EP1292852B1 - Microfabrication of organic optical elements - Google Patents

Microfabrication of organic optical elements Download PDF

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Publication number
EP1292852B1
EP1292852B1 EP01944497A EP01944497A EP1292852B1 EP 1292852 B1 EP1292852 B1 EP 1292852B1 EP 01944497 A EP01944497 A EP 01944497A EP 01944497 A EP01944497 A EP 01944497A EP 1292852 B1 EP1292852 B1 EP 1292852B1
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EP
European Patent Office
Prior art keywords
optical element
multiphoton
photodefinable
photosensitizer
optical
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EP01944497A
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German (de)
English (en)
French (fr)
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EP1292852A2 (en
Inventor
Robert J. Devoe
Catherine Anne Leatherdale
Guoping Mao
Patrick R. Fleming
Harvey W. Kalweit
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3M Innovative Properties Co
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3M Innovative Properties Co
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Priority to EP05020361A priority Critical patent/EP1635202B1/en
Publication of EP1292852A2 publication Critical patent/EP1292852A2/en
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    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B6/00—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B29—WORKING OF PLASTICS; WORKING OF SUBSTANCES IN A PLASTIC STATE IN GENERAL
    • B29C—SHAPING OR JOINING OF PLASTICS; SHAPING OF MATERIAL IN A PLASTIC STATE, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; AFTER-TREATMENT OF THE SHAPED PRODUCTS, e.g. REPAIRING
    • B29C64/00—Additive manufacturing, i.e. manufacturing of three-dimensional [3D] objects by additive deposition, additive agglomeration or additive layering, e.g. by 3D printing, stereolithography or selective laser sintering
    • B29C64/10—Processes of additive manufacturing
    • B29C64/188—Processes of additive manufacturing involving additional operations performed on the added layers, e.g. smoothing, grinding or thickness control
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G03—PHOTOGRAPHY; CINEMATOGRAPHY; ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ELECTROGRAPHY; HOLOGRAPHY
    • G03C—PHOTOSENSITIVE MATERIALS FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES; PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES, e.g. CINE, X-RAY, COLOUR, STEREO-PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES; AUXILIARY PROCESSES IN PHOTOGRAPHY
    • G03C1/00—Photosensitive materials
    • G03C1/72—Photosensitive compositions not covered by the groups G03C1/005 - G03C1/705
    • G03C1/73—Photosensitive compositions not covered by the groups G03C1/005 - G03C1/705 containing organic compounds
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B29—WORKING OF PLASTICS; WORKING OF SUBSTANCES IN A PLASTIC STATE IN GENERAL
    • B29C—SHAPING OR JOINING OF PLASTICS; SHAPING OF MATERIAL IN A PLASTIC STATE, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; AFTER-TREATMENT OF THE SHAPED PRODUCTS, e.g. REPAIRING
    • B29C64/00—Additive manufacturing, i.e. manufacturing of three-dimensional [3D] objects by additive deposition, additive agglomeration or additive layering, e.g. by 3D printing, stereolithography or selective laser sintering
    • B29C64/10—Processes of additive manufacturing
    • B29C64/106—Processes of additive manufacturing using only liquids or viscous materials, e.g. depositing a continuous bead of viscous material
    • B29C64/124—Processes of additive manufacturing using only liquids or viscous materials, e.g. depositing a continuous bead of viscous material using layers of liquid which are selectively solidified
    • B29C64/129—Processes of additive manufacturing using only liquids or viscous materials, e.g. depositing a continuous bead of viscous material using layers of liquid which are selectively solidified characterised by the energy source therefor, e.g. by global irradiation combined with a mask
    • B29C64/135—Processes of additive manufacturing using only liquids or viscous materials, e.g. depositing a continuous bead of viscous material using layers of liquid which are selectively solidified characterised by the energy source therefor, e.g. by global irradiation combined with a mask the energy source being concentrated, e.g. scanning lasers or focused light sources
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B33—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
    • B33Y—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING, i.e. MANUFACTURING OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL [3-D] OBJECTS BY ADDITIVE DEPOSITION, ADDITIVE AGGLOMERATION OR ADDITIVE LAYERING, e.g. BY 3-D PRINTING, STEREOLITHOGRAPHY OR SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING
    • B33Y70/00—Materials specially adapted for additive manufacturing
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B3/00—Simple or compound lenses
    • G02B3/02—Simple or compound lenses with non-spherical faces
    • G02B3/06—Simple or compound lenses with non-spherical faces with cylindrical or toric faces
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B6/00—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings
    • G02B6/10—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings of the optical waveguide type
    • G02B6/12—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings of the optical waveguide type of the integrated circuit kind
    • G02B6/122—Basic optical elements, e.g. light-guiding paths
    • G02B6/1221—Basic optical elements, e.g. light-guiding paths made from organic materials
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B6/00—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings
    • G02B6/10—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings of the optical waveguide type
    • G02B6/12—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings of the optical waveguide type of the integrated circuit kind
    • G02B6/13—Integrated optical circuits characterised by the manufacturing method
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B6/00—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings
    • G02B6/10—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings of the optical waveguide type
    • G02B6/12—Light guides; Structural details of arrangements comprising light guides and other optical elements, e.g. couplings of the optical waveguide type of the integrated circuit kind
    • G02B6/13—Integrated optical circuits characterised by the manufacturing method
    • G02B6/138—Integrated optical circuits characterised by the manufacturing method by using polymerisation
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G03—PHOTOGRAPHY; CINEMATOGRAPHY; ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ELECTROGRAPHY; HOLOGRAPHY
    • G03F—PHOTOMECHANICAL PRODUCTION OF TEXTURED OR PATTERNED SURFACES, e.g. FOR PRINTING, FOR PROCESSING OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; MATERIALS THEREFOR; ORIGINALS THEREFOR; APPARATUS SPECIALLY ADAPTED THEREFOR
    • G03F7/00—Photomechanical, e.g. photolithographic, production of textured or patterned surfaces, e.g. printing surfaces; Materials therefor, e.g. comprising photoresists; Apparatus specially adapted therefor
    • G03F7/004—Photosensitive materials
