EP1602142B1 - Energy storage devices - Google Patents

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EP1602142B1
EP1602142B1 EP04716515.4A EP04716515A EP1602142B1 EP 1602142 B1 EP1602142 B1 EP 1602142B1 EP 04716515 A EP04716515 A EP 04716515A EP 1602142 B1 EP1602142 B1 EP 1602142B1
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Prior art keywords
lithium battery
secondary lithium
alkyl
perfluorinated
anion
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English (en)
French (fr)
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EP1602142A4 (en
EP1602142A1 (en
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Anthony Frank Hollenkamp
Patrick Craig Howlett
Douglas Robert Macfarlane
Stewart Alexander Forsyth
Maria Forsyth
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Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization CSIRO
Monash University
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Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization CSIRO
Monash University
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/54—Electrolytes
    • H01G11/56—Solid electrolytes, e.g. gels; Additives therein
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/54—Electrolytes
    • H01G11/58—Liquid electrolytes
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
    • H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
    • H01G11/54—Electrolytes
    • H01G11/58—Liquid electrolytes
    • H01G11/62—Liquid electrolytes characterised by the solute, e.g. salts, anions or cations therein
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/056—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes
    • H01M10/0564—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes the electrolyte being constituted of organic materials only
    • H01M10/0566—Liquid materials
    • H01M10/0567—Liquid materials characterised by the additives
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/056—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes
    • H01M10/0564—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes the electrolyte being constituted of organic materials only
    • H01M10/0566—Liquid materials
    • H01M10/0568—Liquid materials characterised by the solutes
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M2300/00—Electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0017—Non-aqueous electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0025—Organic electrolyte
    • H01M2300/0045—Room temperature molten salts comprising at least one organic ion
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/13—Energy storage using capacitors

Definitions

  • This invention relates to the application of pyrrolidinium based room temperature ionic liquids as electrolytes in secondary lithium batteries.
  • the present invention further relates to secondary lithium batteries, containing the electrolyte.
  • Lithium rechargeable batteries i.e. secondary lithium batteries, in which lithium ions are the principal charge carriers
  • secondary lithium batteries in which lithium ions are the principal charge carriers
  • lithium metal is the preferred negative electrode material.
  • lithium metal is the preferred negative electrode material.
  • the lithium metal electrode to develop a dendritic surface [1] - The dendritic deposits limit cycle life and present a safety hazard due to their ability to short circuit the cell - potentially resulting in fire and explosion.
  • Room temperature ionic liquids are organic ionic salts having a melting point below the boiling point of water (100°C). Accordingly, within this class are organic ionic salts that are liquid over a wide temperature range, typically from below room temperature to above 200oC.
  • the electrolyte comprises (i) a plastic crystal ionic compound which is itself comprised of either the N-methyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium ion or the N-methyl-N-ethylpyrrolidinium ion as the cation and the bis(trifluoromethanesulflonyl)amide ion as the anion (in the literature in this field the term “amide” and “imide” are often used interchangeable and refer to the same ligand).
  • the electrolytes are waxy solids at room temperature.
  • WO 99/40025 A discloses ionic compounds having a cation of the omnium type with at least one heteroatom comprising N. O, S or P bearing the positive charge and a cation of the formula (FX 1 O)N - (OX 2 F) wherein X 1 and X 2 are the same or different and comprise SO or PF.
  • examples include five-membered ring cations including two or three heteroatoms. The compounds are useful as electrolyte solutes.
  • a room temperature ionic liquid according to claim 41 which is a salt of:
  • RTIL room temperature ionic liquid
  • the electrolyte may comprise one or more further components, including one or more further room temperature ionic liquids, one or more solid electrolyte interphase-forming additives; one or more gelling additives; counterions to the lithium ions which are either the same as or different to the anions of the room temperature ionic liquid; and organic solvents. Consequently, references to "a" cation or “an” anion should be interpreted broadly to encompass one or more of each of these.
  • Solid electrolyte interphase-forming additives are shown to improve the deposit morphology and efficiency of the lithium cycling process.
  • the gelling additives provide a gel material while retaining the conductivity of the liquid. This offers specific benefits over liquids in that it will enable fabrication of a flexible, compact, laminated device free from leakage and capable of construction with varying geometry.
  • the electrolytes of the present invention are liquid at their intended use temperature, and have characteristics that make them suitable for use in secondary lithium batteries, and particularly lithium metal batteries.
