部分至一个温度，足以允许合成气体产生。合成气体可以产生的温度范围为由400℃至1200℃，500℃至1100℃或550℃至1000℃。当合成气体产生流体被引入地层时，地层的加热部分的温度取决于地层内产生的合成气体的成分。产生的合成气体可以通过一个或更多生产井由地层清除。
图2示出处理含碳氢地层用的原地转换系统的一部分的一个实施例的示意图。热源100放置在地层的至少一部分内。热源100可以包括电加热器，比如绝缘的导体、导体在导管内的加热器、表面燃烧器、无焰分布燃烧器和/或自然分布燃烧器。热源100也可以包括其它类型的加热器。热源100提供热量至地层的至少一部分，以加热地层内的碳氢化合物。能量可以通过供给管路102供给至热源100。供给管路102根据加热地层使用的热源的类型可以在结构上是不同的。热源用的供给管路102可以是电加热器用的电传输，燃烧器用的燃料传输，或可以是在地层内循环的热交换流体传输。
生产井104使用于由地层清除地层流体。由生产井104生产的地层流体可以通过收集管106传输至处理设备108。地层流体也可由热源100产生。例如，流体可由热源100产生，以控制邻近热源的地层内的压力。由热源100产生的地层流体可以通过管子传输至收集管106，或产生的流体可以通过管子直接传输至处理设备108。处理设备108可以包括分离单元，反应单元，升级单元，燃料电池，涡轮机，存储容器和/或其它系统和单元，用于处理产生的地层流体。
处理碳氢化合物用的原地转换系统可包括阻挡井110。阻挡井使用于形成围绕一个处理区的一个阻挡层。阻挡层阻挡流体流入和/或流出处理区。阻挡井包括，但不局限于脱水井，真空井，捕获井，喷射井，泥浆井，凝结井或它们的组合。在某些实施例中，阻挡井110为脱水井。脱水井可以清除液体水和/或阻挡液体水进入准备加热的地层的一部分或准备加热的地层。在图2所示的实施例中，所示的脱水井仅沿着热源100的一个侧面延伸，但是脱水井典型地是围绕加热地层使用的或准备使用的全部热源100。
如图2所示，除热源100之外，一个或多个生产井104位于地层内。地层流体可以通过生产井104生产。在某些实施例中，生产井104包括一个热源。在生产井内的热源可以加热接近生产井的构造的一部分或数个部分，以及允许地层流体的蒸汽相消除。从生产井高温泵送液体的需要可以被减少或消除。避免或限制液体的高温泵送显著地降低了生产成本。在生产井处或通过生产井提供加热可以：(1)当生产流体在最接近上覆岩层的生产井内移动时，阻止生产流体的凝结和/或反流，(2)增加进入地层的热输入和/或(3)增加在生产井处或最接近生产井的地层的可渗透性。在某些原地转换过程实施例中，由一个生产井按每米生产井供给至地层的热量小于由一个加热地层的热源按每米热源供给至地层的热量。
在某些原地转换过程实施例中，由于流体产生引起的增加的压力可以保持在地层的加热部分内。在地层中保持增加的压力可以阻止原地转换时的地层沉陷。增加的地层压力可以促进热解时高质量产品的产生。增加的地层压力有利于来自地层的流体的蒸气相生产。蒸气相的生产允许减小由地层产生的流体传输用的收集管路的尺寸。增加的地层压力可以减少或消除在地面上压缩地层流体的需要，以便传输在收集管路内的流体至处理设备。
在地层内的增加的压力也可以保持以产生更多的和/或改进的地层流体。在某些原地转换过程实施例中，由地层产生的大量的碳氢化合物流体的可能是不可凝结的碳氢化合物。压力可以选择地增加和/或保持在地层内，以促进在地层内形成小链碳氮化合物。在地层内产生小链碳氢化合物允许由地层产出更多的可凝结碳氢化合物。在较高压力下由地层产生的可凝结碳氢化合物当按API(美国石油学会)比重评定时，具有比在较低压力下由地层产生的可凝结碳氢化合物更高的质量。在某些实施例中，由地层产生的混合物包括可凝结碳氢化合物，具有的API比重至少为25，或至少为30。
高压力可以保持在地层的加热部分内，以阻止产生具有碳数为25或更大的分量的地层流体。在地层的加热部分内保持增加的压力意外地允许产生大量的优质的碳氢化合物。高压力可以阻止较高分子量的碳氢化合物蒸发。阻止较高分子量的碳氢化合物的蒸发可以导致较高分子量的碳氢化合物保留在地层内。较高分子量的碳氢化合物可以与在地层内的较低分子量的碳氢化合物相互作用，以蒸发较低分子量的碳氢化合物。蒸发的碳氢化合物可以更容易地通过地层传输。
在某些实施例中，“温度限制加热器”用于供给热量至地层。温度限制加热器是一种加热器，当超过一个规定的温度时，它调节热输出(例如减少热输出)，而不使用外部控制器，比如温度控制器，功率调节器，整流器或其它器件。
温度限制加热器可以是这样的形状构造和/或包括材料，所述形状构造和材料对于一定温度的加热器提供自动的温度限制性能。在某些实施例中，铁磁材料使用在温度限制加热器内。当对铁磁材料施加一个随时间改变的电流时，铁磁材料能够自限制温度在材料的居里温度或接近居里温度，提供在居里温度或接近居里温度时一个减少的热量。在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器的铁磁材料自限制温度在一个选择温度，它接近居里温度。在某些实施例中，选择温度在居里温度周围35℃内，25℃内，20℃内或10℃内。在某些实施例中，铁磁材料与其它材料接合(例如，高传导材料，高强度材料，耐腐蚀材料或它们的组合)，以提供不同的电学和/或力学性能。温度限制加热器的一些部件可以具有一个较低的电阻(它是由于不同的几何形状和/或由于使用不同的铁磁材料和/或非铁磁材料引起的)，该电阻低于温度限制加热器的其它部件的电阻。温度限制加热器的一些部件具有不同的材料和/或尺寸，允许由加热器的每个部件调节希望的热输出。
