Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
  • H01L31/00—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
  • H01L31/04—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
  • H01L31/00—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
  • H01L31/02—Details
  • H01L31/0224—Electrodes
  • H01L31/022408—Electrodes for devices characterised by at least one potential jump barrier or surface barrier
  • H01L31/022425—Electrodes for devices characterised by at least one potential jump barrier or surface barrier for solar cells
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C03—GLASS; MINERAL OR SLAG WOOL
  • C03C—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GLASSES, GLAZES OR VITREOUS ENAMELS; SURFACE TREATMENT OF GLASS; SURFACE TREATMENT OF FIBRES OR FILAMENTS MADE FROM GLASS, MINERALS OR SLAGS; JOINING GLASS TO GLASS OR OTHER MATERIALS
  • C03C3/00—Glass compositions
  • C03C3/04—Glass compositions containing silica
  • C03C3/062—Glass compositions containing silica with less than 40% silica by weight
  • C03C3/07—Glass compositions containing silica with less than 40% silica by weight containing lead
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C03—GLASS; MINERAL OR SLAG WOOL
  • C03C—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GLASSES, GLAZES OR VITREOUS ENAMELS; SURFACE TREATMENT OF GLASS; SURFACE TREATMENT OF FIBRES OR FILAMENTS MADE FROM GLASS, MINERALS OR SLAGS; JOINING GLASS TO GLASS OR OTHER MATERIALS
  • C03C3/00—Glass compositions
  • C03C3/04—Glass compositions containing silica
  • C03C3/062—Glass compositions containing silica with less than 40% silica by weight
  • C03C3/07—Glass compositions containing silica with less than 40% silica by weight containing lead
  • C03C3/072—Glass compositions containing silica with less than 40% silica by weight containing lead containing boron
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C03—GLASS; MINERAL OR SLAG WOOL
  • C03C—CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GLASSES, GLAZES OR VITREOUS ENAMELS; SURFACE TREATMENT OF GLASS; SURFACE TREATMENT OF FIBRES OR FILAMENTS MADE FROM GLASS, MINERALS OR SLAGS; JOINING GLASS TO GLASS OR OTHER MATERIALS
  • C03C8/00—Enamels; Glazes; Fusion seal compositions being frit compositions having non-frit additions
  • C03C8/14—Glass frit mixtures having non-frit additions, e.g. opacifiers, colorants, mill-additions
  • C03C8/18—Glass frit mixtures having non-frit additions, e.g. opacifiers, colorants, mill-additions containing free metals
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01B—CABLES; CONDUCTORS; INSULATORS; SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR THEIR CONDUCTIVE, INSULATING OR DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES
  • H01B1/00—Conductors or conductive bodies characterised by the conductive materials; Selection of materials as conductors
  • H01B1/20—Conductive material dispersed in non-conductive organic material
  • H01B1/22—Conductive material dispersed in non-conductive organic material the conductive material comprising metals or alloys
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
  • Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy

Definitions

• This invention relates to a paste composition and a method of making contacts for solar cells as well as other related components used in fabricating photovoltaic cells.
• Solar cells are generally made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon (Si), which convert sunlight into useful electrical energy.
• Solar cells are, in general, made of thin wafers of Si in which the required PN junction is formed by diffusing phosphorus (P) from a suitable phosphorus source into a P-type Si wafer.
• P phosphorus
• the side of silicon wafer on which sunlight is incident is in general coated with an anti-reflective coating (ARC) to prevent reflective loss of incoming sunlight, and thus to increase the efficiency of the solar cell.
• ARC anti-reflective coating
• a two dimensional electrode grid pattern known as a front contact makes a connection to the N-side of silicon, and a coating of aluminum (Al) on the other side (back contact) makes connection to the P-side of the silicon.
• the present invention provides glass compositions for use in front contact paste materials that provide low series resistance (Rs) and high shunt resistance (R sh ) to give high performance solar cells, as measured by efficiency ( ⁇ ) and fill factor (FF).
• the present invention includes a solar cell contact made from a mixture of ingredients, wherein the mixture comprises a solids portion and an organics portion.
• the solids portion comprises from about 85 to about 99 wt % of a metal component preferably silver, and from about 1 to about 15 wt % of a glass component.
• the glass component comprises from about 15 to about 75 mol % PbO, and from about 5 to about 50 mol % SiO 2 .
