Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
  • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
  • H01M10/0525—Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
  • H01M10/056—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes
  • H01M10/0564—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes the electrolyte being constituted of organic materials only
  • H01M10/0566—Liquid materials
  • H01M10/0567—Liquid materials characterised by the additives
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  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/36—Accumulators not provided for in groups H01M10/05-H01M10/34
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  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/42—Methods or arrangements for servicing or maintenance of secondary cells or secondary half-cells
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  • H01M10/42—Methods or arrangements for servicing or maintenance of secondary cells or secondary half-cells
  • H01M10/4235—Safety or regulating additives or arrangements in electrodes, separators or electrolyte
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
  • H01M4/485—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of mixed oxides or hydroxides for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiTi2O4 or LiTi2OxFy
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
  • H01M4/5825—Oxygenated metallic salts or polyanionic structures, e.g. borates, phosphates, silicates, olivines
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
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  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
  • H01M4/583—Carbonaceous material, e.g. graphite-intercalation compounds or CFx
  • H01M4/587—Carbonaceous material, e.g. graphite-intercalation compounds or CFx for inserting or intercalating light metals
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  • H01M6/00—Primary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M6/14—Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte
  • H01M6/16—Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte with organic electrolyte
  • H01M6/162—Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte with organic electrolyte characterised by the electrolyte
  • H01M6/168—Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte with organic electrolyte characterised by the electrolyte by additives
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  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M2004/026—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material characterised by the polarity
  • H01M2004/028—Positive electrodes
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M2300/00—Electrolytes
  • H01M2300/0017—Non-aqueous electrolytes
  • H01M2300/0025—Organic electrolyte
  • H01M2300/0028—Organic electrolyte characterised by the solvent
  • H01M2300/0037—Mixture of solvents
  • H01M2300/0042—Four or more solvents
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  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
  • H01M4/131—Electrodes based on mixed oxides or hydroxides, or on mixtures of oxides or hydroxides, e.g. LiCoOx
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
  • H01M4/133—Electrodes based on carbonaceous material, e.g. graphite-intercalation compounds or CFx
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
  • H01M4/136—Electrodes based on inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
  • H01M4/139—Processes of manufacture
  • H01M4/1391—Processes of manufacture of electrodes based on mixed oxides or hydroxides, or on mixtures of oxides or hydroxides, e.g. LiCoOx
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries

Definitions

• This invention relates to overcharge protection in rechargeable lithium-ion cells.
• lithium-ion cells When properly designed and constructed, lithium-ion cells can exhibit excellent charge-discharge cycle life, little or no memory effect, and high specific and volumetric energy.
• lithium-ion cells do ha ⁇ ve some shortcomings, including an inability to tolerate recharge to potentials above the manufacturer's recommended recharge potential without degradation in cycle life, dangers of overheating, fire or explosion for cells recharged to potentials above the recommended recharge potential, and difficulties in making large cells having sufficient tolerance to electrical and mechanical abuse for consumer applications.
• Single and connected (e.g., series-connected) lithium-ion cells typically incorporate charge control electronics to prevent individual cells from exceeding the recommended recharge potential.
• This circuitry adds cost and complexity to lithium- ion cells and batteries, which has discouraged their use in low-cost mass market electrical and electronic devices such as flashlights, radios, CD players and the like. Instead, these low cost devices typically are powered by non-rechargeable batteries such as alkaline cells.
• Various chemical moieties have been proposed for imparting overcharge protection to rechargeable lithium-ion cells. Chemical moieties designated as "redox shuttles” or “shuttles” will in theory provide an oxidizable and reducible charge- transporting species that may repeatedly transport cha ge between the negative and positive electrodes once the charging potential reaches a desired value. Materials that function as fuses or shunts to provide one-time or limited-time cell overcharge protection have also been proposed.
• references relating to rechargeable lithium-ion cell additives or rechargeable lithium-ion cell construction include U.S. Patent Nos. 4,857,423 (Abraham et al. '423), 4,888,255 (Yoshimitsu et al.), 4,935,316 (Redey), 5,278,000 (Huang et al.), 5,536, 599 (Alamgir et al.), 5,709,968 (Shimizu), 5,763,119 (Adachi), 5,858,573 (Abraham et al. '573), 5,879,834 (Mao), 5,882,812 (Visco et al. '812), 6,004,698 (Richardson et al.