温度限制加热器可以比其它的加热器更可靠。温度限制加热器可以较少的倾向于由于地层内的热点而引起破坏或失效。在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器允许构造的基本上均匀的加热。在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器能够更有效地加热地层，这时是借助沿着加热器的整个长度以一个高度均匀的热输出工作。温度限制加热器沿着加热器的整个长度以较高的平均热输出工作，这是因为，如果沿着加热器任何点的一个温度超过或大致超过加热器的一个最高工作温度，不需要像在典型的恒定瓦特数的加热器情况那样减少至整个加热器的功率。来自一个温度限制加热器的各部分的热输出在接近加热器的居里温度时自动化减少，不需要控制调节施加至加热器的电流。热输出的自动化减少是由于电性能的改变(例如，温度限制加热器的各部分的电阻)。因此，在加热过程的大部分时间内，由温度限制加热器供给更大的功率。
在某些实施例中，包括温度限制加热器的系统首先提供一个第一热输出，以及随后提供一个减少的热输出(第二热输出)，当该温度限制加热器被一个随时间改变的电流激励时，该减少的热输出在接近、处于或超过加热器的一个电阻部分的居里温度处。第一热输出是在某些温度条件下的热输出，低于这些温度时温度限制加热器开始自限制。在某些实施例中，第一热输出是在一个温度的热输出，此温度低于温度限制加热器的铁磁材料的居里温度50℃，75℃，100℃或125℃。
温度限制加热器可以借助在油井头供给的随时间改变的电流(交流或调制直流)激励。油井头可以包括一个供电源和其它部件(例如，调制部件，变压器和/或电容器)用于供电至温度限制加热器。温度限制加热器可以是使用于加热地层的一部分用的许多加热器之一。
在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器包括一个导体，当一个随时间改变电流施加至导体时，该导体作为一个表皮效应或接近效应加热器工作。  表皮效应限制电流渗透导体内部的深度。对于铁磁材料，表皮效应受导体的磁导率支配。铁磁材料的相对磁导率典型地在10和1000之间(例如，铁磁材料的相对磁导率典型地为至少10，以及可以是至少50，100，500，1000或更大)。当铁磁材料的温度升高超过居里温度，和/或施加的电流增加时，铁磁材料的磁导率显著地减少，以及表皮深度迅速地扩大(例如，表皮深度的扩大与磁导率的平方根成反比)。磁导率的减少是由于在接近、处于或超过居里温度时导体的AC或调制DC电阻的减少和/或当施加的电流增加时引起。当温度限制加热器由一个基本上恒定的电源供电时，接近、达到或超过居里温度的加热器的各部分可以具有减少的热耗散。不处于或不接近居里温度的温度限制加热器的各段可以被表皮效应加热支配，由于较高的电阻负载，该表皮效应加热允许加热器具有高的热耗散。
用温度限制加热器加热地层内碳氢化合物的优点在于导体选择为具有一个居里温度在一个希望的温度工作范围。在希望的工作温度范围内的工作，允许显著的热注射进入地层，而保持温度限制加热器和其它设备的温度低于设计的限制温度。设计的限制温度是这样的温度，在此温度各种性能，比如腐蚀、蠕变和/或变形受到不利的影响。温度限制加热器的温度限制性能阻止邻近地层内低热传导“热点”的加热器的过热或烧损。在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器根据加热器内使用的材料，能够降低或控制热输出和/或耐受温度超过25℃，37℃，100℃，250℃，500℃，700℃，800℃，900℃或高至1500℃的热。
温度限制加热器允许比恒定瓦特数加热器更多的热注射进入地层，因为进入温度限制加热器的能量输入不必须限制以适应邻近加热器的低热传导率区域。例如，在绿河油页岩中(Green River oil shale)最低富度的油页岩层和最高富度的油页岩层的热传导率的差别至少为50％。当加热这样一个地层时，基本上使用温度限制加热器比使用普通的加热器可传输更多的热量至该构造，普通的加热器受到低热传导率层内温度的限制。沿着普通加热器的整个长度的热输出需要适应低热传导率层，这样使加热器在低热传导率层不会过热和烧损。对于温度限制加热器，邻近处于高温的低热传导率层的热输出将减少，但是不是处于高温的温度限制加热器的剩余部分仍提供高的热输出。因为加热碳氢地层用的加热器典型地具有很长的长度(例如，至少10m，100m，300m，1km或更长至10km)，温度限制加热器的大部分长度可以在低于居里温度下工作，而仅有少数部分在温度限制加热器的居里温度处或接近居里温度处工作。
使用温度限制加热器允许有效地传输热量至地层。热量的有效传输允许减少加热地层至一个希望的温度需要的时间。例如，在绿河油页岩中，当使用一个具有12m的加热器油井间距的恒定瓦特数加热器时，热解典型地需要9.5年至10年。对于同样的加热器间距，温度限制加热器可以允许较大的平均热输出，而加热器设备温度保持在低于设备设计的限制温度。地层内的热解可以较早时产生，这是由于由温度限制加热器提供的平均热输出比由恒定瓦特数的加热器提供的平均热输出大。例如，在绿河油页岩中，使用一个具有12m的加热器油井间距的温度限制加热器时热解可以在5年内产生。温度限制加热器可以克服热点，这些热点是由于不精确的油井间距或钻井引起的，这里加热器井彼此太接近。在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器允许对间距太远的加热器油井超时地增加功率输出，或对间距太接近的加热器油井限制功率输出。
