WO2004011423A2 - Structural carotenoid analogs for the inhibition and amelioration of disease - Google Patents

Structural carotenoid analogs for the inhibition and amelioration of disease Download PDF

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Publication number
WO2004011423A2
WO2004011423A2 PCT/US2003/023706 US0323706W WO2004011423A2 WO 2004011423 A2 WO2004011423 A2 WO 2004011423A2 US 0323706 W US0323706 W US 0323706W WO 2004011423 A2 WO2004011423 A2 WO 2004011423A2
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WO
WIPO (PCT)
Prior art keywords
carotenoid derivative
carotenoid
derivative
alkyl
independently
Prior art date
Application number
PCT/US2003/023706
Other languages
English (en)
French (fr)
Other versions
WO2004011423A3 (en
Inventor
Samuel Fournier Lockwood
Sean O'malley
David G. Watumull
Laura M. Hix
Henry Jackson
Geoff Nadolski
Original Assignee
Hawaii Biotech, Inc.
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
Filing date
Publication date
Application filed by Hawaii Biotech, Inc. filed Critical Hawaii Biotech, Inc.
Priority to MXPA05001202A priority Critical patent/MXPA05001202A/es
Priority to JP2005505633A priority patent/JP4601549B2/ja
Priority to EP03772051.3A priority patent/EP1532108B1/en
Priority to CA2495167A priority patent/CA2495167C/en
Priority to CN03823260XA priority patent/CN1708480B/zh
Priority to AU2003256982A priority patent/AU2003256982A1/en
Priority to BRPI0313155A priority patent/BRPI0313155B8/pt
Publication of WO2004011423A2 publication Critical patent/WO2004011423A2/en
Publication of WO2004011423A3 publication Critical patent/WO2004011423A3/en
Priority to NO20050619A priority patent/NO20050619L/no
Priority to HK06104731.0A priority patent/HK1084380A1/xx

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    • C07C403/24—Derivatives of cyclohexane or of a cyclohexene or of cyclohexadiene, having a side-chain containing an acyclic unsaturated part of at least four carbon atoms, this part being directly attached to the cyclohexane or cyclohexene or cyclohexadiene rings, e.g. vitamin A, beta-carotene, beta-ionone having side-chains substituted by six-membered non-aromatic rings, e.g. beta-carotene
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    • C07F—ACYCLIC, CARBOCYCLIC OR HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON, HYDROGEN, HALOGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, SULFUR, SELENIUM OR TELLURIUM
    • C07F9/00—Compounds containing elements of Groups 5 or 15 of the Periodic System
    • C07F9/02—Phosphorus compounds
    • C07F9/06—Phosphorus compounds without P—C bonds
    • C07F9/08—Esters of oxyacids of phosphorus
    • C07F9/09—Esters of phosphoric acids
    • C07F9/117—Esters of phosphoric acids with cycloaliphatic alcohols
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07H—SUGARS; DERIVATIVES THEREOF; NUCLEOSIDES; NUCLEOTIDES; NUCLEIC ACIDS
    • C07H13/00—Compounds containing saccharide radicals esterified by carbonic acid or derivatives thereof, or by organic acids, e.g. phosphonic acids
    • C07H13/02—Compounds containing saccharide radicals esterified by carbonic acid or derivatives thereof, or by organic acids, e.g. phosphonic acids by carboxylic acids
    • C07H13/04—Compounds containing saccharide radicals esterified by carbonic acid or derivatives thereof, or by organic acids, e.g. phosphonic acids by carboxylic acids having the esterifying carboxyl radicals attached to acyclic carbon atoms

Definitions

  • the invention generally relates to the fields of medicinal and synthetic chemistry. More specifically, the invention relates to the synthesis and use of carotenoid analogs.
  • CVD cardiovascular disease
  • CAD coronary artery disease
  • CVD cardiovascular disease
  • Ischemia is the lack of an adequate oxygenated blood supply to a particular tissue. Ischemia underlies many acute and chronic disease states including, but not limited to:
  • MI Myocardial infarction
  • Ischemia may also become a problem in elective procedures such as: scheduled organ transplantation; scheduled coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG); and scheduled percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA).
  • CABG coronary artery bypass graft surgery
  • PTCA percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
  • ROS reactive oxygen species
  • thrombolytic therapy in acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and acute thrombotic stroke — as well as surgical revascularization with PTCA are typically associated with the reperfusion of ischemic myocardium and/or brain.
  • Thrombolytic therapy is unsuccessful in reperfusion of about 20% of infarcted arteries. Of the arteries that are successfully reperfused, approximately 15% abruptly reclose (within 24 hours). Measures of systemic inflammation (e.g., serum levels of C-reactive protein or CRP) correlate strongly with clinical reclosure in these patients. Myocardial salvage appears to be maximal in a 2 to 6 hour "therapeutic window" subsequent to acute plaque rupture and thrombosis. In acute thrombotic or thromboembolic stroke, this therapeutic window is even narrower, generally less than 3 hours post-thrombosis. Recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator administered within 3 hours of ischemic stroke significantly improves clinical outcome, but increases the risk of hemorrhage.
  • systemic inflammation e.g., serum levels of C-reactive protein or CRP
  • Ischemia creates changes in the affected tissue, with the potential final result of contraction band and/or coagulation necrosis of at-risk myocardium.
  • Pathologic changes in ischemic myocardium include, but are not limited to:
  • Glutathione and other endogenous/exogenous antioxidant depletion (including vitamins C and E and carotenoids) Rescue of ischemic myocardium that has not irreversibly reached the threshold of necrosis is the focus of intervention in reperfusion injury.
  • Gap junctions are a unique type of intercellular junction found in most animal cell types. They form aqueous channels that interconnect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells and enable the direct intercellular exchange of small (less than approximately 1 kiloDalton) cytoplasmic components. Gap junctions are created across the intervening extracellular space by the docking of two hemichannels ("connexons") contributed by each adjacent cell. Each hemichannel of is an oligomer of six connexin molecules. Connexin 43 was the second connexin gene discovered and it encodes one of the most widely expressed connexins in established cell lines and tissues. Gap junctions formed by connexin 43 have been implicated in development, cardiac function, and growth control.
  • Cardiac arrhythmia is generally considered a disturbance of the electrical activity of the heart that manifests as an abnormality in heart rate or heart rhythm. Patients with a cardiac arrhythmia may experience a wide variety of symptoms ranging from palpitations to fainting ("syncope").
  • connexin 43 The major connexin in the cardiovascular system is connexin 43. Gap junctional coordination of cellular responses among cells of the vascular wall, in particular the endothelial cells, is thought to be critical for the local modulation of vasomotor tone and for the maintenance of circulatory homeostasis. Controlling the upregulation of connexin 43 may also assist in the maintenance of electrical stability in cardiac tissue. Maintaining electrical stability in cardiac tissue may benefit the health of hundreds of thousands of people a year with some types of cardiovascular disease [e.g., ischemic heart disease (IHD) and arrhythmia], and may prevent the occurrence of sudden cardiac death in patients at high risk for arrhythmia.
  • IHD ischemic heart disease
  • Cancer is generally considered to be characterized by the uncontrolled, abnormal growth of cells.
  • Connexin 43 is also associated with cellular growth control. Growth control by connexin 43 is likely due to connexin 43's association with gap junctional communication. Maintenance, restoration, or increases of functional gap junctional communication inhibits the proliferation of transformed cells. Therefore, upregulation and/or control of the availability of connexin 43 may potentially inhibit and/or ameliorate the spread of cancerous cells.
  • Chronic liver injury regardless of etiology, may lead to a progressive spectrum of pathology from acute and chronic inflammation, to early stage fibrosis, and finally to cirrhosis and end-stage liver disease (ESRD).
  • ESRD cirrhosis and end-stage liver disease
  • a cascade of inflammatory events secondary to the initiating injury including the release of cytokines and the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), activates hepatic stellate cells (HSC).
  • HSC produce extracellular matrix components (ECM), including collagen, and are critical in the process which generates hepatic fibrosis.
  • ECM extracellular matrix components
  • End-stage liver disease [manifested as either cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)] is the eighth leading cause of disease-related death in the United States.
  • Chronic inflammation in the liver resulting from viral infection, alcohol abuse, drug-induced toxicity, iron and copper overload, and many other factors can initiate hepatic fibrosis.
  • By-products of hepatocellular damage activate Kupffer cells, which then release a number of cytokines, ROS(including in particular superoxide anion), and other paracrine and autocrine factors which in turn act upon hepatic stellate cells (HSC).
  • HSC hepatic stellate cells
  • ROS can induce HSC cells. Elevated levels of indirect markers of oxidative stress (e.g., thiobarbituric acid reactive species or TB ARS) are observed in all patients with chronic liver disease. In addition, levels of gluthathione, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, carotenoids, and ⁇ -tocopherol (vitamin E) are significantly lower in patients with chronic liver disease. Supplying these endogenous and/or exogenous antioxidants reverses many of the signs of chronic liver disease, including both surrogate markers for the disease process, as well as direct measurements of hepatic fibrosis. Therefore, they are likely potent agents for therapeutic intervention in liver disease.
  • the administration of structural analogs of carotenoids may inhibit and/or ameliorate the occurrence of diseases in subjects.
  • Maladies which may be treated with structural analogs of carotenoids may include any disease that involves production of reactive oxygen species and/or other radical species (for example singlet oxygen, a reactive oxygen species but not a radical).
  • water- soluble analogues of carotenoids may be used to treat a disease that involves production of reactive oxygen species. Oxidation of DNA, proteins, and lipids by reactive oxygen species and other radical and non-radical species has been implicated in a host of human diseases.
  • Radicals may be the primary cause for the following conditions, may make the body more susceptible to other disease-initiating factors, may inhibit endogenous defenses and repair processes, and/or may enhance the progression of incipient disease(s).
  • the administration of structural analogs of carotenoids by one skilled in the art - including consideration ofthe pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of therapeutic drug delivery - is expected to inhibit and/or ameliorate said disease conditions.
  • In the first category are those disease conditions in which a single organ is primary affected, and for which evidence exists that radicals and/or non-radicals are involved in the pathology of the disease. These examples are not to be seen as limiting, and additional disease conditions will be obvious to those skilled in the art.
  • Age-related macular degeneration AMD
  • retinal detachment hypertensive retinal disease, uveitis, choroiditis, vitreitis, ocular hemorrhage, degenerative retinal damage, cataractogenesis and cataracts, retinopathy of prematurity, Meuniere's disease, drug-induced ototoxicity (including aminoglycoside and furosemide toxicity), infectious and idiopathic otitis, otitis media, infectious and allergic sinusitis, head and neck cancer;
  • Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord): senile dementia (including Alzheimer's dementia), Neuman- Pick's disease, neurotoxin reactions, hyperbaric oxygen effects, Parkinson's disease, cerebral and spinal cord trauma, hypertensive cerebrovascular injury, stroke (thromboembolic, thrombotic, and hemorrhagic), infectious encephalitis and meningitis, allergic encephalomyelitis and other demyelinating diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses, ataxia-telangiectasia syndrome, aluminum, iron, and other heavy metal(s) overload, primary brain carcinoma/malignancy and brain metastases;
  • senile dementia including Alzheimer's dementia
  • Neuman- Pick's disease neurotoxin reactions
  • hyperbaric oxygen effects Parkinson's disease
  • cerebral and spinal cord trauma hypertensive cerebrovascular injury
  • stroke thromboembolic, thrombotic, and hemorrhagic
  • Cardiovascular arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis, peripheral vascular disease, myocardial infarction, chronic stable angina, unstable angina, idiopathic surgical injury (during CABG, PTCA), inflammatory heart disease [as measured and influenced by C-reactive protein (CRP) and myeloperoxidase (MPO)], low-density lipoprotein oxidation (ox-LDL), cardiomyopathies, cardiac arrhythmia (ischemic and post-myocardial infarction induced), congestive heart failure (CHF), drug toxicity (including adriamycin and doxorubicin), Keshan disease (selenium deficiency), trypanosomiasis, alcohol cardiomyopathy, venous stasis and injury (including deep venous thrombosis or DVT), thrombophlebitis;
  • CRP C-reactive protein
  • MPO myeloperoxidase
  • ox-LDL low-density lipo
  • Pulmonary asthma, reactive airways disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD or emphysema), hyperoxia, hyperbaric oxygen effects, cigarette smoke inhalation effects, environmental oxidant pollutant effects, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), bronchopulmonary dysplasia, mineral dust pneumoconiosis, adriamycin toxicity, bleomycin toxicity, paraquat and other pesticide toxicities, chemical pneumonias, idiopathic pulmonary interstitial fibrosis, infectious pneumonia (including fungal), sarcoidosis, asbestosis, lung cancer (small- and large-cell), anthrax infection, anthrax toxin exposure;
  • COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  • ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome
  • bronchopulmonary dysplasia mineral dust pneumoconiosis
  • adriamycin toxicity bleomycin toxicity
  • paraquat and other pesticide toxicities chemical pneumonias, idiopathic pulmonary
  • Renal hypertensive renal disease, end-stage renal disease, diabetic renal disease, infectious glomerulonephritis, nephrotic syndrome, allergic glomerulonephritis, type I-IV hypersensitivity reactions, renal allograft rejection, nephritic antiglomerular basement membrane disease, heavy metal nephrotoxicity, drug- induced (including aminoglycoside, furosemide, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory) nephrotoxicity, rhabdomyolisis, renal carcinoma;
  • Hepatic carbon tetrachloride liver injury, endotoxin and lipopolysaccharide liver injury, chronic viral infection (including Hepatitis infection), infectious hepatitis (non-viral etiology), hemachromatosis, Wilson's disease, acetaminophen overdose, congestive heart failure with hepatic congestion, cirrhosis (including alcoholic, viral, and idiopathic etiologies), hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatic metastases;
  • Gastrointestinal inflammatory bowel disease (including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome), colon carcinoma, polyposis, infectious diverticulitis, toxic megacolon, gastritis (including Helicobacter pylori infection), gastric carcinoma, esophagitis (including Barrett's esophagus), gastro- esophageal reflux disease (GERD), Whipple's disease, gallstone disease, pancreatitis, abetalipoproteinemia, infectious gastroenteritis, dysentery, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced toxicity;
  • Hematopoietic/Hematologic Pb (lead) poisoning, drug-induced bone marrow suppression, protoporphyrin photo-oxidation, lymphoma, leukemia, porphyria(s), parasitic infection (including malaria), sickle cell anemia, thallasemia, favism, pernicious anemia, Fanconi's anemia, post-infectious anemia, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, autoimmune deficiency syndrome (AIDS);
  • Musculoskeletal osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, tendonitis, muscular dystrophy, degenerative disc disease, degenerative joint disease, exercise-induced skeletal muscle injury, carpal tunnel syndrome, Guillan- Barre syndrome, Paget's disease of bone, ankylosing spondilitis, heterotopic bone formation; and
  • Integumentary solar radiation injury (including sunburn), thermal injury, chemical and contact dermatitis (including Rhus dermatitis), psoriasis, Bloom syndrome, leukoplakia (particularly oral), infectious dermatitis, Kaposi's sarcoma.