  • the electrolytes have high stability towards lithium, and provide long cycle life with a lithium metal electrode.
  • the secondary lithium battery of the invention comprises:
  • the battery is referred to as a lithium-ion battery.
  • the charging method comprises charging, for at least a part of the charging stage (i.e. for at least 5 minutes), at a charge rate of less than 0.25 mAcm -2 .
  • the conditioning method comprises the steps of discharging and recharging the battery wherein the recharging is conducted at a rate of less than 0.25 mAcm -2 for at least a part of the recharging stage.
  • Room temperature ionic liquids are organic ionic salts having a melting point below the boiling point of water (100°C).
  • the RTILs of the present application need to have a melting point such that the ionic salt will be in liquid form at the temperature of operation of the device. Those having melting points of 10°C or less are preferred. The liquid form is necessary to provide high enough conductivity. Use of RTILs that are solid at the operating temperature are not sufficiently conductive.
  • liquid is used broadly to encompass gels, which have conductivity similar to liquids, but not to solids.
  • the RTILs possess a wide electrochemical window, high thermal stability, low safety hazards (non-flammable, non-volatile), and low toxicity.
  • the salts obtain their liquid character from the properties of the anions and cations of which they are comprised.
  • pyrrolidinium cation refers to cations of formula I, of the general pyrrolidinium structure, or derivatives thereof which may not strictly be considered to be “pyrrolidiniums". Examples of such derivatives are the phosphorous based analogues described below.
  • alkyl is used in its broadest sense to refer to any straight chain, branched or cyclic alkyl groups of from 1 to 20 carbon atoms in length and preferably from 1 to 10 atoms in length.
  • the term encompasses methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, s-butyl, pentyl, hexyl and so forth.
  • the alkyl chain may also contain hetero-atoms, a halogen, a nitrile group, and generally other groups or ring fragments consistent with the substituent promoting or supporting electrochemical stability and conductivity.
  • Halogen, halo, the abbreviation "Hal” and the like terms refer to fluoro, chloro, bromo and iodo, or the halide anions as the case may be.
  • R3, R4, R5 and R6 can be any of the groups identified above, but is most suitably H or halo (based on the fact that the pyrrolidinium cation may be partially or fully halogenated, as described in further detail below).
  • the expression "any other group” encompasses any substituent or ring fragment consistent with the substituent promoting or supporting electrochemical stability and conductivity.
  • R1 is preferably methyl, or partially or fully halogenated methyl (based on the fact that the pyrrolidinium cation may be partially or fully halogenated, described below). It will be understood that R1 cannot generally be H, as this may result in reduced electrochemical stability.
  • X may be N, in which case the cation is a pyrrolidinium cation, or it may be P, in which case the cation is the phosphonium salt.
  • N is typically used, although the function of the phosphonium analogue can be predicted to be very similar to that of the pyrrolidinium cation.
  • X may be As, in which case an arsolanium analogue is obtained.
  • the cation of Formula I may be partly or fully halogenated.
  • Chemical modification of this class of cations is a well-explored field, and is known to be a suitable technique for modifying the electrochemical stability and conductivity of the cation. It also impacts on the melting point of the ionic salt of the cation and anion, thus enabling a selection of a suitable ionic salt having the necessary melting point to be made.
  • the fluorinated cation may in some cases be obtained by alkylation of a suitable perfluorinated precursor (e.g., from a perfluorinated pyrrolidine), which can be obtained from commercial source.
  • a perfluoroalkyl substituted pyrrolidinium can be obtained by the reaction of a suitable perfluorinated alkyl halide with pyrrolidine as demonstrated by Singh et al . 1
  • Other methods allowing direct fluorination of the RTIL electrolyte can also be applied. 2
  • R2 can impact significantly on the melting point of the room temperature ionic liquid.
  • R2 is preferably an alkyl of 2 or more carbon atoms, more preferably three or more carbon atoms, and is suitably iso -propyl or an alkyl of 4 or more carbon atoms.
  • R2 is butyl, the melting point is most appropriate for standard ambient temperature applications (eg 10 - 25°C), whereas shorter carbon chain lengths in this position tend to lower the melting point, making the electrolyte only suitable for higher temperature applications.
  • the device may operate in the temperature range of from -30°C to 200°C.
  • Lower end temperature devices would suitably operate in the 0-50°C region, and higher temperature devices in the 40°-150°C region.
