US20110112196A1 - Nrf2 screening assays and related methods and compositions - Google Patents

Nrf2 screening assays and related methods and compositions Download PDF

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US20110112196A1
US20110112196A1 US12/526,296 US52629608A US2011112196A1 US 20110112196 A1 US20110112196 A1 US 20110112196A1 US 52629608 A US52629608 A US 52629608A US 2011112196 A1 US2011112196 A1 US 2011112196A1
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nrf2
compound
test compound
disease
pathway
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Matvey E Lukashev
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Biogen MA Inc
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Definitions

  • certain compounds for treating neurological diseases including demyelinating neurological diseases, such as, e.g., multiple sclerosis.
  • MS Multiple sclerosis
  • CNS central nervous system
  • MS is a chronic, progressing, disabling disease, which generally strikes its victims some time after adolescence, with diagnosis generally made between 20 and 40 years of age, although onset may occur earlier.
  • the disease is not directly hereditary, although genetic susceptibility plays a part in its development.
  • Relapsing-remitting MS presents in the form of recurrent attacks of focal or multifocal neurologic dysfunction. Attacks may occur, remit, and recur, seemingly randomly over many years. Remission is often incomplete and as one attack follows another, a stepwise downward progression ensues with increasing permanent neurological deficit.
  • Phase 2 enzymes serve as a protection mechanism in mammalian cells against oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS), electrophiles and xenobiotics. These enzymes are not normally expressed at their maximal levels and, their expression can be induced by a variety of natural and synthetic agents.
  • Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor responsible for the induction of a variety of important antioxidant and detoxification enzymes that coordinate a protective cellular response to metabolic and toxic stress.
  • ROS/RNS are most damaging in the brain and neuronal tissue, where they attack post-mitotic (i.e., non-dividing) cells such as glial cells, oligodendocytes, and neurons, which are particularly sensitive to free radicals. This process leads to neuronal damage. Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Parkinson's disease (PD). For review, see, e.g., van Muiswinkel et al., Curr. Drug Targets CNS—Neurol. Disord., 2005, 4:267-281.
  • NQO1 NQO1
  • Nrf2 pathway may be activated in neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases as an endogenous protective mechanism. Indeed, most recently, it has been reported that induced activation of Nrf2-dependent genes by certain cyclopenanone-based compounds (NEPP) counters the toxic effects of metabolic inhibition and ROS/RNS production in the brain and protects neurons from death in vitro and in vivo (see Satoh et al., PNAS, 2006, 103(3):768-773).
  • NEPP cyclopenanone-based compounds
  • inducers of Nrf2 pathway include isothiocyanates and their thiol addition products, dithiocarbamates, as well as 1,2-dithiole-3-thiones, trivalent arsenic derivatives (e.g., phenyl arsenoxide), heavy metals, certain conjugated cyclic and acyclic polyenes (including porphyrins, chlorophyllins, and chlorophyll), and vicinal dimercaptans.
  • isothiocyanates and their thiol addition products include dithiocarbamates, as well as 1,2-dithiole-3-thiones
  • trivalent arsenic derivatives e.g., phenyl arsenoxide
  • heavy metals e.g., certain conjugated cyclic and acyclic polyenes (including porphyrins, chlorophyllins, and chlorophyll), and vicinal dimercaptans.
  • the inducers can modify thiol groups by a variety of mechanisms including: alkylation (Michael addition acceptors, isothiocyanates, quinones); oxidation (e.g., peroxides and hydroperoxides); and direct reaction with thiol/disulfide linkages (e.g., vicinal dithiols such as 1,2-dimercaptopropanol, lipoic acid). These diverse response mechanisms provide plasticity for cellular responses to a variety of electrophilic and oxidant stressors.
  • the neurological disease is a neurodegenerative disease such as, for example, ALS, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease. In some embodiments the neurological disease is MS or another demyelinating neurological disease.
  • the methods 1-3 further comprise:
  • the methods 1-3 comprise contacting a cell with at least one test compound and determining whether the Nrf2 pathway is upregulated in the cell.
  • an upregulation of the Nrf2 pathway above a threshold indicates that the at least one compound has at least one biological property beneficial in treating a neurological disease (e.g., neuroprotective properties).
  • the upregulation of the Nrf2 pathway is assessed (in vivo and/or in vitro) by at least one of the following:
  • the compounds that are being screened, evaluated, or compared comprise at least one member of at least one of the following classes of compounds: mild alkylating agents, Michael addition acceptors, and compounds that are metabolized upon administration to Michael addition acceptors.
  • the Michael addition acceptor has the structure of Formula I, II, Ill, or IV set forth below.
  • method 1 comprises:
  • method 2 comprises:
  • method 3 comprises:
  • the test compound is fumaric acid, a salt thereof, or a fumaric acid derivative.
  • the first composition comprises DMF, MMF, or both.
  • the dose and/or the formulation of the first composition differs from the dose and/or the formulation of the second composition.
  • method 3 further comprises:
  • method 4 comprises administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of at least one neuroprotective compound having Formula I, II, III, or IV, e.g., a fumaric acid derivative (e.g., DMF or MMF).