    • G03F7/038—Macromolecular compounds which are rendered insoluble or differentially wettable
    • G03F7/0387—Polyamides or polyimides
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G03—PHOTOGRAPHY; CINEMATOGRAPHY; ANALOGOUS TECHNIQUES USING WAVES OTHER THAN OPTICAL WAVES; ELECTROGRAPHY; HOLOGRAPHY
    • G03F—PHOTOMECHANICAL PRODUCTION OF TEXTURED OR PATTERNED SURFACES, e.g. FOR PRINTING, FOR PROCESSING OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; MATERIALS THEREFOR; ORIGINALS THEREFOR; APPARATUS SPECIALLY ADAPTED THEREFOR
    • G03F7/00—Photomechanical, e.g. photolithographic, production of textured or patterned surfaces, e.g. printing surfaces; Materials therefor, e.g. comprising photoresists; Apparatus specially adapted therefor
    • G03F7/20—Exposure; Apparatus therefor
    • G03F7/2051—Exposure without an original mask, e.g. using a programmed deflection of a point source, by scanning, by drawing with a light beam, using an addressed light or corpuscular source
    • G03F7/2053—Exposure without an original mask, e.g. using a programmed deflection of a point source, by scanning, by drawing with a light beam, using an addressed light or corpuscular source using a laser
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B29—WORKING OF PLASTICS; WORKING OF SUBSTANCES IN A PLASTIC STATE IN GENERAL
    • B29L—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS B29C, RELATING TO PARTICULAR ARTICLES
    • B29L2011/00—Optical elements, e.g. lenses, prisms
    • B29L2011/0075—Light guides, optical cables
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B33—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
    • B33Y—ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING, i.e. MANUFACTURING OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL [3-D] OBJECTS BY ADDITIVE DEPOSITION, ADDITIVE AGGLOMERATION OR ADDITIVE LAYERING, e.g. BY 3-D PRINTING, STEREOLITHOGRAPHY OR SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING
    • B33Y10/00—Processes of additive manufacturing

Definitions

  • This invention relates to the use of multiphoton-induced photodefining methods for fabricating optically functional elements (e.g., waveguides, diffraction gratings, other optical circuitry, lenses, splitters, couplers, ring resonators, and the like) that find particular utility in optical communication systems.
  • optically functional elements e.g., waveguides, diffraction gratings, other optical circuitry, lenses, splitters, couplers, ring resonators, and the like
  • Optical interconnects and integrated circuits may be used, in one application, optically connect one or more optical fibers to one or more remote sites, typically other optical fibers. For example, where light is carried by one or more input fiber(s), the light may be transferred to, split between, or merged into one or more remote sites. Active or passive devices within the optical integrated circuit may also modulate or switch the input signal.
  • Optical interconnects play an important role in fiber telecommunication, cable television links, and data communication.
  • a waveguide is a type of optical interconnect.
  • optical interconnects have been made of glass.
  • Such interconnects, or couplers are generally made by fusing glass optical fibers or by attaching glass fibers to a planar, glass integrated optical device that guides light from input fiber(s) to output fiber(s) attached to different ends of the device.
  • Both approaches are labor intensive and costly. The cost increases proportionately with the number of fibers used due to the additional labor needed to fuse or attach each individual fiber. Such intensive labor inhibits mass production of these devices.
  • a further problem results from the mismatch in shape of the optical modes in the glass fiber and the integrated optical device.
  • Glass fiber cores are typically round, whereas the channel guides tend to have rectilinear cross-sections. This mismatch tends to cause insertion losses when a fiber is butt coupled to an integrated optical device.
  • polymeric optical structures offer many potential advantages, and it would be desirable to have polymeric optical elements that could satisfy the demands of the telecommunications industry.
  • Advantages of polymeric elements would include versatility of fabrication techniques (such as casting, solvent coating, and extrusion followed by direct photo-patterning), low fabrication temperatures (down to room temperature, allowing compatibility with a greater variety of other system components and substrates than is possible with the high processing temperatures characteristic of inorganic materials), and the potential ability to fabricate unique devices in three dimensions, all of which could lead to lower cost and high volume production.
  • two-dimensional, polymeric channel waveguides are relatively easily produced.
  • Numerous methods for fabricating polymeric waveguides have been developed. For example, electroplating nickel onto a master to form a channel waveguide mold and using photoresist techniques to form waveguide channels have been known for years. Cast-and-cure methods have supplemented older injection molding methods of forming polymeric channel waveguides. Following formation of the channel waveguide, further cladding and protective coatings typically is added inasmuch as polymeric waveguides generally must be protected from the environment to prevent moisture uptake or damage that could adversely affect performance.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,402,514 describes a different approach for manufacturing a polymeric, three dimensional interconnect by laminating dry films together.
  • the outer layer(s) function as the cladding and the inner layers incorporate the optical circuitry.
  • Single photon photopolymerization is used to photocure portions of each lamina.
  • multiple exposure steps would be required to form each photocured lamina. Alignment of the layers during assembly to form the laminate structure could also prove problematic.
  • the layers would also be subject to delamination if the bond quality between layers is poor.
  • Multiphoton polymerization techniques offer the potential to fabricate three dimensional optical structures more conveniently.
  • Molecular two-photon absorption was predicted by Goppert- Mayer in 1931.
  • experimental observation of two-photon absorption became a reality.
  • two-photon excitation has found application in biology and optical data storage, as well as in other fields.
  • the exciting light is not attenuated by single-photon absorption within a curable matrix or material, it is possible to selectively excite molecules at a greater depth within a material than would be possible via single-photon excitation by use of a beam that is focused to that depth in the material. These two phenomena also apply, for example, to excitation within tissue or other biological materials.
  • WO-A-92/00185 discloses a method of producing an optical wave guide comprising the steps of projecting electromagnetic or ultrasonic energy into a concentrated energy zone in a body of a polymerizable material to cause polymerisation of the material at the zone by absorption of part of the energy and causing relative movement between the body of material and the projected energy so as to cause the concentrated zone to move in a path through the body and thereby produce a strand of polymerised material extending along the path.