  • aging including age-related immune deficiency and premature aging disorders, cancer, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, radiation injury, alcohol-mediated damage (including Wernicke-Korsakoff's syndrome), ischemia-reperfusion damage, inflammatory and auto-immune disease, drug toxicity, amyloid disease, overload syndromes (iron, copper, etc.), multi-system organ failure, and endotoxemia/sepsis.
  • Maladies which may be treated with structural carotenoid analogs, may include, but are not limited to, cardiovascular inflammation, hepatitis C infection, cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma and prostate), macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and/or osteoarthritis.
  • the administration of water soluble analogs of carotenoids to a subject may inhibit and/or ameliorate the occurrence of reperfusion injury in subjects.
  • water soluble and other structural carotenoid analogs may be administered to a subject alone or in combination with other structural carotenoid analogs.
  • the occurrence of reperfusion injury in a human subject that is experiencing, or has experienced, or is predisposed to experience myocardial infarction, stroke, peripheral vascular disease, venous or arterial occlusion, organ transplantation, coronary artery bypass graft surgery, percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, and cardiovascular arrest and/or death may be inhibited or ameliorated by the administration of therapeutic amounts of water soluble and/or other structural carotenoid analogs to the subject.
  • Water soluble structural carotenoid analogs are those analogs which may be formulated in aqueous solution, either alone or with excipients.
  • Water soluble carotenoid analogs may include those compounds and synthetic derivatives which form molecular self-assemblies, and may be more properly termed “water dispersible” carotenoid analogs.
  • Water soluble and/or “water-dispersible” carotenoid analogs may be the preferred embodiment(s) in some aspects of the current invention.
  • the administration of water soluble analogs of carotenoids to a subject may inhibit and/or ameliorate some types of cardiovascular disease associated with cardiac arrhythmia.
  • water soluble analogs of carotenoids may be administered to a subject alone or in combination with other carotenoid analogs.
  • Carotenoid analogs may assist in the maintenance of electrical stability in cardiac tissue. Assistance in the maintenance of electrical stability in cardiac tissue may inhibit and/or ameliorate some types of cardiovascular disease, including in particular sudden cardiac death attributable to lethal cardiac arrhythmia.
  • the administration of water soluble analogs of carotenoids to a subject may inhibit and/or ameliorate the occurrence of liver disease in the subject.
  • water soluble analogs of carotenoids may be administered to a subject alone or in combination with other carotenoid analogs.
  • the liver disease may be a chronic liver disease such as, for example, Hepatitis C infection.
  • water soluble analogs of carotenoids may inhibit and/or ameliorate the proliferation and propagation of initiated, transformed and/or cancerous cell(s).
  • water soluble analogs of carotenoids may be administered to a subject alone or in combination with other carotenoid analogs.
  • Carotenoid analogs may inhibit the proliferation rate of carcinogen-initiated cells.
  • Carotenoid analogs may increase connexin 43 expression. Increase of connexin 43 expression may increase, maintain, or restore gap junctional intercellular communication and thus inhibit the growth of carcinogen-initiated cells.
  • Embodiments may be further directed to pharmaceutical compositions comprising combinations of structural carotenoid analogs to said subjects.
  • the composition of an injectable structural carotenoid analog of astaxanthin may be particularly useful in the therapeutic methods described herein.
  • an injectable astaxanthin structural analog is administered with another astaxanthin structural anaolgs and/or other carotenoid structural analogs, or in formulation with other antioxidants and/or excipients that further the intended purpose.
  • one or more ofthe astaxanthin structural analogs are water soluble.
  • a chemical compound including a carotenoid may have the general structure (I):
  • Each R 3 may be independently hydrogen or methyl.
  • R 1 and R 2 may be independently H, an acyclic alkene with one or more substituents, or a cyclic ring including one or more substituents. In some embodiments, substituents may be at least partially hydrophilic.
  • These carotenoid derivatives may be used in a pharmaceutical composition.
  • a pharmaceutical composition that includes carotenoid structural anaogues having general structure (I) may be used for treating reperfusion injury.
  • the terms "disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative”, “dAST”, “Cardax”, “CardaxTM”, “rac”, and “astaxanthin disuccinate derivative (ADD)” represent varying nomenclature for the use of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative in various stereoisomer and aqueous formulations, and represent presently preferred but nonetheless illustrative embodiments for the intended use of this structural carotenoid analog.
  • the diacid disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (astaCOOH) is the protonated form of the derivative utilized for flash photolysis studies for direct comparison with non-esterified, “racemic” (i.e., mixture of stereoisomers) astaxanthin.
  • “Cardax-C” is the disodium salt disuccinate di-vitamin C derivative (derivative XXIII) utilized in superoxide anion scavenging experiments assayed by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging.
  • FIG. 1 is a graphic representation of several "parent" carotenoid structures as found in nature
  • FIG. 2 depicts an effect of disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative on the reactive oxygen species superoxide anion as monitored using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging;
  • EPR electron paramagnetic resonance
  • FIG. 3 depicts an effect of a disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative/free vitamin C solution on the reactive oxygen species superoxide anion as monitored using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging;
  • EPR electron paramagnetic resonance
  • FIG. 4 depicts a graphical representation of a relative reduction of infarct size in male Sprague-Dawley rats with pre-treatment using a disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation (CardaxTM);
  • FIG. 5 depicts the chemical structure of the all-trans (all-E) disodium salt disuccinate ester derivative of m&yo-astaxanthin (3R,3'S- or 3S,3'R-dihydroxy- ⁇ , ⁇ -carotene-4,4'-dione; dAST) synthesized for the current study (shown as the a ⁇ l-E dianionic bolamphiphile);
  • FIG. 8 depicts the induced CD and UV/Vis spectra obtained by titration of human serum albumin (HSA) with dAST in Ringer buffer solution (pH 7.4) at low L P ratios.
  • FIG. 9 depicts the induced CD and UV/Vis spectra obtained by titration of HSA with dAST in Ringer buffer solution (pH 7.4) above L P ratio of 1.
  • FIG. 10 depicts the induced CD and UV/Vis spectra obtained by titration of HSA with dAST in 0.1 M pH 7.4 phosphate buffer solution above L/P ratio of 1.
  • FIG. 11 depicts illustration of right-handed chiral arrangements of two meso-carotenoid molecules for which excitonic interactions produce long- wavelength positive and short- wavelength negative Cotton effects in the CD spectrum. Gray-colored molecules lie behind of the plane of the paper;
  • FIG. 12 depicts (upper figure): fluorescence quenching of HSA by dAST measured in 0.1 M pH 7.4 phosphate buffer solution at 37 °C. Initial and final concentrations of HSA and the ligand were varied between 4.2 X 10 "6 M - 4.0 X 10 "6 M and 1.3 X 10 "6 M - 1.4 X 10 "5 M, respectively. L/P ratios are noted on curves. (Lower figure): effect of DMSO alone on the intrinsic flurescence of HSA. Experimental conditions are as in text;
  • FIG. 13 depicts the X-ray crystallographic structure of fatty acid-free HSA. Subdomains and the two primary drug-binding sites of HSA are indicated. Dotted bar represents spatial dimension ofthe interdomain cleft, and asterisk indicates the position of Trp214. The inter-atomic distance between the 3 and 3' chiral carbon atoms of the dAST molecule is 28 A;
  • FIG. 14 depicts that the statistical mixture of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative ("rac" in Figure Legends) induces functional gap junctional communication in murine embryonic fibroblast (10T1/2) cells. Confluent cultures were treated for 4 days as described in text, then assayed for the ability to transfer the fluorescent dye Lucifer Yellow. Arrows indicate the cell injected with Lucifer Yellow;
  • FIG. 15 A depicts connexin 43 protein expression in cells treated with the mixture of stereoisomers ofthe disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivatives as assessed by quantitative Western blot analysis.
  • the upper bands are believed to represent the phosphorylated forms ofthe protein assembled into gap junctions; lower bands unassembled proteins (Saez, 1998).
  • Lane 1 1:2 ethanol (EtOH)/ H 2 0 (solvent only negative control); Lane 2: TTNPB, a synthetic retinoid, in acetone at 10 "8 M (positive control); Lane 3: Retinyl acetate in acetone at 10 "5 M (positive control); Lane 4: Statistical mixture ("rac") of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative at 10 "5 M delivered in a 1:2 formulation of EtOH/ H 2 0; Lane 5: 3R,3'Rdisodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative at 10 "5 M delivered in a 1:2 formulation of EtOH/ H 2 0; Lane 6: 3S,3'S disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative at 10 "5 M delivered in a 1:2 formulation of EtOH/ H 2 0; and Lane 7: Meso disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative at 10 "5 M delivered in a 1:2 formulation of EtOH/ H 2 0;
  • FIG. 15B depicts an immunoblot stained with Coomassie blue to demonstrate equal protein loading of all the bands. This confirms that differences in immunolabeling are not an artifact due to variability in total protein loaded and/or transferred to the membrane;
  • FIG. 15D depicts the dose-response curve of Cx43 protein expression in murine embryonic fibroblast cells (10T1/2) treated with the statistical mixture of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivatives as assessed by quantitative Western blot analysis.
  • the upper bands are believed to represent the phosphorylated forms of the protein assembled into gap junctions; lower bands unassembled proteins.
  • Lane 1 1:2 EtOH/ H 2 0 (solvent only negative control).
  • Lane 2 TTNPB in acetone at 10 "8 M (positive control).
  • Lane 3 disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative ("rac") at 10 "5 M delivered in a 1:2 formulation of EtOH/ H 2 0.
  • Lane 4 disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative ("rac") at 5 x 10 "6 M delivered in a 1:2 formulation of EtOH/ H 2 0.
  • Lane 5 disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative ("rac") at 10 "6 M delivered in a 1:2 formulation of EtOH/ H 2 0;
  • FIG. 16 depicts that the statistical mixture of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative increases the assembly of Cx43 immunoreactivejunctional plaques.
  • Confluent cultures of 10T1/2 cells were treated for 4 days as described above with the statistical mixture of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative: (1) at 10 "5 M in 1:2 EtOH H 2 0; (2) with 1:2 EtOH H 2 0 as solvent only negative control; or (3) TTNPB at 10 "8 M in tetrahydrofuran (THF) solvent as positive control.
  • TTNPB tetrahydrofuran
  • Panel A the statistical mixture of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative at 10 "5 M in 1:2 EtOH/ H 2 0; Panel C: 1:2 EtOH/ H 2 0 as solvent control; Panel E: TTNPB at 10 "8 M in tetrahydrofuran (THF) solvent as positive control.
  • Panels B, D, and F digital analysis of panels A, C, and E, respectively, demonstrating pixels above a fixed set threshold positive for fluorescent intensity. Yellow arrows: immunoreactivejunctional plaques; red arrows: position of cell nuclei.
  • junctional immunoreactive plaques in the cultures treated with the statistical mixture of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative in comparison with solvent-only treated controls.
  • the junctional plaques shown in Panels C and D represent infrequent plaques seen in controls; most cells in these cultures were negative for Cx43 staining;
  • FIG. 17 depicts the 4 stereoisomers ofthe disodium disuccinate diester of astaxanthin synthesized for the current studies (shown as the all-E geometric isomers); the mixture of stereoisomers, or individual stereoisomers, were used in separate applications (see Figure legends);
  • FIG. 18 depicts the mean percent inhibition of superoxide anion signal as detected by DEPMPO spin trap by the disodium disuccinate derivatives of astaxanthin in pure aqueous formulation.
  • Mixture statistical mixture of stereoisomers [3S,3'S, meso (3R,3'S and 3'R,3S), 3R,3'R in a 1:2:1 ratio].
  • Each derivative in aqueous formulation was standardized to control EPR signal detected without addition of compound (set at 0% inhibition by convention). Note the absence of superoxide inhibition by 3S,3'S formulation in water. In each case, the aqueous formulation is less potent than the corresponding formulation in EtOH (FIG. 19);
  • FIG. 19 depicts the mean percent inhibition of superoxide anion signal as detected by DEPMPO spin trap by the disodium disuccinate derivatives of astaxanthin in ethanolic formulation.
  • Mixture statistical mixture of stereoisomers [3S,3'S, meso (3R,3'S and 3'R,3S), 3R,3'R in a 1:2:1 ratio].
  • the mixture, meso, and 3R,3'R stock solutions were 1:2 ethanol/water (33 V 3 % EtOH); the 3S,3'S stock solution was 1:1 ethanol/water (50% EtOH). Final concentration of EtOH in the isolated neutrophil test assay was 0.3% and 0.5%, respectively.
  • FIG. 20 depicts the mean percent inhibition of superoxide anion signal as detected by DEPMPO spin trap by the mixture of stereoisomers ofthe disodium disuccinate derivative of astaxanthin (tested in 1:2 EtOH/water formulation; final EtOH concentration in isolated neutrophil assay 0.3%). As the concentration of the derivative increases, inhibition increases in a non-linear, dose-dependent manner. At 3 mM, near-complete inhibition of superoxide anion signal is seen (95.0% inhibition);
  • FIG. 21 depicts the mean percent inhibition of superoxide anion signal as detected by DEPMPO spin trap by the hydrochloride salt dilysine astaxanthin derivative.