• the metal component comprises silver flakes, silver power, colloidal silver, and/or phosphorus-coated silver powder. Methods for making solar cells using the above ingredients and amounts are also envisioned.
• compositions and methods of the present invention overcome the drawbacks of the prior art by facilitating optimized interaction, bonding, and contact formation between front contact components, typically Ag and Si, through the glass medium.
• a conductive paste containing glass and silver is printed on a silicon substrate, and fired to fuse the glass and sinter the metal therein.
• Ag/Si conductive islands are formed providing conductive bridges between bulk paste and silicon wafer.
• Leaded glasses allow low firing temperatures owing to their excellent flow characteristics relatively at low temperatures.
• Silver- and glass-containing thick film pastes are used to make front contacts for silicon-based solar cells to collect current generated by exposure to light.
• the cell electrical performance as measured by cell efficiency ( ⁇ ) and fill factor (FF) is strongly affected by the microstructure and the electrical properties of the silver/silicon interface.
• the electrical properties of the solar cell are also characterized by R S and R Sh .
• the composition and microstructure of the front contact interface largely determine R S .
• the paste is generally applied by screen-printing, methods such as extrusion, pad printing, and hot melt printing may be used.
• Solar cells with screen-printed front contacts are fired to relatively low temperatures (550° C. to 850° C. wafer temperature; firing furnace set temperatures of 650° C.
• the front contact paste before firing, contains a silver-containing compound in one or more forms (powder, flake, colloid) and a glass component, and/or other additives.
• the glass component contains at least PbO and SiO 2 .
• the sequence and rates of reactions occurring as a function of temperature are factors in forming the low resistance contact between the silver paste and silicon wafer.
• the interface structure consists of multiple phases: substrate silicon, Ag/Si islands, Ag precipitates within the insulating glass layer, and bulk silver.
• the glass forms a nearly continuous layer between the silicon interface and the bulk silver.
• Solar cells include a front contact made from pastes or inks consisting of a mixture of ingredients. These mixtures, prior to firing, comprise a solids portion and an organics portion.
• the solids portion comprises a conductive metal and a glass component.
• the solids portion for the paste composition according to the present invention comprises: (a) a metal component comprising silver, an alloy of silver, or an oxide of silver, or a silver compound (i.e., silver component), from about 85 to about 99 wt %, preferably from about 88 to about 95 wt % of the solids portion; and, (b) a glass component, from about 1 to about 15 wt %, preferably about 2 to about 9 wt %, and more preferably from about 3 to about 8 wt % of the solids portion.
• the organics portion of the pastes herein comprises (a) at least about 80 wt % organic solvent; (b) up to about 15 wt % of a thermoplastic resin; (c) up to about 4 wt % of a thixotropic agent; and (d) up to about 2 wt % of a wetting agent.
• the use of more than one solvent, resin, thixotrope, and wetting agent is also envisioned.
• weight ratios of the solids portion to the organics portion includes a weight ratio of the solids portion to the organics portion from about 20:1 to about 1:20. In preferred embodiments the weight ratio is from about 15:1 to about 1:15, and most preferably the ratio is about 10:1 to about 1:10.
• Each of the major ingredient types (glass, metal, organics) is detailed hereinbelow.
• the glass component comprises, prior to firing, one or more glass compositions.
• Each glass composition comprises oxide frits including, at a minimum, PbO and SiO 2 .
• Zinc oxide (ZnO) may replace a portion of the PbO in the glass component herein.
• a glass composition comprises the ingredients of Table 1. When at least two glass compositions are present, the selection of their makeup and proportions has an effect on the quality of the solar cell contact.
• the use of a (first) glass composition containing a high proportion of ZnO e.g., up to about 35 mol %) provides minimum penetration into silicon.
• Such a glass composition is exemplified by embodiments V and VII in Table 3, and composition A in Table 4.
• a (second) zinc-free glass composition with high proportion of PbO provides more penetration into silicon.
• Such a glass composition is exemplified by embodiments VI, VIII, IX, X, and XI in Table 3, and compositions B, C, D, and E in Table 4. Regardless of the number of glass compositions used, the total content of PbO and SiO 2 in the glass component overall will fall within the range of about 15 to about 75 mol % PbO, and from about 5 to about 50 mol % SiO 2 .
• Varying proportions of the first and second glass compositions can be used in forming a solar cell contact to control, the extent of penetration into silicon, and hence the resultant solar cell properties.