  • a neuroprotective compound having Formula I, II, III, or IV e.g., a fumaric acid derivative (e.g., DMF or MMF).
  • method 4 provides a method of slowing or preventing neurodegeneration in a patient in need thereof, by administering the compound in an amount and for a period of time sufficient to slow or prevent demyelination, axonal loss, and/or neuronal death, e.g., by at least 30% relative to a control.
  • method 5 comprises:
  • the at least one first compound, used in step (a), is a compound of Formula I, II, III, or IV, e.g., a fumaric acid derivative (e.g., DMF or MMF); and the at least one second compound, which is used in step (b), is an immunosuppressive or an immunomodulatory compound that does not upregulate the Nrf2 pathway (e.g., by more than 30% over a control).
  • a fumaric acid derivative e.g., DMF or MMF
  • the at least one second compound, which is used in step (b) is an immunosuppressive or an immunomodulatory compound that does not upregulate the Nrf2 pathway (e.g., by more than 30% over a control).
  • method 5 comprises administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, II, III, or IV.
  • the at least onecompound being screened, identified, evaluated, or used for treating a neurological disorder is not fumaric acid or its salt, or a fumaric acid derivative (e.g., DMF or MMF).
  • FIG. 1 demonstrates that DMF and MMF are activators of Nrf2 at concentrations within clinical exposure range (cells in culture).
  • FIG. 2 shows results of RNAi experiments.
  • FIG. 3 shows evidence of Nrf2 activation by DMF and MMF In vivo.
  • FIG. 4 shows evidence of Nrf2 activation by DMF and MMF In vivo.
  • Fumaric acid esters such as DMF have been proposed for treatment of MS (see, e.g., Schimrigk et al., Eur. J. Neurol., 2006, 13(6):604-10; Drugs R&D, 2005, 6(4):229-30).
  • DMF is a member of a large group of anti-oxidant molecules known for their cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties. These molecules also share the property of the Nrf2 pathway activation. Thus, the finding that DMF activates the Nrf2 pathway in conjunction with the neuroprotective effects of DMF further offers a rationale for identification of structurally and/or mechanistically related molecules that would be expected to be therapeutically effective for the treatment of neurological disorders, such as, e.g., MS.
  • activation and “upregulation,” when used in reference to the Nrf2 pathway, are used interchangeably herein.
  • a drug for treating a neurological disease refers to a compound that has a therapeutic benefit in a specified neurological disease as shown in at least one animal model of a neurological disease or in human clinical trials for the treatment of a neurological disease.
  • neuroprotection and its cognates refer to prevention or a slowing in neuronal degeneration, including, for example, demyelination and/or axonal loss, and/or, neuronal and/or oligodendrocyte death.
  • Neuroprotection may occur through several mechanisms, e.g., through reducing inflammation, providing neurotrophic factors, scavenging free radicals, etc.
  • a compound is considered neuroprotective if it (1) upregulates the Nrf2 pathway above a certain threshold and (2) provides neuroprotection, regardless of possible other mechanisms of action.
  • treatment refers to therapeutic as well as prophylactic/preventative measures.
  • those in need of treatment may include individuals already having a specified disease and those who are at risk for acquiring that disease.
  • terapéuticaally effective dose and “therapeutically effective amount” refer to that amount of a compound which results in at least one of prevention or delay of onset or amelioration of symptoms of a neurological disorder in a subject or an attainment of a desired biological outcome, such as reduced neurodegeneration (e.g., demyelination, axonal loss, and neuronal death) or reduced inflammation of the cells of the CNS.
  • a desired biological outcome such as reduced neurodegeneration (e.g., demyelination, axonal loss, and neuronal death) or reduced inflammation of the cells of the CNS.
  • test compounds including the following methods:
  • methods 1-3 may comprise:
  • Combinatorial libraries of compounds are also described in, e.g., Solid-Supported Combinatorial and Parallel Synthesis of Small-Molecular-Weight Compound Libraries (Tetrahedron Organic Chemistry) Ian Salusbury (ed.), Elsevier (1998); Combinatorial Libraries: Synthesis, Screening and Application Potential (Library Binding), by Riccardo Cortese (ed.), Walter de Gruyter (1995).
  • the libraries of compounds may be, for example, quinone libraries and other libraries as described in Mittoo, Comb. Chem. & High Throughput Screen, 2006, 9:421-423.
  • the at least one compound or plurality of compounds being screened and/or selected comprises at least one compound selected from at least one of the following groups of compounds: mild alkylating agents, Michael addition acceptors or compounds that are metabolized to Michael addition acceptors, including compounds of Formulas I, II, III, or IV.
  • the at least one compound is selected from fumaric acid, its salts, and fumaric acid derivatives.
  • the upregulation of the Nrf2 pathway by the at least one drug or drug candidate indicates that the at least one drug or drug candidate has at least one activity selected from slowing demyelination, slowing the loss of axons, and slowing the rate of neuronal death.
  • the method of evaluating at least one drug or drug candidate comprises an additional step:
  • steps a) and c) are performed in vivo in at least one model of a neurological disease, e.g., as described below.