  • This derivative was highly water soluble (> 50 mg/mL), and did not require a co-solvent for excellent radical-quenching ability in this assay. Compare the superoxide anion inhibition of this derivative with that depicted in Figure 20, for a derivative that forms supramolecular assemblies in pure aqueous formulation;
  • FIG. 22 depicts a standard plot of concentration of non-esterified, free astaxanthin versus time for plasma after single dose oral gavage in black mice. Only non-esterified, free astaxanthin is detected in plasma, corroborating the complete de-esterification of the carotenoid analog in the mammalian gut, as has been described previously;
  • FIG. 23 depicts a standard plot of concentration of non-esterified, free astaxanthin verses time for liver after single dose oral gavage in black mice. Only non-esterified, free astaxanthin is detected in liver, also corroborating (see Figure 22 for plasma) the complete de-esterification ofthe carotenoid analog in the mammalian gut, as has been described previously. At every time point, liver levels of non-esterified, free astaxanthin are greater than that observed in plasma, a novel finding suggesting vastly improved solid-organ delivery of free carotenoid in the novel emulsion vehicle used in this study;
  • FIG. 24 depicts the effect of the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative at 500 mg/kg by oral gavage on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver injury in mice (as measured by elevation in serum alanine aminotransferase, or ALT).
  • LPS lipopolysaccharide
  • ALT serum alanine aminotransferase
  • FIG. 25 depicts a graphical representation of a relative reduction of infarct size in male Sprague-Dawley rats with pre-treatment using a disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation (CardaxTM).
  • CardaxTM disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation
  • FIG. 26 depicts a graphical representation of a relative reduction of infarct size in male Sprague-Dawley rats with pre-treatment using a disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation (CardaxTM);
  • FIG. 27 depicts transient absorption versus delay for the diacid discuccinate astaxanthin derivative (astaCOOH) using flash photolysis.
  • the experiment was performed in acetonitrile (MeCN) using nitronaftalin (NN) as photosensitizer.
  • the spectra obtained demonstrate that the diacid disuccinate astaxanthin derivative behaves identically to non-esterified, free racemic astaxanthin as a radical quencher (formation ofthe carotenoid radical cation), identifying the derivative as an active "soft-drug" which generates non-esterified, free astaxanthin in vivo after both oral and intravenous delivery;
  • FIG. 29 depicts a pictorial representation of a Western blot of a polyacrylamide gel with a ⁇ s ⁇ -connexin 43 antibody
  • FIG. 30 depicts a pictorial representation of quantitative densitometric images of Western blots with anti- connexin 43 antibodies followed by HRP chemiluminescence on a Biorad imager;
  • FIG. 31 depicts a graph of relative fold-induction of connexin 43 expression by positive control (TTNPB, potent synthetic retinoid) and test compounds (disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative in four water and/or ethanol (EtOH)/water formulations: H 2 0-10-5, H 2 0-10-6, H 2 0-10-7, and EtOH/H 2 0-10-5) versus sterile water control (H 2 0) at 96 hours post-dosing;
  • TTNPB potent synthetic retinoid
  • test compounds sodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative in four water and/or ethanol (EtOH)/water formulations: H 2 0-10-5, H 2 0-10-6, H 2 0-10-7, and EtOH/H 2 0-10-5) versus sterile water control (H 2 0) at 96 hours post-dosing;
  • FIG. 32 depicts a graph of mean levels of non-esterified, free astaxanthin in plasma and liver after eleven (11) days of oral gavage of 500 mg/kg disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (ADD) in emulsion vehicle to black mice. Both peak and trough levels in plasma and liver achieved were > 200 nM, considered to be protective against oxidative stress and hepatic injury in vivo. The peak levels obtained in liver at 6 hours post-11 th dose were nearly 9 times the protective levels necessary (1760 nM);
  • FIG. 33 depicts the mean percent inhibition of superoxide anion signal as detected by DEPMPO spin trap by the disodium salt disuccinate di- vitamin C derivative [derivative (XXIII)].
  • concentration of the derivative increases, inhibition increases in a dose-dependent manner. At 60 ⁇ M, nearly complete inhibition of superoxide anion signal is seen.
  • This derivative was also highly water soluble, and was introduced into the test assay without a co-solvent (see Figure 21).
  • the novel derivative was comparable in radical-quenching efficacy to the formulation ofthe disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative in a 1:2 formulation with vitamin C (see Figure 3), suggesting active, "soft-drug” properties for this derivative.
  • This co-antioxidant derivative strategy increased the relative radical scavenging potency (when compared with the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative) by 50-fold;
  • FIG. 34 depicts effects of non-esterified, free astaxanthin (as the all-rraH. ⁇ mixture of stereoisomers) on MCA-induced neoplastic transformation in mouse embryonic fibroblast (10T1/2) cells.
  • Non-esterified, free astaxanthin is produced rapidly in vivo after oral and intravenous administration of novel carotenoid derivatives, and is detected in high concentration in both plasma and solid organs (see Figures 22 and 23).
  • Non-esterified, free astaxanthin demonstrated levels of reduction of neoplastic transformation (100%) above any other carotenoid tested in this assay at similar concentrations, demonstrating the increased utility of this compound for cancer chemoprevention applications;
  • FIG. 35 depicts a comparison of an astaxanthin-treated dish to control dishes (see description for Figure 34);
  • FIG. 36 depicts a comparison of astaxanthin (as the mixture of stereoisomers) to previously tested carotenoids in this laboratory using this assay (see description for Figure 34);
  • FIG. 37 depicts a graphical representation of a relative reduction of infarct size in male New Zealand rabbits with pre-treatment using a disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation (CardaxTM).
  • CardaxTM disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation
  • FIG. 38 depicts a graphical representation of a relative reduction of circulating levels of plasma C- reactive protein (CRP) in male New Zealand rabbits with pre-treatment using a disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation (CardaxTM).
  • CRP plasma C- reactive protein
  • CardaxTM disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative intravenous formulation
  • Parenter carotenoids may generally refer to those natural compounds utilized as starting scaffold for structural carotenoid analog synthesis.
  • Carotenoid derivatives may be derived from a naturally occurring carotenoid.
  • Naturally occurring carotenoid may include lycopene, lycophyll, lycozanthin, astaxanthin, beta- carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and/or canthaxanthin to name a few.
  • Carotenoids are a group of natural pigments produced principally by plants, yeast, and microalgae. The family of related compounds now numbers greater than 600 described members, exclusive of Z and E isomers. Fifty (50) have been found in human sera or tissues. Humans and other animals cannot synthesize carotenoids de novo and must obtain them from their diet. All carotenoids share common chemical features, such as a polyisoprenoid structure, a long polyene chain forming the chromophore, and near symmetry around the central double bond. Tail-to-tail linkage of two C 20 geranylgeranyl diphosphate molecules produces the parent C o carbon skeleton.
  • Carotenoids without oxygenated functional groups are called "carotenes", reflecting their hydrocarbon nature; oxygenated carotenes are known as “xanthophylls.” Cyclization at one or both ends of the molecule yields 7 identified end groups (representative structures shown in FIG. 1).
  • Carotenoids with chiral centers may exist either as the R (rectus) or S (sinister) configurations.
  • astaxanthin (with 2 chiral centers at the 3 and 3' carbons) may exist as 4 possible stereoisomers: 3S, 3'S; 3R, 3'S and 3S, 3'R (meso forms); or 3R, 3'R.
  • the relative proportions of each of the stereoisomers may vary by natural source.
  • Haematococcus pluvialis microalgal meal is 99% 3S, 3'S astaxanthin, and is likely the predominant human evolutionary source of astaxanthin.
  • Krill (3R,3'R) and yeast sources yield different stereoisomer compositions than the microalgal source.
  • Synthetic astaxanthin produced by large manufacturers such as Hoffmann-LaRoche AG, Buckton Scott (USA), or BASF AG, are provided as defined geometric isomer mixtures of a 1:2:1 stereoisomer mixture [3S, 3'S; 3R, 3'S, 3'R,3S (meso); 3R, 3'R] of non-esterified, free astaxanthin.
  • Natural source astaxanthin from salmonid fish is predominantly a single stereoisomer (3S,3'S), but does contain a mixture of geometric isomers. Astaxanthin from the natural source Haematococcus pluvialis may contain nearly 50% Z isomers.
  • the Z conformational change may lead to a higher steric interference between the two parts of the carotenoid molecule, rendering it less stable, more reactive, and more susceptible to reactivity at low oxygen tensions.
  • the Z forms in relation to the all-E form, the Z forms: (1) may be degraded first; (2) may better suppress the attack of cells by reactive oxygen species such as superoxide anion; and (3) may preferentially slow the formation of radicals. Overall, the Z forms may initially be thermodynamically favored to protect the lipophilic portions of the cell and the cell membrane from destruction.
  • the all-E form of astaxanthin unlike ⁇ -carotene, retains significant oral bioavailability as well as antioxidant capacity in the form of its dihydroxy- and diketo-substitutions on the ⁇ -ionone rings, and has been demonstrated to have increased efficacy over ⁇ -carotene in most studies.
  • the all-E form of astaxanthin has also been postulated to have the most membrane-stabilizing effect on cells in vivo. Therefore, it is likely that the all-E form of astaxanthin in natural and synthetic mixtures of stereoisomers is also extremely important in antioxidant mechanisms, and may be the form most suitable for particular pharmaceutical preparations.
  • the antioxidant mechanism(s) of carotenoids includes singlet oxygen quenching, direct radical scavenging, and lipid peroxidation chain-breaking.
  • the polyene chain of the carotenoid absorbs the excited energy of singlet oxygen, effectively stabilizing the energy transfer by delocalization along the chain, and dissipates the energy to the local environment as heat. Transfer of energy from triplet-state chlorophyll (in plants) or other porphyrins and proto-porphyrins (in mammals) to carotenoids occurs much more readily than the alternative energy transfer to oxygen to form the highly reactive and destructive singlet oxygen ( x 0 2 ).
  • Carotenoids may also accept the excitation energy from singlet oxygen if any should be formed in situ, and again dissipate the energy as heat to the local environment. This singlet oxygen quenching ability has significant implications in cardiac ischemia, macular degeneration, porphyria, and other disease states in which production of singlet oxygen has damaging effects. In the physical quenching mechanism, the carotenoid molecule may be regenerated (most frequently), or be lost. Carotenoids are also excellent chain-breaking antioxidants, a mechanism important in inhibiting the peroxidation of lipids. Astaxanthin can donate a hydrogen (H) to the unstable polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) radical, stopping the chain reaction.
  • H hydrogen
  • PUFA unstable polyunsaturated fatty acid
  • Peroxyl radicals may also, by addition to the polyene chain of carotenoids, be the proximate cause for lipid peroxide chain termination.
  • the appropriate dose of astaxanthin has been shown to completely suppress the peroxyl radical chain reaction in liposome systems. Astaxanthin shares with vitamin E this dual antioxidant defense system of singlet oxygen quenching and direct idical scavenging, and in most instances (and particularly at low oxygen tension in vivo) is superior to vitamin E as radical scavenger and physical quencher of singlet oxygen.
  • Carotenoids and in particular astaxanthin, are potent direct radical scavengers and singlet oxygen uenchers and possess all the desirable qualities of such therapeutic agents for inhibition or amelioration of sperfusion injury.
  • Synthesis of novel carotenoid derivatives with "soft-drug” properties i.e. activity in the erivatized form), with physiologically relevant, cleavable linkages to pro-moieties, can generate significant levels if free carotenoids in both plasma and solid organs.
  • this is a larticularly useful embodiment (characteristics specific to non-esterified, free astaxanthin below):
  • Lipid soluble in natural form may be modified to become more water soluble
  • antioxidants which are potent singlet oxygen quenchers and direct radical scavengers, particularly of superoxide anion, should limit hepatic fibrosis and the progression to cirrhosis by affecting the activation of hepatic stellate cells early in the fibrogenetic pathway. Reduction in the level of ROS by the administration of a potent antioxidant can therefore be crucial in the prevention of the activation of both HSC and Kupffer cells.
  • This protective antioxidant effect appears to be spread across the range of potential therapeutic antioxidants, including water-soluble (e.g., vitamin C, glutathione, resveratrol) and lipophilic (e.g., vitamin E, ⁇ - carotene, astaxanthin) agents. Therefore, a co-antioxidant derivative strategy in which water-soluble and lipophilic agents are combined synthetically is a particularly useful embodiment.
  • Vitamin E is generally considered the reference antioxidant.
  • carotenoids are more efficient in quenching singlet oxygen in homogenenous organic solvents and in liposome systems. They are better chain-breaking antioxidants as well in liposomal systems. They have demonstrated increased efficacy and potency in vivo. They are particularly effective at low oxygen tension, and in low concentration, making them extremely effective agents in disease conditions in which ischemia is an important part of the tissue injury and pathology.
  • These carotenoids also have a natural tropism for the liver after oral administration. Therefore, therapeutic administration of carotenoids should provide a greater benefit in limiting fibrosis than vitamin E.
  • the parent carotenoid may have a structure of any naturally occurring carotenoid.
  • Some examples of naturally occurring carotenoids that may be used as parent compounds are shown in FIG. 1.
  • the carotenoid derivatives may include compounds having the structure (I):
  • Each R 3 may be independently hydrogen, methyl, alkyl, alkenyl, or aromatic substituents.
  • R 1 and R 2 may be independently H, an acyclic alkene with at least one substituent, or a cyclic ring with at least one substituent having general structure (II):
  • n may be between 4 to 10 carbon atoms.
  • W is the substituent.
  • the substituent may be at least partially hydrophilic.
  • a hydrophilic substituent may assist in increasing the water solubility of a carotenoid derivative.
  • a carotenoid derivative may be at least partially water soluble.
  • the cyclic ring may include at least one chiral center.
  • the acyclic alkene may include at least one chiral center.
  • the cyclic ring may include at least one degree of unsaturation.
  • the cyclic ring may be aromatic.
  • the cyclic ring may include a substituent.
  • the substituent may be hydrophilic.
  • the cyclic ring may include, for example (a), (b), or (c):
  • the substituent may include, for example, a carboxylic acid, an amino acid, an ester, an alkanol, an amine, a phosphate, a succinate, a glycinate, an ether, a glucoside, a sugar, or a carboxylate salt.