  • the strand is of a higher refractive index than the surrounding body of material and is capable of acting as an optic waveguide for transmission of light along the strand.
  • the polymerizable material disclosed in this document comprises a one-component photoinitiator system consisting of a photoinitiator.
  • Polymer materials may also be susceptible to water, vapor, or other moisture uptake. Such uptake can cause a polymeric optical element to change shape. This can also cause index of refraction and other properties to change over time.
  • the present invention provides three-dimensional, polymeric, optical circuits and elements with excellent dimensional and optical stability over wide temperature ranges.
  • the optical characteristics e.g., index of refraction, are also stable, thus maintaining consistent optical performance over time in many applications.
  • the present invention provides fabrication methods that allow optical elements to be fabricated with a wide range of desired shapes, orientations, and geometries.
  • the present invention provides a method of fabricating an optical element.
  • a photo-hardenable composition is provided that includes (i) a hydrophobic, photodefinable polymer, said photodefinable polymer having a glass transition temperature in the cured state of at least about 80°C; and (ii) a multiphoton photoinitiator system comprising at least one multiphoton photosensitizer and at least one photoinitiator that is capable of being photosensitized by the photosensitizer.
  • One or more portions of the composition are imagewise exposed to the electromagnetic energy under conditions effective to photodefinably form at least a portion of a three-dimensional optical element.
  • a photo-hardenable composition includes (i) a hydrophobic, photodefinable polymer, said photodefinable polymer having a glass transition temperature in the cured state of at least about 80°C, and preferably having a substantially constant index of refraction in the cured state in a temperature range from 0°C to 80°C; and (ii) a multiphoton photoinitiator system comprising at least one multiphoton photosensitizer and preferably at least one photoinitiator that is capable of being photosensitized by the photosensitizer.
  • the photo-hardenable fluid composition is coated onto a substrate. One or more portions of the coated composition are imagewise exposed to said electromagnetic energy under conditions effective to photodefinably form at least a portion of a three-dimensional optical element.
  • the present invention relates to a photohardenable composition that can be imagewise cured using a multiphoton curing technique.
  • the composition comprises a hydrophobic, photodefinable polymer having a glass transition temperature in the cured state of at least about 80°C, and preferably having a substantially constant index of refraction in the cured state in a temperature range from 0°C to 80°C.
  • the composition also includes a multiphoton photoinitiator system comprising at least one multiphoton photosensitizer and preferably at least one photoinitiator that is capable of being photosensitized by the photosensitizer.
  • multiphoton curing is optionally followed by solvent development in which a solvent is used to remove uncured material and thereby recover the resultant optical element.
  • a polyimide or polyimide precursor may be subjected to an imidization step, if desired, after multiphoton curing.
  • polyimide with respect to a photocurable material shall encompass polyimides as well as polyimide precursors.
  • Such precursors include, for example, poly(amic acid) materials and the like that form polyimides upon curing, imidization, and/or other treatment.
  • Preferred embodiments of the present invention provide methods of preparing polymeric optical elements that have excellent dimensional, chemical, and optical (n(T)) stability over wide temperatures ranges, e.g., 0°C to 80°C, preferably -25°C to 100°C, more preferably -25°C to 120°C.
  • the preferred methods involve multiphoton-initiated photodefining of selected portions of a mass including one or more constituents with photodefinable functionality, whereby optical element(s) with three-dimensional geometries can be formed.
  • the resultant optical element may be separated from some or all of the remaining, uncured material, which may then be reused if desired.
  • Some preferred resins, for example, some photodefinable polyimides may also be subjected to a post-development bake to cause imidization.
  • system 10 includes laser light source 12 that directs laser light 14 through an optical element in the form of optical lens 16.
  • Lens 16 focuses laser light 14 at focal region 18 within body 20 that includes one or more photodefinable constituent(s) in accordance with the present invention.
  • Laser light 14 has an intensity
  • the multiphoton photosensitizer has an absorption cross-section such that the light intensity outside of the focal region is insufficient to cause multiphoton absorption, whereas the light intensity in the portion of the photopolymerizable composition inside the focal region 18 is sufficient to cause multiphoton absorption causing photopolymerization within such focal region 18.
  • a suitable translation mechanism 24 provides relative movement between body 20, lens 16, and/or and focal region 18 in three dimensions to allow focal region 18 to be positioned at any desired location within body 20. This relative movement can occur by physical movement of light source 12, lens 16, and/or body 20. Through appropriate exposure of successive regions of body 20 in an imagewise fashion, the corresponding photopolymerized portions of body 12 may form one or more three-dimensional structures within body 20. The resultant structures are then separated from the body 20 using a suitable technique, e.g., treatment with a solvent to remove the unexposed regions.
  • a suitable technique e.g., treatment with a solvent to remove the unexposed regions.
  • One suitable system would include a mirror-mounted galvonometer with a moving stage.
  • Useful exposure systems include at least one light source (usually a pulsed laser) and at least one optical element.
  • Preferred light sources include, for example, femtosecond near-infrared titanium sapphire oscillators (for example, a Coherent Mira Optima 900-F) pumped by an argon ion laser (for example, a Coherent Innova).
  • This laser operating at 76 MHz, has a pulse width of less than 200 femtoseconds, is tunable between 700 and 980 nm, and has average power up to 1.4 Watts.
  • Spectra Physics "Mai Tai" Ti:sapphire laser system operating at 80 MHz, average power about 0.85 Watts, tunable from 750 to 850 nm, with a pulse width of about 100 femtoseconds.
  • any light source that provides sufficient intensity (to effect multiphoton absorption) at a wavelength appropriate for the photosensitizer (used in the photoreactive composition) can be utilized.
  • Such wavelengths can generally be in the range of about 300 to about 1500 nm; preferably, from about 600 to about 1100 nm; more preferably, from about 750 to about 850 nm.
