Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
  • C01B3/00—Hydrogen; Gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen; Separation of hydrogen from mixtures containing it; Purification of hydrogen
  • C01B3/02—Production of hydrogen or of gaseous mixtures containing a substantial proportion of hydrogen
  • C01B3/06—Production of hydrogen or of gaseous mixtures containing a substantial proportion of hydrogen by reaction of inorganic compounds containing electro-positively bound hydrogen, e.g. water, acids, bases, ammonia, with inorganic reducing agents
  • C01B3/12—Production of hydrogen or of gaseous mixtures containing a substantial proportion of hydrogen by reaction of inorganic compounds containing electro-positively bound hydrogen, e.g. water, acids, bases, ammonia, with inorganic reducing agents by reaction of water vapour with carbon monoxide
  • C01B3/16—Production of hydrogen or of gaseous mixtures containing a substantial proportion of hydrogen by reaction of inorganic compounds containing electro-positively bound hydrogen, e.g. water, acids, bases, ammonia, with inorganic reducing agents by reaction of water vapour with carbon monoxide using catalysts
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
  • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
  • B01J23/00—Catalysts comprising metals or metal oxides or hydroxides, not provided for in group B01J21/00
  • B01J23/002—Mixed oxides other than spinels, e.g. perovskite
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
  • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
  • B01J23/00—Catalysts comprising metals or metal oxides or hydroxides, not provided for in group B01J21/00
  • B01J23/005—Spinels
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
  • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
  • B01J23/00—Catalysts comprising metals or metal oxides or hydroxides, not provided for in group B01J21/00
  • B01J23/06—Catalysts comprising metals or metal oxides or hydroxides, not provided for in group B01J21/00 of zinc, cadmium or mercury
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
  • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
  • B01J37/00—Processes, in general, for preparing catalysts; Processes, in general, for activation of catalysts
  • B01J37/02—Impregnation, coating or precipitation
  • B01J37/03—Precipitation; Co-precipitation
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
  • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
  • B01J2523/00—Constitutive chemical elements of heterogeneous catalysts
• • B01J35/40—
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
  • B01J—CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROCESSES, e.g. CATALYSIS OR COLLOID CHEMISTRY; THEIR RELEVANT APPARATUS
  • B01J37/00—Processes, in general, for preparing catalysts; Processes, in general, for activation of catalysts
  • B01J37/02—Impregnation, coating or precipitation
  • B01J37/0201—Impregnation
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
  • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
  • C01B2203/02—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
  • C01B2203/0205—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a reforming step
  • C01B2203/0227—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a reforming step containing a catalytic reforming step
  • C01B2203/0233—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a reforming step containing a catalytic reforming step the reforming step being a steam reforming step
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
  • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
  • C01B2203/02—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas
  • C01B2203/0283—Processes for making hydrogen or synthesis gas containing a CO-shift step, i.e. a water gas shift step
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C01B—NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS; COMPOUNDS THEREOF; METALLOIDS OR COMPOUNDS THEREOF NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASS C01C
  • C01B2203/00—Integrated processes for the production of hydrogen or synthesis gas
  • C01B2203/10—Catalysts for performing the hydrogen forming reactions
  • C01B2203/1041—Composition of the catalyst
  • C01B2203/1076—Copper or zinc-based catalysts
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
  • Y02P20/00—Technologies relating to chemical industry
  • Y02P20/50—Improvements relating to the production of bulk chemicals
  • Y02P20/52—Improvements relating to the production of bulk chemicals using catalysts, e.g. selective catalysts

Definitions

• the present invention relates to an improved water gas shift catalyst.
• the invention relates to a chromium-free high temperature shift (HTS) catalyst and process for its use.
• HTS high temperature shift
• Syngas production from natural gas, oil, coal, coke, naphta and other carbonaceous resources is typically carried out via steam reforming, autothermal reforming or gasification reactions. In any of these reactions a stream of synthesis gas (syngas) is produced.
• the syngas contains hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water as the major components.
• CO + H 2 O CO 2 + H 2 .
• the water gas shift reaction is an equilibrium limited, exothermic reaction.
• the hydrogen yield can therefore be optimized by carrying out the reaction in two separate adiabatic reactors with inter-stage cooling.
• the first of these reactors is commonly designated as a high-temperature shift (HTS) reactor, containing a high-temperature shift catalyst, and the second as a low-temperature shift (LTS) reactor containing a low-temperature shift catalyst.