在温度限制加热器中使用的一种或多种铁磁合金确定加热器的居里温度。不同的金属的居里温度数据列于下列文献：美国物理学手册学会(American Institute of Physics Handbook，Second Edition，McGraw-Hill)，第5-170页至第5-176页。铁磁导体可以包括一个或多个铁磁元素(铁，钴和镍)和/或这些元素的合金。在某些实施例中，铁磁导体包括铁-铬合金，它含有钨(例如，HCM 12A和SAVE 12(Sumitomo Metals Co.，Japan)和/或含有铬的铁合金(例如，Fe-Cr合金，Fe-Cr-W合金，Fe-Cr-V合金，Fe-Cr-Nb合金)。在此三种主要的铁磁元素中，铁具有居里温度为约770℃；钴具有居里温度为约1131℃；以及镍具有居里温度为约358℃。一种铁-钴合金具有居里温度高于铁的居里温度。例如，含有2％钴的一种铁合金具有居里温度为约800℃；含有12％钴的一种铁合金具有居里温度为约900℃；以及含有20％钴的一种铁合金具有居里温度为约950℃。一种铁-镍合金具有的居里温度低于铁的居里温度。例如，含有20％镍的一种铁合金具有居里温度为约720℃，以及含有60％镍的一种铁合金具有居里温度为约560℃。
某些非铁磁元素使用作为铁的居里温度升高合金。例如，含有5.9％钒的一种铁合金具有居里温度为约815℃。其它的非铁磁元素(例如，碳，铝，铜，硅和/或铬)可以与铁或其它铁磁材料合金化，以降低居里温度。升高居里温度的非铁磁材料可以与降低居里温度的非铁磁材料组合以及与铁或其它铁磁材料合金化，以产生具有希望的居里温度和其它希望的物理和/或化学性能的材料。在某些实施例中，居里温度材料是一个铁氧体，比如NiFe2O4。在其它的实施例中，居里温度材料是一个二元化合物，比如FeNi3或Fe3Al。
温度限制加热器的某些实施例可以包括一种以上的铁磁材料。如果这里所述的任何条件适用于温度限制加热器内至少一种铁磁材料，这种实施例属于这里所述的实施例的范围。
铁磁性能一般在接近居里温度时衰减。由IEEE出版社于1995年出版的由C.James Erickson著的“工业用电加热”(“Handbook ofElectrical Heating for Industry”)(IEEE Press，1995)示出1％碳钢(即含有1％碳重量的钢)的典型曲线。磁导率的损失在温度超过650℃时开始，以及当温度超过730℃时倾向于结束。因此，自限制温度可能稍低于铁磁导体的真实的居里温度。在1％碳钢内电流的表皮深度在室温下为0.132cm，在720℃时增加至0.445cm，由720℃至730℃，表皮深度陡增加至超过2.5cm。因此，使用1％碳钢的一个温度限制加热器实施例在650℃和730℃之间开始自限制。
表皮深度通常限定随时间改变电流进入一个传导材料的一个有效渗透深度。一般说来，电流密度随着沿着一个导体的一个半径由表面至中心的距离按指数减少。电流密度为表面电流密度的约1/e的深度称为表皮深度。对于一个实心圆柱，其直径比渗透深度大许多，或对于一个空心圆筒，其一个壁厚超过渗透深度，表皮深度δ按下式计算：
(1)δ＝1981.5*(ρ/(μ*f))1/2；
式中δ＝以英寸为单位的表皮深度；
ρ＝在工作温度的电阻率(ohm-cm)；
μ＝相对磁导率；以及
f＝频率(Hz)。
公式1取自下列文献：由IEEE出版社于1995年出版的由C.James Erickson著的“工业用电加热”(“Handbook of ElectricalHeating for Industry”)(IEEE Press，1995)。对于大多数金属，电阻率(ρ)随着温度增加。相对磁导率通常随着温度和电流改变。补充的公式可以使用于评价根据温度和/或电流磁导率的改变。μ与电流的关系式可以由μ与磁场的关系式求出。
在温度限制加热器内使用的材料可以选择以提供一个希望的调节比。温度限制加热器可选择的调节比为至少2∶1，3∶1，4∶1，5∶1，10∶1，30∶1或50∶1。较大的调节比也可以使用。选择的调节比取决于一系列的因素，包括，但不局限于放置温度限制加热器的地层的类型，和/或在钻井内使用材料的温度限制。在某些实施例中，调节比的增加是借助接合补充的铜或其它良好的电导体至铁磁材料(例如增加铜以降低超过居里温度的电阻)。
温度限制加热器可以提供在低于加热器的居里温度时一个最小的热输出(功率输出)。在某些实施例中，最小的热输出为至少400W/m，600W/m，700W/m，800W/m或更高。温度限制加热器可以当加热器的一段的温度接近或超过居里温度时，借助加热器的该段减少热输出量。减少的热量基本上少于在低于居里温度时的热输出。在某些实施例中，减少的热量最多为400W/m，200W/m，或可以接近100W/m或更少。
在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器基本上是与在一定温度范围内施加在加热器上的热载荷无关地工作。“热载荷”是热量由一个加热系统传输至它的周围的速率。应该理解，热载荷可以随着周围的温度和/或周围的热传导率改变。在一个实施例中，温度限制加热器在温度限制加热器的居里温度处或超过居里温度工作。这样，加热器的工作温度的增加最多达3℃，2℃，1.5℃，1℃或0.5℃，对于接近加热器的一部分的热载荷的减少为1 W/m。在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器以一种相对恒定电流的方式工作。
当温度接近居里温度时，温度限制加热器的AC或调制DC电阻和/或热输出可以减少，以及在靠近或超过居里温度时由于居里效应而急剧地减少。在某些实施例中，在超过或靠近居里温度处的电阻或热输出值是低于居里温度一定点处电阻或热输出值的至多一半。在某些实施例中，在超过或靠近居里温度处的热输出是低于居里温度一定点处(例如，低于居里温度30℃，低于居里温度40℃，低于居里温度50℃，或低于居里温度100℃)热输出的至多40％，30％，20％或更少。在某些实施例中，超过或靠近居里温度处的电阻减少至低于居里温度一定点处(例如，低于居里温度30℃，低于居里温度40℃，低于居里温度50℃，低于居里温度100℃)电阻的80％，70％，60％或50％。