• the first and second glass compositions may be present in a weight ratio of about 1:20 to about 20:1, and preferably about 1:3 to about 3:1.
• the glass component preferably contains no cadmium or oxides of cadmium.
• a portion of PbO can be replaced by Bi 2 O 3 to provide a glass composition used in making a solar cell within the scope of the present invention.
• about 1 to about 30 mol % of Bi 2 O 3 can be used.
• inventions may further comprise Al 2 O 3 , Ta 2 O 5 , Sb 2 O 5 , ZrO 2 , HfO 2 , In 2 O 3 , Ga 2 O 3 , Y 2 O 3 , Yb 2 O 3 and combinations thereof.
• An entry such as Y 2 O 3 means that Y 2 O 3 or Yb 2 O 3 or a combination of the two is present in the specified amount.
• the embodiments set forth in Table 1, may in addition include the following oxide frit ingredients as shown in Table 2. TABLE 1 Oxide frit ingredients in mole percent of the glass component.
• Glass Composition III (more Ingredient I (broad) II (preferred) preferred) PbO 15-75 25-66 30-64 SiO 2 5-50 15-40 20-35 ZnO 0-50 5-35 20-33 PbO + ZnO 15-80 — —
• Glass Composition III (more Ingredient I (broad) II (preferred) preferred) Al 2 O 3 0-15 1-11 2-10 Ta 2 O 5 0.1-10 0.1-3 0.2-2 Sb 2 O 5 0.1-10 0.1-3 0.2-2 ZrO 2 0.1-10 0.5-5 1-2 P 2 O 5 0.1-8 1-5 2-4 MoO 3 0.1-3 — — HfO 2 + In 2 O 3 + Ga 2 O 3 0.1-15 1-10 3-8 Y 2 O 3 + Yb 2 O 3 0.1-10 1-8 3-8
• a given embodiment need not contain all frit ingredients as noted in Table 2, but various combinations are possible.
• Other specific embodiments may contain various amounts of the aforementioned ingredients in mole percent as shown in Table 3.
• TABLE 3 Further embodiments of glass compositions in the glass component in mole percent of the glass component.
• the source of the silver in the silver component can be one or more fine powders of silver metal, or alloys of silver.
• a portion of the silver can be added as silver oxide (Ag 2 O) or as silver salts such as AgCl, AgNO 3 or AgOOCCH 3 (silver acetate).
• the silver may be coated with various materials such as phosphorus.
• the silver oxide can be dissolved in the glass during the glass melting/manufacturing process.
• the silver particles used in the paste may be spherical, flaked, or provided in a colloidal suspension, and combinations of the foregoing may be used. Any of the aforementioned silver sources may be used to contribute silver to the silver component of the solar cell contacts herein.
• the solids portion of the paste may comprise about 80 to about 99 wt % spherical silver particles or about 75 to about 90 wt % silver particles and about 1 to about 10 wt % silver flakes.
• Another alternative composition of the solids portion comprises about 75 to about 90 wt % silver flakes and about 1 to about 10 wt % of colloidal silver.
• the solids portion may comprise about 60 to about 95 wt % of silver powder or silver flakes and about 0.1 to about 20 wt % of colloidal silver.
• Suitable commercial examples of silver particles are spherical silver powder Ag3000-1, silver flakes SF-23, and colloidal silver suspension RDAGCOLB, all commercially available from Ferro Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio.
• Phosphorus can be added to the paste in a variety of ways to reduce the resistance of the front contacts.
• certain glasses can be modified with P 2 O 5 in the form of a powdered or fritted oxide, or phosphorus can be added to the paste by way of phosphate esters and other organo-phosphorus compounds. More simply, phosphorus can be added as a coating to silver particles prior to making a paste. In such case, prior to pasting, the silver particles are mixed with liquid phosphorus and a solvent.
• a blend of from about 85 to about 95 wt % silver particles, from about 5 to about 15 wt % solvent and from about 0.5 to about 10 wt % liquid phosphorus is mixed and the solvent evaporated.
• Phosphorus coated silver particles help ensure intimate mixing of phosphorus and silver in the inventive pastes.
• additives such as fine silicon or carbon powder, or both, can be added to the paste to control the silver reduction and precipitation reaction.
• the silver precipitation at the interface or in the bulk glass can also be controlled by adjusting the firing atmosphere (e.g., firing in flowing N 2 or N 2 /H 2 /H 2 O mixtures).