  • the evaluated at least one drug or drug candidate for a neurological disease is chosen from the following: FTY720 (2-(4-octylphenethyl)-2-aminopropane-1,3-diol; Novartis); anti-IL12 antibody (e.g., ABT-874; Abbott Laboratories); GSK683699 (GSK/Tanabe); NeuroVax (Immune Response Corp.; Darlington, Curr. Opin. Mol.
  • anti-CCR2 antibody e.g., MLN 1202; Millennium
  • interferon ⁇ -1a e.g., Avonex®; Biogen Idec
  • anti- ⁇ 4-integrin antibody e.g., Tysabri®; Biogen Idec/Elan
  • anti-CD20 antibody e.g., Rituxan® (Biogen Idec/Genentech); TV 5010 (Teva); NBI-788 (Neurocrine); MBP8298 (BioMS (see Warren et al., Eur. J.
  • the at least one drug or drug candidate being evaluated is at least one compound selected from at least one class selected from a mild alkylating agent, a Michael addition acceptor, and a compound that is metabolized to a Michael addition acceptor, including compounds of Formulas I, II, III, or IV.
  • the compound is fumaric acid, its salt, or a fumaric acid derivative.
  • Such methods comprise:
  • substantially dissimilar levels of upregulation by the at least one first and at least one second compositions indicate that the compositions are not bioequivalent.
  • the test compound is fumaric acid, its salt thereof, a fumaric acid derivative, or mixtures thereof.
  • the first composition comprises at least one of DMF, MMF, and both DMF and MMF.
  • the dose and/or the formulation of the at least one first composition differs from the dose and/or the formulation of the at least one second composition.
  • the at least one first composition may be a controlled release composition such as, e.g., compositions described in WO 2006/037342.
  • the method further comprises and additional step:
  • Pharmacokinetic parameters and methods for evaluating the same are well known and are described in, e.g., Pharmacokinetics, Second Edition (Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences) by Milo Gibaldi et al. (eds.), Informa Healthcare (1982). Examples of such pharmacokinetic parameters that can be evaluated include serum half-life, clearance, and volume distribution.
  • substantially dissimilar pharmacokinetic parameter(s) of the a least one first and at least one second compositions indicate that the compositions are not bioequivalent.
  • the test compound being evaluated is a mild alkylating agent, and more specifically, a Michael addition acceptor, or a compound that is metabolized to a Michael addition acceptor.
  • the test compound is fumaric acid or its salt, or a fumaric acid derivative.
  • Also provided are methods of treating a mammal who has or is at risk for developing a neurological disease including the following methods:
  • a method of treating a mammal who has or is at risk for a neurological disease comprises administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of at least one neuroprotective compound which has Formula I, II, III, or IV, e.g., a fumaric acid derivative (e.g., DMF or MMF).
  • a neuroprotective compound which has Formula I, II, III, or IV, e.g., a fumaric acid derivative (e.g., DMF or MMF).
  • a method of slowing or preventing neurodegeneration in a subject in need thereof, by administering the at least one compound in an amount and for a period of time sufficient to do at least one of slow or prevent demyelination, slow or prevent axonal loss, and alow or prevent neuronal death, e.g., by at least 30%, 50%, 100% or higher over a control over a period of at least 5, 10, 12, 20, 40, 52, 100, or 200 weeks, or more.
  • such methods comprise:
  • the at least one first compound, used in step (a), is a compound of Formula I, II, III, or IV, e.g., DMF or MMF; and the at least one second compound, which is used in step (b), is an immunosuppressive or an immunomodulatory compound that does not upregulate the Nrf2 pathway (e.g., by more than 30%, 50%, 100% over a control).
  • the method comprises administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula I, II, III, or IV.
  • the at least one first compound and the at least one second compound may be administered concurrently (as separate compositions or a mixed composition) or consecutively over overlapping or non-overlapping intervals.
  • the sequential administration the at least one first compound and the at least one second compound can be administered in any order.
  • the length of an overlapping interval is more than 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, or 48 weeks, for example.
  • Michael addition acceptors generally include olefins or acetylenes conjugated to an electron withdrawing group, such as carbonyl containing groups, thiocarbonyl containing groups, cyano, sulfonyl, sulfonamido, amido, formyl, keto, and nitro.
  • exemplary carbonyl groups include carboxylic acid esters and carboxylic acid.
  • the at least one compound being screened, identified, evaluated, or used for treating a neurological disorder is selected from a mild alkylating agent, a Michael addition acceptor, and a compound that is metabolized to a Michael addition acceptor.