  • the bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide salts of N-ethyl N-methyl pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide melt at 86°C, N-prepyl N-methyl pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide at 13°C and N-butyl N-methyl pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide at -18°C, in the absence of Li salt or other additives.
  • the melting points vary with additives, but are most often lower.
  • the appropriate cation can be selected to provide an electrolyte composition that is liquid and has the required stability and cycle life for a given application, at a given temperature range.
  • anion is used broadly to refer to any organic or inorganic anion forming a salt with the cation.
  • the choice of anion is principally based on the salt of the anion and the cation being liquid at the intended use temperature.
  • the choice of anion will be based upon the anion having sufficient electrochemical stability for the chosen electrodes of the energy storage device.
  • the anion associated with the cation(s) may for instance be selected from one or more of the following:
  • the preferred classes are those outlined in groups (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (vi) above.
  • the room temperature ionic liquid contains only one type of cation of Formula I with that cation being N-methyl-N-ethylpyrrolidinium or N-methyl-N-propylpyrrolidinium, and the electrolyte contains no additives
  • the anion is selected to be other than N(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 - , CF 3 SO 3 - , N(C 2 F s SO 2 ) 2 - , BF 4 - and PF 6 - .
  • These specific room temperature ionic liquids are typically more solid or waxy at lower temperatures.
  • room temperature ionic liquids based on N-methyl-N-butylpyrrolidinium as the single cation of Formula I have a lower melting point and are demonstrated to operate well in the applications described herein, even without additives.
  • the electrolyte may comprise a combination of two different room temperature ionic liquids. These may be referred to as the "first" room temperature ionic liquid, which is based on a cation of Formula I, and an anion, and the "second" room temperature ionic liquid.
  • the second RTIL may be of any type, and therefore the cation component may be an ammonium cation, an imidazolium cation, a pyrrolidinium cation, a morpholinium cation, a pyridinium cation, a guanadinium cation, a piperidinium cation or a phosphorous-based derivative of the cations described above containing a nitrogen atom.
  • the second RTIL also comprises a cation of Formula I, although the second RTIL overall must be of a different identity to the first RTIL.
  • RTILs in the electrolyte
  • the mixture will lower the melting point, thereby making the electrolyte more suitable for broader temperature range applications.
  • a mixture may also enhance conductivity and, in some cases, electrochemical stability.
  • N-methyl-N-propylpyrrolidinium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) amide and N-methyl-N-butyl-pyrrolidinium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl) amide is mentioned.
  • additives there are two main classes of additives that may be useful in the electrolyte of the present application. They are the solid electrolyte interphase-forming additives, and the gelling additives.
  • the solid electrolyte interphase is a surface formed on the lithium electrode in a lithium metal secondary cell.
  • the SEI is a passivation layer that forms rapidly because of the reactive nature of lithium metal.
  • the SEI has a dual role:
  • the SEI is generally made up of a variety components. Usually, some "native" components are present due to exposure to atmospheric contaminant at some point in the fabrication process. Once the cell has been fabricated, the electrolyte will usually react to form additional components in the SEI, which are reduction products of the electrolyte (which may be thought of as a solvent) and/or salt. In some of the examples presented below, the RTIL consisted of P 1x (Tf) 2 N. The spectroscopic evidence indicated that the SEI was formed from reduction products of the (Tf) 2 N - anion. The reduction of just one component of the electrolyte appears to impart favourable cycling properties to the lithium electrode in these electrolytes. However, the use of an additive consisting of selected components is predicted to contribute to the SEI, and therefore according to one embodiment a SEI-forming additive may be used.
  • SEI-forming additives may be selected from the group consisting of:
  • Gelling additives may be used to impart gel properties. Gels may be considered to be “quasi-solids” as they have some structural properties, but retain the conductive properties of the liquid. Consequently gels are within the scope of the term "liquid” in the present application.
  • the gelling additives may be selected from inorganic particulate materials (sometimes referred to as nanocomposites, being fine particulate inorganic composites). Amongst these, examples are SiO 2 , TiO 2 and Al 2 O 3 .
  • Polymer or polymerizable monomer components may also be used to gel the RTIL into an elastomeric material.
  • Polymers useful for such a purpose include methylmethacrylate, dimethylaminoacrylamide and dimethylaminoethylacrylamide. Lithium polyelectrolyte salts can also be used for this purpose.