• Fine low melting metal additives i.e., elemental metallic additives as distinct from metal oxides
• Pb, Bi, In, Ga, Sn, and Zn and alloys of each with at least one other metal can be added to provide a contact at a lower temperature, or to widen the firing window.
• Zinc is the preferred metal additive
• silver is the preferred metal with which the metal additive is alloyed.
• a zinc-silver alloy is most preferred.
• a mixture of (a) glasses or a mixture of (b) glasses and crystalline additives or a mixture of (c) one or more crystalline additives can be used to formulate a glass component in the desired compositional range.
• the goal is to reduce the contact resistance and improve the solar cell electrical performance.
• second-phase crystalline materials such as Bi 2 O 3 , Sb 2 O 3 , Sb 2 O 5 , In 2 O 3 , Ga 2 O 3 , SnO, ZnO, Pb 3 O 4 , PbO, SiO 2 , ZrO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , B 2 O 3 , and Ta 2 O 5 may be added to the glass component to adjust contact properties.
• Combinations and reaction products of the aforementioned oxides can also be suitable to design a glass component with desired characteristics.
• low melting lead silicates either crystalline or glassy, formed by the reaction of PbO and SiO 2 such as 4PbO.SiO 2 , 3PbO.SiO 2 , 2PbO.SiO 2 , 3PbO.2SiO 2 , and PbO.SiO 2 , either singly or in mixtures can be used to formulate a glass component.
• a second phase of lead silicates may optionally be used.
• Other reaction products of the aforementioned oxides such as ZnO.SiO 2 and ZrO 2 .SiO 2 may also be used. However, the total amounts of the above oxides must fall within the ranges specified for various embodiments disclosed elsewhere herein.
• the glass component contains no more than about 3 mol % of B 2 O 3 , preferably no more than about 1 mol % B 2 O 3 . Most preferably, the glass component contains no B 2 O 3 .
• Oxides of tantalum and molybdenum reduce glass viscosity and surface tension of the glass during firing, facilitating better wetting of the wafer by the molten glass. Accordingly, up to about 10 mol % Ta 2 O 5 , and up to about 3 mol % MoO 3 can be included in the glass component.
• compositions of the present invention may further comprise oxides of alkali metals, for example Na 2 O, K 2 O, and Li 2 O and combinations thereof.
• the glass components of certain embodiments herein may contain from about 0.1 to about 15 mol % Na 2 O+K 2 O+Li 2 O, or more preferably from about 0.1 to about 5 mol % of those alkali metal oxides.
• the glass in the front contact paste or ink plays many key roles in forming an efficient front contact silver-silicon interface.
• the front contact paste glass corrodes the antireflective coating, typically made of silicon nitride (SiN x ) or titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) to form fired through contacts to underlying Si.
• the glass also takes part in a self-limiting interaction with Si to oxidize and dissolve a portion of Si into the glass as SiO 2 . Because the local concentration of SiO 2 increases the viscosity of the glass, this increase will eventually limit further dissolution of Si as SiO 2 , giving rise to a self-limiting interaction of the glass with Si to preserve the PN junction.
• the glass also dissolves Ag metal into the glass, transports Ag ions to the silicon interface, and precipitates Ag from the glass to form beneficial Ag/Si islands at the interface. Finally, the glass serves to enhance densification of the silver paste to reduce bulk silver resistivity and enhances bonding (adhesion) between the silicon wafer and the fired (silver) paste.
• the vehicle or carrier for most conductive compositions is typically a solution of a resin dissolved in a solvent and, frequently, a solvent solution containing both resin and a thixotropic agent.
• the solvent usually boils from about 130° C. to about 350° C.
• the most frequently used resin for this purpose is ethyl cellulose.
• resins such as ethyl hydroxy ethyl cellulose, wood rosin, mixtures of ethyl cellulose and phenolic resins, polymethacrylates of lower alcohols and the monobutyl ether of ethylene glycol monoacetate can also be used.
• terpenes such as alpha- or beta-terpineol or higher boiling alcohols such as Dowanol® (diethylene glycol monoethyl ether), or mixtures thereof with other solvents such as butyl Carbitol® (diethylene glycol monobutyl ether); dibutyl Carbitol® (diethylene glycol dibutyl ether), butyl Carbitol® acetate (diethylene glycol monobutyl ether acetate), hexylene glycol, Texanol® (2,2,4-trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol monoisobutyrate), as well as other alcohol esters, kerosene, and dibutyl phthalate.