  • the Michael addition acceptor has the structure of Formula I:
  • X is O; S; C(R)(C 1-12 )alkyl; or C(R)(C 2-12 )alkenyl, wherein R is H, (C 1-12 )alkyl or (C 2-12 )alkenyl;
  • R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and R 4 are independently selected from: H; OH; O ⁇ ; CO 2 H, CO 2 ⁇ ; SH; S ⁇ ; SO 2 H, SO 2 ⁇ ; (C 1-24 )alkyl; (C 1-24 )alkenyl; (C 6-50 )aryl, CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl; SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl; CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl; SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl, CO 2 Y, wherein Y is psoralen-9-yl, retinyl, alpha-tocopherol, calciferyl, corticostreoid-21-yl or monosaccarid- ⁇ -yl; (C 1-24 )alkoxy; (C 1-24 )alkenyloxy; (C 6-50 )aryloxy; (C 1-24 )alkylthio; (C 1-24 )alkenylthio
  • the at least one Michael addition acceptor has the structure of Formula I, with the following provisos:
  • R 1 is selected from: H; OH; O ⁇ ; CO 2 H, CO 2 ⁇ ; SH; S ⁇ ; SO 2 H, SO 2 ⁇ ; (C 1-24 )alkyl; (C 1-24 )alkenyl; (C 6-50 )aryl; CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl, SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl; CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl; SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl; CO 2 Y, wherein Y is psoralen-9-yl, retinyl, alpha-tocopherol, calciferyl, corticostreoid-21-yl or monosaccarid- ⁇ -yl; (C 1-24 )alkoxy; (C 1-24 )alkenyloxy; (C 6-50 )aryloxy; (C 1-24 )alkylthio; (C 1-24 )alkenylthio; (C 6-50 )arylthio;
  • R 2 is selected from: H; CO 2 H; CO 2 ⁇ ; SO 2 H; SO 2 ⁇ ; (C 1-24 )alkyl; (C 1-24 )alkenyl; (C 6-50 )aryl; CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl; SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl; CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl; SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl; CO 2 Y, wherein Y is psoralen-9-yl, retinyl, alpha-tocopherol, calciferyl, corticostreoid-21-yl or monosaccarid- ⁇ -yl; (C 1-24 )alkoxy; (C 1-24 )alkenyloxy; (C 6-50 )aryloxy; (C 1-24 )alkylthio; (C 1-24 )alkenylthio; (C 6-50 )arylthio, amido; arylalkyl; cyano;
  • R 3 and R 4 are independently selected from: H; CO 2 H; CO 2 ⁇ ; SO 2 H; SO 2 ⁇ ; (C 1-24 )alkyl; (C 1-24 )alkenyl; (C 6-50 )aryl; CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl; SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkyl; CO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl; SO 2 (C 1-24 )alkenyl; CO 2 Y, wherein Y is psoralen-9-yl, retinyl, alpha-tocopherol, calciferyl, corticostreoid-21-yl or monosaccarid- ⁇ -yl; (C 1-24 )alkoxy; (C 1-24 )alkenyloxy; (C 6-50 )aryloxy; (C 1-24 )alkylthio; (C 1-24 )alkenylthio; (C 6-50 )arylthio; amido; arylalkyl;
  • the at least one Michael addition acceptor has the structure of Formula II:
  • X is selected from O; S; C(R)(C 1-12 )alkyl; and C(R)(C 2-12 )alkenyl, wherein R is selected from H; (C 1-12 )alkyl; and (C 2-12 )alkenyl; and R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , and R 4 are independently selected from: H; OH; O ⁇ ; CO 2 H; CO 2 ⁇ ; (C 1-12 )alkyl; (C 1-12 )alkenyl; and CO 2 (C 1 - 12 )alkyl;
  • X, R 1 , R 2 and R 3 may be joined together to form a cyclic moiety.
  • the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is a salt of a metal (M) cation, wherein M can be an alkali, alkaline earth, or transition metal such as Li, Na, K, Ca, Zn, Sr, Mg, Fe, or Mn.
  • the compounds of Formula I include fumaric acid, its salts, and fumaric acid derivatives.
  • the at least one compound of Formula I has the structure of Formula III:
  • R 1 and R 3 are independently selected from OH; O ⁇ ; (C 1-24 )alkoxy; (C 1-24 )alkenyloxy; (C 6-50 )aryloxy; psoralen-9-yloxy; retinyloxy; alpha-tocopheroloxy; calciferyloxy; corticostreoid-21-yloxy; monosaccarid- ⁇ -yloxy; amino; and a D or L natural or unnatural amino acid; and wherein at least one of the the (C 1-24 )alkoxy; (C 1-24 )alkenyloxy; and (C 6-50 )aryloxy groups may be optionally substituted with at least one group chosen from halogen (F, Cl, Br, or I), OH, (C 1-4 )alkoxy, nitro and cyano.
  • halogen F, Cl, Br, or I
  • R 1 and R 3 are described in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/433,295, paragraphs 10 to 11 and 18-28, and Ser. No. 11/421,083, which are incorporated herein by reference.
  • the compound of formula (I) has the structure of Formula IV:
  • R 1 and R 3 are independently selected from OH; O ⁇ ; (C 1-24 )alkoxy; allyloxy; vinyloxy; (C 6-50 )aryloxy; psoralen-9-yloxy; retinyloxy; alpha-tocopheroloxy; calciferyloxy; corticostreoid-21-yloxy; monosaccarid- ⁇ -yloxy; amino; and a D or L natural or unnatural amino acid; and wherein at least one of the the (C 1-24 )alkoxy, allyloxy, vinyloxy, and (C 6-50 )aryloxy may be optionally substituted with at least one group chosen from Cl, F, I, Br, OH, (C 1-4 )alkoxy, nitro, and cyano.