在某些实施例中，AC频率被调节以改变铁磁材料的表皮深度。例如，1％碳钢在室温下在60Hz时的表皮深度为0.132cm，在180Hz时为0.0762cm，以及在440Hz时为0.046cm。由于加热器的直径典型地大于表皮深度的两倍，使用一个较高频率(以及因此具有较小直径的一个加热器)降低了设备成本。对于一个固定的几何形状，频率越高，导致一个越高的调节比。在一个较高频率的调节比的计算方法是，一个较低频率时的调节比乘以较高频率的平方根，除以较低的频率。在某些实施例中，使用的一个频率在100Hz和1000Hz之间，在140Hz和200Hz之间，或在400Hz和600Hz之间(例如，180Hz，540Hz或720Hz)。在某些实施例中，可以使用高频率。该频率可以大于1000Hz。
为了保持一个基本上恒定的表皮深度，直到达到温度限制加热器的居里温度，当加热器是冷的时，加热器可以用一个较低频率工作，以及当加热器是热的时，加热器可以用一个较高频率工作。线路频率加热通常是有利的，然而，因为这里较少需要昂贵的部件，比如供电源，变压器，或电流调制器，用它改变频率。线路频率是一般的供电频率。线路频率典型地为60Hz，但是根据供电源也可以是50Hz  或其它频率。较高的频率可以使用商业供给的设备产生，比如固态可变频率供电装置。将三相电力转换成具有三倍频率的单相电力的变压器可以商业供给。例如，60Hz的高压三相电可以转换成180Hz的低压单相电。这样的变压器比固态可变频率供电装置更经济和能效高。在某些实施例中，将三相电力转换成单相电力的变压器用于增加供给至一个加热器的电力的频率。
在某些实施例中，调制DC(例如，斩波DC，波形调制DC，或循环DC)可以用于提供电力至温度限制加热器。一个DC调制器或一个DC斩波器可以连接至一个DC电源，以提供一个调制的直流输出。在某些实施例中，DC电源可以包括调制DC的器件。DC调制器的一个实例是一个DC至DC转换系统，DC至DC转换系统在技术中是通常已知的。DC典型地调制或斩波成为一个希望的波形。DC调制用的波形包括，但不局限于方波，正弦波，变形正弦波，变形方波，三角波和其它规则的或不规则的波形。
调制DC波形通常限定调制DC的频率。因此，调制DC波形可以选择以提供一个希望的DC频率。调制DC波形的调制形状和/或速率(比如斩波速率)可以改变，以改变调制DC的频率。DC可以调制为高于通常可得到的AC频率的频率。例如，调制DC可以提供频率至少为1000Hz。增加供电的频率至较高值，有利地增加了温度限制加热器的调节比。
在某些实施例中，调制DC波形调节或改变，以改变调制DC的频率。DC调制器可以在温度限制加热器使用中的任何时间，以及在高电流或高电压时调节或改变调制DC的波形。因此，调制DC提供至一个温度限制加热器不局限于一个单频率，或甚至一小组频率值。使用DC调制器的波形选择典型地允许调制DC频率一个广阔范围，以及用于调制DC频率的希望的控制。因此，调制DC频率更容易设置在一个特定值，而AC频率通常局限于与线路频率相乘。调制DC的不连续控制允许在一个温度限制加热器的整个调节比内更多的选择控制。由于能够选择地控制一个温度限制加热器的一个调节比，允许更宽范围的材料用于设计和构造一个温度限制加热器。
在某些实施例中，温度限制加热器包括位于外导体内的内导体。内导体和外导体围绕一个中心轴径向地设置。内和外导体可以借助一个绝缘层分离。在某些实施例中，内和外导体连接至温度限制加热器的底部。电流可以通过内导体流体进入温度限制加热器，以及通过外导体返回。一个导体或两个导体可以包括铁磁材料。
一个绝缘层可以包含具有高热传导率的陶瓷，比如氧化镁，氧化铝，二氧化硅，氧化铍，氮化硼，氮化硅或它们的组合。绝缘层可以是压实的粉末(例如，压实的陶瓷粉末)。压实可以改进热传导率和提供更好的绝缘电阻。对于低温使用，可以使用例如含氟聚合物、聚酰亚胺、聚酰胺和/或聚乙烯制造的聚合物绝缘体。在某些实施例中，聚合物绝缘是用全氟烷氧基(PFA)和聚醚醚酮(PEEKTM)制造的。绝缘层可以选择为基本上红外透明的，以帮助由内导体至外导体的热传输。在一个实施例中，绝缘层为透明的石英砂。绝缘层可以是空气或一种非活性气体，比如氦，氮或六氟化硫。如果绝缘层是空气或非活性气体，这里可以有绝缘间隔件，绝缘间隔件被设计成用以阻止内导体和外导体之间的电接触。绝缘间隔件可以用下列材料制造，例如高纯度氧化铝，或其它热传导电绝缘材料，比如氮化硅。绝缘间隔件可以是一种纤维陶瓷材料，比如NextelTM 312，云母带或玻璃纤维。陶瓷材料可以由氧化铝，氧化铝-硅酸盐，氧化铝-硼酸盐，氮化硅或其它材料制造。
绝缘层可以是柔性的和/或基本上容许变形的。例如，如果绝缘层是一种固体或致密的材料，它基本上充填内导体和外导体之间的空隙。温度限制加热器可以是柔性的和/或基本上容许变形的。作用在外导体上的力能够通过绝缘层传送至固体的内导体，该内导体可以阻止压碎。这样一个温度限制加热器可以是弯曲的、折曲的和螺旋形的，而不会引起外导体和内导体彼此电短路。如果在地层的加热时钻井似乎经受显著的变形，变形耐力是重要的。
在如这里所述的某些实施例中，温度限制加热器的尺寸设计为以60Hz AC频率工作。应该理解，温度限制加热器的尺寸可以由这里所述的其它尺寸调节，这些其它尺寸是用于从类似方式在其它AC频率或以调制DC工作的温度限制加热器。图3示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的一个横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个外导体，具有一个铁磁段和一个非铁磁段。图4和5示出图3所示的实施例的转向的横剖面图。在一个实施例中，铁磁段112使用于提供热量至地层内的碳氢化合物层。非铁磁段114使用在地层的上覆岩层内。非铁磁段114提供少量热量或不提供热量至上覆岩层，因此阻止上覆岩层内的热损失，以及改善加热器的效率。铁磁段112包括一种铁磁材料，比如409不锈钢或410不锈钢。409不锈钢容易作为带材供应。铁磁段112具有一个厚度为0.3cm。非铁磁段114是铜，具有一个厚度为0.3cm。内导体116是铜。内导体具有一个直径为0.9cm。电绝缘体118是氮化硅，氮化硼，氧化镁粉末或其它适当的绝缘材料。电绝缘体118具有一个厚度为0.1cm至0.3cm。