• the invention provides, in one aspect, a lithium ion battery electrolyte comprising a charge carrying medium, lithium salt and cyclable redox chemical shuttle comprising an aromatic compound substituted with at least one tertiary carbon organic group and at least one alkoxy group.
• a rechargeable lithium-ion cell comprising a negative electrode; positive electrode; and an electrolyte comprising charge carrying medium, lithium salt and cyclable redox chemical shuttle comprising an aromatic compound substituted with at least one tertiary carbon organic group and at least one alkoxy group and having an electrochemical potential vs. Li/ Li + that is greater than that of the positive electrode material.
• Exemplary embodiments of the recited redox chemical shuttle have displayed excellent repeated overcharge stability.
• Redox chemical shuttle embodiments having a potential from about 3.7 to about 4.0 V vs. Li/ Li + are especially well-suited for use in rechargeable cells based on LiFePO4 positive electrodes.
• the invention provides, in yet another aspect, a rechargeable lithium-ion cell comprising a negative electrode, positive electrode comprising LiFePO , electrolyte and a cyclable redox chemical shuttle comprising an aromatic compound substituted with at least one tertiary carbon organic group and at least one alkoxy group and having an electrochemical potential vs. Li/Li + that is greater than that of LiFePO .
• Fig. la is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number (top panel) and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity (bottom panel) for the Example 1 cell.
• Fig. lb is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Comparison Example 1 cell.
• Fig. 2a is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Example 2 cell.
• Fig.2b is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Comparison Example 2 cell.
• Fig.3a is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Example 3 cell.
• Fig.3b is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Comparison Example 3 cell.
• Fig.3c is a triangular plot showing a single phase region in the Example 3 electrolyte system.
• Fig.4a is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Example 4 cell.
• Fig.4b is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Comparison Example 4 cell.
• Fig.5 is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Example 5 cell.
• Fig.6 is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Example 6 cell.
• Fig. 7a is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Example 7 cell.
• Fig. 7b is a plot showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for four different time spans in the Example 7 cell charge-discharge test.
• Fig. 8a is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number and cell potential versus cathode specific capacity for the Example 8 cell.
• Fig. 8b is a plot showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for four different time spans in the Example 8 cell charge-discharge test.
• Fig.9 is an exploded perspective schematic view of an electrochemical cell.
• Fig. 10 is a plot showing solubility of the Example 1 shuttle in various electrolyte solutions.
• Fig. 11 is a plot showing potential at increasing charge currents for a cell of Example 12.
• Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 are plots showing discharge capacity versus cycle number for a cell of Example 12.
• Fig. 14 is a plot showing capacity versus cycle number for cells of Example 12.
• negative electrode refers to one of a pair of rechargeable lithium- ion cell electrodes that under normal circumstances and when the cell is fully-charged will have the lowest potential. We retain this terminology to refer to the same physical electrode under all cell operating conditions even if such electrode is temporarily (e.g, due to cell overdischarge) driven to or exhibits a potential above that of the other (the positive) electrode.
• positive electrode refers to one of a pair of rechargeable lithium- ion cell electrodes that under normal circumstances and when the cell is fully-charged will have the highest potential. We retain this terminology to refer to the same physical electrode under all cell operating conditions even if such electrode temporarily (e.g, due to cell overdischarge) is driven to or exhibits a potential below that of the other (the negative) electrode.
• redox chemical shuttle refers to an electrochemically reversible moiety that during charging of a lithium-ion cell can become oxidized at the cell's positive electrode, migrate to the cell' s negative electrode, become reduced at the negative electrode to reform the unoxidized (or less-oxidized) shuttle species, and migrate back to the positive electrode.
• cyclable when used in connection with a redox chemical shuttle refers to a shuttle that when exposed to a charging voltage sufficient to oxidize the shuttle to its radical cation and an overcharge charge flow equivalent to 100% of the cell capacity will provide at least two cycles of overcharge protection.
• the phrase "substituted with at least one tertiary carbon organic group” refers to an aromatic compound having a ring atom bonded to the organic group through its tertiary carbon atom (viz., through a carbon atom bonded to three other carbon atoms).
• the tertiary carbon organic group may for example have the formula -CR3 where R is an alkyl group having up to 10 carbon atoms, up to 6 carbon atoms, up to 4 carbon atoms, up to 3 carbon atoms, up to 2 carbon atoms or 1 carbon atom.