  • each substituent -W may independently include -XR. Each X may independently include O, N, or S. In some embodiments, each substituent -W may independently comprises amino acids, esters, carbamates, amides, carbonates, alcohol, phosphates, or sulfonates. In some substituent embodiments, the substituent may include, for example (d) through (pp):
  • each R is, for example, independently -alkyl-NR ⁇ , -aromatic-NR ⁇ , -alkyl-CO,', -aromatic-CO,", -amino c ⁇ d-NH 3 + , -phosphorylated amino acid-NH 3 + , polyethylene glycol, dextran, H, alkyl, or aryl.
  • substituents may include any combination of (d) through (pp).
  • negatively barged subst i tuents may include alkali metals, one metal or a combination of different alkali metals in an mbodiment with more than one negatively charged substituent, as counter ions.
  • Alkali me tals may include, but are at limited to, sodium, potassium, and/or lithium.
  • alkenes in the E conf i guration this should st be seen as l i miting.
  • Compounds discussed herein may include embodiments where alkenes are in the Z con ⁇ guration or include alkenes in a combination of Z and E configurations within the same molecule.
  • the compounds depicted herein may naturally convert between the Z and E configuration and/or exist in equilibrium between the two configurations.
  • a chemical compound may include a carotenoid derivative having the structure (III)
  • Each Y may be independently O or H 2 .
  • Each R may be independently OR 1 or R 1 .
  • Each R 1 may be independently -alkyl-NR 2 3 + , -aromatic-NR 2 3 + , -alkyl-C0 2 ⁇ -aromatic-C0 2 " , -amino acid-NH 3 + , - phosphorylated amino acid-NH 3 + , polyethylene glycol, dextran, H, alkyl, peptides, poly-lysine or aryl.
  • each R" may be independently H, alkyl, or aryl.
  • the carotenoid derivative may include at least one chiral center. In a specific embodiment where Y is H 2 , the carotenoid derivative has the structure (IV)
  • the carotenoid derivative has the structure (V)
  • a chemical compound may include a carotenoid derivative having the structure (VI)
  • each Y may be independently O or H 2 .
  • Each R may be independently H, alkyl, or aryl.
  • the carotenoid derivative nay include at least one chiral center.
  • Y may be H 2 , the carotenoid derivative having the gagture (VII)
  • the carotenoid derivative has the structure (VIII)
  • a chemical compound may include a carotenoid derivative having the structure (IX)
  • Each Y may be independently O or H 2 .
  • Each R' may be CH 2 .
  • n may be 1 to 9.
  • Each X may be independently
  • Each R may be independently -alkyl-NR' 3 + , -aromatic-NR' 3 + , -alkyl-C0 2 " , -aromatic-C0 2 " , -amino acid-NH 3 + , - phosphorylated amino acid-NH 3 + , polyethylene glycol, dextran, H, alkyl, or aryl.
  • Each R 1 may be independently H, alkyl, or aryl.
  • the carotenoid derivative may include at least one chiral center.
  • the carotenoid derivative has the structure (X)
  • the carotenoid derivative has the structure (XI)
  • a chemical compound may include a carotenoid derivative having the structure (XII)
  • ach Y may be independently O or H 2 .
  • the carotenoid derivative may include at least one chiral center.
  • Y may be H 2 , the carotenoid derivative having the structure (XIII)
  • the carotenoid derivative has the structure (XIV)
  • a chemical compound may include a disuccinic acid ester carotenoid derivative having the structure (XV)
  • a chemical compound may include a disodium salt disuccinic acid ester carotenoid derivative having the structure (XVI)
  • a chemical compound may include a carotenoid derivative with a co-antioxidant, in particular one or more analogs of vitamin C (i.e., L ascorbic acid) coupled to a carotenoid.
  • a carotenoid derivative with a co-antioxidant in particular one or more analogs of vitamin C (i.e., L ascorbic acid) coupled to a carotenoid.
  • Some embodiments may include carboxylic acid and/or carboxylate derivatives of vitamin C coupled to a carotenoid (e.g., structure (XVII))
  • Some embodiments may include vitamin C and/or vitamin C analogs coupled to a carotenoid.
  • Vitamin C may be coupled to the carotenoid via an ether linkage (e.g., structure (XVIII))
  • Some embodiments may include vitamin C disuccinate analogs coupled to a carotenoid (e.g., structure (XIX)
  • Some embodiments may include solutions or pharmaceutical preparations of carotenoids and/or carotenoid derivatives combined with co-antioxidants, in particular vitamin C and or vitamin C analogs.
  • Pharmaceutical preparations may include about a 2: 1 ratio of vitamin C to carotenoid respectively.
  • a carotenoid e.g., astaxanthin
  • vitamin C may be coupled to vitamin C forming an ether linkage.
  • the ether linkage may be formed using the Mitsunobu reaction as in EQN. 1.
  • vitamin C may be selectively esterified.
  • Vitamin C may be selectively esterified at the C-3 position (e.g., EQN. 2).
  • J. Org. Chem. 2000, 65, 911-913 discloses selective esterification at C-3 of unprotected ascorbic acid with primary alcohols.
  • a carotenoid may be coupled to vitamin C.
  • Vitamin C may be coupled to the carotenoid at the C-6, C-5 diol position as depicted in EQNS. 3 and 4 forming an acetal.
  • a carotenoid may be coupled to a water soluble moiety (e.g., vitamin C) with a glyoxylate linker as depicted in EQN. 6.
  • a water soluble moiety e.g., vitamin C
  • a glyoxylate linker as depicted in EQN. 6.
  • a carotenoid may be coupled to a water soluble moiety (e.g., vitamin C) with a glyoxylate linker as depicted in EQN. 7.
  • a water soluble moiety e.g., vitamin C
  • a glyoxylate linker as depicted in EQN. 7.
  • a carotenoid may be coupled to a water soluble moiety (e.g., vitamin C) with a phosphate linker as depicted in EQN. 8.
  • a water soluble moiety e.g., vitamin C
  • a phosphate linker as depicted in EQN. 8.
  • a carotenoid may be coupled to a water soluble moiety (e.g., vitamin C) with a phosphate linker as depicted in EQN. 9.
  • a water soluble moiety e.g., vitamin C
  • a phosphate linker as depicted in EQN. 9.
  • Carbohydr. Res. 1979, 68, 313-319 discloses the 6-bromo derivative of vitamin C.
  • Carbohydr. Res. 1988, 176, 73-78 discloses the 6-bromo derivative of vitamin C's reaction with phosphates.
  • a carotenoid may be coupled to a water soluble moiety (e.g., vitamin C) with a phosphate linker as depicted in EQN. 10.
  • a water soluble moiety e.g., vitamin C
  • a phosphate linker as depicted in EQN. 10.
  • a carotenoid may be coupled to a water soluble moiety (e.g., vitamin C) with a phosphate linker as depicted in EQN. 11.
  • Vitamin C may be coupled to the carotenoid using selective esterification at C-3 of unprotected ascorbic acid with primary alcohols.
  • a chemical compound may include a carotenoid derivative including one or more amino acids (e.g., lysine) and/or amino acid analogs (e.g., lysine hydrochloric acid salt) coupled to a carotenoid [e.g., structure (XX)].
  • a carotenoid derivative including one or more amino acids (e.g., lysine) and/or amino acid analogs (e.g., lysine hydrochloric acid salt) coupled to a carotenoid [e.g., structure (XX)].
  • a carotenoid derivative may include:
  • the carotenoid derivatives may be synthesized from naturally occurring carotenoids.
  • the carotenoids may include structures 2A-2E depicted in FIG. 1.
  • the carotenoid derivatives may be synthesized from a naturally occurring carotenoid including one or more alcohol substituents.
  • the carotenoid derivatives may be synthesized from a derivative of a naturally occurring carotenoid including one or more alcohol substituents.
  • the synthesis may result in a single stereoisomer.
  • the synthesis may result in a single geometric isomer of the carotenoid derivative.
  • the synthesis/synthetic sequence may include any prior purification or isolation steps carried out on the parent carotenoid.
  • An example may include, but is not limited to, a 3S,3'S all-E carotenoid derivative, where the parent carotenoid is astaxanthin.
  • the synthetic sequence may include protecting and subsequently deprotecting various functionalities of the carotenoid and/or substituent precursor.
  • the alcohols may be deprotonated with a base.
  • the deprotonated alcohol may be reacted with a substituent precursor with a good leaving group.
  • the base may include any non-nucleophilic base known to one skilled in the art such as, for example, dimethylaminopyridine.
  • the deprotonated alcohol may act as a nucleophile reacting with the substituent precursor, displacing the leaving group.
  • Leaving goups may include, but are not limited to, Cl, Br, tosyl, brosyl, mesyl, or trifyl. These are only a few examples of leaving groups that may be used, many more are known and would be apparent to one skilled in the art. In some embodiments, it may not even be necessary to deprotonate the alcohol, depending on the leaving group employed. In other examples the leaving group may be internal and may subsequently be included in the final structure of the carotenoid derivative, a non- limiting example may include anhydrides or strained cyclic ethers. For example, the deprotonated alcohol may be reacted with succinic anhydride.
  • the disuccinic acid ester of astaxanthin may be further converted to the disodium salt.
  • Examples of synthetic sequences for the preparation of some of the specific embodiments depicted are described in the Examples section.
  • the example depicted below is a generic non- limiting example of a synthetic sequence for the preparation of carotenoid derivatives.
  • I/R Ischemia-Reperfusion
  • Reperfusion of ischemic myocardium results in significant cellular and local alterations in at-risk tissue which exacerbate damage created by the ischemic insult. Specifically, vascular and microvascular injury, endothelial dysfunction, accelerated cellular necrosis, and granulocyte activation occur subsequent to reperfusion.
  • vascular and microvascular injury results from complement activation, the interaction of circulating and localized C-reactive protein with Clq and phosphocholine on exposed cells forming the membrane attack complex (MAC) with ensuing cell death and increased endothelial permeability, superoxide anion (0 2 -) generation by affected endothelium and activated leukocytes, microemboli, cytokine release (in particular IL-6), and activation of platelets with Ilbllla receptor activation, and subsequent release of ADP and serotonin.
  • Endothelial dysfunction follows, with subsequent generation of superoxide anion by the dysfunctional endothelium, further damaging the affected endothelium in a positive feedback cycle.
  • MPO myeloperoxidase
  • elastases elastases
  • proteases elastases
  • oxygen-derived radical and non-radical species most importantly superoxide anion, hypochlorite, singlet oxygen, and hydrogen peroxide after the "respiratory burst"
  • Oxygen-derived radical and non-radical e.g.
  • ROS reactive oxygen species
  • the endothelium-based xanthine dehydrogenase — xanthine oxidase system in humans is a source of the superoxide anion (0 2 -).
  • the human myocardium lacks this enzyme system.
  • 90% of the enzyme exists as the dehydrogenase (D) form; it is converted to the oxidase (O) form in ischemic tissue.
  • the (O)-form using molecular oxygen as the electron acceptor, produces the superoxide anion 0 2 - in the coronary endothelium.
  • Superoxide anion is then available to create additional tissue damage in the local environment.
  • the superoxide anion is not the most reactive or destructive radical species in biological systems on its own.
  • (1) superoxide anion may accept a single electron ("monovalent reduction"), producing peroxide (0 2 "2 ). Coupled with 2 protons, peroxide then forms hydrogen peroxide (H 2 0 2 ). H 2 0 2 diffuses easily through cell membranes and cannot readily be excluded from the cytoplasm, where it may react with cellular components or activate central inflammatory cascades such as nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kappa-B), which are also implicated in the additional inflammatory damage in I/R injury.
  • NF-kappa-B nuclear factor kappa-B
  • superoxide anion typically reacts with itself to produce hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (“dismutation").
  • Superoxide dismutation may be spontaneous, or catalyzed by the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), a reaction which results in the formation of oxidized SOD:
  • superoxide anion may serve as a reducing agent and donate a single electron ("monovalent reduction") to a metal cation.
  • ferric iron (Fe 3+ ) is reduced and subsequently acts as a catalyst to convert hydrogen peroxide (H 2 0 2 ) into the hydroxyl radical (HO').
  • Ferrous iron (Fe 2+ ) the reduced metal cation, subsequently catalyzes the breaking of the oxygen-oxygen bond of hydrogen peroxide. This produces one hydroxyl radical (HO') and one hydroxide ion (HO " ).
  • the reaction is known as the Fenton reaction, particularly important in reperfusion injury where iron and/or copper compartmentalization has been lost (typically through hemolysis of red blood cells, RBCs):
  • Hydroxyl radicals readily cross cellular membranes. Hydroxyl radical damage is "diffusion rate-limited", that is, the 3-dimensional distance in which damage may be inflicted is related to the radical's rate of diffusion.
  • the hydroxyl radical is a particularly toxic ROS. Hydroxyl radicals may add to organic substrates (represented by R in the reaction below) and form a hydroxylated adduct which is itself a radical.
  • PUFAs polyunsaturated fatty acids
  • endothelial and myocyte membranes are particularly susceptible to hydroxyl radical damage:
  • HO' + R -> HOR (hydroxylated adduct)
  • the adduct formed above may further oxidize in the presence of metal cations or molecular oxygen. This results in oxidized, stable product(s). In the first case, the extra electron is transferred to the metal ion, and in the second case, to oxygen (forming superoxide).
  • Two adduct radicals may also react with each other forming oxidized, stable, and crosslinked products plus water. This is an important process in the oxidation of membrane proteins: HOR + HOR ⁇ » R— -R + 2 H 2 0
  • hydroxyl radicals may oxidize organic substrates by abstracting electrons from such molecules: HO + R -» R + OH "
  • the oxidized substrate (R) is a radical. Such radicals may react with other molecules in a chain reaction. Carotenoids are particularly efficient lipid-peroxidation chain breakers. In one instance, the reaction with ground- state oxygen produces peroxyl radicals (ROO-): R- + 3 0 2 ⁇ » ROO
  • Peroxyl radicals are very reactive. They may react with other organic substrates in a chain reaction: ROO + RH - ROOH + R
  • Chain reactions are common in the oxidative damage of PUFAs and other susceptible membrane lipids. Measurement of the rate of oxygen consumption is one indication of the initiation and progress of the chain reaction. It is important to note that, in liposomal model systems, non-esterified, free astaxanthin at the appropriate dose is capable of complete suppression ofthe chain reaction and accompanying oxygen consumption.
  • superoxide anion may react with the hydroxyl radical (HO') to form singlet oxygen ( 1 0 2 *).