  • the “fumaric acid derivative” is chosen from the compounds of Formula III, compounds of Formula IV and the following:
  • fumaric acid amides derived from natural and unnatural amino D or L acids, as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/433,295, paragraphs 10 to 11 and 18-28, and Ser. No. 11/421,083.
  • “fumaric acid derivative” is one or more dialkyl fumarates (e.g., DMF), mono alkyl fumarates (MMF) or salts thereof.
  • DMF dialkyl fumarates
  • MMF mono alkyl fumarates
  • the at least one compound being screened, evaluated, compared or used for treating a neurological disorder is not fumaric acid or its salt, or a fumaric acid derivative (e.g., DMF or MMF).
  • Nrf2 Nuclear Factor-E2-related factor 2; for sequence of the Nrf2, see Accession No. AAB32188
  • ARE antioxidant response element
  • This pathway has been well characterized for its role in hepatic detoxification and chemoprevention through the activation of phase II gene expression.
  • ARE-regulated genes may also contribute to the maintenance of redox homeostasis by serving as endogenous anti-oxidant systems.
  • the list of Nfr2-regulated genes contains over 200 genes encoding proteins and enzymes involved in detoxification and antioxidant response (Kwak et al., J. Biol.
  • Chem., 2003, 278:8135 such as, e.g., HO-1, ferritin, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductases, now commonly known as nicotinamide quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1; EC 1.6.99.2; also known as DT diaphorase and menadione reductase), NQO2, g-glutamylcysteine synthase (g-GCS), glucuronosyltransferase, ferritin, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), as well as any one of the enzymes proteins listed in Table 1 in Chen & Kunsch, Curr. Pharm. Designs, 2004, 10:879-891; Lee et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2003, 278(14):12029-38, and Kwak,
  • the at least one Nrf2-regulated gene which is used to assess the activation of the Nrf2 pathway is selected from a phase II detoxification enzyme, an anti-oxidant enzyme, an enzyme of the NADPH generating system, and Nrf2 itself.
  • phase II detoxification enzymes include NQO1, NQO2, GST-Ya, GST-pi, GST-theta 2, GST-mu (1,2,3), microsomal GST 3, catalytic y-GCS, regulatory-GCS, microsomal epoxide hydrolase, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, transaldolase, transketolase, and drug-metabolizing enzyme.
  • anti-oxidant enzymes examples include HO-1, ferritin (L), glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, metallothionein I, thioredoxin, thioredoxin reductase, peroxiredoxin MSP23, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, and catalase.
  • the enzymes of the NADPH generating system include malic enzyme, UDP-glucose dehydrogenase, malate oxidoreductase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.
  • the antioxidant response element (ARE, also referred to as the electrophile response element (EpRE), GRE1, ARE4, and StREb) is a cis-acting DNA regulatory element with a core nucleotide sequence of 5′-TGA(C/T/G)NNNGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1) (Rushmore et al., J. Biol. Chem., 1991, 266(18):11632-9; see also Nioi et al., Mutation Res., 2004, 555:14-171).
  • the DNA sequence of the ARE element, to which Nrf2 binds comprises the core ARE sequence TGA(C/T/G)NNNGC (SEQ ID NO:2) or the ARE consensus sequence (G/A)TGA(C/T/G)NNNGC(A/G) (SEQ ID NO:3).
  • the ARE sequence comprises any one of the “minimal enhancer” sequences shown in Table 1.
  • the ARE sequence further comprises at least one of corresponding 5′- and 3′-USR sequences as shown in Table 1.
  • Nrf2 is sequestered in the cytoplasm to the actin-bound Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1; Accession No. NP — 987096 for human Keap1), a Cullin3 ubiquitin ligase adaptor protein. More specifically, the N-terminal domain of Nrf2, known as Neh2 domain, is thought to interact with the C-terminal Kelch-like domain of Keap1. In response to xenobiotics or oxidative stress, Nrf2 is released from the Keap1/Nrf2 complex, thereby promoting nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and concomitant activation of ARE-mediated gene transcription.
  • Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1
  • Keap1 function requires association with Cullin3, a scaffold protein that positions Keap1 and its substrate in proximity to the E3 ligase Rbx1, allowing the substrate (Nrf2) to be polyubiquitinated and thus targeted for degradation.
  • the exact mechanism of how the Keap1/Nrf2 complex senses oxidative stress is not fully understood.
  • Human Keap1 contains 25 cysteine residues that were hypothesized to function as sensors of oxidative stress; 9 of the cysteines are thought to be highly reactive (Dinkova-Kostova et al., PNAS, 2005, 102(12):4584-9).
  • methods 1-3 described herein comprise contacting a cell with at least one test compound and determining whether the Nrf2 pathway is upregulated in the cell.
  • an upregulation of the Nrf2 pathway above a threshold indicates that the at least one compound has certain biological properties beneficial in treating a neurological disease (e.g., neuroprotective properties).
  • the ability of a compound to activate the Nrf2 pathway can be determined by one or more in vitro and in vivo assays, including, e.g., the following assays described below.
  • Nrf2 The sequence of the promoter region of the nrf2 gene ( ⁇ 1065 to ⁇ 35) has been published, for example, in Chan et al., PNAS, 1996, 93:13943-13948.