• Dowanol® diethylene glycol monoethyl ether
• other solvents such as butyl Carbitol® (diethylene glycol monobutyl ether); dibutyl Carbitol® (diethylene glycol dibutyl ether
• the vehicle can contain organometallic compounds, for example those based on nickel, phosphorus or silver, to modify the contact.
• organometallic compounds for example those based on nickel, phosphorus or silver
• Various combinations of these and other solvents can be formulated to obtain the desired viscosity and volatility requirements for each application.
• Other dispersants, surfactants and rheology modifiers, which are commonly used in thick film paste formulations, may be included.
• Products useful in the organic carrier may be obtained commercially under any of the following trademarks: Texanol® (Eastman Chemical Company, Kingsport, Tenn.); Dowanol® and Carbitol® (Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Mich.); Triton® (Union Carbide Division of Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Mich.), Thixatrol® (Elementis Company, Hightstown N.J.), and Diffusol® (Transene Co. Inc., Danvers, Mass.).
• N-DIFFUSOL® is a stabilized liquid preparation containing an n-type diffusant with a diffusion coefficient similar to that of elemental phosphorus.
• organic thixotropic agents is hydrogenated castor oil and derivatives thereof.
• a thixotrope is not always necessary because the solvent/resin properties coupled with the shear thinning inherent in any suspension may alone be suitable in this regard.
• wetting agents may be employed such as fatty acid esters, e.g., N-tallow-1,3-diaminopropane di-oleate; N-tallow trimethylene diamine diacetate; N-coco trimethylene diamine, beta diamines; N-oleyl trimethylene diamine; N-tallow trimethylene diamine; and N-tallow trimethylene diamine dioleate, and combinations thereof.
• compositional ranges are preferred and it is not the intention to be limited to these ranges where one of ordinary skill in the art would recognize that these ranges may vary depending upon specific applications, specific components and conditions for processing and forming the end products.
• the paste according to the present invention may be conveniently prepared on a three-roll mill.
• the amount and type of carrier utilized are determined mainly by the final desired formulation viscosity, fineness of grind of the paste, and the desired wet print thickness.
• the particulate inorganic solids are mixed with the carrier and dispersed with suitable equipment, such as a three-roll mill, to form a suspension, resulting in a composition for which the viscosity will be in the range of about 100 to about 500 kcps, preferably about 300 to about 400 kcps, at a shear rate of 9.6 sec ⁇ 1 as determined on a Brookfield viscometer HBT, spindle 14, measured at 25° C.
• the aforementioned paste compositions may be used in a process to make a solar cell contact or other solar cell components.
• the inventive method of making solar cell contacts comprises (1) applying a silver-containing paste to the silicon substrate, (2) drying the paste, and (3) firing the paste to sinter the metal and make contact to silicon.
• the printed pattern of the paste is fired at a suitable temperature, such as about 650-950° C. furnace set temperature, or about 550-850° C. wafer temperature.
• the furnace set temperature is about 750-930° C.
• the paste is fired in air.
• the antireflective SiN X layer is believed to be oxidized and corroded by the glass and Ag/Si islands are formed on reaction with the Si substrate, which are epitaxially bonded to silicon. Firing conditions are chosen to produce a sufficient density of Ag/Si islands on the silicon wafer at the silicon/paste interface, leading to a low resistivity, high efficiency, high-fill factor front contact and solar cell.
• a typical ARC is made of a silicon compound such as silicon nitride, generically SiNx, such as Si 3 N 4 .
• This layer acts as an insulator, which tends to increase the contact resistance. Corrosion of this ARC layer by the glass component is hence a necessary step in front contact formation.
• the inventors herein have discovered that reducing the resistance between the silicon wafer and the paste is facilitated by the formation of epitaxial silver/silicon conductive islands at the interface. That is, the silver islands on silicon assume the same crystalline structure as is found in the silicon substrate. When such an epitaxial silver/silicon interface does not result, the resistance at that interface becomes unacceptably high.
• the pastes and processes herein now make it possible to produce an epitaxial silver/silicon interface leading to a contact having low resistance under broad processing conditions—a minimum firing temperature as low as about 650° C., but which can be fired up to about 850° C. (wafer temperature).
• the pastes herein can be fired in air.
• the properties discussed herein are believed to depend on a variety of variables, including the glass composition, amount of glass in the paste, silver morphology, and firing conditions.