  • Q-switched Nd:YAG lasers for example, a Spectra-Physics Quanta-Ray PRO
  • visible wavelength dye lasers for example, a Spectra-Physics Sirah pumped by a Spectra-Physics Quanta-Ray PRO
  • Q-switched diode pumped lasers for example, a Spectra-Physics FC bar TM
  • pulse energy per square unit of area can vary within a wide range and factors such as pulse duration, intensity, and focus can be adjusted to achieve the desired curing result in accordance with conventional practices. If Ep is too high, the material being cured can be ablated or otherwise degraded. If Ep is too low, curing may not occur or may occur too slowly.
  • preferred a preferred pulse length is generally less than about 10 -8 second, more preferably less than about 10 -9 second, and most preferably less than about 10 -11 second.
  • Laser pulses in the femtosecond regime are most preferred as these provide a relatively large window for setting Ep levels that are suitable for carrying out multiphoton curing.
  • the operational window is not as large.
  • curing may proceed slower than might be desired in some instances or not at all.
  • the Ep level may need to be established at a low level to avoid material damage when the pulses are so long, relatively.
  • the fabrication method of the present invention allows the use, if desired, of laser light 14 having a wavelength within or overlapping the range of wavelengths of light to be carried by optical element in the form of waveguide 26.
  • laser light 14 may have a wavelength that is substantially the same as the wavelength of light to be carried by waveguide 26.
  • substantially the same means within 10%, preferably within 5%, and more preferably within 1%.
  • lens 16 is shown, other optical elements useful in carrying out the method of the invention can be used to focus light 14 and include, for example, one or more of refractive optical elements (for example, lenses), reflective optical elements (for example, retroreflectors or focusing mirrors), diffractive optical elements (for example, gratings, phase masks, and holograms), diffusers, pockels cells, wave guides, and the like.
  • refractive optical elements for example, lenses
  • reflective optical elements for example, retroreflectors or focusing mirrors
  • diffractive optical elements for example, gratings, phase masks, and holograms
  • diffusers pockels cells
  • wave guides and the like.
  • Such optical elements are useful for focusing, beam delivery, beam/mode shaping, pulse shaping, and pulse timing.
  • combinations of optical elements can be utilized, and other appropriate combinations will be recognized by those skilled in the art. It is often desirable to use optics with large numerical aperture characteristics to provide highly-focused light.
  • the exposure system can include a scanning confocal microscope (BioRad MRC600) equipped with a 0.75 NA objective (Zeiss 20X Fluar).
  • Exposure times and scan rates generally depend upon the type of exposure system used to cause image formation (and its accompanying variables such as numerical aperture, geometry of light intensity spatial distribution, the peak light intensity during the laser pulse (higher intensity and shorter pulse duration roughly correspond to peak light intensity), as well as upon the nature of the composition exposed (and its concentrations of photosensitizer, photoinitiator, and electron donor compound). Generally, higher peak light intensity in the regions of focus allows shorter exposure times, everything else being equal.
  • Linear imaging or "writing” speeds generally can be about 5 to 100,000 microns/second using a laser pulse duration of about 10E-8 to 10E-15 seconds (preferably, about 10E-12 to 10E-14 seconds) and about 10E3 to 10E9 pulses per second (preferably, about 10E5 to 10E8 pulses per second).
  • Fig. 1 shows how imagewise exposure of selected portions of body 20 formed photodefined, three-dimensional waveguide 26 within body 20. Portions 28 of body 20 that are outside the photodefined portions constituting waveguide 26 remain at least substantially uncured. Uncured portions of body 20 may be removed from waveguide 26 by a suitable technique, e.g., washing with a solvent or the like. This provides the recovered waveguide 26 as shown in Fig. 2. As an option, the resultant optical element 26 may be blanket irradiated with a photocuring fluence of energy. In some embodiments, blanket irradiation can enhance durability.
  • the present invention allows optical elements to be formed with any desired orientation in body 20.
  • the optical axis, or axes as the case may be may have any desired orientation relative to the substrate surface.
  • any such optical axis can be substantially vertical, substantially parallel, or at any other desired angle relative to the surface.
  • the photodefinable composition that constitutes body 20 of Fig. 1 generally includes at least one hydrophobic, photodefinable constituent having hydrophobic characteristics and a Tg of at least about 80 °C when cured and a multiphoton photoinitiator system including at least one multiphoton photosensitizer and optionally at least one photoinitiator.
  • the multiphoton photoinitiator system may include an electron donor as described in Assignee's copending application titled MULTIPHOTON PHOTOSENSITIZATION SYSTEM, publication number WO 01/96409 A.
  • other photodefinable constituents that are hydrophilic may also be additionally included in the composition, but the use of such hydrophilic materials is not preferred to avoid water uptake.
  • photodefinable preferably refers to functionality directly or indirectly pendant from a monomer, oligomer, and/or polymer backbone (as the case may be) that participates in reactions upon exposure to a suitable source of electromagnetic energy.
  • Such functionality generally includes not only groups that cure via a cationic mechanism upon radiation exposure but also groups that cure via a free radical mechanism.
  • Representative examples of such photodefinable groups suitable in the practice of the present invention include epoxy groups, (meth)acrylate groups, olefinic carbon-carbon double bonds, allyloxy groups, alpha-methyl styrene groups, (meth)acrylamide groups, cyanate ester groups, vinyl ethers groups, combinations of these, and the like. Free radically curable groups are preferred. Of these, (meth)acryl moieties are most preferred.
  • the term "(meth)acryl”, as used herein, encompasses acryl and/or methacryl.
  • the various photodefinable constituents of body 20 may be monomeric, oligomeric, and/or polymeric.
  • the term "monomer” means a relatively low molecular weight material (i.e., having a molecular weight less than about 500 g/mole) having one or more photodefinable groups.
  • Oligomer means a relatively intermediate molecular weight material (i.e., having a molecular weight of from about 500 up to about 10,000 g/mole).
  • Polymer means a relatively large molecular weight material (i.e., about 10,000 g/mole or more).
  • the term "molecular weight” as used throughout this specification means weight average molecular weight unless expressly noted otherwise.