  • Antibodies against Nrf2 are can be produced by methods known in the art and are commercially available from, for example, StressGen. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the Nrf2 pathway is activated so that the expression levels of Nrf2 are increased by, for example, at least 30%, 50%, 100%, 200%, 500% or more as compared to the non-activated state.
  • Nrf2 Green fluorescence protein
  • the Nrf2 pathway is activated so that the ratio between cytomplasmic and nuclear Nrf2 is elevated by, for example, at least 30%, 50%, 100%, 200%, 500% or more as compared to the non-activated state.
  • Expression levels and/or activity of one or more genes under the control of Nrf2 include endogenous or artificially introduced reporter genes in reporter constructs introduced into cells.
  • expression levels of endogenous or exogenously introduced NQO1 may be determined as described in the Examples.
  • a reporter gene construct with one or more ARE sites operably linked to a reporter gene e.g., luceferase or GFP
  • luceferase or GFP can be made, as described in, e.g., Satoh et al., PNAS, 2006, 103(3):768-773.
  • Methods for measuring enzymatic activity of NQO1, using for example, menadione as a substrate are described in Dinkova-Kostova et al., PNAS, 2001, 98:3404-09 or by Prochaska et al., Anal. Biochem., 1988, 169:328-336.
  • Methods for measuring GST activity, using for example, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene as a substrate are described in Ramos-Gomez et al., J. Neurosci., 2004, 24(5):1101-1112 and Habig et al., 1974, J. Biol. Chem., 219, 7130-7139.
  • the Nrf2 pathway is activated so that the expression levels and/or activity of the gene produced are increased by, for example, at least 30%, 50%, 100%, 200%, 500% or more as compared to the non-activated state.
  • Nrf2 pathway is activated so that the level of Nrf2 binding to ARE is increased by, for example, at least 30%, 50%, 100%, 200%, 500% or more as compared to the non-activated state.
  • Nrf2/Keap1 The stability of Nrf2/Keap1 complexes—Such assay may include analysis of immunoprecipitated complexes with Nrf2 and/or Keap1 or other Nrf2/Keap1-associated proteins as described in, e.g., Satoh et al., PNAS, 2006, 103(3):768-773.
  • Anti-Keap1 antibodies can be produced using methods known in the art and are available commercially from, for example, Santa Cruz Biotechnology. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the Nrf-2 pathway is activated so that the stability of Nrf2/Keap1 complexes is increased by, for example, at least 30%, 50%, 100%, 200%, 500% or more as compared to the non-activated state.
  • Keap1 and other Nrf2/Keap1-associated proteins Modification (e.g., alkylation levels) of Keap1 and other Nrf2/Keap1-associated proteins—Such assays may include mass spectrometric analysis of immunoprecipitated Keap1, using techniques as described in, e.g., Dinkova-Kostova et al., PNAS, 2005, 102(12):4584-9 and Gao et al., J. Biol. Chem., on-line pub. Manuscript M607622200.
  • the Nrf-2 pathway is activated so that the level of Keap1 and other Nrf2/Keap1-associated proteins is increased by, for example, at least 30%, 50%, 100%, 200%, 500% or more as compared to the non-activated state.
  • Alkylating capacity of a compound can be assessed using recombinant Keap1, by a competition reaction with 5,5′-dithiobis(2-nitrobezoic acid) (DTNB) as described in, e.g., Gao et al., J. Biol. Chem., on-line pub. Manuscript M607622200.
  • DTNB 5,5′-dithiobis(2-nitrobezoic acid)
  • the cell being contacted with at least one test compound is a neuron or a neuronal cell line.
  • the cell being contacted with the at least one test compound is selected from a colon carcinoma cell line (e.g., DLD1), a neuroblastoma cell line (e.g., SkNSH or IMR32), and a primary monocyte.
  • the cell may be a cell in culture (in vitro) or be inside of an animal (in vivo).
  • Cell viability and in particular, neuronal viability can be assessed in vivo or in vitro using any suitable method, including methods as described in the Examples.
  • neuronal viability can be assessed using an MTT assay after exposure of neuronal cell cultures to cytotoxic levels of glutamate as described in, e.g., Shih et al., J. Neurosci., 2005, 25(44):10321-35.
  • cell viability may also be assessed in assays in which cell death is induced by oxidative damage, for example, by the addition of glucose oxidase to astrocyte cell cultures, as described in, e.g., Calabrese et al., J. Neurosci. Res., 2005, 79:509-521.
  • In vivo assays may be performed as described in, e.g., Misgeld, Histochem. Cell Biol., 2005, 124:189-196.
  • the amount of the reporter gene expressed can be determined by any suitable method.
  • Expression levels at the RNA or the protein level, can be determined using routine methods. Expression levels are usually scaled and/or normalized per total amount of RNA or protein in the sample and/or a control, which is typically a housekeeping gene such as actin or GAPDH.
  • RNA levels are determined by quantitative PCR (e.g., RT-PCR), Northern blotting, or any other method for determining RNA levels, e.g., as described in Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, by Sambrook et al. (eds.), 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989; Lodie et al., Tissue Eng., 2002, 8(5):739-751); or as described in the Examples.