• the phrase "substituted ... with at least one alkoxy group” refers to an aromatic compound having a ring atom bonded to the alkoxy group through its oxygen atom.
• the alkoxy group may for example have the formula -OR' where R' is an alkyl group having up to 10 carbon atoms, up to 6 carbon atoms, up to 4 carbon atoms, up to 3 carbon atoms, up to 2 carbon atoms or 1 carbon atoms.
• F Faraday's number
• A is the electrode area
• D is an effective diffusion constant of the shuttle species (taking into account both oxidized and reduced forms of the shuttle)
• C is the total concentration of the shuttle species
• d is the distance between the electrodes.
• the electrolyte should impart a large diffusion constant, D, to the shuttle and support a high shuttle concentration, C.
• the shuttle diffusion constant usually will increase as the electrolyte solution viscosity decreases.
• a variety of charge carrying media may be employed in the electrolyte. Exemplary media are liquids or gels capable of solubilizing sufficient quantities of the lithium salt and the redox chemical shuttle so that a suitable quantity of charge can be transported from the positive electrode to negative electrode.
• Exemplary charge carrying media can be used over a wide temperature range, e.g., from about -30° C to about 70° C without freezing or boiling, and are stable in the electrochemical window within which the cell electrodes and shuttle operate.
• Representative charge carrying media include ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl-methyl carbonate, butylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate, fluoroethylene carbonate, fluoropropylene carbonate, ⁇ -butylrolactone, methyl difluoroacetate, ethyl difluoroacetate, dimethoxyethane, diglyme (bis(2-methoxyethyl) ether) and combinations thereof.
• lithium salts may be employed in the electrolyte.
• Exemplary lithium salts are stable and soluble in the chosen charge-carrying media and perform well in the chosen lithium-ion cell, and include LiPFg, LiBF LiClO lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), LiN(CF3SO2)2, LiN(C 2 F 5 SO 2 )2, LiAsFg. LiC(CF 3 SO2)3 and combinations thereof.
• LiPFg LiBF LiClO lithium bis(oxalato)borate
• LiN(CF3SO2)2 LiN(C 2 F 5 SO 2 )2
• LiAsFg LiC(CF 3 SO2)3
• a variety of redox chemical shuttles may be employed in the electrolyte.
• Exemplary shuttles have a redox potential slightly higher than the cell's desired recharge potential.
• the shuttle may for example have a redox potential about 0.3 to about 0.6 V above the positive electrode recharge plateau, e.g., about 3.7 to about 4.7 V vs. Li/Li+, about 3.7 to about 4.4 V vs. Li/Li+, about 3.7 to about 4.2 V vs. Li/Li+, or about 3.7 to about 4.0 V vs. Li/Li+.
• LiFePO4 positive electrodes have a recharge plateau around 3.45V vs.
• Li/ Li + and exemplary shuttles for use with such electrodes may have a redox potential from about 3.75 to about 4.05 V vs. Li/ Li + .
• LiMnPO4 and LiMn2 ⁇ 4 electrodes have a recharge plateau around 4.1 V vs.
• Li/ Li + and exemplary shuttles for use with such electrodes may have a redox potential from about 4.4 to about 4.7 V vs. Li/ Li + . If an attempt is made to charge the cell above the shuttle's redox potential, the oxidized shuttle molecules carry a charge quantity corresponding to the applied charging current to the negative electrode, thus preventing cell overcharge.
• Especially preferred shuttles are sufficiently cyclable to provide at least 10, at least 15, at least 20, at least 35, at least 50 or at least 100 cycles of overcharge protection at a charging voltage sufficient to oxidize the shuttle to its radical cation and an overcharge charge flow equivalent to 100% of the cell capacity during each cycle.
• the shuttle contains an aromatic compound substituted with at least one tertiary carbon organic group and at least one alkoxy group.
• the tertiary carbon organic group may have the formula -CR3 where each R group independently has up to 10, up to 6, up to 4, up to 2, or 1 carbon atom.
• Exemplary tertiary carbon organic groups may for example have up to 12, up to 10, up to 8, up to 6, 5, or 4 carbon atoms.
• Some shuttles may contain two or at least two tertiary carbon organic groups which may be the same or different. If located on the same aromatic ring (e.g., a benzene ring), the tertiary carbon organic groups may for example be oriented ortho, meta ox para to one another.