  • Photodefinable materials suitable in the practice of the present invention preferably have a combination of characteristics that provide resultant optical elements with excellent dimensional and temperature stability.
  • the materials are hydrophobic and have a glass transition temperature (Tg) of at least 80°C, preferably at least 100°C, more preferably at least 120°C, and most preferably at least 150°C.
  • Tg glass transition temperature
  • mechanical properties, including mechanical stability and shape, of the photodefined materials do not change substantially over these temperature ranges.
  • the cured materials have a substantially constant refractive index over a temperature range of 0°C to 80°C, preferably -25°C to 100°C, more preferably -40°C to 120°C.
  • substantially constant means that the index of refraction of the photodefined material varies by less than 5% over the temperature range, preferably by less than 1%, more preferably by less than 0.1 %, and most preferably less than 0.01 %.
  • the dimensional stability of photodefined materials comprising the optical elements of the present invention also may be defined by the CTE (coefficient of thermal expansion).
  • the CTE of the photodefined materials is desirably less than 100, preferably less than 80, more preferably less than 60.
  • the materials also are desirably hydrophobic, which minimizes the tendency of the resultant optical elements to absorb water. Water absorption is undesirable in that water/moisture uptake can cause an optical element to change shape, hydrolyze, or otherwise degrade. Other optical and mechanical properties may also be affected.
  • hydrophobic means that the water absorption of a material preferably is no more than about 4% by weight as measured according to the immersion test specified in ASTM D570 following extended aging under 20°C./65% RH conditions, and preferably is no more than about 0.5% by weight.
  • the molecular weight of the photodefinable materials used in the present invention may have an impact upon the ease of manufacturability and/or the performance of the resultant optical element. For example, if the molecular weight is too low, on average, photodefining may cause excessive shrinkage, making it more difficult to control the dimensions of the resultant optical element. On the other hand, if the molecular weight is too high, on average, it may be more difficult to wash the uncured material away, if desired, after the optical element is formed. Balancing these concerns, the photodefinable materials preferably have a molecular weight on average in the range from 1,000 to 1,000,000, preferably 2,000 to 100,000, more preferably about 10,000 to 50,000.
  • photodefinable materials with the desired characteristics may be used.
  • Representative examples include photodefinable polymers and/or oligomers that preferably are hydrophobic and soluble, polyimides, polyimideamides, polynorbomenes, reactive polynorbornene oligomers, fluorinated polymers, polycarbonates, cyclic polyolefins, combinations of these, and the like.
  • Soluble means that a material dissolves in and is coatable from a solvent or a mixture of solvents.
  • Suitable solvents include polar aprotic solvents such as N,N-dimethylacetamide, N-methylpyrrolidinone, N,N-dimethylformamide, as well as a wide variety of common solvents including but not limited to methyl ethyl ketone, cyclohexanone, dioxane, toluene, and propylene glycol methyl ether acetate, and mixtures thereof.
  • polar aprotic solvents such as N,N-dimethylacetamide, N-methylpyrrolidinone, N,N-dimethylformamide, as well as a wide variety of common solvents including but not limited to methyl ethyl ketone, cyclohexanone, dioxane, toluene, and propylene glycol methyl ether acetate, and mixtures thereof.
  • Photodefinable, soluble, hydrophobic polyimides presently are most preferred.
  • Such polyimides can be homopolymers or copolymers prepared from aromatic tetracarboxylic acid anhydrides and one or more aromatic diamines, wherein each repeating unit of the polymer includes as least one benzylic methyl or benzylic ethyl group.
  • Examples of such photodefinable, soluble polyimides useful in the invention include photosensitive polyimides that are known in the art. For example, Rubner et al., Photographic Science and Engineering, 1979, 23 (5), 303; U.S. Pat. No. 4,040,831, for example, reports commercialized photosensitive polyimide materials based on polyamic esters bearing pendant double bonds.
  • U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,515,887 and 4,578,328 describe polyamic amide based photosensitive polyimides prepared by reacting polyamic acid with isocyanate-containing methacrylate such as isocyanato-ethyl methacrylate.
  • the acid groups can be partially functionalized to provide aqueous base developability.
  • Photosensitive polyimides based on "chemical amplified" mechanism also are reported, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,609,914 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,518,864). These photosensitive polyimides are positive-tone materials in which a photo-acid generator (PAG) is needed in the formulation.
  • PAG photo-acid generator
  • Autosensitive polyimides (or intrinsically photosensitive) are reported in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,786,569 and 4,851,506 and use benzophenone-based crosslinking chemistry.
  • a class of fluorine-containing autosensitive polyimides are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,501,941, 5,504,830, 5,532,110, 5,599,655 and EP 0456463A2.
  • the Tg of the cured material of the present invention is at least 80°C, the Tg may not be at least as high as 80°C until after the imidization step, if any. Imidization increases the Tg and helps provide the element with good durability and stability over time.
  • one or more photodefinable monomers may also be included in the composition, particularly those that have a Tg when cured as a homopolymer of at least about 80°C.
  • such monomers also can function as a solvent for the composition, which is beneficial in embodiments in which the composition is to be coated onto a substrate prior to photocuring.
  • the monomers can enhance physical properties of waveguide 26, including hardness, abrasion resistance, Tg characteristics, modulus, and the like.
  • the photodefinable monomers may be mono-, di-, tri-, tetra- or otherwise multifunctional in terms of photodefinable moieties.
  • the amount of such monomers to be incorporated into the composition can vary within a wide range depending upon the intended use of the resultant composition. As general guidelines, the composition may contain from about 0 to about 80, preferably 30 to 60 weight percent of such monomers.
  • One illustrative class of radiation curable monomers that tend to have relatively high Tg characteristics when cured generally comprise at least one radiation curable (meth)acrylate moiety and at least one nonaromatic, alicyclic and/or nonaromatic heterocyclic moiety.
  • Isobornyl (meth)acrylate is a specific example of one such monomer.
  • a cured, homopolymer film formed from isobomyl acrylate, for instance, has a Tg of 88°C.