  • Protein levels are determined using, Western blotting, ELISA, enzymatic activity assays, or any other method for determining protein levels as described in, e.g., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, by Ausubel et al. (eds.), John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
  • Expression levels may also be determined using reporter gene assays in cell/tissue extracts or by tissue or whole-animal imaging.
  • tissue imaging on living animals can be performed by fluorescence detection (Hoffman Lancet Oncol., 2002 3:546-556; Tung et al., Cancer Res., 2000, 60:4953-4958), bioluminescence detection (Shi et al., PNAS, 2001, 98:12754-12759; Luke et al., J. Virol., 2002, 76:12149-12161; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,650,135 and 6,217,847), positron emission tomography (Liang et al., Mol.
  • a neurological disease in methods 1-5 above can be a neurodegenerative disease such as, for example, ALS, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease.
  • the neurological disease can also be multiple sclerosis (MS), or other demyelinating diseases of the central or peripheral nervous system.
  • MS in methods 1-5 is selected from: relapsing remitting MS (RRMS), secondary progressive MS (SPMS), primary progressive MS (PPMS), and malignant MS (Marburg Variant).
  • the subject being treated or administered the compound as per methods described herein is a mammal in need thereof, such as a subject in need of neuroprotection, including a subject who has or is at risk for developing a demyelinating and another specified neurodegenerative disease.
  • the subject is mammalian, and can be a rodent or another laboratory animal, e.g., a non-human primate. In some embodiments, the subject is human.
  • Neurodegenerative diseases are described in, for example, Neurodegenerative Diseases: Neurobiology, Pathogenesis and Therapeutics, M. Flint Beal, Anthony E. Lang, Albert C. Ludolph, Cambridge University Press (Jul. 11, 2005).
  • Examples of neurological diseases suitable for the methods described herein include neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease.
  • ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
  • Parkinson's disease Alzheimer's disease
  • Huntington's disease Huntington's disease.
  • demyelinating neurological disease including, in addition to MS, the following diseases: acute haemorrhagic leucoencephalomyelitis, Hurst's disease, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, optic neuritis, Devic's disease, spinal cord lesions, acute necrotizing myelitis, transverse myelitis, chronic progressive myelopathy, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), radiation myelopathy, HTLV-1 associated myelopathy, monophasic isolated demyelination, central pontine myelinolysis, and leucodystrophy (e.g., adrenoleucodystrophy, metachromatic leucodystrophy, Krabbe's disease, Canavan's disease, Alexander's disease, Pelizaeus-Merbacher disease, vanishing white matter disease, oculodentodigital syndrome, Zellweger's syndrome), chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (
  • diseases suitable for the methods described herein include polyneuritis and mitochondrial disorders with demyelination. These disorders may be co-presented with, and possibly aggravated by diabetes, e.g., insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM; type I diabetes), or other diseases.
  • IDDM insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
  • a test compound may be further assayed in an animal model of MS, known as Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) (Tuohy et al., J. Immunol., 1988, 141:1126-1130, Sobel et al. J. Immunol., 1984, 132:2393-2401, and Traugott, Cell Immunol., 1989 119:114-129).
  • EAE Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis
  • Chronic relapsing EAE provides a well established experimental model for testing agents that would be useful for the treatment of MS.
  • the mouse EAE is an induced autoimmune demyelinating disease with many similarities to human MS in its clinical manifestations.
  • BBB blood-brain barrier
  • TMEV Thieler's murine encephalomyelitis virus
  • MHV murine hepatitis virus
  • Sindbis virus Sindbis virus as described in, e.g., Ercoli et al., J. immunol., 2006, 175:3293-3298.
  • a compound may be optionally tested in at least one additional animal model (see, generally, Immunologic Defects in Laboratory Animals, eds. Gershwin et al., Plenum Press, 1981), for example, such as the following: the SWR X NZB (SNF1) mouse model (Uner et al., J. Autoimmune Disease, 1998, 11(3):233-240), the KRN transgenic mouse (K/BxN) model (Ji et al., Immunol.
  • SNF1 SWR X NZB
  • K/BxN KRN transgenic mouse
  • NZB X NZW mice a model for SLE (Riemekasten et al., Arthritis Rheum., 2001, 44(10):2435-2445); the NOD mouse model of diabetes (Baxter et al., Autoimmunity, 1991, 9(1):61-67), etc.); or mouse models of multiple sclerosis (see, e.g., Linker et al., Eur. J. Immunol., 2002, 8(6):620-624, and Eugster et al., Nat. Med., 1999, 29:626-632; and Gold et al., Brain, 2006, 129:1953-1971).
  • Preliminary doses for example, as determined in animal tests, and the scaling of dosages for human administration is performed according to art-accepted practices.
  • Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD 50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED 50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population).
  • the dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD 50 /ED 50 .
  • compositions that exhibit large therapeutic indices are used.
  • the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays.
  • a dose may be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating plasma concentration range that includes the IC 50 (i.e., the concentration of the therapeutic compound which achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms) as determined in cell culture assays or animal models.
  • Levels in plasma may be measured, for example, by ELISA or HPLC.