图6示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的一个横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个外导体，具有一个铁磁段和一个非铁磁段设置在一个护套内。图7，8和9示出图6内所示的实施例的转向的横剖面图。铁磁段112是410不锈钢，具有一个厚度为0.6cm。非铁磁段114是铜，具有一个厚度为0.6cm。内导体116是铜，具有一个厚度为0.9cm。外导体120包括铁磁材料。外导体120提供一些热量在加热器的上覆岩层段内。在上覆岩层内提供一些热量阻止上覆岩层内的流体的凝固或反流。外导体120是409，410或446不锈钢，具有一个外径为3.0cm和一个厚度为0.6cm。电绝缘体118包括压实的氧化镁粉末，具有一个厚度为0.3cm。在某些实施例中，电绝缘体118包括氮化硅，氮化硼，六边形型的氮化硼。传导段122可以连接内导体116与铁磁段112和/或外导体120。
图10示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的一个横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个外导体。外导体包括一个铁磁段和一个非铁磁段。加热器放置在一个耐腐蚀的包套内。一个传导层放置在外导体和内导体之间。图11和12示出图10所示的实施例的转向的横剖面图。铁磁段112是409，410或446不锈钢，具有一个厚度为0.9cm。非铁磁段114是铜，具有一个厚度为0.9cm。传导层124是铜层。铁磁段112，非铁磁段114和传导段124放置在包套126内。包套126是304或347H不锈钢，具有一个厚度为0.1cm。电绝缘体118包括压实的氮化硅，氮化硼或氧化镁粉末，具有一个厚度为0.1至0.3cm。内导体116是铜，具有一个直径为1.0cm。
在一个实施例中，铁磁段112是446不锈钢，具有一个厚度为0.9cm。包套126是410不锈钢，具有一个厚度为0.6cm。410不锈钢具有一个比446不锈钢高的居里温度。这样一个温度限制加热器可以“包含”电流，从而使电流不容易由加热器流动至周围的地层和/或至任何周围的水(例如，盐水，地下水或构造水)。在本实施例中，电流流动通过铁磁段112，直到达到铁磁材料的居里温度。在铁磁段112的居里温度到达之后，电流流动通过传导层124。包套126(410不锈钢)的铁磁性能阻止电流在包套外面流动，以及“包含”此电流。包套126可以具有一个厚度，以提供强度至温度限制加热器。
图13示出一个温度限制加热器的一个横剖面图。温度限制加热器的加热段包括非铁磁的内导体和一个铁磁的外导体。温度限制加热器的上覆岩层段包括一个非铁磁导体。图14，15和16示出图13所示实施例的转向的横剖面图。内导体116是铜，具有一个直径为1.0cm。电绝缘体118放置在内导体116和传导层124之间。电绝缘体118包括压实的氮化硅或氧化镁粉末，具有一个厚度为0.1cm至0.3cm。传导层124是铜，具有一个厚度为0.1cm。绝缘层128处于传导层124的环形外部。环形的厚度可以是0.3cm。在某些实施例中，绝缘层128是石英砂。
加热段130可以提供热量至地层的一个或多个碳氢化合物层。加热段130包括铁磁材料，比如409不锈钢或410不锈钢。加热段130具有一个厚度为0.9cm。端帽132连接至加热段130的一端。端帽132电连接加热段130至内导体116和/或传导层124。端帽132是304不锈钢。加热段130连接至上覆岩层段134。上覆岩层段134包括碳钢和/或其它适当的支承材料。上覆岩层段134具有一个厚度为0.6cm。上覆岩层段134使用传导层135内衬。传导层135是铜，具有一个厚度为0.3cm。
图17A和图17B示出一个温度限制加热器的一个实施例的一个横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个铁磁内导体。内导体116是1″Schedule XXS 446不锈钢管。在某些实施例中，内导体116包括409不锈钢，410不锈钢，殷钢(Invar)36，合金42-6，或其它铁磁材料。内导体116具有一个直径为2.5cm。电绝缘体118包括压实的氮化硅，氮化硼，氧化镁粉末；或聚合物，Nextel陶瓷纤维，云母，或玻璃纤维化氮化硅，氮化硼，氧化镁(例如，氧化镁粉末)，聚合物，Nextel陶瓷纤维，云母，或玻璃纤维。外导体120是铜，或任何非铁磁材料，比如铝。外导体120连接至包套126。包套126是304H，316H或347H不锈钢。在本实施例中，大部分的热量在内导体116内产生。
图18A和图18B示出一个温度限制加热器的横剖面图，该温度限制加热器带有一个铁磁内导体和一个非铁磁芯子。内导体116可以由446不锈钢，409不锈钢，410不锈钢，碳钢，Armco铸锭铁，铁-钴合金或其它铁磁材料制造。芯子136可以紧密地接合在内导体116内。芯子136是铜或其它非铁磁材料。在某些实施例中，芯子136是在一个拉伸操作前以一种紧密配合插入内导体116内部。在某些实施例中，芯子136和内导体116是共轴接合的。外导体120是347H不锈钢。一个拉伸或滚轧操作以压实电绝缘体118(例如压实的氮化硅，氮化硼或氧化镁粉末)可以保证内导体116和芯子136之间的良好的电接触。在本实施例中，热量主要是在内导体116内产生的，直到接近居里温度。随后电阻急剧地减小，因为电流穿透芯子136。