  • the lithium ions are generally incorporated into the electrolyte by the addition of a lithium salt, consisting of lithium ions and counterions, to the room temperature ionic liquid. Once added, the lithium ions and counterions dissociate, and are effectively a solute to the room temperature ionic liquid solvent. If the counterions are the same as the anion of the room temperature ionic liquid, then the lithium addition can be considered to be doping of the electrolyte. In other words, doping can be considered as a cation substitution. Alternatively a different counterion can be used.
  • the counterion can be within the classes (i) to (xiii) listed above for the anions, or may be any other counterion for lithium, including polyanions. Generally, however, the counterion for the lithium will be one or more ions selected from classes (i) to (xiii).
  • the concentration of lithium can be between 0.01% and 90% of the overall material by weight, preferably between 1 and 49% by weight. It is generally simpler to refer to the lithium concentration of the electrolyte in moles of lithium ions per kilogram of total electrolyte, and in this unit the lithium is suitably present in an amount of from 0.01 to 2.0 mol/kg, preferably 0.1 - 1.5 mol/kg, and most preferably 0.2 - 0.6 mol/kg.
  • the result is a liquid at room temperature in the cases of some members of the above salt families. In a most cases a liquid is generated over some temperature region.
  • the electrolyte may comprise any number of further components, one example being an organic solvent.
  • organic solvents are water immiscible organic solvents.
  • the organic solvent may be used in an amount of 0-90 wt%, preferably 10-70 wt%.
  • the electrolytes described in the invention are preferably prepared by adding lithium salt to the room temperature ionic liquid (or molten plastic crystal), mixing and drying under vacuum at elevated temperature.
  • the electrolyte is then degassed, for example by contacting with a stream of dry argon, to remove dissolved gases and residual water.
  • the term energy storage device encompasses any device that stores or holds electrical energy, and encompasses batteries, supercapacitors and asymmetric (hybrid) battery-supercapacitors.
  • the term battery encompasses single cells.
  • Lithium based energy storage devices are ones that contain lithium ions in the electrolyte.
  • Lithium battery encompasses both lithium ion batteries and lithium metal batteries.
  • Lithium ion batteries and lithium metal batteries are well known and understood devices, the typical general components of which are well known in the art of the invention.
  • Secondary lithium batteries are lithium batteries which are rechargeable.
  • the combination of the electrolyte and negative electrode of such batteries must be such as to enable both plating/alloying (or intercalation) of lithium onto the electrode (i.e. charging) and stripping/de-alloying (or de-intercalation) of lithium from the electrode (i.e. discharging).
  • the electrolyte is required to have a high stability towards lithium, for instance approaching ⁇ 0V vs. Li/Li + .
  • the electrolyte cycle life is also required to be sufficiently good, for instance at least 100 cycles (for some applications), and for others, at least 1000 cycles.
  • the negative electrode comprises a metal substrate, which acts as a current collector, and a negative electrode material.
  • the negative electrode material can be lithium metal, a lithium alloy forming material, or a lithium intercalation material; lithium can be reduced onto/into any of these materials electrochemically in the device.
  • the metal substrate underlying the lithium can be of importance in determining the cycle performance of the cell. This element may also have the role of current collector in the cell.
  • the metal substrate may be any suitable metal or alloy, and may for instance be formed from one or more of the metals Pt, Au, Ti, Al, W, Cu or Ni. Preferably the metal substrate is Cu or Ni.
  • the negative electrode surface may be formed either in situ or as a native film.
  • native film is well understood in the art, and refers to a surface film that is formed on the electrode surface upon exposure to a controlled environment prior to contacting the electrolyte. The exact identity of the film will depend on the conditions under which it is formed, and the term encompasses these variations.
  • the surface may alternatively be formed in situ, by reaction of the negative electrode surface with the electrolyte. The use of a native film is preferred.
  • the positive electrode is formed from any typical lithium intercalation material, such as a transition metal oxides and their lithium compounds.
  • transition metal oxide composite material is mixed with binder such as a polymeric binder, and any appropriate conductive additives such as graphite, before being applied to or formed into a current collector of appropriate shape.
  • any typical separator known in the art may be used, including glass fibre separators and polymeric separators, particularly microporous polyolefins.
  • the battery will be in the form of a single cell, although multiple cells are possible.
  • the cell or cells may be in plate or spiral form, or any other form.
  • the negative electrode and positive electrode are in electrical connection with the battery terminals.