• Several physical and chemical phenomena within the glass component must take place in order to form a front contact having low series resistance (R S ).
• Optimization of front contact properties requires fine tuning of firing temperature and conditions because small changes in the temperature—temperature variations with in the PV cell, between cells, furnace-to-furnace, cell lot to cell lot—can have a large effect on the performance of a cell: It is believed that resistance is decreased and conductivity is increased by increasing the number and quality of contacts between silver and silicon (that is, epitaxial silver-silicon islands) provided the interlayer glass thickness is minimized.
• a solar cell contact according to the present invention may be produced by applying any conductive paste disclosed herein to a substrate, for example by screen-printing, to a desired wet thickness, e.g., from about 40 to about 80 microns.
• Automatic screen-printing techniques can be employed using a 200-325 mesh screen.
• the printed pattern is then dried at 200° C. or less, preferably at about 120° C. for about 5-15 minutes before firing.
• the dry printed pattern can be fired for as little as 1 second up to about 5 minutes at peak temperature, in a belt conveyor furnace in air. During firing, the glass is fused and the metal is sintered.
• Nitrogen (N 2 ) or another inert atmosphere may be used if desired.
• the firing is generally according to a temperature profile that will allow burnout of the organic matter at about 300° C. to about 550° C., a period of peak furnace set temperature of about 650° C. to about 1000° C., lasting as little as about 1 second, although longer firing times as high as 1, 3, or 5 minutes are possible when firing at lower temperatures.
• a three-zone firing profile may be used, with a belt speed of about 1 to about 4 meters (40-160 inches) per minute, preferably 3 meters/minute (about 120 inches/minute).
• zone 1 is about 7 inches (18 cm) long
• zone 2 is about 16 inches (40 cm) long
• zone 3 is about 7 inches (18 cm) long.
• each successive zone is typically higher than the previous, for example, 700-790° C. in zone 1,800-850° C. in zone 2, and 800-970° C. in zone 3.
• firing arrangements having more than 3 zones are envisioned by the present invention, including 4, 5, 6, or 7, zones or more, each with zone lengths of about 5 to about 20 inches and firing temperatures of 650 to 1000° C.
• back surface field aluminum paste (Ferro CN53-038) and backside silver paste (Ferro CN33-451) were used for the back contact.
• the front contact pattern was printed using a 280 mesh screen with 100 ⁇ m openings for finger lines and with about a 2.8 mm spacing between the lines.
• Glass compositions used in the exemplary pastes were prepared by known glass-making techniques, and are presented in Table 4, the properties of those glass compositions are in Table 5, and the paste compositions are in Table 6. Samples were dried at about 100 to about 150° C. for about 3 to about 15 minutes after printing the front contacts.
• the printed wafers were co-fired using a 3-zone infrared (IR) belt furnace with a belt speed of about 3 meters (120′′) per minute, with temperature settings of 780° C., 810° C., and 930° C. for the three zones.
• the zones were 7′′, 16′′, and 7′′ long, respectively.
• the fired finger width for most samples was about 120 to about 170 ⁇ m, and the fired thickness was about 10 to 15 ⁇ m.
• Tg stands for glass transition temperature
• TCE thermal coefficient of expansion over the range of 25-300° C.
• TABLE 5 Glass Properties Glass Composition Glass properties A B C D E Tg, ° C. 498 404 390 — 404 TCE, (25-300° C.) ⁇ 10 ⁇ 7 /° C. 68 105 98 105 97 Density, gm/cc 5.8 6.7 6.5 6.8 6.3
• Paste formulations in Table 6 were made using organic vehicles V131 and V132, commercially available from Ferro Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio. All amounts in Table 6 are in weight percent of the paste, including the solids portion and the organics portion. TABLE 6 Paste Formulations Paste Ingredients in wt % 1 2 3 4 5 6 Glass component A B C D E B Glass component in paste 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 Silver flake, SF-23 73.0 Silver powder, Ag3000-1 68 68 68 68 68 68 68 Colloidal silver, RDAGCOLB 12.4 12.4 12.4 12.4 5.0 Vehicle V131 0.6 6.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 17.5 Vehicle V132 14.5 8.6 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5
• the front contact pastes in Table 6 were fired according to the firing profile disclosed herein.
• the electrical properties of the resultant solar cells are set forth in Table 7.
• Isc short circuit current, measured at zero output voltage
• Voc open circuit voltage measured at zero output current
• R S and R sh were previously defined.

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