  • Singlet oxygen is not a radical, but is highly reactive and damaging in cardiac biological systems. Singlet oxygen has been implicated in the destruction of membrane-bound proteins such as 5'-nucleotidase, important in the maintenance or restoration of local concentrations of vasodilatory compounds such as adenosine (shown to be effective in humans for reduction of infarct size):
  • superoxide anion may also react with the radical nitric oxide (NO-), producing peroxynitrite (OONO " ).
  • NO- radical nitric oxide
  • OONO peroxynitrite
  • PMNs Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
  • neutrophils neutrophils
  • activated macrophages are a rich source of oxygen-derived radical and non-radical species.
  • the NADPH-oxidase system located in phagocyte cell membranes is an important source of radicals following stimulation.
  • the PMNs and activated macrophages rapidly consume oxygen in the "respiratory burst" and convert it to superoxide anion and subsequently hydrogen peroxide (H 2 0 2 ), as well as significant amounts of singlet oxygen.
  • PMNs are additionally a source of hypochlorite, another damaging reactive oxygen species. While important in phagocytic cell activity in infection, in the local environment during ischemia and reperfusion, further cellular injury occurs as these ROS attack normal and damaged host cells in the local area.
  • Neutrophils are a primary source of oxygen radicals during reperfusion after prolonged myocardial ischemia, particularly in animal models of experimental infarction. Many prior studies have documented oxygen radical formation during ischemia-reperfusion, but few addressed the source(s) of such radicals in vivo, or had examined radical generation in the context of prolonged myocardial ischemia. Neutrophils are recruited in large amounts within the previously ischemic tissue and are thought to induce injury by local release of various mediators, chiefly oxygen radicals. Previously, the contribution of activated neutrophils to reperfusion injury and potential myocardial salvage remained unclear. A methodology was developed to detect radicals, in particular superoxide anion, without interfering with the blood-borne mechanisms of radical generation.
  • Ischemia causes depletion of ATP in cells in the affected area.
  • At the level of the mitochondrial electron transport chain which normally "leaks" approximately 5% of the processed electrons in healthy tissue, further leakage of partially-reduced oxygen species (in particular 0 2 -) is favored when the respiratory chain becomes largely reduced. This happens primarily during ischemia.
  • the net effect in the local cellular environment is a tip in the balance ofthe redox status from anti-oxidant to pro-oxidant, which is at the same time less capable of absorbing additional radical insult(s) without further cellular damage.
  • the following compounds have been evaluated, either in animal models or in limited human trials, as therapeutic agents for the reduction of ischemia-reperfusion injury and/or myocardial salvage during acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Most are biological antioxidants.
  • Anti-inflammatories e.g., ibuprofen
  • Duilio et al. (2001) further clarified this issue by demonstrating that oxygen consumption reflective of the peroxyl radical chain reaction begins 10 minutes after reperfusion, and that radical activity remains elevated for at least the first hour of reperfusion in a canine model.
  • Singh et al. (1996) previously demonstrated in human patients that myocardial salvage, and improvement of hard clinical endpoints (nonfatal reinfarction, death) was possible starting antioxidant therapy on average 13 hours post-MI, and continuing for 28 days. Therefore, plasma antioxidants with long half-lives may be particularly appropriate for this setting, as they may be administered as a loading dose and allowed to decay in the plasma throughout the critical early post- AMI period (0 to 24 hours).
  • the plasma half-lives of carotenoids administered orally range from approximately 21 hours for the xanthophylls ("oxygenated” carotenoids including astaxanthin, capsanfhin, lutein, and zeaxanthin) to 222 hours for carotenes ("hydrocarbon” carotenoids such as lycopene).
  • oxygenated carotenoids including astaxanthin, capsanfhin, lutein, and zeaxanthin
  • carotenes hydrocarbon carotenoids such as lycopene
  • Thrombolytic therapy also caused a significant decrease in plasma vitamin E levels.
  • serum levels of antioxidant vitamins will be decreased in patients undergoing an acute coronary event.
  • Pharmacologic intervention with antioxidant compounds in the acute setting would likely remedy deficiencies in antioxidant vitamins and total body antioxidant status.
  • Astaxanthin as a xanthophyll carotenoid, is highly lipid soluble in natural form. It is also small in size (597 Da). Therefore, an injectable astaxanthin structural analog has a low likelihood of immunogenicity in the right formulation, and is a particularly desirable compound for the current therapeutic indication.
  • Carotenoids have been evaluated, mostly in animal models, for their possible therapeutic value in the prevention and treatment of cancer.
  • the antioxidant properties of carotenoids were the focus of studies directed towards carotenoids and their use in cancer prevention.
  • Studies conducted by Bertram et al. (1991) pointed towards the fact that although carotenoids were antioxidants, this particular property did not appear to be the major factor responsible for their activity as cancer chemopreventive agents. It was, however, discovered that the activity of carotenoids was strongly correlated with their ability to upregulate gap junctional communication. It has been postulated that gap junctions serve as conduits for antiproliferative signals generated by growth-inhibited normal cells.
  • Connexin 43 which is capable of being induced by carotenoids, is the most widely expressed connexin in human tissues. Upregulation of connexin 43, therefore, may be the mechanism by which carotenoids are useful in the chemoprevention of cancer in humans and other animals. And recently, a human study by Nishino et al. (2003) demonstrated that a cocktail of carotenoids (10 mg lycopene, 5 mg each of ⁇ - and ⁇ -carotene) given by chronic oral administration was efficacious in the chemoprevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in high-risk cirrhotic patients in Japan. It is likely, then, that more potent cancer-chemopreventive carotenoids (such as astaxanthin), which accumulate more dramatically in liver, will be particularly useful embodiments.
  • cancer-chemopreventive carotenoids such as astaxanthin
  • Carotenoids for the Treatment of Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury, Liver Disease, Arrhythmia, and
  • the terms “inhibiting” and “ameliorating” are generally defined as the prevention and/or reduction of the negative consequences of a disease state.
  • the methods and compositions described herein may have value as both an acute and a chronic (prophylactic) modality.
  • ischemia-reperfusion injury is generally defined as the pathology attributed to reoxygenation of previously ischemic tissue (either chronically or acutely ischemic), which includes atherosclerotic and thromboembolic vascular disease and its related illnesses.
  • ischemic tissue either chronically or acutely ischemic
  • major diseases or processes including myocardial infarction, stroke, peripheral vascular disease, venous or arterial occlusion, organ transplantation, coronary artery bypass graft surgery, percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, and cardiovascular arrest and/or death are included, but are not seen as limiting for other pathological processes which involve reperfusion of ischemic tissue in their individual pathologies.
  • arrhythmia is generally defined as any variation from the normal rhythm of the heart beat, including sinus arrhythmia, premature beat, heart block, atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, pulsus alternans and paroxysmal tachycardia.
  • cardiac arrhythmia is generally defined as a disturbance of the electrical activity of the heart that manifests as an abnormality in heart rate or heart rhythm. Arrhythmia is most commonly related to cardiovascular disease, and in particular, ischemic heart disease.
  • cancer is generally considered to be characterized by the uncontrolled, abnormal growth of cells.
  • cancer may refer to tissue in a diseased state including carcinogen-initiated and carcinogen-transformed cells.
  • structural carotenoid analogs may be generally defined as carotenoids and the biologically active structural analogs thereof. Typical analogs include molecules which demonstrate equivalent or improved biologically useful and relevant function, but which differ structurally from the parent compounds.
  • Parent carotenoids are selected from the more than 600 naturally-occurring carotenoids described in the literature, and their stereo- and geometric isomers.
  • Such analogs may include, but are not limited to, esters, ethers, carbonates, amides, carbamates, phosphate esters and ethers, sulfates, glycoside ethers, with or without spacers (linkers).
  • the synergistic combination of more than one structural analog of carotenoids may be generally defined as any composition including one structural carotenoid analog combined with one or more other structural carotenoid analogs or co-antioxidants, either as derivatives or in solutions and/or formulations.
  • subject may be generally defined as all mammals, in particular humans.
  • administration may be generally defined as the administration of the pharmaceutical or over-the-counter (OTC) or nutraceutical compositions by any means that achieves their intended purpose.
  • administration may include parenteral, subcutaneous, intravenous, intracoronary, rectal, intramuscular, intra-peritoneal, transdermal, or buccal routes.
  • administration may be by the oral route.
  • the dosage administered will be dependent upon the age, health, weight, and disease state of the recipient, kind of concurrent treatment, if any, frequency of treatment, and the nature of the effect desired.
  • Any techniques described herein directed towards the inhibition of ischemia-reperfusion injury may also be applied to the inhibition or amelioration of a liver disease, a non-limiting example being Hepatitis C infection.
  • Techniques described herein directed towards the inhibition and/or amelioration of ischemia-reperfusion injury may also be applied to the inhibition and/or amelioration of arrhythmia.
  • Techniques described herein directed towards the inhibition and/or amelioration of ischemia-reperfusion injury may also be applied to the inhibition and/or amelioration of cancer.
  • An embodiment may include the administration of structural carotenoid analogs alone or in combination to a subject such that the occurrence of ischemia-reperfusion injury is thereby inhibited and/or ameliorated.
  • the structural carotenoid analogs may be water soluble and/or water dispersible derivatives.
  • the carotenoid derivatives may include any substituent that substantially increases the water solubility of the naturally occurring carotenoid.
  • the carotenoid derivatives may retain and/or improve the antioxidant properties ofthe parent carotenoid.
  • the carotenoid derivatives may retain the non-toxic properties ofthe parent carotenoid.
  • the carotenoid derivatives may have increased bioavailability, relative to the parent carotenoid, upon administration to a subject.
  • the parent carotenoid may be naturally occurring.
  • compositions comprised of the synergistic combination of more than one structural analog of carotenoids to a subject such that the occurrence of ischemia- reperfusion injury is thereby reduced.
  • the composition may be a "racemic" (i.e. mixture of the potential stereoisomeric forms) mixture of carotenoid derivatives.
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprised of structural analogs of carotenoids in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier (e.g., human serum albumin).
  • structural analogs of carotenoids may be complexed with human serum albumin (i.e., HSA) in a solvent.
  • HSA may act as a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • compositions may include all compositions of 1.0 gram or less of a particular structural carotenoid analog, in combination with 1.0 gram or less of one or more other structural carotenoid analogs and/or co-antioxidants, in an amount which is effective to achieve its intended purpose. While individual subject needs vary, determination of optimal ranges of effective amounts of each component is with the skill of the art.
  • a structural carotenoid analog may be administered to mammals, in particular humans, orally at a dose of 5 to 100 mg per day referenced to the body weight of the mammal or human being treated for ischemia- reperfusion injury.
  • a structural carotenoid analog may be administered to mammals, in particular humans, parenterally at a dose of between 5 to 500 mg per day referenced to the body weight ofthe mammal or human being treated for reperfusion injury. In other embodiments, about 100 mg of a structural carotenoid analog is either orally or parenterally administered to treat or prevent ischemia-reperfusion injury.
  • the unit oral dose may comprise from about 0.25 mg to about 1.0 gram, or about 5 to 25 mg, of a structural carotenoid analog.
  • the unit parenteral dose may include from about 25 mg to 1.0 gram, or between 25 mg and 500 mg, of a structural carotenoid analog.
  • the unit intracoronary dose may include from about 25 mg to 1.0 gram, or between 25 mg and 100 mg, of a structural carotenoid analog.
  • the unit doses may be administered one or more times daily, on alternate days, in loading dose or bolus form, or titrated in a parenteral solution to commonly accepted or novel biochemical surrogate marker(s) or clinical endpoints as is with the skill of the art.
  • the compounds may be administered as part of a pharmaceutical preparation containing suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, preservatives, excipients and auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the structural carotenoid analog which may be used pharmaceutically.
  • suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers such as tablets, softgels, lozenges, dragees, and capsules
  • preparations which may be administered rectally, such as suppositories, as well as suitable solutions for administration by injection or orally may be prepared in dose ranges that provide similar bioavailability as described above, together with the excipient.
  • the pharmaceutical preparations may be manufactured in a manner which is itself known to one skilled in the art, for example, by means of conventional mixing, granulating, dragee-making, softgel encapsulation, dissolving, extracting, or lyophilizing processes.
  • pharmaceutical preparations for oral use may be obtained by combining the active compounds with solid and semi-solid excipients and suitable preservatives, and/or co- antioxidants.
  • the resulting mixture may be ground and processed.
  • the resulting mixture of granules may be used, after adding suitable auxiliaries, if desired or necessary, to obtain tablets, softgels, lozenges, capsules, or dragee cores.
  • Suitable excipients may be fillers such as saccharides (e.g., lactose, sucrose, or mannose), sugar alcohols (e.g., mannitol or sorbitol), cellulose preparations and/or calcium phosphates (e.g., tricalcium phosphate or calcium hydrogen phosphate).
  • binders may be used such as starch paste (e.g., maize or corn starch, wheat starch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, tragacanth, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, and/or polyvinyl pyrrolidone).
  • Disintegrating agents may, be added (e.g., the above- mentioned starches) as well as carboxymethyl-starch, cross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a salt thereof (e.g., sodium alginate).
  • Auxiliaries are, above all, flow-regulating agents and lubricants (e.g., silica, talc, stearic acid or salts thereof, such as magnesium stearate or calcium stearate, and/or polyethylene glycol, or PEG).
  • Dragee cores are provided with suitable coatings which, if desired, are resistant to gastric juices.
  • Softgelatin capsules are provided with suitable coatings, which, typically, contain gelatin and/or suitable edible dye(s).
  • animal component-free and kosher gelatin capsules may be particularly suitable for the embodiments described herein for wide availability of usage and consumption.
  • concentrated saccharide solutions may be used, which may optionally contain gum arabic, talc, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyethylene glycol (PEG) and/or titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures, including dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), tetrahydrofuran (THF), acetone, ethanol, or other suitable solvents and co-solvents.
  • DMSO dimethylsulfoxide
  • THF tetrahydrofuran
  • acetone acetone
  • ethanol or other suitable solvents and co-solvents.
  • cellulose preparations such as acetylcellulose phthalate or hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose phthalate
  • Dye stuffs or pigments may be added to the tablets or dragee coatings or softgelatin capsules, for example, for identification or in order to characterize combinations of active compound doses, or to disguise the capsule contents for usage in clinical or other studies.