在某些实施例中，一个导体(例如，内导体，外导体或铁磁导体)是一个复合导体，它包括两种或多种不同的材料。在某些实施例中，复合导体包括两种或多种铁磁材料。在某些实施例中，复合铁磁导体包括两种或多种径向沉积的材料。在某些实施例中，复合导体包括一个铁磁导体和一个非铁磁导体。在某些实施例中，复合导体包括一个铁磁导体放置在一个非铁磁芯子上。两种或多种材料可以使用于获得电阻率与低于居里温度的一个温度区内的温度较平坦的关系，和/或处于或靠近居里温度处电阻率急剧的减小(一个较高的调节比)。在某些实施例中，两种或多种材料使用于提供温度限制加热器用的多于一个居里温度。
在某些实施例中，复合电导体用作一个导体在导管内的加热器的导体。例如，复合电导体可以用作图19和20内的导体138。
图19示出一个导体在导管内热源的一个实施例的一个横剖面图。导体138设置在导管140内。导体138是一个电传导材料杆或导管。低电阻段142存在于导体138的两端，以便在这些段产生较少的加热。低电阻段142的形成是借助在此段具有一个较大的导体138的横截面面积，或此段是用较低电阻的材料制造的。在某些实施例中，低电阻段142包括一个低电阻导体，连接至导体138。
导管140是用电传导材料制造的。导管140设置在碳氢化合物层146内的孔144内。孔144具有一个直径能够容纳导管140。
导体138可以借助定中心器148在导管140内定中心。定中心器148使导体138与导管140电绝缘。定中心器148阻止导体138移动和正确定位导体138在导管140内。定中心器148用陶瓷材料或陶瓷与金属材料的一种组合制造。定中心器148阻止导体138在导管140内变形。定中心器148沿着导体138接触或保持间隔范围为约0.1m和约3m之间或更大。
导体138的一个第二低电阻段142可以接合导体138至井头150，如图19内所示。电流可以由供电电缆152通过导体138的低电阻段142施加至导体138。来自导体138的电流通过滑动连接器154流动至导管140。导管140可以与上覆岩层套管156和井头150绝缘，以返回电流至供电电缆152。热量可以在导体138和导管140内产生。产生的热量可以在导管140和孔144内辐射，以加热至少碳氢化合物层146的一部分。
上覆岩层套管156可以设置在上覆岩层158内。上覆岩层套管156在某些实施例中是被各种材料围绕(例如，增强材料和/或混凝土)，这些材料阻止上覆岩层158的加热。导体138的低电阻段142可以放置在上覆岩层套管156内。导体138的低电阻段142例如是用碳钢制造的。导体138的低电阻段142可以使用定中心器148在上覆岩层套管156内定中心。定中心器148沿着导体138的低电阻段142保持间隔范围约6m至约12m，例如，约9m。在一个加热源的实施例中，导体138的低电阻段142借助一个或多个焊缝接合至导体138。在另外的加热源的实施例中，低电阻段采用螺纹连接、螺纹连接加焊接或其它方法接合至导体。低电阻段142在上覆岩层套管156内产生极少量的热量和/或不产生热量。衬垫160可以放置在上覆岩层套管156和孔144之间。衬垫160可以使用作为上覆岩层158和碳氢化合物层146的接合处的一个帽罩，以允许充填材料在上覆岩层套管156和孔144之间的环形内。在某些实施例中，衬垫160阻止流体由孔144流动至地面162。
图20示出一个可拆卸的导体在导管热源内的一个实施例的一个横剖面图。导体140放置在通过上覆岩层158的孔144内，从而使一个间隙保留在导管140和上覆岩层套管156之间。流体可以通过导管164由间隙消除。连接至井头150上的包括在导管内的热源的部件和导管140，可以作为一个单独单元从孔144拆卸。热源可以作为一个单独单元拆卸，以便修理、更换和/或在地层的其它部分使用。
在某些实施例中，复合电导体可以使用作为在绝缘导体加热器内的导体。图21A和图21B示出一个绝缘的导体加热器的一个实施例。绝缘导体166包括芯子136和内导体116。芯子136和内导体116位于绝缘体118内部。芯子136，内导体116和绝缘体118位于外导体120内部。绝缘体118是氮化硅，氮化硼，氧化镁或其它适当的电绝缘体。外导体120是铜，钢或任何其它的电导体。
在某些实施例中，绝缘体118是粉末绝缘体。在某些实施例中，绝缘体118是带有一个预制形状的一个绝缘体，比如一个预制的半壳形。具有芯子136和内导体116的一个复合电导体放置在预制的绝缘体内部。外导体120借助接合放置在绝缘体118上，这种接合例如是焊接或钎焊一个或多个纵向的电导体条到一起，以形成外导体。电导体条是以一种“卷烟”法放置在绝缘体118上，以便在横向或径向上接合这些电导体条(这就是放置单独的电导体条围绕绝缘体的周边以及接合这些单独的电导体条围绕绝缘体)。卷烟条的纵向末端可以与其它的卷烟条的纵向末端接合，以便沿着绝缘导体纵向地接合这些电导体条。
在某些实施例中，定中心器(比如图19和20内所示的定中心器148)是用氮化硅制造的。在某些实施例中，氮化硅是气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅。气体压力绕结反应接合的氮化硅的制造方法是在1800℃在一个10.3MPa的氮气氛内烧结氮化硅。一个气体压力烧结反应接合氮化硅的实例是由下列公司获得的：Ceradyne，Inc.(CostaMesa，California，U.S.A.)，其名称为Ceralloy
Figure 058127270_1
147-31N。