  • the monomer itself has a molecular weight of 208 g/mole, exists as a clear liquid at room temperature, has a viscosity of 9 centipoise at 25°C, has a surface tension of 31.7x10 -5 N/cm (31.7 dynes/cm) at 25°C, and is an excellent reactive diluent for many kinds of oligo/resins.
  • Tg of a monomer refers to the glass transition temperature of a cured film of a homopolymer of the monomer, in which Tg is measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) techniques.
  • DSC differential scanning calorimetry
  • 1,6-Hexanediol di(meth)acrylate is another example of a monomer with high Tg characteristics.
  • a nonphotodefinable polymer may be incorporated into the photodefinable composition constituting body 20 to provide numerous benefits.
  • the relatively large size of such a material causes its diffusion rate to be relatively low, allowing the waveguide 26 to be multiphotonically formed within a stable background.
  • the nonphotodefinable polymer contributes to the physical and refractive index characteristics of the resulting article.
  • the nonphotodefinable polymer helps to reduce shrinkage upon curing and improves resilience, toughness, cohesion, adhesion, flexibility, tensile strength, and the like.
  • the nonphotodefinable polymer is desirably miscible with the photodefinable material.
  • the nonphotodefinable polymer may be thermoplastic or thermosetting. If thermosetting, the nonphotodefinable polymer preferably includes a different kind of curing functionality than does the photodefinable polymer(s), monomer(s) if any, and oligomer(s) if any. Upon curing, such a material will form an IPN with the photodefined material. If a thermoplastic is used, such a material will tend to form a semi-IPN with the photodefined material.
  • the nonphotodefinable polymer may include pendant hydroxyl functionality.
  • the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the nonphotodefinable polymer can impact the optical performance of the resultant structure. If the Tg is too low, the resultant structure may not be as robust as might be desired. Accordingly, the nonphotodefinable polymer preferably has a Tg of at least 50°C, preferably at least 80°C, more preferably at least 120°C In the practice of the present invention, Tg is measured using differential scanning calorimetry techniques.
  • the nonphotodefinable polymer may be a thermosetting or thermoplastic polymer of a type that is as similar as possible to the photodefinable species in body 20.
  • the photodefinable species is a polyimide
  • the nonphotodefinable polymer is preferably a polyimide as well. Matching the two materials in this manner helps to minimize the risk that the materials will undergo phase separation. Phase separation, if it were to occur, could impair the optical properties of optical element 26.
  • the amount of the nonphotodefinable polymer used may vary within a wide range. Generally, using 1 to 60 parts by weight of the nonphotodefinable polymer per 100 parts by weight of the photodefinable polymer would be suitable in the practice of the present invention.
  • the multiphoton photoinitiator system of the present invention preferably includes at least one multiphoton photosensitizer and optionally at least one photoinitiator that is capable of being photosensitized by the photosensitizer.
  • An electron donor compound may also be included as an optional ingredient. While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that light of sufficient intensity and appropriate wavelength to effect multiphoton absorption can cause the multiphoton photosensitizer to be in an electronic excited state via absorption of two photons, whereas such light is generally not capable of directly causing the photodefinable materials to be in an electronic excited state.
  • the photosensitizer is believed to then transfer an electron to the photoinitiator, causing the photoinitiator to be reduced.
  • the reduced photoinitiator can then cause the photodefinable materials to undergo the desired curing reactions.
  • cur means to effect polymerization and/or to effect crosslinking.
  • Multiphoton photosensitizers are known in the art and illustrative examples having relatively large multiphoton absorption cross-sections have generally been described e.g., by Marder, Perry et al., in PCT Patent Applications WO 98/21521 and WO 99/53242, and by Goodman et al., in PCT Patent Application WO 99/54784.
  • multiphoton photosensitizers suitable for use in the multiphoton photoinitiator system of the photoreactive compositions are those that are capable of simultaneously adsorbing at least two photons when exposed to sufficient light and that have a two-photon adsorption cross-section greater than that of fluorescein (that is, greater than that of 3', 6'- dihydroxyspiro[isobenzofuran-1(3H), 9'-[9H]xanthen]3-one).
  • the cross-section can be greater than about 50 x 10 -50 cm 4 sec/photon, as measured by the method described by C.
  • This method involves the comparison (under identical excitation intensity and photosensitizer concentration conditions) of the two-photon fluorescence intensity of the photosensitizer with that of a reference compound.
  • the reference compound can be selected to match as closely as possible the spectral range covered by the photosensitizer absorption and fluorescence.
  • an excitation beam can be split into two arms, with 50% of the excitation intensity going to the photosensitizer and 50% to the reference compound.
  • the relative fluorescence intensity of the photosensitizer with respect to the reference compound can then be measured using two photomultiplier tubes or other calibrated detector.
  • the fluorescence quantum efficiency of both compounds can be measured under one-photon excitation.
  • the two-photon absorption cross-section of the photosensitizer, ( ⁇ sam ), is equal to ⁇ ref (I sam /I ref )( ⁇ sam / ⁇ ref ), wherein ⁇ ref is the two-photon absorption cross-section of the reference compound, I sam is the fluorescence intensity of the photosensitizer, I ref is the fluorescence intensity of the reference compound, ⁇ sam is the fluoroescence quantum efficiency of the photosensitizer, and ⁇ ref is the fluorescence quantum efficiency of the reference compound.
  • the two-photon absorption cross-section of the photosensitizer is greater than about 1.5 times that of fluorescein (or, alternatively, greater than about 75 x 10 -50 cm 4 sec/photon, as measured by the above method); more preferably, greater than about twice that of fluorescein (or, alternatively, greater than about 100 x 10 -50 cm 4 sec/photon); most preferably, greater than about three times that of fluorescein (or, alternatively, greater than about 150 x 10 -50 cm 4 sec/photon); and optimally, greater than about four times that of fluorescein (or, alternatively, greater than about 200 x 10 -50 cm 4 sec/photon).
  • the photosensitizer is soluble in the photodefinable materials used to form body 20 of the composition.