  • Other pharmaceutical preparations which may be used orally include push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, thermally-sealed capsules made of gelatin and a plasticizer such as glycerol or sorbitol.
  • the push-fit capsules may contain the active compounds in the form of granules which may be mixed with fillers such as, for example, lactose, binders such as starches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers and/or preservatives.
  • the active compounds may be dissolved or suspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils such as rice bran oil or peanut oil or palm oil, or liquid paraffin.
  • suitable liquids such as fatty oils such as rice bran oil or peanut oil or palm oil, or liquid paraffin.
  • stabilizers and preservatives may be added.
  • Possible pharmaceutical preparations which may be used rectally include, for example, suppositories, which consist of a combination of the active compounds with a suppository base.
  • Suitable suppository bases are, for example, natural or synthetic triglycerides, or parrafm hydrocarbons.
  • gelatin rectal capsules which consist of a combination of the active compounds with a base.
  • Possible base materials include, for example, liquid triglycerides, polyethylene glycols, or paraffin hydrocarbons.
  • Suitable formulations for parenteral administration include, but are not limited to, aqueous solutions of the active compounds in water-soluble and/or water dispersible form, for example, water-soluble salts, esters, carbonates, phosphate esters or ethers, sulfates, glycoside ethers, together with spacers and/or linkers.
  • suspensions ofthe active compounds as appropriate oily injection suspensions may be administered, particularly suitable for intramuscular injection.
  • Suitable lipophilic solvents, co-solvents (such as DMSO or ethanol), or ' vehicles including fatty oils, for example, rice bran oil or peanut oil and/or palm oil, or synthetic fatty acid esters, for example, ethyl oleate or triglycerides, may be used.
  • Aqueous injection suspensions may contain substances which increase the viscosity of the suspension including, for example, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol, dextran, and/or cyclodextrins. Cyclodextrins (e.g., ⁇ -cyclodextrin) may be used specifically to increase the water solubility for parenteral injection of the structural carotenoid analog.
  • Liposomal formulations in which mixtures of the structural carotenoid analog with, for example, egg yolk phosphotidylcholine (E-PC), may be made for injection.
  • the suspension may also contain stabilizers, for example, antioxidants such as BHT, or preservatives, such as benzyl alcohol.
  • TLC Thin- layer chromatography
  • IPC in- process control
  • Example 1 Synthesis of XV (the Disuccinic Acid ester of Astaxanthin (Succinic acid mono-(4- ⁇ 18-[4-(3- carboxy-propionyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethyl-3-oxo-cyclohex-l-enyl]-3,7,12,16-tetramethyl-octadeca- l,3,5,7,9,ll,13,15,17-nonaenyl ⁇ -3,5,5-trimethyl-2-oxo-cyclohex-3-enyl) ester)))
  • Example 2 Synthesis of XVI (the Disodium Salt of the Disuccinic Acid ester of Astaxanthin (Succinic acid mono-(4- ⁇ 18-t4-(3-carboxy-propionyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethyl-3-oxo-cyclohex-l-enyl]-3,7,12,16-tetramethyl- octadeca-l,3,5,7,9,ll,13,15,17-nonaenyl ⁇ -3,5,5-trimethyI-2-oxo-cyclohex-3-enyl) ester)))
  • Disuccinic acid ester of astaxanthin (2 g, 2.509 mmol) and 200 mL ethanol was stirred at room temperature under nitrogen in a 500 mL round-bottom flask.
  • Sodium ethoxide (340 mg, 5.019 mmol, Acros #A012556101) was added as a solid in a single portion and the solution was allowed to stir overnight. The following day, the precipitate was filtered off and washed with ethanol followed by methylene chloride to afford a purple solid, the disodium salt of the disuccinic acid ester of astaxanthin, XVI [1.41 g, 67%] and was placed on a high vacuum line to dry.
  • 'H-NMR Methanol- ⁇
  • Example 7 Synthesis of the Sodium Salt of the Bis-Ascorbic Acid 6-Ester of Astaxanthin Disuccinate (XXIII).
  • HPLC Alltech Rocket, Platinum-C18, 100A, 3 ⁇ m, 7 x 53 mm, PN 50523; Temperature: 25°C; Mobile phase: (A
  • TBSC1 tert-butyldimefhylsilyl chloride
  • DIPEA N, N- diisopropylethylamine
  • the reaction was quenched by pouring the cold reaction mixture into a separatory funnel containing 1.00 L of IP AC and 500 mL of a saturated solution of ammonium chloride and 500 mL of water.
  • the organic layer was concentrated to a white solid.
  • the solid was reslurried in dichloromethane (250 mL) for 2 h and heptane (1.00 L) was added and stirred for 1 h.
  • the mixture was concentrated under vacuum to a volume of 500 mL.
  • Example 15 Synthesis of Succinic acid esters of zeaxanthin (XXXIII, XXXIV).
  • Example 16 Synthesis of Aconitic acid esters of astaxanthin (XXXV, XXXVI).
  • Example 30 Synthesis of Adenosine monoester of astaxanthin disuccinate (LXIII).
  • Example 31 Synthesis of Maltose diester of astaxanthin disuccinate (LXIV).
  • Example 32 Synthesis of Resveratrol esters of astaxanthin dissucinate (LXV, LXVI).
  • a 1 mL volume of filtrate was then diluted appropriately with DI water, and the concentration of the solution was measured at 480 nM using a four point calibration curve prepared from fresh sample. After taking the dilutions into account, the concentration of the saturated solution ofthe disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative was 8.64 mg/mL.
  • FIG. 27 and FIG. 28 depict the results of spectral analysis after flash photolysis of the formation of triplet and carotenoid cation radical states for non-esterified, free astaxanthin and the diacid disuccinate astaxanthin derivative were obtained.
  • Formation of the carotenoid cation radical is a measure of the potential biophysical behavior of the novel derivative as an antioxidant. If a derivative retains the antioxidant behavior of non-esterified, free astaxanthin, then all previously documented (i.e. literature precedent) therapeutic applications for astaxanthin can be reasonably assumed for the novel derivative, including at least singlet oxygen quenching, lipid peroxidation chain-breaking, and/or direct radical scavenging.
  • Negative peaks in the spectra demonstrate ground state depletion of NN and astaCOOH.
  • the positive peak at 550 nm shows the formation of the astaCOOH triplet; the positive peak at 850 nm shows the formation of the astaCOOH cation radical.
  • the 3 car decays rather quickly. After 15 ⁇ s, half of the 3 car has disappeared, and after 50 ⁇ s, no 3 car is left. The car + is stable within this time frame.
  • mouse embryonic fibroblast CH3/10T ' A cells were treated with the following formulations in a 4 mL cell culture system with media containing 2% calf serum:
  • TTNPB [p-(E)-2-(5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,5,8,8-tetramethyl-2-napthyl) propenyl benzoic acid] 10 "8 M in acetone [positive control for connexin 43 upregulation (4 ⁇ l in 4 mL]
  • TTNPB is a highly potent retinoid that is effective at inducing connexin 43 expression at the 96-hour time point at 10 "8 M.
  • GJC gap junctional communication
  • Cx43 connexin43
  • junctional permeability was assayed by microi ⁇ jection of the fluorescent dye Lucifer Yellow CH (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) into individual confluent cells essentially as described previously (Zhang, 1994). Briefly, confluent cultures of C3H/10T1/2 cells were treated for 4 days with: (1) the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (1 x 10 "5 M) dissolved in a 1:2 ethanol/water (EtOH/ H 2 0) formulation; (2) a synthetic retinoid, TTNPB (1 x 10 's M) dissolved in tetrahydrofuran as a positive control; or (3) 1:2 EtOH/ H 2 0 treated cells as a negative control.
  • the number of fluorescent cells adjacent to the injected cell was later determined by digital image analysis using an unbiased density threshold method and the SigmaScan software program (Jandel Scientific). This number of communicating cells was used as an index of junctional communication, as described previously (Hossain, 1993).
  • Panel A treatment with the statistical mixture of stereoisomers of the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin at 1 x 10 "5 M in 1:2 EtOH/ H 2 0;
  • Panel C 1:2 EtOH/ H 2 0 solvent negative control
  • Panel E TTNPB at 1 x 10 "8 M in tetrahydrofuran as solvent, positive control;
  • Panels B, D, F digital analysis of micrographs A, C, E respectively, demonstrating pixels above a set threshold positive for Lucifer Yellow fluorescence. Because cell nuclei have the most volume, they accumulate the most Lucifer Yellow and exhibit the most fluorescence.
  • mouse embryonic fibroblast C3H/10T ⁇ cells were cultured in Eagle's basal medium with Earle's salts (Atlanta Biologicals, Atlanta, GA), supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum (Atlanta Biologicals, Atlanta, GA) and 25 ⁇ g/mL gentamicin sulfate (Sigma, St. Louis, MO), and incubated at 37 °C in 5% C0 2 .
  • the confluent cells were treated for four days with the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivatives and then harvested and analyzed for Cx43 protein induction as described.
  • Protein content was measured using the Protein Assay Reagent kit (Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, EL) according to manufacturer's instructions.
  • Cell lysates containing 100 ⁇ g of protein were analyzed by Western blotting using the NuPage western blotting kit and apparatus (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and Cx43 protein detected using a rabbit polyclonal antibody (Zymed, San Francisco, CA) raised against a synthetic polypeptide corresponding to the C-terminal domain of mouse, human and rat Cx43.
  • Cx43 immunoreactive bands were visualized by chemiluminescence using an anti-rabbit HRP-conjugated secondary antibody (Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, EL).
  • Digital images were obtained with a cooled CCD camera, and quantitative densitometry was then performed (Bio-Rad, Richmond, CA). Equal protein loading ofthe lanes was confirmed by staining with Coomassie blue protein stain and digital image analysis.
  • disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivatives were added to cell cultures in a formulation of 1:2 ethanol/ H 2 0 at 1 x 10 "5 M.
  • the statistical mixture of stereoisomers and purified enantiomeric forms demonstrated increased expression of Cx43 in comparison to cell cultures treated with 1:2 ethanol/ H 2 0 alone (FIG. 15A and FIG. 15B).
  • Treatment with the statistical mixture of stereoisomers ofthe disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative elicited the highest induction level of Cx43 of all derivatives tested.
  • induction levels were several-fold less than induction levels seen with the retinoids tetrahydrotetramethylnapthyl propenylbenzoic acid (TTNPB) (Hoffman-LaRoche, Nutley, NJ) and retinyl acetate (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) included as positive controls; this relative potency difference is consistent with previous studies.
  • TTNPB tetrahydrotetramethylnapthyl propenylbenzoic acid
  • retinyl acetate Sigma, St. Louis, MO
  • Non-esterified, free astaxanthin is generated in the mammalian gut after oral administration of esterified astaxanthin. Only free astaxanthin is found in mammalian plasma and solid organs. This was again demonstrated in single- and multiple dose oral pharmacokinetic studies; the results are described herein. Inherent esterase activity of serum albumin, and the action of promiscuous esterases in serum and solid organs rapidly generates non- esterified, free astaxanthin after parenteral administration of the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (XVI). Flash photolysis experiments also demonstrated that the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative and non- esterified, free astaxanthin have identical antioxidant behavior in terms of formation of the carotenoid cation radical.
  • FIG. 34 depicts effects of non-esterified, free astaxanthin (as the all-trans mixture of stereoisomers) on MCA-induced neoplastic transformation.
  • Graph represents a total of 68 cultures treated with astaxanthin at 3 x 10 "6 M, 1 x 10 "6 M and 3 x 10 "7 M, delivered in a THF vehicle of 0.3%, 0.1% and 0.03%, respectively.
  • Controls were as follows: a total of 16 dishes did not receive carcinogen and were treated with 0.05% ethanol solvent; controls did not exhibit any transformation events. A total of 20 dishes were treated with MCA and 1% THF solvent, yielding a transformation rate of 0.92 foci/dish. Percent reduction (% reduction) of transformation in astaxanthin-treated dishes was calculated by a comparison of the mean foci/dish of each treatment with the MCA-treated controls. Inferential statistics were performed using the paired Student's t-test; calculated P values of 0.00004, 0.00001, and 0.00006, respectively, were obtained. P ⁇ 0.05 was considered significant. Treatment with 3 x 10 "6 M astaxanthin resulted in complete suppression of the transformed phenotype (FIG. 35).
  • FIG. 35 depicts a comparison of astaxanthin-treated dish to control dishes. Representative dishes treated with: A, no MCA with solvent control; B, MCA 5.0 ⁇ g/ml with 1% THF as solvent control; C, MCA with 3 x 10 "6 M astaxanthin (as the all-trans mixture of stereoisomers) in THF. It is notable that this level of inhibition far exceeded that reported previously for all other carotenoids tested using identical protocols (Bertram, 1991). A comparison of the current data to data previously reported for percent reduction in neoplastic transformation at the concentrations tested revealed astaxanthin to be a far more potent inhibitor of transformation than either ⁇ -carotene or canthaxanthin (FIG. 36). FIG.
  • neutrophils were isolated on a Percoll gradient from whole blood from a human volunteer. The isolated neutrophils were then re-suspended in phosphate-buffered saline, and maximally stimulated with phorbol ester to induce the respiratory burst and production of superoxide anion.
  • the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative was added at various concentrations, and the superoxide signal [as measured with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging] was subsequently measured.
  • EPR electron paramagnetic resonance
  • the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (as the mixture of stereoisomers) reduced the measured superoxide anion signal in a dose-dependent manner (FIG.
  • FIG. 2 demonstrates the strong superoxide signal after activation in controls, then the results of titration with the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative from 100 ⁇ M to 3 mM.
  • FIG. 3 depicts an effect of a disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative/Vitamin C solution on reactive oxygen species (superoxide anion) as monitored using EPR imaging.
  • the solution included a mixture of about 2 to about 1 of vitamin C to disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative respectively.
  • the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative/Vitamin C solution reduced the measured superoxide anion signal in a dose- dependent manner (FIG. 3); complete suppression ofthe superoxide anion signal was achieved at 0.02 ⁇ M concentration.
  • FIG. 3 demonstrates the strong superoxide signal after activation in controls, then the results of titration with the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative/Vitamin C solution from 0.01 ⁇ M to 0.02 ⁇ M.
  • neutrophils were again isolated on a Percoll gradient from whole blood from a second human volunteer.