气体烧结反应接合的氮化硅可以研磨至细粒度。细粒度(它给出氮化硅一个非常低的表面松孔度)允许氮化硅沿着金属表面容易地滑动，而不会由金属表面拾取金属颗粒。气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅是一种非常致密的材料，具有高的拉伸强度，高的抗弯力学强度和高的热冲击应力特性。气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅是一种优秀的高温电绝缘体。气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅在900℃具有与在760℃氧化铝(Al2O3)大致相同的泄漏电流。气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅具有一个热传导率为25W/m·K。较高的热传导率促进一个导体在导管内加热器的中心导体的热量的向外传输。
其它类型的氮化硅，例如，但不局限于反应接合的氮化硅或热等静压的氮化硅也可以使用。热等静压包括在100-200MPa在氮气内烧结颗粒的氮化硅和添加剂。某些氮化硅是借助烧结氮化硅与氧化钇或氮化铈，以降低烧结温度，这样使在烧结时氮化硅不会降级(例如释放氮)。然而，添加其它材料至氮化硅与单纯形式的氮化硅比较，可能增加在高温下氮化硅的泄漏电流。
图22示出一个导体在导管内温度限制加热器的一个实施例。导体138接合至铁磁导体168(例如，包层，共挤压，压力配合，内部拉伸)。在某些实施例中，铁磁导体168是共挤压在导体138上。铁磁导体168接合至导体138的外部，从而使在室温下电流的扩展仅通过铁磁导体的表皮深度。铁磁导体168提供在高温下对于导体138的支承。铁磁导体1 68例如是铁，铁合金，或任何其它铁磁材料。在一个实施例中，导体138是铜，以及铁磁导体168是446不锈钢。
导体138和铁磁导体168使用滑动连接器154电接合至导管140。导管140是一个非铁磁材料，例如，但不局限于347H不锈钢。在一个实施例中，导管140是一个1-1/2″Schedule 80 347H不锈钢管。在另一个实施例中，导管140是一个Schedule XXH 347H不锈钢管。一个或多个定中心器148保持导管140和铁磁导体168之间的空隙。在一个实施例中，定中心器148是用气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅制造的。定中心器148可以借助位于铁磁导体上的一个或多个焊接片保持在铁磁导体168上的位置。
一个温度限制加热器可以构造成数段，它们接合(焊接)到一起。这些段可以是10m长或更长。每段用的构造材料经过选择以提供对于地层的不同部分的一个选择的热输出。例如，一个油页岩地层可能含有带有高可采富度的各层。提供选择量的热量至带有类似富度的单独层或多数层改进地层的加热效率和/或阻止钻井的塌陷。一个拼接段可以形成在各段之间，例如，借助焊接内导体，用一个绝缘体充填拼接段，以及随后焊接外导体。代替地，加热器由较大直径的管子形成，以及拉伸至一个希望的长度和直径。一个氮化硼，氮化硅，氧化镁或其它类型的绝缘层可以借助一种焊接-充填拉伸法增加(由金属带开始)或一种充填-拉伸法增加(由管子开始)，这些方法在矿业绝缘加热器电缆制造工业中是已知的。组装和充填可以在一个垂直或一个水平取向时进行。最终的加热器组件可以缠绕在一个大直径的转轴上(例如，直径1m，2m，3m或更大)以及运输至地层的一个位置，用于地下开采。代替地，当加热器是垂直地下降进入钻井，加热器可以就地组装各段。
一个温度限制加热器可以是一个单相加热器或一个三相加热器。在一个三相加热器的实施例中，一个加热器具有一个三角形状或Y字形状。在一个三相加热器的三个铁磁导体中的每一个可以处在一个单独的护套内。导体之间的连接可以设置在一个拼接段内部加热器的底部。三个导体可以保持在拼接段内部与护套绝缘。
图23示出一个三相温度限制加热器的一个实施例，该加热器带有铁磁内导体。每个脚柱170具有内导体116，芯子136和包套126。内导体116是铁素体不锈钢或1％碳钢。内导体116具有芯子136。芯子136可以是铜。每个内导体116连接至它们自己的包套126。包套126是用耐腐蚀材料(比如304H不锈钢)制成的一个护套。由绝缘体118放置在内导体116和包套126之间。内导体116是铁素体不锈钢或碳钢，具有一个外径为1.14cm和一个厚度为0.445cm。芯子136是一个铜芯子，具有一个直径为0.25cm。加热器的每个脚柱170连接至终端块172。终端块172使用绝缘材料174充填，以及具有一个不锈钢外表面。绝缘材料174在某些实施例中为氮化硅，氮化硼，氧化镁，或其它适当的电绝缘材料。脚柱170的内导体116连接(焊接)在终端块172内。脚柱170的包套126连接(焊接)至终端块172的一个外表面。终端块172可以包括两个半体，围绕脚柱170的连接部分连接到一起。
在某些三相加热器的实施例中，三个铁磁导体被在一个公共的外金属护套内的一个绝缘层隔离。三个导体可以与护套绝缘，或三个导体可以连接至加热器组件的底部处的护套。在另一个实施例中，一个单独的外护套或三个外护套是铁磁导体，以及内导体可以是非铁磁的(例如，铝，铜或高传导合金)。代替地，三个非铁磁导体中的每一个位于单独的铁磁护套内，以及导体之间的一个连接设置在一个拼接段内部加热器的底部。三个导体可以保持在拼接段内部与护套绝缘。
图24示出一个三相温度限制加热器的一个实施例，该加热器带有铁磁内导体在一个公共的包套内。内导体116围绕芯子136。内导体116放置在电绝缘体118内。内导体116和电绝缘体118放置在一个单独的包套126内。包套126是用耐腐蚀材料，比如不锈钢制造的。包套126具有一个外径在2.5cm和5cm之间(例如3.1cm，3.5cm或3.8cm)。内导体116连接至或靠近终端176的底部。终端176是内导体116的焊接终端。内导体116可以连接成一个Y字形状。
实例：
温度限制加热器以及温度限制加热器的性能的非限制性实例如以下所示。