• HTS high-temperature shift
• LTS low-temperature shift
• Some industrial plants are designed with a high-temperature shift reactor only. In some plants carbon monoxide is the desired component.
• a synthesis gas mixture may be enriched in carbon monoxide by means of the water gas shift reaction, in this case sometimes called the reverse water gas shift reaction. Whether a given synthesis gas mixture will be shifted towards being enriched in hydrogen or in carbon monoxide depends on the temperature and composition of the gas.
• Cu/Zn/Al catalysts are normally used with inlet temperatures to the LTS-reactor normally close to 200°C or 20°C above the dew point of the gas.
• the outlet temperature from the LTS-reactor is often in the range 220°C to 250°C.
• high-temperature shift catalyst consisting of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr) and copper (Cu) mainly in the form of oxides.
• This catalyst operates in the range 300°C to 500°C with the lower limit corresponding to the inlet temperature to the HTS-reactor and the upper limit corresponding to the outlet temperature.
• Typical operating pressures are in the range 2.3 to 6.5 MPa.
• chromium (VI) oxide, CrO 3 , and related compounds of chromium in oxidation state VI are easily formed by oxidation of the catalyst. All handling of the catalyst during manufacture, transport, loading and unloading is therefore a potential hazard.
• the particular surplus of water vapor needed is determined by the specific operating conditions and the gas composition.
• the surplus of water is an additional cost to the industrial plant since energy is spent on its evaporation and heating.
• significant energy savings would be obtained by operating with low S/C ratios in units upstream the HTS-reactor, particularly steam reforming units and consequently also with low S/C ratios at the inlet of the HTS-reactor.
• a low S/C ratio at the inlet of the HTS-reactor manifests itself into a low O/C and S/G ratio.
• HTS-catalyst which overcomes the above mentioned drawbacks by being free of hazardous elements, particularly chromium, being operable at low steam-to-carbon ratios to the HTS-reactor as well as being more tolerant to the presence of poisons.
• JP patent application No. 2004-321924 ( JP 2004321924A ) describes a copper-alkali metal catalyst for the water gas shift reaction supported on zinc-aluminum oxides. Copper is the active catalyst, while the zinc-aluminum oxide acts only as the carrier. The catalyst was tested at 400°C and atmospheric pressure corresponding probably to conditions in the automotive industry and well outside the industrial HTS operating ranges of 2.3 - 6.5 MPa. Copper is considered a crucial part of the catalyst system and a content of copper of 2-20% is required. Since copper is the most expensive component of the catalyst, it contributes significantly to the production cost of the catalyst.
• a catalyst for use in the high temperature shift reaction consisting in its active form of a mixture of zinc alumina spinel and zinc oxide in combination with an alkali metal selected from the group consisting of Na, K, Rb, Cs and mixtures thereof, said catalyst having a Zn/Al molar ratio in the range 0.5 to 1.0 and a content of alkali metal in the range 0.4 to 8.0 wt% based on the weight of oxidized catalyst.
• the term "in its active form” refers to the phases of the catalyst during operation.
• a mixture of one mole of ZnO and one mole of Al 2 O 3 will at least partially transform to ZnAl 2 O 4 during operation.
• a catalyst consisting of zinc in the form of zinc oxide, aluminum in the form of aluminum oxide and alkali metal compounds is therefore active according to the invention since zinc oxide and aluminum oxide will react to form zinc aluminum spinel during operation.
• based on the weight of oxidized catalyst means a given amount of a component by weight relative to the catalyst in its oxidized form. For instance, when it is stated that a catalyst contains 1.75 wt% potassium this means 1.75 grams of elemental potassium per 100 grams of oxidized catalyst.
• Zinc spinel has been suggested as catalyst for the reverse water gas shift reaction.
• the catalytic activity of either of ZnAl 2 O 4 and K 2 CO 3 /Al 2 O 3 is much lower than that of a Cu-Fe-Cr catalyst, which is the state of the art high-temperature water gas shift catalyst.
• the omission of copper in the catalysts of the invention results in catalysts which are tolerant towards these poisons and yet are active in the HTS reaction at prolonged times. More specifically we have found that the catalyst after have taken up sulfur during operation could at prolonged times, for instance after 500 hr of operation or more (time-on-stream, TOS), at least restore the original activity of the sulfur free catalyst.
• TOS time-on-stream
• the catalysts of the present invention are free of chromium, iron and copper. They contain only relatively harmless compounds, namely zinc oxide, aluminum oxide, zinc aluminum spinel and alkali metal compounds preferably in the form of alkali metal carbonates. The catalysts of the present invention are therefore safer to handle and more environmentally benign than current industrial HTS catalysts.