  • the isolated neutrophils were then re-suspended in phosphate-buffered saline, and maximally stimulated with phorbol ester to induce the respiratory burst and production of superoxide anion.
  • the hydrochloride salt dilysinate astaxanthin derivative (XX) was added at four (4) concentrations, and the superoxide signal (as measured with EPR imaging) was subsequently measured.
  • the hydrochloride salt dilysinate astaxanthin derivative also reduced the measured superoxide anion signal in a dose-dependent manner (FIG.
  • aqueous solubility of this derivative (XX) was greater than 50 mg/mL, demonstrating the utility of the methods of the present invention to increase the water solubility ofthe parent carotenoids (in this case astaxanthin), from nearly zero inherent water solubility to the high mg/mL range.
  • Non-esterified, all-E astaxanthin [1:2:1 statistical mixture of stereoisomers 3S,3'S, meso (3S,3'R and 3'S,3R), and 3R,3'R] was purchased from Buckton Scott (India) and used as supplied (> 95% purity by HPLC). Astaxanthin was dissolved in HPLC grade dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO).
  • DMSO dimethylsulfoxide
  • the disodium disuccinate derivatives of astaxanthin were tested separately in nine formulations: statistical mixture of stereoisomers (as for astaxanthin, above, a 1:2:1 mixture of all-E 1 ; labeled as "mixture” in all tables and figures); 3S,3'S, and 3R,3'R (optical isomers or enantiomers); and meso (mixture of 3S,3'R and 3'S,3R; diastereomers of the enantiomeric pair). All disuccinate derivatives were synthesized at > 90% purity by HPLC. The disuccinate derivatives were first tested at the appropriate final concentrations in pure aqueous solution (deionized water) from stock solutions of 10 mM.
  • each ofthe four disuccinate derivatives were then tested from stock solutions prepared in a 1:2 mixture of ethanol (final concentration of EtOH in stock solution 33 l ⁇ %; final concentration in isolated neutrophil assay 0.3%; HPLC grade ethanol, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) at 10 mM.
  • the 3S,3'S derivative was also tested from a 50% EtOH concentration stock solution (final concentration in isolated neutrophil assay 0.5%).
  • Ethanolic formulation of the disuccinate derivatives has been shown to completely disaggregate the supramolecular assemblies which form in pure aqueous solution, providing monomeric solutions of the derivatives immediately before introduction into the test assay.
  • a carotenoid derivative [Succinic acid mono-(4- ⁇ 18-[4-(3-carboxy-propiony!oxy)-2,6,6-trimethyI-3- oxo-cyclohex-l-enyl]-3,7,12,16-tetramethyl-octadeca-l,3,5,7,9,ll,13,15,17-nonaenyl ⁇ -3,5,5-trimethyl-2-oxo- cyclohex-3-enyl) ester; FIG. 17] and its stereoisomeric forms were synthesized, disodium disuccinate derivatives of astaxanthin, in all-trans (all-E) form.
  • the derivatives are symmetric chiral molecules with 2 chiral centers at the 3 and 3' carbon positions, comprising 4 stereoisomers: 3R,3'R and 3S,3'S (optical isomers, or enantiomers), as well as the diastereomeric meso forms (3R,3'S and 3'R,3S).
  • the statistical mixture of stereoisomers synthesized from the commercial source of astaxanthin contains 3R,3'R, meso (3R,3'S and 3'R,3S), and 3S,3'S stereoisomeric forms in a 1:2:1 ratio.
  • the disodium disuccinate diesters of astaxanthin demonstrate increased water "dispersibility" over the parent compound astaxanthin.
  • the water dispersibilities of the individual stereoisomers and the statistical mixture were all greater than 8 mg/mL (approximately 10 mM), allowing them to be introduced into the buffered aqueous test system without a co-solvent.
  • the tendency for the parent carotenoids such as astaxanthin (Salares, 1977), as well as novel carotenoid derivatives (e.g. capsanthin derivatives) (Zsila, 2001 and Bikadi, 2002) to form supramolecular assemblies in aqueous solution was also observed for the derivatives tested in the current study.
  • PMNs Human polymorphonuclear leukocytes
  • Erythrocytes were lysed by addition of 18 mL of ice-cold water for 30 s, followed by 2 mL of lOx PIPES buffer (25 mM PIPES, 110 mM NaCl, and 5 mM KCl, titrated to pH 7.4 withNaOH). Cells were pelleted at 4 °C, the supernatant was decanted, and the procedure was repeated. After the second hypotonic lysis, cells were washed twice with PAG buffer (PIPES buffer containing 0.003% human serum albumin and 0.1% glucose). Afterward, PMNs were counted by light microscopy on a hemocytometer. The final pellet was then suspended in PAG-CM buffer (PAG buffer with 1 mM CaCl 2 and 1 mM
  • the instrument settings used in the spin-trapping experiments were as follows: modulation amplitude, 0.32 G; time constant, 0.16 s; scan time, 60 s; modulation frequency, 100 kHz; microwave power, 20 milliwatts; and microwave frequency, 9.76 GHz.
  • the samples were placed in a quartz EPR flat cell, and spectra were recorded. The component signals in the spectra were identified and quantified as reported (Lee, 2000). Statistical Analysis
  • the potent SOD mimetic produced by Metaphore, Inc. served as a positive control at study outset. As has been observed repeatedly in the Zweier laboratory, the 10 ⁇ M dose in water-only vehicle nearly completely eliminated the superoxide anion signal as detected with DEPMPO (97% inhibition; Table 1). An ethanol-alone negative control (final concentration 0.3%) was also evaluated, as ethanol shows minor scavenging activity in these systems; 5.7% inhibition was seen at this concentration. This amount of inhibition was not subtracted from formulations containing ethanol in the descriptive data in Table 1, as the utility of the dosing vehicle itself (disodium disuccinate derivative in EtOH) in direct scavenging was being evaluated in this study. Non-esterified, free astaxanthin in DMSO (100 ⁇ M) was evaluated as a reference standard for direct comparison to the novel derivatives synthesized for this study; mean inhibition of the astaxanthin/DMSO vehicle was 28% (Table 1).
  • FIG. 18 shows the relative scavenging ability of each of the 4 stereoisomers (mixture and 3 individual stereoisomers) in water, at a final concentration of 100 ⁇ M. Except for the 3R,3'R enantiomer (28.7% inhibition), all other novel derivative formulations showed decreased scavenging ability relative to the astaxanthin/DMSO formulation (range -2.0% to 19.3% inhibition; Table 1). As can be seen, the 3S,3'S formulation did not exhibit any mean scavenging activity. When introduced into the isolated neutrophil test system in ethanolic formulation, however, in each case the scavenging ability increased over that of the same derivative formulated in water (FIG. 19; range 38.0% to 42.5%).
  • FIG. 20 shows the results of titration of superoxide signal inhibition by increasing concentrations of the mixture of stereoisomers of disodium disuccinate astaxanthin in ethanolic formulation. As the concentration was increased from 100 ⁇ M to 3 mM, near complete inhibition of superoxide signal was noted (95.0% mliibition at the 3 mM dose; Table 1 and FIG. 18). The dose-response curve was non-linear. Adjusting for percent inhibition and tested dose, the disodium disuccinate derivative was between one and two orders of magnitude less potent than the SOD mimetic used as a positive contiol in the current study (Table 1).
  • Astaxanthin is a potent lipophilic antioxidant that normally exerts its antioxidant properties in lipid-rich cellular membranes, lipoproteins, and other tissues (Britton, 1995).
  • Derivatives of astaxanthin with increased utility as water-dispersible agents — have the ability to directly scavenge aqueous-phase superoxide anion produced by isolated human neutrophils after stimulation of the respiratory burst.
  • the pure aqueous formulations of the novel derivatives were less potent than the ethanolic formulations in terms of direct scavenging ability.
  • Supramolecular assembly of the water soluble carotenoid derivatives in some solvents may explain their lack of potency in those solvents.
  • the aggregation is ofthe helical, "card- pack" type, with aggregates greater than 240 nm in size forming in pure aqueous solution. Increasing ionic strength of buffer solutions may increase both the size and stabilility of these aggregates.
  • the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative is one to two orders of magnitude less potent than the SOD mimetic.
  • these derivatives decay to free astaxanthin, which becomes active in the lipid-rich membranes of cells [including the mitochondrial and nuclear membranes (Goto, 2001)], therefore providing dual protection (aqueous and lipid-phase radical scavenging), not achievable with water-soluble proteins and enzyme mimetics.
  • Non- esterified, free astaxanthin when provided as a dietary supplement at 0.02% of feed wt/wt is cardioprotective against the ROS-mediated strenuous exercise insult to both skeletal and cardiac muscle (Aoi et al. 2003). Therefore, this characteristic (i.e. dual-phase radical scavenging) should provide additional utility for this class of compounds as clinical therapeutic agents in those indications for which radical and reactive oxygen species prevention is important (Cross, 1987).
  • the study demonstrates for the first time direct scavenging of superoxide anion detected by EPR spectroscopy by a novel group of carotenoid derivatives.
  • the compounds were found to form supramolecular assemblies in pure aqueous solution. Formation of supramolecular assemblies may limit their scavenging potency relative to monomeric solutions of the same compounds. No significant differences in scavenging ability were seen among the 4 potential stereoisomers of the novel compounds. Dose-ranging studies revealed that the concentration of derivative could be increased to near-complete suppression of the induced superoxide anion signal.
  • this class of compounds may be used as both an aqueous phase and lipid phase scavenger, which should find wide application in those acute and chronic disease conditions for which potent radical scavengers have demonstrated efficacy.
  • neutrophils were isolated on a Percoll gradient from whole blood from a human volunteer. The isolated neutrophils were then re-suspended in phosphate- buffered saline, and maximally stimulated with phorbol ester to induce the respiratory burst and production of superoxide anion.
  • EPR electron paramagnetic resonance
  • the disodium disuccinate di-vitamin C astaxanthin derivative (XXIII) (semi-systematic name Succinic acid 4-[18-(4- ⁇ 3-[2-(3,4-dihydroxy-5-oxo-2,5- dihydrofuran-2-yl)-2-hydroxy-ethoxycarbonyl]-propionyloxy ⁇ -2,6,6-trimethyl-2-oxo-cyclohex-l-enyl)- 3,7,12,16-tetramethyl-octadeca-l,3,5,7,9,ll,13,15,17-nonaenyI]-3,5,5-trimethyl-2-oxo-cyclohex-3-enyl ester 2- (3,4-dihydroxy-5-oxo-2,5-dihydrofuran-2-yl)-2-hydroxy-ethyl ester) was added at various concentrations, and the superoxide signal (as measured with EPR imaging) was
  • the disodium disuccinate di- vitamin C astaxanthin derivative (XXIII) reduced the measured superoxide anion signal in a dose-dependent manner (FIG. 33); complete suppression of the superoxide anion signal was achieved at 60 ⁇ M concentration. This represents a 50-fold increase in potency over the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (XVI) also synthesized for the current series of experiments.
  • the purity of the derivative as tested was 88% (by HPLC area under the curve, or AUC).
  • the novel carotenoid derivative designed to be a "soft-drug" by esterification to the 6- OH position of each vitamin C — preserved the antioxidant function of the individual vitamin C molecules.
  • the potency of the derivative (XXIII) approached that of the formulation of disodium disuccinate astaxanthin (XVI) with free vitamin C in a 1:2 molar ratio (which completely suppressed the superoxide anion signal in a 20 ⁇ M/40 ⁇ M disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (XVI)/free vitamin C formulation).
  • Derivative (XXIII) which generates 2 moles of free vitamin C and 1 mole of non-esterified, free astaxanthin for every mole of derivative in vivo may be particularly preferred for certain clinical indications.
  • Derivative (XXIII) will also likely show increased efficacy in those clinical situations in which aqueous-phase scavenging (by the intact parent derivative, as well as free vitamin C) as well as lipid-phase scavenging (by non-esterified, free astaxanthin) are important for reduction in the pathology attributable to ROS and other radical species injury.
  • FIG. 4, FIG. 25, and FIG. 26 depict graphical representations ofthe reduction of infarct size in male Sprague-Dawley rats.
  • Male Sprague-Dawley rats were pre-treated with the disodium salt disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (as the mixture of stereoisomers) in aqueous solution before performing an occlusion and inducing a myocardial infarction.
  • Male Sprague-Dawley rats (175-200 grams) were anaesthetized with 100 mg/kg of Inactin, instrumented, and the heart exposed.
  • the left coronary artery had a suture placed around it and was subjected to 30 minutes of total coronary artery occlusion followed by 2 hours of reperfusion, at which time infarct size was measured in hearts excised from the animal.
  • the hearts were washed in buffer and incubated in triphenyltetrazo ⁇ um chloride (TTC) staining solution kept at 37 °C in phosphate buffer at pH of 7.40.
  • Infarct size (IS) was expressed as a % of the area at risk (IS/AAR, %).
  • Systemic blood pressure, heart rate, blood gases and body temperature were monitored throughout the experiment, and temperature and blood gases were tightly controlled at normal physiological levels.
  • Time 0 [immediately before dosing of test compound], 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48, and 72 hours after ingestion.
  • mice Male C57BL/6 mice, approximately 25 g, were housed in cages (three mice/cage) and fed standard mouse chow (Purina Mouse Chow, Ralston Purina, St. Louis) and water ad libitum for at least five days prior to the start of the experiment.
  • standard mouse chow Purina Mouse Chow, Ralston Purina, St. Louis
  • water ad libitum for at least five days prior to the start of the experiment.
  • the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative was mixed with the following components to make an emulsion suitable for oral gavage:
  • the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative demonstrates water-solubility of approximately 8.64 mg/mL in pure aqueous formulation.
  • solubility was increased to approximately 50 mg/mL, allowing for dosing up to 500 mg/kg by gavage in these animals. This significant 6-fold increase in solubility in the dosing vehicle greatly facilitated gavage studies in these small mice.
  • the material has the potential to clog the mouse gavage needle. Rinse the gavage needle after every 2 gavages.
  • the emulsion was given by oral gavage at 500 mg/kg body weight in a single dose. Food was withdrawn from all cages the evening prior to the experiment. One hour after administration of the emulsion, food and water were restored to all animals.