图25示出泄漏电流(mA)(毫安)与选择温度下氧化铝和氮化硅定中心器的电压(V)的关系曲线。泄漏电流是在一个导体和一个0.91m的导体在带有两个定中心器的导管段内一个导管之间测量的。导体在导管内是水平地放置在一个炉子内。曲线178描绘在温度为760℃时氧化铝定中心器的数据。曲线180描绘在温度为815℃时氧化铝定中心器的数据。曲线182描绘在温度为760℃时气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅定中心器的数据。曲线184描绘在温度为871℃时气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅定中心器的数据。图25示出氧化铝的泄漏电流由760℃至815℃显著地增加，而气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅的泄漏电流由760℃至871℃保持较低。
图26示出泄漏电流(mA)与两个不同类型的氮化硅的温度关系曲线。曲线186描绘泄漏电流与高度抛光的气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅的温度关系。曲线188描绘泄漏电流与掺杂的致密的氮化硅的温度关系。图26示出气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅与掺杂的氮化硅比较改进的泄漏电流与温度关系特性。
使用氮化硅定中心器允许使用较小的直径和较高温度的加热器。在一个导体和一个导管之间需要一个较小的间隙，这是因为氮化硅的优良的电特性。氮化硅定中心器可以允许较高的工作电压(例如，至少至1500V，2000V，2500V或15kV)使用于加热器，这是由于氮化硅的电特性。在较高的电压工作允许使用较长长度的加热器(例如，长度至少至500m，1000m或1500m，电压在2500V)。在某些实施例中，氮化硼使用作为定中心器或其它电绝缘体用的材料。氮化硼是一种较好的热导体，以及具有比氮化硅更好的电性能。氮化硼不容易吸收水(氮化硼基本上是不吸水的)。氮化硼可以至少是一种六边形状和一种面心立方形状。氮化硼的六边结晶构造具有某些希望的性能，包括，但不局限于高热传导率和低摩擦系数。
考虑本说明书，对于本领域技术人员，本发明的不同方面的进一步改变和代替的实施例是明显的。因此，本说明构造为仅用于说明和对本领域技术人员教学目的，使之了解实施本发明的一般方式。应该理解，这是所示和说明的本发明的形式是采用作为优选的实施例。元件和材料可以代替这里所示和所述的，部件和过程可以倒置，以及本发明的某些特点可以自由地使用。在了解本发明说明的优点之后，对于本领域技术人员全部将会明显。在不脱离以下权利要求书所述的本发明的精神和范围条件下，对这里所述的元件可以做出改变。此外，应该理解，这里单独说明的特点可以在某些实施例中组合。

Claims (15)

1.一种加热系统，其用于加热地下地层，包括：
电导体，其用于在施加电流至该电导体的过程中产生电阻热输出；以及
电绝缘体，其至少部分地围绕电导体，其中电绝缘体包括氮化物；
其特征在于：还包括护套，护套至少部分地围绕电绝缘体，所述电绝缘体包括氮化硅，一系列用氮化硅制造的定中心器围绕所述护套布置。
2.按照权利要求1的系统，其特征在于，电绝缘体包括压实的氮化硅粉末。
3.按照权利要求2的系统，其特征在于，所述氮化硅是气体压力烧结反应接合的氮化硅。
4.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，电绝缘体包括一个或多个基本上圆形的环。
5.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，电绝缘体与电导体直接物理接触。
6.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，护套与电绝缘体直接物理接触。
7.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，电导体是铜-镍合金。
8.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，护套是一种耐腐蚀材料。
9.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，该系统还包括两个补充的电导体，所述电导体和所述两个补充的电导体能构造为三相的Y字形状、电浮动形状或单接地形状。
10.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，该系统被构造成用于加热地层内的碳氢化合物，以及用于由地层生产加热的碳氢化合物。
11.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，该系统被构造成用于传输热量，以便传输的热量能够在地层的一段内热解至少某些碳氢化合物。
12.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，电导体包括铁磁材料，该系统被构造成当在低于铁磁材料的居里温度电流施加至电导体时提供第一热输出，以及在接近和超过铁磁材料的居里温度时提供第二热输出，该第二热输出小于第一热输出。
13.按照权利要求1-3中任何一项的系统，其特征在于，电导体是延长的。
14.一种加热地层的原地方法，本方法包括：
施加电流至电导体，以提供热量至地层的至少一部分，其中电导体位于地层中的孔内；
使热量由电导体传输至地层的一段，其中，在施加电流至该电导体的过程中该电导体产生电阻热输出；
电绝缘体至少部分地围绕电导体，该电绝缘体包括氮化物；
其特征在于：护套至少部分地围绕电绝缘体，所述电绝缘体包括氮化硅，一系列用氮化硅制造的定中心器围绕所述护套布置。
15.按照权利要求14的方法，其特征在于，该方法还包括加热地层内的至少某些碳氢化合物，从而使至少某些碳氢化合物热解。
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