  • a supercapacitor comprises:
  • Asymmetric (hybrid) battery-supercapacitors are devices in which one battery electrode is combined with one supercapacitor electrode to yield an energy storage device which has properties that are intermediate between those of batteries and supercapacitors.
  • an asymmetric battery-supercapacitor comprises:
  • the negative electrode is a battery negative electrode, such as a lithium intercalation material or a lithium metal electrode
  • the positive electrode is a supercapacitor positive electrode, typically a high surface area carbon electrode material bonded to a metal substrate.
  • the negative electrode is a supercapacitor electrode, typically a high surface area carbon electrode material bonded to a metal substrate
  • the positive electrode is a battery electrode, such as one that contains a lithium intercalation material.
  • the electrolyte may contain some lithium ions, but need not do so. Accordingly, in this embodiment of the invention, the presence of lithium ions is optional.
  • the initial rate of deposition of lithium onto the substrate is also of importance in developing long cycle life batteries.
  • the initial deposition rate is less than 0.25 mAcm -2 during at least a part of the charging stage of the device, battery or cell.
  • the device battery or cell is suitably charged at this rate for a period of not less than 5 minutes during the charging stage. Charge-discharge cycling can then take place at a higher rate.
  • Conditioning is a method used to influence the surface properties of the electrodes, and particularly the negative electrode.
  • the device, battery or cell is suitably conditioned by subjecting the device, battery or cell to successive discharging and recharging steps, wherein the recharging is conducted at a rate of less than 0.5 mAcm -2 (preferably less than 0.25 mAcm -2 ) for at least a part of the recharging stage. Preferably that period is not less than 5 minutes duration.
  • the preparation of the phospholanium salts requires the synthesis of a phospholane precursor, although it is noted that the six-membered phosphorinane and the corresponding phosphorinanium salt could be prepared.
  • the phospholane precursor can be synthesized from trimethylphosphite according to the scheme outlined below, as described by Emrich and Jolly. [1]
  • the phospholane can be converted to a quaternary phosphonium species through reaction with the appropriate alkyl halide (alkylation) to form the alkyl phospholanium halide salt, as shown below (where X is a halide e.g., r - , Br - , Cl - etc.):
  • the RTIL can be obtained from the halide precursor by metathesis, with the route being dictated by the relative solubility of the product and by-product.
  • a hydrophobic product e.g., using Li(Tf) 2 N
  • a hydrophilic product can be obtained by metathesis with a silver salt (e.g., AgDCA) in aqueous solution.
  • the insoluble by-product e.g., AgI
  • 'Battery' like cells were fabricated using resealable stainless steel cells which were developed in-house, as illustrated in Figure 1 .
  • the basic design incorporated a case 1, electrodes 2a and 2b, a separator 3 incorporating electrolyte, polypropylene sleeves 4, a socket head screw 5, and a Teflon gasket 6 to seal, and electrically isolate, the two halves of the cell.
  • Stack pressure in the cell was maintained by means of a spring 7, which applied -1 kgcm -2 stack pressure perpendicular to the electrode surface.
  • the lower electrode 2b was generally the lithium electrode. This was formed from lithium metal foil (Aldrich 99.9 % - thickness 180 ⁇ m), which was washed with hexane and brushed with a polyethylene brush.
  • the positive electrode 2a was prepared by coating a foil (either aluminium or platinum) with an active material formulation.
  • the active material (AM) was either LiCoO 2 or LiMn 2 O 4 .
  • the electrode coating was prepared by weighing the components in the following ratios;- AM - 80%, Graphite (KS 4 ) - 7%, Carbon Black - 3%, PVdF - 10%.
  • the solid components were mixed in a mortar and pestle and a quantity of dimethylacetamide (DMAc ⁇ 130%) was added slowly with mixing to form a slurry.
  • the slurry was transferred to a beaker and heated (low heat) with constant stirring until the mixture had reached the correct consistency.
  • the slurry was then applied to the current collector (aluminium or platinum) using the doctor blade technique.
  • the resulting coated foil was then dried at 60 °C for several hours prior to drying under "vacuum at 60 °C for greater than 24 hours.
  • the cells were assembled (in an Argon glovebox) by placing an electrode 2b in the case 1, adding a separator 4 (already wetted with electrolyte) and by finally placing the second electrode 2a.
  • the cells were sealed in the glovebox and could then be removed for testing.