• the alkoxy group may have the formula -OR' where R' is an alkyl group having up to 10, up to 6, up to 4, up to 3, up to 2, or 1 carbon atom.
• exemplary alkoxy groups may for example have 1 to 10, 1 to 6, 2 to 6, 1 to 4, 1 to 3 or 1 carbon atom.
• Some shuttles may contain two or at least two alkoxy groups which may be the same or different. If located on the same aromatic ring the alkoxy groups may for example be oriented ortho, meta ox para to one another.
• Exemplary shuttles may for example contain 1 to 3 aromatic rings that are fused or connected. Each aromatic ring may for example be carbocyclic. Examples of such aromatic rings include benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, biphenyl, and the like.
• Other substituents may be present on the shuttle aromatic ring or rings or on the tertiary carbon organic group(s) or alkoxy group(s), so long as such substituents do not unduly interfere with factors such as the shuttle's charge-carrying capability, oxidation potential or stability. The presence or absence of such substituents, and the relative orientation of the tertiary carbon organic group(s) and alkoxy group(s), may affect such factors.
• electron withdrawing groups may raise the shuttle oxidation potential and electron donating groups may lower it.
• substituents such as halogen atoms (e.g., chlorine atoms), amino groups, primary carbon organic groups (e.g., methyl groups), secondary carbon organic groups (e.g., isopropyl groups) or readily-polymerizable groups (e.g., allyl groups) may in some embodiments reduce stability and thus it may be desirable for the shuttle to be free or substantially free of any or all such substituents.
• substituents that are less bulky than a tertiary carbon organic group and which can replace a ring hydrogen atom with a moiety having reduced reactivity under the cell operating conditions may in some embodiments increase stability, and thus it may be helpful to employ shuttles with four or fewer, three or fewer, two or fewer, one or no available ring hydrogen atoms and with the remaining ring positions being occupied by one or more such substituents and by the tertiary carbon organic group or groups and the alkoxy group or groups.
• a tertiary carbon organic group and an alkoxy group are oriented ortho to one another on an aromatic ring, then in some embodiments it may be desirable for the other ring atom ortho to the alkoxy group to be unsubstituted or substituted with a substituent that is less bulky than a tertiary carbon organic group.
• the shuttle may also be in the form of a salt.
• Representative shuttles include substituted anisoles (or methoxybenzenes) such as 2-tert-butyl-anisole, 3-tert-butyl-anisole, 4-tert-butyl-anisole, l-nitro-3-tert-butyl-2- methoxybenzene, 1 -cyano-3-tert-butyl-2-methoxybenzene, 1 ,4-di-tert-butyl-2- methoxybenzene, 5-tert-butyl- 1 ,3-dinitro-2-methoxybenzene, 1 ,3, 5-tri-tert-butyl-2- methoxybenzene and 2-tert-pentyl-anisole; substituted dialkoxybenzenes such as 2-tert- butyl-l,4-dimethoxybenzene, 2,3-di-tert-butyl-l,4-dimethoxybenzene, 2,5-di-tert-butyl- 1 ,
• a first shuttle operative at 3.8V and a second shuttle operative at 3.9V may both be employed in a single cell. If after many charge/discharge cycles the first shuttle degrades and loses its effectiveness, the second shuttle (which would not meanwhile have been oxidized to form its radical cation while the first shuttle was operative) could take over and provide a further (albeit higher potential) margin of safety against overcharge damage.
• the shuttle can also provide overdischarge protection to a cell or to a battery of series-connected cells, as described further in Provisional Application Serial No.
• the shuttle electrolyte solubility may be improved through addition of a suitable cosolvent.
• exemplary cosolvents include aromatic materials compatible with Li- ion cells containing cyclic ester-based electrolytes.
• Representative cosolvents include toluene, sulfolane, dimethoxyethane and combinations thereof.
• the electrolyte may include other additives that will be familiar to those skilled in the art.
• a variety of negative and positive electrodes may be employed in lithium-ion cells of the invention. Representative negative electrodes include Li4 3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4; the lithium alloy compositions described in U.S. Patent No. 6,203,944 (Turner '944),
• graphitic carbons e.g., those having a spacing between (002) crystallographic planes, ⁇ 02' °f 3.45 A > d ⁇ 02 > 3.354 A and existing in forms such as powders, flakes, fibers or spheres (e.g., mesocarbon microbeads); other materials that will be familiar to those skilled in the art; and combinations thereof.