• the catalysts of the present invention are highly stable, i.e. their activity is maintained at prolonged operating times. Furthermore, they are capable of operating at low S/C ratios and thereby low S/G ratios at the HTS-reactor inlet without forming excessive amounts of methane and other hydrocarbons and they enable the composition of the synthesis gas mixture to approach the equilibrium composition.
• the catalyst in its active form is comprised by the elements zinc, aluminum and at least one of the alkali metals selected from Na, K, Rb, Cs and mixtures thereof said elements being in the form of oxides and/or carbonates and/or bicarbonates in various degrees of hydration, the composition of the catalyst being defined by the molar ratio between zinc and aluminum (Zn/Al) being between 0.5 and 1.0 and forming a mixture of zinc alumina spinel and zinc oxide, and the alkali metal promoter being present in amounts from 0.4 - 8.0% by weight relative to the catalyst in its oxidized form.
• the Zn/Al molar ratio is preferably in the range 0.5 to 0.8, more preferably in the range 0.60 to 0.70.
• the amount of Al is preferably 20 wt% to 30 wt% based on the weight of oxidized catalyst, for instance 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 wt%.
• the amount of Zn is preferably 30 wt% to 40 wt% based on the weight of oxidized catalyst for instance 32, 34, 35, 36, 38 wt%.
• the amount of alkali metal promoter is for instance 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 0.9, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 1.8, 2.0, 2.5, 2.7, 3.0, 3.2, 3.5, 3.7, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.2, 7.5 wt%.
• the alkali metal promoter is potassium and is present in an amount of 1 - 3 wt% based on the weight of oxidized catalyst.
• the alkali metal is cesium and is present in an amount of 5 wt% to 10 wt%.
• the preferred catalyst is a catalyst having a Zn/Al molar ratio of 0.65-0.70, preferably 0.7, and the catalyst further contains 31-34 wt% Zn, preferably 33 wt% Zn, and 2.7-3.0 wt% K, preferably 2.8 wt% K, based on the weight of oxidized catalyst.
• the Al content is implicitly given by the Zn/Al molar ratio and Zn content of the catalyst. Catalyst within this range of composition shows an unexpected high activity in terms of Rate. Higher or lower potassium concentrations result in a decrease of reaction rate.
• Another preferred catalyst has a Zn/Al molar ratio of about 0.7, and the catalyst further contains 34-36 wt% Zn, preferably 35 or 35.5 wt% Zn, and 7-8 wt% Cs, preferably 7.2 wt% Cs, based on the weight of oxidized catalyst.
• the Al content is implicitly given by the Zn/Al molar ratio and Zn content of the catalyst. This catalyst also shows an unexpected high activity.
• the catalysts of the invention may be used for high temperature water gas shift in order to enrich the gas in hydrogen (to increase the content of hydrogen in the gas) and also in the reverse water gas shift to enrich the gas in carbon monoxide. Accordingly, the invention encompasses also a process for enriching a synthesis gas mixture in hydrogen by contacting said synthesis gas mixture with a catalyst according to the invention as set forth in claim 7. The invention encompasses also a process for enriching a synthesis gas mixture in carbon monoxide by contacting said synthesis gas mixture with a catalyst according to the invention as set forth in claim 8.
• the process conditions are such that the pressure in the HTS-reactor is in the range 2.3 to 6.5 MPa, preferably 2.5 - 4.5 MPa, while the inlet temperature of the synthesis gas mixture to the reactor is in the range 300°C to 400°C, preferably 330°C, and the outlet temperature 420°C to 520°C, preferably 450°C.
• the steam-to-dry gas molar ratio (S/G ratio) to the HTS-reactor is preferably in the range 0.05 to 0.9, more preferably 0.1 to 0.9.
• the S/G ratio is simply defined as the molar ratio of water with respect to the rest of the synthesis gas entering the HTS-reactor, i.e. on a dry basis.
• the synthesis gas entering the HTS-reactor contains normally 5-50 vol% CO, 5-50 vol% CO 2 , 20-60 vol% H 2 , 15-50 vol% H 2 O, 0-30 vol% N 2 ; for instance 9 vol% CO, 7 vol% CO 2 , 25 vol% H 2 , 33 vol% H 2 O, 27 vol% N 2 .