  • the effects of any particular dosage can be monitored by a suitable bioassay. Examples of dosages are: about 0.1 ⁇ IC 50 , about 0.5 ⁇ IC 50 , about 1 ⁇ IC 50 , about 5 ⁇ IC 50 , 10 ⁇ IC 50 , about 50 ⁇ IC 50, and about 100 ⁇ IC 50 .
  • Therapeutically effective dosages achieved in one animal model can be converted for use in another animal, including humans, using conversion factors known in the art (see, e.g., Freireich et al., Cancer Chemother. Reports, 1966, 50(4):219-244 and Table 2 for Equivalent Surface Area Dosage Factors).
  • the dosage of such compounds lies within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED 50 with little or no toxicity. In some embodiments the dosage varies within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. Generally, a therapeutically effective amount may vary with the subject's age, condition, and sex, as well as the severity of the medical condition in the subject. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable dosages for compounds described herein are from 1 ⁇ g/kg to 25 mg/kg, depending on the compounds, severity of the symptoms and the progression of the disease.
  • the appropriate therapeutically effective doses can be selected by a treating clinician and in some embodiments range approximately from 1 ⁇ g/kg to 20 mg/kg, from 1 ⁇ g/kg to 10 mg/kg, from 1 ⁇ g/kg to 1 mg/kg, from 10 ⁇ g/kg to 1 mg/kg, from 10 ⁇ g/kg to 100 ⁇ g/kg, from 100 ⁇ g to 1 mg/kg. Additionally, certain specific dosages are indicated in the Examples.
  • an effective amount can range from 1 mg/kg to 50 mg/kg (e.g., from 2.5 mg/kg to 20 mg/kg or from 2.5 mg/kg to 15 mg/kg).
  • Effective doses will also vary, as recognized by those skilled in the art, dependent on route of administration, excipient usage, and the possibility of co-usage with other therapeutic treatments including use of other therapeutic agents.
  • an effective dose of DMF or MMR to be administered to a subject orally can be from about 0.1 g to 1 g per pay, 200 mg to about 800 mg per day (e.g., from about 240 mg to about 720 mg per day; or from about 480 mg to about 720 mg per day; or about 720 mg per day).
  • the 720 mg per day may be administered in separate administrations of 2, 3, 4, or 6 equal doses.
  • the dosage may be determined by a physician and adjusted, as necessary, to suit observed effects of the treatment.
  • the compositions may be given as a bolus dose, to maximize the circulating levels for the greatest length of time after the dose. Continuous infusion may also be used after the bolus dose.
  • compositions used in the methods described herein further comprise a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.
  • pharmaceutically acceptable excipient refers to any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, that are compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically active substances is well known in the art.
  • the compositions may also contain other active compounds providing supplemental, additional, or enhanced therapeutic functions.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions may also be included in a container, pack, or dispenser together with instructions for administration.
  • a pharmaceutical composition is formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. Methods to accomplish the administration are known in the art. “Administration” is not limited to any particular delivery system and may include, without limitation, parenteral (including subcutaneous, intravenous, intramedullary, intraarticular, intramuscular, or intraperitoneal injection), rectal, topical, transdermal, or oral (for example, in capsules (e.g., as, poiser, granules, microtablet, micropellets, etc.), suspensions, or tablets). Examples of some of formulations containing DMF and/or MMF are given in, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,509,376, and 6,436,992.
  • Administration to an individual may occur in a single dose or in repeat administrations, and in any of a variety of physiologically acceptable salt forms, and/or with an acceptable pharmaceutical carrier and/or additive as part of a pharmaceutical composition.
  • physiologically acceptable salt forms and standard pharmaceutical formulation techniques and excipients are well known to persons skilled in the art.
  • DLD1 cells were grown in MEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. The cells were transfected with the indicated siRNA's using the Lipofectamine reagent (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions and 30 hrs later stimulated with 30 ⁇ M DMF for 40 hours. The cells were harvested and processed for Western blotting analysis of Nrf2 and NQO1 levels as described in Example 1. Sources and the identity of reagents used in Examples 1 and 2 are specified Table 3 below:
  • mice received s.c. injections in the flanks and tail base of 50 ⁇ g MOG 35-55 peptide in PBS emulsified in an equal volume of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) containing Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37RA (Difco, Detroit Mich., USA) at a final concentration of 0.5 mg/ml.
  • CFA complete Freund's adjuvant
  • Two injections of pertussis toxin List Biological Laboratories Inc., California, USA; 200 ng per mouse i.p were given on days 0 and 2.
  • DMF and MMF was diluted in 200 ⁇ l 0.08% Methocel/H 2 O as vehicle and administered by oral gavage starting from day 3 post immunization (p.i) until termination.
  • Each treatment group consisted of 8 animals: vehicle alone as a negative control, 5 mg/kg body weight DMF twice a day, 15 mg/kg body weight DMF twice a day, 15 mg/kg body weight MMF twice a day.
  • the compounds were obtained via Fumapharm AG. Oral gavage was used to ensure exact dosing and to avoid compound degradation.
  • the resuluts shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , demonstrate MMF and DMF activation of Nrf2 in vivo.

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