  • the photosensitizer is also capable of sensitizing 2-methyl-4,6-bis(trichloromethyl)-s-triazine under continuous irradiation in a wavelength range that overlaps the single photon absorption spectrum of the photosensitizer (single photon absorption conditions), using the test procedure described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,729,313. Using currently available materials, that test can be carried out as follows:
  • a standard test solution can be prepared having the following composition: 5.0 parts of a 5% (weight by volume) solution in methanol of 45,000-55,000 molecular weight, 9.0-13.0% hydroxyl content polyvinyl butyral (ButvarTM B76, Monsanto); 0.3 parts trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate; and 0.03 parts 2-methyl-4,6-bis(trichloromethyl)-s-triazine (see Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan, 42 , 2924-2930 (1969)). To this solution can be added 0.01 parts of the compound to be tested as a photosensitizer.
  • the resulting solution can then be knife-coated onto a 0.05 mm clear polyester film using a knife orifice of 0.05 mm, and the coating can be air dried for about 30 minutes.
  • a 0.05 mm clear polyester cover film can be carefully placed over the dried but soft and tacky coating with minimum entrapment of air.
  • the resulting sandwich construction can then be exposed for three minutes to 161,000 Lux of incident light from a tungsten light source providing light in both the visible and ultraviolet range (FCHTM 650 watt quartz-iodine lamp, General Electric). Exposure can be made through a stencil so as to provide exposed and unexposed areas in the construction.
  • the cover film can be removed, and the coating can be treated with a finely divided colored powder, such as a color toner powder of the type conventionally used in xerography.
  • a finely divided colored powder such as a color toner powder of the type conventionally used in xerography.
  • the tested compound is a photosensitizer
  • the trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate monomer will be polymerized in the light-exposed areas by the light-generated free radicals from the 2-methyl-4,6-bis(trichloromethyl)-s-triazine. Since the polymerized areas will be essentially tack-free, the colored powder will selectively adhere essentially only to the tacky, unexposed areas of the coating, providing a visual image corresponding to that in the stencil.
  • a multiphoton photosensitizer can also be selected based in part upon shelf stability considerations. Accordingly, selection of a particular photosensitizer can depend to some extent upon the particular reactive species utilized (as well as upon the choices of electron donor compound and/or photoinitiator, if either of these are used).
  • Particularly preferred multiphoton photosensitizers include those exhibiting large multiphoton absorption cross-sections, such as Rhodamine B (that is, N-[9-(2-carboxyphenyl)-6-(diethylamino)-3H-xanthen-3-ylidene]-N-ethylethanaminium chloride) and the four classes of photosensitizers described, for example, by Marder and Perry et al. in International Patent Publication Nos. WO 98/21521 and WO 99/53242.
  • the four classes can be described as follows: (a) molecules in which two donors are connected to a conjugated ⁇ (pi)-electron bridge; (b) molecules in which two donors are connected to a conjugated ⁇ (pi)-electron bridge which is substituted with one or more electron accepting groups; (c) molecules in which two acceptors are connected to a conjugated ⁇ (pi)-electron bridge; and (d) molecules in which two acceptors are connected to a conjugated ⁇ (pi)-electron bridge which is substituted with one or more electron donating groups (where "bridge” means a molecular fragment that connects two or more chemical groups, “donor” means an atom or group of atoms with a low ionization potential that can be bonded to a conjugated ⁇ (pi)-electron bridge, and "acceptor” means an atom or group of atoms with a high electron affinity that can be bonded to a conjugated ⁇ (pi)-electron bridge).
  • the preferred multiphoton initiator system generally includes an amount of the multiphoton photosensitizer that is effective to facilitate photopolymerization within the focal region of the energy being used for imagewise curing. Using from about 0.01 to about 10, preferably 0.1 to 5, parts by weight of the multiphoton initiator per 5 to 100 parts by weight of the photodefinable material(s) would be suitable in the practice of the present invention.
  • the preferred multiphoton initiator system of the present invention may include other components that help to enhance the performance of photodefining.
  • certain one-photon photoinitiators can be photosensitized by the multiphoton photosensitizer and, consequently, function as electron mediators in multiphoton photodefining reactions.
  • One-photon photoinitiators useful in the present invention include onium salts, such as sulfonium, diazonium, azinium, and iodonium salts such as a diaryliodonium salt, chloromethylated triazines, such as 2-methyl-4,6-bis(trichloromethyl)-s-triazine, and triphenylimidazolyl dimers.
  • Useful iodonium salts are those that are capable of initiating polymerization following one-electron reduction or those that decompose to form a polymerization-initiating species. Suitable iodonium salts are described by Palazzotto et al., in U. S. Patent No. 5,545,676, in column 2, lines 28 through 46. Useful chloromethylated triazines include those described in U. S. Patent No. 3,779,778, column 8, lines 45-50. Useful triphenylimidazolyl dimers include those described in U.S. Patent No. 4,963,471, column 8, lines 18-28. These dimers include, for example, 2-(o-chlorophenyl)-4,5-bis(m-methoxyphenyl)imidazole dimer.
  • such other components also may include both an electron donor compound and a photoinitiator.
  • use of this combination enhances the speed and resolution of multiphoton curing.
  • the photoinitiator serves double duty, as well, by also optionally facilitating blanket photodefining of the photodefinable composition with suitable curing energy.
  • the composition may include up to about 10, preferably 0.1 to 10, parts by weight of one or more electron donors and 0.1 to 10, preferably 0.1 to 5, parts by weight of one or more single photon initiators per 5 to 100 parts by weight of the multiphoton initiator.
  • Suitable adjuvants include solvents, diluents, plasticizers, pigments, dyes, inorganic or organic reinforcing or extending fillers, thixotropic agents, indicators, inhibitors, stabilizers, ultraviolet absorbers, medicaments (for example, leachable fluorides), and the like.
  • the amounts and types of such adjuvants and their manner of addition to the compositions will be familiar to those skilled in the art, and should be chosen so as to not adversely effect the optical properties of the subject optical elements.