  • Free astaxanthin concentration was also determined, at the same time points as for plasma samples, in liver. Livers were removed from each animal in the pharmacokinetic study after sacrifice, and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen. Liver tissue was prepared for HPLC analysis as described (Jewell, 1999). Therefore, simultaneous examination of liver accumulation of free astaxanthin was performed at the same time points as the plasma analyses.
  • liver Up to 300 mg of liver from each animal was snap frozen in liquid nitrogen. Tissue homogenization and extraction were performed with a mixture of chloroform/methanol/water, according to the methods of Jewell (1999). Non-esterified, free astaxanthin accumulation in liver was then evaluated by HPLC as described above for plasma samples.
  • the Cmax (Table 4) of 0.9 mg/L is also unprecedented in rodents, animals which absorb only a small percentage of the oral dose of carotenoids. It is significant that these plasma and liver levels of free carotenoid were obtained after just a single dose of compound in the emulsion vehicle.
  • Osterlie et al. (2000) have described Cmax plasma levels of 1.3 mg/L after a single dose of 100 mg (approximately 1.1 mg/kg oral dose) of non-esterified, free astaxanthin in olive oil vehicle.
  • Humans typically absorb 40 to 50% of the oral dose of carotenoid when provided in fatty vehicle, as opposed to a few percentage points for rodents. Therefore, the current study demonstrates achievement of nearly 70% of the Cmax in humans with the emulsion vehicle developed for rodents, greatly increasing the utility of this derivative for hepato-protection studies.
  • CardaxTM sodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative
  • the influence of parenteral administration of the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (XVI) on induced infarct size and induced levels of circulating C-reactive protein (CRP) in rabbits was investigated using the methods of Barrett et al. (2002) with slight modifications.
  • the purpose ofthe current study was to investigate the ability of the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (XVI) to reduce inflammation as measured by CRP in the setting of experimental myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury in the rabbit heart. It has been suggested that CRP, commonly used as a marker for the acute inflammatory ("acute-phase") response, may actually have a pro- inflammatory effect mediated through the activation ofthe complement cascade.
  • Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury which is accompanied by an increase in the formation of oxygen radicals (ROS) has also been shown to activate the complement system. It has been demonstrated that (1) the endogenous increase in plasma CRP secondary to a remote inflammatory lesion was associated with an increase in myocardial tissue injury secondary to regional ischemia and reperfusion; (2) this increase in injury (manifested as increased infarct size) was mediated by complement activity; and (3) CRP was an "effector", and not merely an indirect measure of systemic inflammation, in this system. Therefore, reduction of circulating CRP levels, together with the reduction(s) in infarct size previously noted with CardaxTM in rodents, would form a powerful anti-inflammatory therapeutic modality in the acute coronary syndrome setting.
  • ROS oxygen radicals
  • the rabbits were anesthetized with a mixture of xylazine (3 mg/kg) and ketamine (35 mg/kg) followed by pentobarbital (90 mg/kg) intramuscularly. Additional pentobarbital was administered as necessary to maintain anesthesia.
  • the rabbits were ventilated with room air, and the heart was exposed via a left thoracotomy. The heart was then supported in a pericardial cradle and a 3-0 silk ligature was placed around the left anterior descending coronary artery. The artery was occluded for 30 minutes by exerting traction on the ligature and subsequently reperfused for 180 minutes. Shortly before completing the protocol, a venous blood sample was obtained for determination of plasma CRP.
  • the hearts were removed and cannulated by the aorta on the Langendorff perfusion apparatus.
  • the hearts were then perfused with a modified Krebs-Henseleit buffer for 10 to 15 minutes (20 - 25 mL/minute).
  • the hearts were perfused with 80 mL of 0.4% 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) at 37 °C for determination ofthe area-at-risk (AAR).
  • TTC 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride
  • AAR area-at-risk
  • FIG. 37 Mean infarct size in control animals and CardaxTM - treated animals is shown in FIG. 37. Levels of circulating CRP in control animals and CardaxTM - treated animals (shown as the mean difference between baseline levels and induced levels at the time of reperfusion) is shown in FIG. 38. Reductions in infarct size of approximately 55.4% percent were seen in CardaxTM — treated rabbits; ischemic area at risk was similar in both groups. Similarly, the mean increase in circulating CRP levels in controls (+23.5%) over baseline was completely abrogated in the CardaxTM - treated animals, to mean levels below those observed at baseline (-15.7%).
  • CRP is both an effector in the acute coronary syndrome — resulting in an increased infarct size in the presence of elevated levels of this acute phase reactant — and a strong independent predictor of cardiovascular risk in primary and secondary prevention cardiac patients — reductions in the levels of this circulating protein forms a strong therapeutic modality.
  • Oral administration of disodium disuccinate astaxanthin reduces alanine aminotransferase (ALT) elevations produced by Iipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice: The following study evaluates the utility of oral administration ofthe disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative for hepatoprotective effects in a model of LPS-induced liver injury in mice.
  • ALT alanine aminotransferase
  • LPS Iipopolysaccharide
  • mice Three-month old male ICR mice were treated with LPS and galactosamine in order to induce liver injury (Leist, 1995). Mice were first orally gavaged with either an olive oil/water/ lecithin emulsion (10 mL/kg, or 0.3 mL for a 30 gram mouse), or the same emulsion containing the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative (50 mg/mL) for a final disodium disuccinate astaxanthin dose of 500 mg/kg. Two hours later mice were injected intraperitoneally (IP) with either saline (10 mL/kg) or a solution of E. coli LPS (3 mg/kg, Sigma catalog number L- 3755) and D-galactosamine (700 mg/kg). Animals were sacrificed by carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) asphyxiation 5 hours after the IP injection, and plasma was then collected for ALT determination. Brief Description of LPS-induced Injury Results.
  • IP intraperitoneally
  • ROS including the radical nitric oxide NO
  • substantial systemic inflammation occurs after LPS insult, for which non- esterified, free astaxanthin is protective (Ohgami et al. 2003)
  • the utility ofthe novel derivative for clinical indications in which such inflammation is promoted represents a particularly useful embodiment.
  • both peak and trough levels were taken (peak levels taken 6 hours after dosing at the probable Cmax; trough levels obtained 6 hours after Cmax, or 12 hours post-dose).
  • Mean peak levels in plasma at peak and trough, respectively were 485 nM and 231 nM; mean peak levels liver at peak and trough, respectively, were 1760 nM and 519 nM.
  • protective levels were achieved and maintained to 11 days post-multiple dosing; in the case of liver, levels almost 9 times the protective level were achieved.
  • the accumulation in liver was greater than that observed in plasma, demonstrating the increased utility of this dosing vehicle for targeting to this solid organ (FIG. 32). It is also apparent from this data set that chronic administration of the disodium disuccinate astaxanthin derivative will be efficacious in hepatoprotection.
  • FIG. 5 depicts a carotenoid derivative, the disodium salt disuccinate derivative (dAST) of synthetic meso- astaxanthin (3R,3'S-dihydroxy- ⁇ , ⁇ -carotene-4,4'-dione), in all-rraHs (all-E) form.
  • the symmetric C 40 -xanthophyll used to generate the new derivative has two chiral centers at the 3 and 3' positions.
  • C 40 - xanthophyll exhibits no optical activity, as these stereocenters have opposite absolute configurations and internally compensate each other.
  • Natural carotenoid molecules possessing carboxylic functionality bind preferentially to human serum albumin (HSA), the most abundant protein in the blood.
  • HSA human serum albumin
  • the novel derivative dAST was synthesized from crystalline astaxanthin [3R,3'R, 3R,3'S, 3S,3'S (25:50:25)], a statistical mixture of stereioisomers obtained commercially (Buckton Scott, India).
  • the astaxanthin stereoisomers were separated by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), allowing for the synthesis of the purified mes ⁇ -disodium salt disuccinate derivative for testing in the current study.
  • the all-trans (all-E) form of the meso stereoisomer used was a linear, rigid molecule owing to the lack of cis (or Z) configuration(s) in the polyene chain of the spacer material (FIG. 5).
  • the disodium salt disuccinate derivative of synthetic meso-astaxanthin was successfully synthesized at >99% purity by HPLC. Materials
  • Essentially fatty acid-free human serum albumin (catalog No. A-1887, lot No. 14H9319) were obtained from Sigma and used as supplied. Double-distilled water and spectroscopy grade dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, Scharlau Chemie S.A., Barcelona, Spain) and ethanol (Chemolab, Budapest, Hungary) were used. All other chemicals were of analytical grade.
  • HSA HSA was dissolved in pH 7.4 Ringer or 0.1 M pH 7.4 phosphate buffer solutions.
  • the molecular weight of HSA was defined as 66500 Da.
  • CD and UV spectra were recorded on a Jasco J-715 spectiopolarimeter at 25 ⁇ 0.2 and 37 ⁇ 0.2 °C in a rectangular cuvette with 1 cm pathlength. Temperature control was provided by a Peltier thermostat equipped with magnetic stirring. All spectra were accumulated three times with a bandwidth of 1.0 nm and a resolution of 0.5 nm at a scan speed of 100 nm/min. Induced CD was defined as the CD of the dAST-HSA mixture minus the CD of HSA alone at the same wavelengths, and is expressed as ellipticity in millidegrees (mdeg).
  • initial and final concentrations of HSA and dAST were 4.2 X 10 '6 M - 4.0 x 10 "6 M and 1.3 x 10 "7 M - 1.4 x 10 "5 M, respectively.
  • the meso-carotenoid/HSA molar ratio was varied between 0.03 and 3.53.
  • final DMSO concentration did not exceed 5 v/v%.
  • a control experiment was also performed, in which the fluorescence of HSA during addition of 20, 50 and 100 ⁇ L DMSO to the solution was measured.
  • dAST exhibited intense light absorption in the visible spectrum (FIG. 6).
  • the main bell-shaped absorption band centered at 481.5 nm was due to the lowest energy electronic dipole allowed, a ⁇ —>% * transition polarized along the long axis of the polyene chain.
  • the vibrational sub-bands were indeed present beneath this curve, as revealed by the second derivative of the spectrum (FIG. 6). Additionally, in the near-UV region, further transitions were present.
  • the electronic transition moment ( ⁇ ) of the moderately intense band around 300 nm is polarized parallel to the long axis ofthe dAST molecule.
  • the band at 371 nm ⁇ is oriented along the twofold, C 2 symmetry axis of the conjugated system.
  • the weak n— » ⁇ * transitions of the carbonyl groups were obscured by the other bands.
  • the er ⁇ -carotenoid compound did not show any CD bands in ethanol since the effects of the two opposite chiral centers (3R,3'S) canceled each other (data not shown).
  • the absorption band around 300 nm has transition symmetry B, and the corresponding electric and magnetic transition moments are perpendicular to the twofold symmetry axis along the polyene chain.
  • the electric and magnetic transition moments of the band at 372.5 nm are polarized parallel to the C 2 axis, its transition symmetry is A. It is reasonable to assume that upon protein binding, these bands shift to longer wavelengths due to the changing microenvironment surrounding the polyene chain. It has been well established that CD spectra of carotenoids in which the chromophoric portions belong to the C 2 point group conform to the C 2 - rule: if the overall conjugated system acquires right-handed chirality (i.e.
  • the mes ⁇ -carotenoid binds to HSA in such a manner that the protein environment fixes the terminal rings in a well-defined chiral conformation that results in the observed negative- and positive-induced CD bands.
  • the direction ofthe transition dipole moment is known; it is polarized along the long axis of the polyene chain.
  • the neighboring meso- carotenoid molecules are arranged in such a manner that their long axes form a positive (clockwise) intermolecular overlay angle.
  • Chiral arrangements of two conjugated chains shown in FIG. 11 satisfy the former condition; in these cases, a long-wavelength positive and a short wavelength negative band would appear in the CD spectrum.
  • the spectroscopic behavior of the absorption band helps to differentiate between these spatial arrangements. Due to unfavourable Coulombic interactions between the transition dipole moments of neighbouring molecules in the case of a and b (FIG.
  • dAST molecules form a right-handed chiral array in which the long axes of mejo-carotenoid monomers form an acute, positive angle (FIG. 11, a and b).
  • HSA provides the first essential step, the chiral initiation ("chiral seeding"); after this the self-assembly continues automatically. It is very important to note, however, that without their chiral end-groups only a few dAST molecules would be held in right-handed arrangement at the binding site of HSA.
  • the 3 and 3' chiral centers play a decisive role in allowing the aggregates to form the chiral self-assembly on the HSA molecules.
  • the m&so-carotenoid molecules form right- and left-handed assemblies to an equal extent, due to the lack of chiral discrimination.
  • the single tryptophan residue (Trp214) located in the depth of subdomain IIA is largely responsible for the intrinsic fluorescence of HSA.
  • the fluorescence emission spectrum of HSA overlaps with the absorption spectrum of the 7?;er ⁇ -carotenoid. Therefore, fluorescence spectroscopic measurements were obtained after incremental addition of dAST in DMSO to a solution of HSA.
  • the DMSO used to prepare the stock solution of dAST exhibited a negligible effect on the intrinsic HSA fluorescence (FIG. 12). At an L/P ratio of 0.7, the baseline fluorescence intensity decreased by 50%.
  • the polyene chain ofthe meso-carotenoid derivative itself measures 28 A (between the 3 and 3' chiral carbon atoms).
  • the succinate moieties require additional space, increasing the effective length of the molecule to 48 A.
  • Careful inspection of the crystal structure of HSA suggests that the long, narrow cleft between domains I and III may be suitable for the binding of a maso-carotenoid molecule (FIG. 13).
  • the interdomain cleft is wide, and its narrow end is close to the tryptophan (Trp214; * on FIG.
  • the disodium salt disuccinate derivative of synthetic, achiral mes ⁇ -astaxanthin formed optically inactive, card-pack type aggregates in aqueous buffer solutions, as indicated by the large blue-shift of the main visible absorption band versus the band observed in ethanolic solution.
  • the meso- carotenoid appears to be preferentially associated with HSA in monomeric fashion.
  • the concentration of albumin in human blood in vivo is approximately 0.6 mM, suggesting that at doses of up to 500 mg, the mes ⁇ -carotenoid (molecular weight 841 Da) will associate with the albumin in monomeric fashion (excluding additional potential non-specific binding to circulating blood cells and lipoproteins, which would increase the potential non-aggregating dose).
  • Bound meso- carotenoid molecules exhibited induced CD bands which were adequately explained by a right-handed helical conformation of the conjugated system.
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