• the synthesis gas mixture has S/G ratio of 0.05 to 0.9, a temperature of 300°C to 400°C and the reactor operates at a pressure in the range 2.3 to 6.5 MPa.
• the process of the invention is stable at prolonged times, e.g. for more than 500 hr due to the high stability of the catalyst. Hence, inexpedient shutdowns during the catalyst lifetime are avoided or at least significantly reduced.
• the process is more tolerant to the presence of sulfur in the synthesis gas being treated. Stringent environmental demands are met because chromium is not needed in the catalyst, and at the same time there is no risk of excessive methane or hydrocarbon formation, particularly at low S/C ratios in reforming units upstream and thereby at low O/C ratios in the synthesis gas to the shift reactor. Because of operation at low O/C ratios or equivalently low S/C ratios significant energy savings are achieved.
• the catalysts of the present invention may be prepared in a number of ways including coprecipitation of salts of zinc and aluminum with a base such as ammonia, alkali metal hydroxides and alkali metal carbonates and bicarbonates.
• a base such as ammonia, alkali metal hydroxides and alkali metal carbonates and bicarbonates.
• Suitable zinc and aluminum salts are the nitrates, sulfates, acetates, halides and mixtures of these.
• a solution of a zinc(II) salt such as zinc nitrate may be precipitated with an alkali metal aluminate in solution as described in Example 1.
• Another alternative preparation method consists of co-precipitation of salts of zinc and aluminum with organic amines.
• Another alternative preparation method consists of co-precipitation of salts of zinc and aluminum by hydrolysis of urea.
• the promoters are conveniently impregnated onto the catalyst as solutions of appropriate alkali metal compounds.
• Preferred compounds are alkali metal carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrates, carboxylates and hydroxides.
• Catalyst preparation is in any case concluded by calcination at a temperature in the range 200 - 800°C, preferably in the range 450 - 650°C.
• the catalysts A - I are catalysts of the present invention while catalysts C1 - C12 are comparative catalysts. All catalyst formulations are listed in Table 1, while Tables 2 - 7 lists results from activity tests.
• a solution of zinc nitrate hexahydrate was prepared by dissolving 208.3 g of Zn (NO 3 ) 2 *6H 2 O in deionized water and adjust the volume to 600 cm 3 .
• the two solutions were mixed together causing a precipitate to form.
• the stirred suspension was heated to 95°C for one hour after which pH was adjusted to 8 by adding 10% nitric acid.
• the precipitate was filtered, washed several times with hot, deionized water and dried at 100°C.
• the dried intermediate was calcined at 500°C for two hours.
• the resulting powder was characterized by XRD showing a mixture of zinc-alumina spinel (ZnAl 2 O 4 ) and ZnO.
• the powder was impregnated with a solution of K 2 CO 3 in water by the incipient wetness technique and dried at 100°C. Elemental analysis was done by the ICP method and showed the catalyst to contain 38.6% Zn, 22.9% Al and 1.76% K. The molar Zn/Al ratio was thus 0.70.
• the powder was mixed with graphite (4% wt/wt) and pelletized to give cylindrical tablets, 6 mm diameter by 4 mm height, density 1.80 g/cm 3 . Finally, the pellets were calcined two hours at 550°C.
• This catalyst was prepared from Zn (NO 3 ) 2 *6H 2 O (297.9 g) and KAlO 2 /KOH (448 g) as in Example 1 but in the presence of potassium carbonate.
• K 2 CO 3 (59.4 g) was dissolved in the KAlO 2 /KOH solution before admixture with the zinc nitrate solution.
• the resulting precipitate was treated as in Example 1.
• the presence of carbonate ions during precipitation resulted in the formation of a hydrotalcite phase as identified by XRD analysis of the dried powder. After calcination XRD showed a mixture of ZnAl 2 O 4 and ZnO.
• Catalysts of the present invention together with some comparative catalysts were tested in different plug-flow reactors at varying conditions.
• the general method was as follows:
• the catalyst was loaded as granules in the sieved fraction of 0.15 - 0.30 mm in which case the inner diameter of the reactor was 4 mm and the catalyst was loaded undiluted.
• the temperature was kept constant within ⁇ 3°C.
• the Gas Hourly Space Velocity (GHSV) expressed as the space-mass velocity, F/Mcat was calculated from the flow and the loaded weight of catalyst. In most cases the space velocity was in the range of 16 - 26 or 50 - 70 Nl/g/h.