• Representative positive electrodes include LiFePO4, LiMnPO4, LiMn ⁇ O LiCoPO 4 , and LiCo ⁇ 2 lithium transition metal oxides as disclosed in U. S. Patent Nos. 5,858,324 (Dahn et al. '324),
• the positive electrode has a recharge plateau around 3.45V vs. Li/Li + such as LiFePO 4 or around 4.1V vs. Li/Li + such as LiMnPO or LiMn 2 O 4 .
• the negative or positive electrode may contain additives such as will be familiar to those skilled in the art, e.g., carbon black for negative electrodes and carbon black, flake graphite and the like for positive electrodes.
• the disclosed cells may be used in a variety of devices, including portable computers, tablet displays, personal digital assistants, mobile telephones, motorized devices (e.g, personal or household appliances and vehicles), instruments, illumination devices (e.g., flashlights) and heating devices.
• the disclosed cells may have particular utility in low-cost mass market electrical and electronic devices such as flashlights, radios, CD players and the like, which heretofore have usually been powered by non-rechargeable batteries such as alkaline cells. Further details regarding use of the electrolyte and construction and use of rechargeable lithium-ion cells will be familiar to those skilled in the art.
• Negative electrodes were made from Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 (synthesized according to the procedure shown in K.M. Colbow, R.R. Haering and J.R. Dahn, "Structure and Electrochemistry of the Spinel Oxides LiTi 2 O4 and Li4/ 3 Ti5/3 ⁇ 4", J. Power Sources, 26,
• MCMB mesocarbon microbeads
• Electrolytes were prepared by mixing together the ingredients shown in Table 1, using lithium salts selected from lithium bisoxalatoborate ("LiBOB", commercially available from Chemetall Group of Dynamit Nobel AG, Troisdorf, Germany) and LiPFg
• the electrolytes also contained charge carrying media selected from ethylene carbonate
• Electrolyte C additionally contained toluene (commercially available from Aldrich Chemical Co., Milwaukee, WI) as a solubilizing aid. Varying quantities of the cyclable redox chemical shuttle 2,5-di-tert-butyl-l,4-dimethoxybenzene (CAS No. 7323-63-9, commercially available from Aldrich Chemical Co., ilwaukee, WI as Catalog No. S661066) were optionally added to each electrolyte.
• the negative electrode 14 was formed from Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 or
• the positive electrode 12 was formed from LiFePO4 coated on aluminum foil current collector 16 as described above.
• Separator 20 was formed from CELGARDTM No. 2500 microporous material having a 25 micrometer thickness, and wetted with electrolyte. Gasket 27 provided a seal and separated the two terminals. A tightly squeezed stack was formed when the cell was crimped closed. Except where otherwise noted, all cells were assembled in an approximately "balanced" configuration, that is with the negative electrode capacity equaling the positive electrode capacity.
• the assembled cells were cycled at 30° C or 55° C at "C/5" (five hour charge and five hour discharge) or "C/2" (two hour charge and two hour discharge) rates using a computer-controlled charge-discharge testing unit produced by E-One/Moli Energy.
• Negative electrodes made from ⁇ 4/3 ⁇ 5/304 and positive electrodes made from LiFePO4 each had a specific capacity of 140 mAh/g.
• a specific current of 1 0 mA/g could discharge the fully charged electrodes in one hour, and 140 mA g represented a "1C" rate for these electrodes.
• These cells were discharged to 1.0 or 1.3 V and were charged for a fixed capacity or until an upper cutoff of 2.65V was reached. Since Li4/3Ti5 3 ⁇ 4 has a plateau potential near 1.56
• V vs. Li/ Li + the cutoff potentials of 1.0, 1.3 and 2.65 V vs. Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 correspond to potentials of about 2.56, 2.86 and 4.21 V vs. Li/ Li + .
• MCMB had a specific capacity of 280 rrLAh/g. Thus a specific current of 280 mA/g could discharge the fully charged electrodes in one hour, and 280 mA/g represented a IC rate for these MCMB electrodes.
• Cells using LiFeP ⁇ 4 positive electrodes and MCMB negative electrodes were charged and discharged with C-rates referenced to the positive electrode, but due to the balanced electrode configuration in the cells, the C-rate referenced to the negative electrode was almost the same.