  • Solvent advantageously may be included to provide the composition with a suitable coatable viscosity in those embodiments in which the composition is to be coated onto a substrate.
  • the amount of solvent thus, depends upon the desired coating technique. Examples of representative coating techniques include spin coating, knife coating, brushing, spraying, pouring, gravure coating, curtain coating, misting, and the like.
  • the kind of solvent to be used is not critical and will depend upon the materials that are to be dissolved or otherwise dispersed.
  • photodefinable monomers may themselves function as a solvent.
  • solvents such as water, alcohol, ketones, esters, ethers, chlorinated hydrocarbons such as dichloromethane, acetonitrile, N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), dioxane, propylene glycol methyl ether acetate, and the like may be used.
  • the photodefinable compositions of the present invention can be prepared by any suitable method in accordance with conventional practices.
  • the components are combined under "safe light” conditions using any order and manner of combination (optionally, with stirring or agitation), although it is sometimes preferable (from a shelf life and thermal stability standpoint) to add the photoinitiator(s) last (and after any heating step that is optionally used to facilitate dissolution of other components).
  • a solution of photodefinable polyimide G and two-photon photosensitization system including 4,4'-bis(diphenylamino)- trans -stilbene (1 weight %, based on solids) and diphenyliodonium hexafluorophosphate (1 weight % based on solids) is prepared in a suitable solvent (NMP) at approximately 20% solids and coated on a silicon wafer by knife coating to about 200-300 microns wet thickness. The coating is dried overnight (about 16 hrs) in an oven at about 50°C.
  • NMP suitable solvent
  • Exposure and patterning is performed using a two-photon microscope with a Ti:Sapphire laser operating at the two-photon absorption maximum of 4,4'-bis(diphenylamino)- trans -stilbene, 700 nm, and the light is focused through a 40x objective with a focal length of 4.48 mm and a numerical aperture of 0.65.
  • the pattern constituting the optical element is produced by manipulation of the substrate under the fixed focal point of the beam, accomplished by means of X-Y-Z servo-feedback-controlled translation stages equipped with high-resolution encoders.
  • a pattern of interconnected waveguides with primary axes parallel to the plane of the film is written into the medium, of varying width and height, resulting in a latent, three dimensional image of the exposed pattern.
  • the image is developed by removing the uncured polyimide by washing the coating with N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), a suitable solvent for the uncured polyimide.
  • NMP N-methylpyrrolidone
  • the resulting image of insoluble polyimide waveguides is capable of effectively carrying light injected in the waveguide.
  • the film can be further cured by heating to 300°C in a nitrogen atmosphere for 30 minutes, maintaining the waveguide structure and performance.
  • Waveguides prepared in this manner exhibit good light-conducting properties.
  • the waveguides when exposed to conditions of 85°C and 85% relative humidity for 24 hours, the waveguides exhibit less than 0.3 db increase in attenuation.
  • polyimides with intrinsically photosensitive groups in the main chain based on benzophenonetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride
  • side chain photocrosslinkable polyimides such as those prepared from polyamine H
  • 1,4-Bis(bromomethyl)-2,5-dimethoxybenzene was prepared according to the literature procedure (Syper et al, Tetrahedron, 39 , 781-792, 1983).
  • the 1,4-bis(bromomethyl)-2,5-dimethoxybenzene (253 g, 0.78 mol) was placed into a 1000mL round bottom flask.
  • Triethyl phosphite 300 g, 2.10 mol was added, and the reaction was heated to vigorous reflux with stirring for 48 hours under nitrogen atmosphere. The reaction mixture was cooled and the excess triethyl phosphite was removed under vacuum using a Kugelrohr apparatus.
  • a 1000 mL round bottom flask was fitted with a calibrated dropping funnel and a magnetic stirrer.
  • the flask was charged with the product prepared from the above reaction (19.8 g, 45.2 mmol) and N,N-diphenylamino-p-benzaldehyde (25 g, 91.5 mmol, available from Fluka Chemical Corp., Milwaukee, WI).
  • the flask was flushed with nitrogen and sealed with septa.
  • Anhydrous tetrahydrofuran 750 mL was cannulated into the flask and all solids dissolved.
  • the dropping funnel was charged with potassium tertiary butoxide (125 mL, 1.0 M in THF).
  • a dose-array scan experiment the above coated film was placed horizontally on a movable stage and patterned by focusing the output of a Ti:Sapphire laser (part of a "Hurricane” system manufactured by Spectra-Physics Laser) (800 nm, 100 fs pulses, 80 MHz), equipped with a 10X objective lens, into the film.
  • a pattern of lines was produced in the film at two power levels where for each line the speed of the stage was increased by a factor of the square root of 2, starting at 77 ⁇ m/sec.
  • the images were developed with cyclohexanone/N-methylpyrrolidone (4/1) and rinsed with PGMEA.
  • the polyimide images were finally imidized under nitrogen with heating at a rate of 3° C/min to 300° C and a total heating time of 5 hours.
  • the number of polyimide lines produced at each power level, as well as writing speed were as follows: Power 70 mW 18 mW Number of lines observed At least 18 10 Writing speed > 39,400 ⁇ m/sec 2,500 ⁇ m/sec
  • the cured polyimide had a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of 55 ppm.
  • the polyimide lines could be used as waveguides.
  • An 85 micron film prepared as in Example 2 was mounted on a computer-controlled 3-axis stage, and the output of a Ti:Sapphire laser (part of a "Hurricane" system manufactured by Spectra-Physics Laser) (800 nm, 100 fs pulse, 29 mW, 80 MHz), equipped with a 40X objective lens (numeric aperature of 0.65), was focused into the film.
  • the stage was programmed to move so as to produce a series of cylindrical lens images, each 100 micrometers wide by 200 micrometers long by 80 micrometers tall, with a radius of curvature of 100 micrometers.
  • the sample was scanned under the focused beam at a rate of 1 mm/s to produce the structures.
  • cyclohexanone/1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (4/1) a series of three-dimensional cylindrical lenses were obtained on a silicon wafer with the lens curvature normal to the silicon wafer substrate.
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