• the gas composition was typically 9.7 vol% CO, 6.5 vol% CO 2 , 37.1 vol% H 2 O, 44.8 vol% H 2 and 1.9 vol% Ar corresponding to a steam/dry gas molar ratio (S/G) of 0.59.
• the concentration of all components was regularly measured in both inlet and dry exit gas by means of a Hewlett Packard Gas Chromatograph which had been calibrated towards a gas mixture of known composition. Mass balances were recorded for C, H and O and found to be within 1.00 ⁇ 0.03 in all cases.
• the catalysts of the present invention A, B, C, D and E are all active for the water gas shift reaction under the conditions specified in Table 2 as shown by Examples 3-7.
• Catalysts A, B, C and D differ mostly in their content of potassium.
• the most active of these catalysts at the specified conditions is catalyst D which contains 2.77% K.
• Catalyst A and B have smaller K-contents, namely 1.76% and 0.88%, respectively, while catalyst C has a larger K-content, namely 3.95%. Therefore the most preferable K-content is within the range 0.88% - 3.95%, preferably in the range 1 - 3%.
• Sodium may be used instead of potassium as shown in Example 7. Surprisingly, potassium is a considerably more effective promoter than sodium.
• the example thus shows that the catalysts of the present invention actually may be more active than the Cu-Cr-Fe catalyst under industrially relevant conditions.
• the Zn/Al ratio is of importance to the catalyst activity.
• the catalysts F and G of the present invention differ mainly by having a Zn/Al molar ratio of 0.69 and 0.59, respectively.
• a Zn/Al ratio of 0.69 is preferred to a Zn/Al ratio of 0.59.
• the activity of these two catalysts is comparable to that of the unpromoted comparative catalysts C6 and C7.
• the Rate of the four comparative catalysts is in the range 18.3 - 22.4 mol/kg/h, while that of the catalysts of the present invention F, G and H is in the range 67.2 - 79.5 mol/kg/h under the conditions specified in Table 3.
• the present invention claims the combination of the ZnO/ZnAl 2 O 4 system with an alkali metal promoter. It is well known that Mg (II) and Zn (II) resemble one another in their chemical and physical behaviour: both form basic oxides which are able to form stable spinel phases with alumina. It is therefore surprising to see that there is almost no activity of either promoted or unpromoted MgO/MgAl 2 O 4 catalysts. These catalysts were tested at low pressure and therefore a similar example with catalyst A of the present invention was carried out.
• Test of Catalyst G of the present invention at high pressure and low S/G ratio This example serves to demonstrate that high activity for the water gas shift reaction is achieved also under the present set of operating conditions and the selectivity for the water gas shift reaction remains high.
• Example 25 was carried out as described in example 3 with the difference that ammonium chloride was added to the feed water so as to create a concentration of 0.25 ppm chlorine in the gas phase. The exposure to the chlorine containing gas lasted for 45 hours during which the conversion (C) decreased slightly, from 69% to 68%.
• Example 26 was carried out likewise but with 25 ppm C1 in the gas. In this case the exposure lasted 73 hours during which the conversion decreased considerably, namely from 71% to 43%.
• Example 27 serves to demonstrate the tolerance of catalyst A towards sulfur in low concentrations.
• the experiment was carried out by loading the catalyst pellets and pellets of ZnS alternately one by one.
• the test had duration of 144 hours during which the CO-conversion (C) was constant at 49%.
• the catalyst was analyzed and found to contain 260 ppm S.
• the catalyst contained 5.4% S which means that this partly sulfided catalyst has the same activity as the original, sulfur free catalyst.
• Data are listed in Table 6.
• Catalyst shaped as cylindrical pellets, 6.0 mm x 4.0 mm, d 1.8 g/cm 3 Ex. Cat [C1] in gas ppm [C1] in cat. % [S] in gas ppm [S] in cat.
• Example 31 is a comparative example with catalyst C8 showing that promotion by copper does not last long and therefore that this relatively costly element may safely be excluded. These integral experiments were run for more than 1300 hours. Table 7 lists the activities of catalysts I and C8 as function of time-on-stream (TOS). Table 7 Integral experiments.
• This example presents a comparison of energy consumption when operating a process for ammonia or hydrogen production at the conventional S/C ratio of 2.75 with respect to a low S/C ratio of 1.8.
• the results of Table 8 show that by the invention it is now possible to significantly reduce the S/C ratio in the reforming section, thereby increasing the energy efficiency (lower SNEC values) as well as reducing the size of plant equipment significantly.
• HTS: S/C 2.75 PFD calc.

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