• the MCMB negative electrode cells were discharged to 2.5 V and charged for a fixed capacity or until an upper cutoff of 4.0 V was reached. Due to the balanced electrode configuration, the MCMB electrode reaches 0.0V vs. Li/ Li + when the LiFePO4 is fully charged and thus the 4.0 V cutoff potential vs.
• MCMB is approximately 4.0 V vs. Li/ Li + .
• the upper panels in Figs, la and lb respectively show the Example 1 cell and Comparison Example 1 cell charge (Curve "C") and discharge (Curve “D") cathode capacity during the course of the test.
• C Charge
• D discharge
• the lower panels respectively show an overlay of the Example 1 cell and Comparison Example 1 cell potential vs. specific cathode capacity during the course of the test.
• an absence of overshoot viz., a voltage spike
• a flat plateau viz, a voltage plot having low or no slope
• the Example L and Comparison Example 1 cells employed a L ⁇ 4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 negative electrode, a LiFeP ⁇ 4 positive electrode and a
• Figs.2a and 2b show the Example 2 cell and Comparison Example 2 cell charge-discharge cycling behaviors. These cells were like those in Example 1 and Comparison Example 1, but employed a more balanced electrode configuration and were cycled at 55° C.
• the Comparison Example 2 cell (shown in Fig. 2b) did not contain shuttle in its electrolyte. The cell voltage could be increased above 2.4 V during charge.
• Example 2 cell shown in Fig.2a
• the Example 2 cell contained shuttle in its electrolyte and had its voltage clamped at about 2.4 V during overcharge.
• the shuttle effect was maintained even at 55° C, and the imbalance-induced initial voltage spike seen in Fig. la was not present.
• Figs.3a and 3b show the Example 3 cell and Comparison Example 3 cell charge-discharge cycling behaviors. These cells were like those in Example 2 and
• Comparison Example 2 but employed a LiPF ⁇ -based electrolyte that contained toluene cosolvent and a higher shuttle concentration. The cells were cycled at 30° C.
• the Comparison Example 3 cell (shown in Fig. 3b) did not contain shuttle in its electrolyte. The cell voltage could be increased above 2.4 V during charge.
• the Example 3 cell (shown in Fig. 3a) contained shuttle in its electrolyte and had its voltage clamped at about 2.4 V during overcharge.
• Fig. 3c shows in its lower right-hand corner a shaded region of single phase electrolyte systems that result from mixtures of 1.3 M LiPF6 PGDMC 1:2, toluene and 2,5-di-tert-butyl-l,4- dimethoxybenzene.
• Figs. 4a and 4b show the Example 4 cell and Comparison E ample 4 cell charge-discharge cycling behaviors. These cells employed a MCMB negative electrode, a LiFePO4 positive electrode and a LiBOB-based electrolyte. The cells were cycled at C/2 at 30° C. The Comparison Example 4 cell (shown in Fig. 4b) did not contain shuttle in its electrolyte. The cell voltage could be increased above 4.0 V during charge.
• Example 4 cell shown in Fig.4a
• the Example 4 cell contained shuttle in its electrolyte and had its voltage clamped at about 3.9 V during overcharge. The shuttle effect was maintained even at C/2 rates.
• Fig. 5 shows the Example 5 cell's charge-discharge cycling behavior. This cell employed a Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 negative electrode, a LiFePO4 positive electrode and a LiPF6 ⁇ based electrolyte. The cell was cycled at C/5 at 30° C. Although the discharge capacity of the cell decreased with charge-discharge cycle number, the shuttle continued to function properly, by providing a stable charge capacity (upper panel) and a stable shuttle effect as indicated by the extended overcharge plateau at 2.4 V (approx. 3.9 V vs. Li + ) in the lower panel.
• Fig. 6 shows the Example 6 cell's charge-discharge cycling behavior.
• This cell employed a MCMB negative electrode, a LiFePO4 positive electrode and a LiPFg-based electrolyte. The cell was cycled at C/5 at 30° C. Although the discharge capacity of the cell decreased with charge-discharge cycle number, the shuttle continued to function properly, by providing a stable charge capacity (upper panel) and a stable shuttle effect as indicated by the extended overcharge plateau at approx. 3.9 V vs. Li/ Li + in the lower panel.
• Example 7 A 2325 coin cell like that made in Example 4 was evaluated using a "C/2.5 "
• Example 8 A 2325 coin cell similar to the Example 1 cell was prepared using a two-sta-ge crimping procedure that provided a tighter seal.
• the cell employed a Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 negative electrode and contained as the electrolyte 0.8 M LiBOB in a 1:2:1:2 molar ratio mixture of PC:DMC:EC:DEC.
• the cell was subjected to overcharge/discharge testing at 55° C. The results are shown in Fig. 8a and Fig. 8b, and demonstrate excellent shuttle stability after 45 cycles and about 1200 hours.
• Examples 9-11 and Comparison Example 5 A variety of shuttle molecules (obtained from Aldrich Chemical Co. and used without further purification) were tested in LiFePO graphite and LiFePO ⁇ Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 coin cells.
• the LiFePO was obtained from Phostech Lithium as in Example 1 and the
• Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 was obtained from NEI Corp. (Piscataway, NJ, USA). The graphite used was mesocarbon microbeads (MCMB) heat treated to near 2650° C. Electrodes were made from the active materials 10% by weight Super S carbon black (MMM Carbon, Belgium) and 10% by weight PVDF binder. LiFePO4 and Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 electrodes were coated on aluminum foil and MCMB electrodes were coated on copper foil. A 20% capacity excess of the negative electrode was used, to ensure that the negative electrode had a stable and known potential versus Li/Li + when the Li-ion cell reached the fully charged state corresponding to Li()FePO4.
• MCMB mesocarbon microbeads
• the electrolyte was 0.7 M LiBOB in a 1:2:1:2 by volume mixture of PC:DMC:EC:DEC.
• the shuttle molecule was added in a concentration of 0.1M.
• Coin cells were charged using currents corresponding to a normal recharge in 10 hours (C/10) to 200% of their normal charge capacity (100% overcharge) or until a specified upper cut-off potential (normally 4.9V versus Li/Li + ) was reached, which ever occurred first and tested until the shuttle ceased to function.
• Fig. 10 shows the maximum solubility of 2,5-di-tert-butyl-l ,4- dimethoxybenzene in various molarity solutions of LiPF6 or LiBOB lithium salts dissolved in a 1:2 (by volume) mixture of PC:DEC, a 1:2 mixture of EC:DEC, a 1:2 mixture of PC:DMC or a 1 : 1 mixture of PC:DMC. Solubility limits were determined visually, after extended mixing. Fig. 10 shows that in all cases the shuttle solubility decreased as the lithium salt concentration increased, and that the shuttle solubility did not differ greatly in solutions of LiPFg or LiBOB having the same molarity.
• Fig. 11 shows that Imax (see Formula 1, above) was between 3.0 mA and 3.5 mA.
• the shuttle was singly ionized, the initially estimated electrode area was 1.3 cm ⁇ and the initially estimated electrode spacing was defined by the 25 ⁇ m separator.
• the effective diffusion constant D was estimated to be about 7 x 10 "7 cm 2 /sec, and the maximum current density carried by the shuttle was estimated to be about 2.3 mA/cm ⁇ .
• the shuttle diffusion constant was determined to be 1.6 x 10 "6 cm 2 /sec.
• Fig. 12 shows the potential versus time for a LiFePO-Jgraphite cell containing 0.2 M 2,5-di-tert-butyl-l,4-dimethoxybenzene and 0.5 M LiBOB in 1:2 PC:DEC during extended cycling with 100% overcharge during each cycle.
• the shuttle plateau is near 3.9 V because the graphite electrode is near 0 V vs Li Li + when the Li-ion coin cell is fully charged.
• the charging current was 0.55 mA, which corresponds to about a C/2-rate for the electrodes of this cell.
• the shuttle continues to perform well after 200 charge discharge cycles.
• Fig. 13 shows the potential versus time at a 1.1 mA charging current, which corresponds to about C-rate for the electrodes of this cell.
• the shuttle was able to protect against overcharge for about 190 cycles, followed by disappearance of the shuttle effect over the next few cycles. Near the end of overcharge protection, the shuttle plateau crept up and then eventually rapidly increased.
• Fig. 14 shows the discharge capacity versus cycle number for the cell shown in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 at the C/2 and C charging rates, and for a similar cell made using a Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 electrode. In each case very good capacity retention was observed.

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