  • the electrochemical measurements were performed in a 3-electrode cell 8, consisting of a platinum (or copper) working electrode (WE) 9, a lithium quasi-reference electrode (RE) 10, and a lithium counter electrode (CE) 11.
  • WE platinum (or copper) working electrode
  • RE lithium quasi-reference electrode
  • CE lithium counter electrode
  • Integrating the curves provides a measure of the amount of charge deposited (reduced Li + ) and the amount of charge stripped (oxidised Li(s).
  • the ratio of [oxidised Li(s) reduced Li + ] provides a measure of the efficiency of the deposition/dissolution process. An efficiency of less than 100% indicates that the deposited lithium has reacted with the electrolyte and/or contaminants to produce a product that is not electrochemically reversible.
  • cycling efficiency measurements were made using the 3-electrode cell described above. A deposit of lithium was galvanostatically plated onto the surface of the working electrode followed by cycling of a fraction of the original excess. The number of cycles required to consume the original excess (indicated by a sharp change in dissolution potential) was used to calculate the 'average cycling efficiency' of the electrolyte. All cycling efficiency values were determined at 50oC in -0.5 mL of electrolyte. The cycling efficiency is defined by: Avg. Cyc. Eff.
  • the electrochemical stability of a 0.5 mol/kg lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide in methyl butyl pyrrolidinium bis (trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide on a lithium electrode deposited on to a Ni substrate is determined by cyclic voltammetry using the 3-electrode cell described above (with Ni working electrode). The test was conducted at 100 mVs -1 and at ambient temperature. The results of the test are illustrated in Figure 3 . High reversibility is observed, with no indication of degradation of the electrolyte.
  • test of example 2 is repeated on a platinum substrate at the higher rate of 1.0 mAcm -2 and 1 Ccm -2 (0.25 Ccm -2 cycled fraction).
  • the electrode cycles for 430 cycles ( Figure 5 ), indicating a cycling efficiency of 99.1 %. Because of the large number of cycles, only the maximum deposition (reduction) and dissolution (oxidation) potentials for each cycle are shown.
  • the platinum substrate was substituted with a copper substrate and the test of example 2 repeated with the new substrate.
  • the test was conducted at 0.25 mAcm -2 and 1 Ccm -2 (0.25 Ccm -2 cycled fraction).
  • the electrode cycles for 9 cycles ( Figure 7 ) indicating a cycling efficiency of greater than 69.2 %.
  • the cycling efficiency test generally outlined in example 2 was repeated with changes made to the electrolyte used, additive, lithium salt, salt concentration and/or temperature, combined with the current density outlined in the table.
  • a copper substrate was used, and the room temperature ionic liquid was methyl propyl pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide, unless indicated in the left-hand column.
  • the lithium salt used was lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)amide.
  • the lithium ion (lithium salt) concentration was 0.5 mol/kg unless otherwise stated in brackets in the left column of the table.
  • the results are summarised below. Additive or details of variation Temp.
  • the electrolyte used in Example 1 was incorporated into a cell as illustrated in Figure 1 .
  • the cell incorporated a lithium negative electrode, a 0.5 molkg -1 Li(Tf) 2 N/P 14 (Tf) 2 N electrolyte, a CelgardTM separator and a LiMn 2 O 4 positive electrode on an aluminium current collector.
  • the cell was cycled at the C/10 rate (i.e., 10 hours to charge/discharge) at 50°C. The results of the cycling of this cell are presented in Figure 11 .
  • the electrolyte used in Example 8 was incorporated into the cell as illustrated in Figure 1 .
  • the cell incorporated a lithium negative electrode, a 0.5 molkg -1 Li(Tf) 2 N/P 13 (Tf) 2 N electrolyte, a glass fibre separator and a LiMn 2 O 4 positive electrode on an platinum current collector.
  • the use of a platinum current collector for the positive electrode improves the capacity retention.
  • the cell was cycled at the C/10 rate (i.e., 10 hours to charge/discharge) at 80 °C. The results of the cycling of this cell are presented in Figure 12 .
  • the cell of Example 11 was modified by substituting the LiMn 2 O 4 positive electrode with a LiCoO 2 positive electrode.
  • the cell incorporated a lithium negative electrode, a 0.5 molkg -1 Li(Tf) 2 N/P 13 (Tf) 2 N electrolyte, a glass fibre separator and a LiCoO 2 positive electrode on an platinum current collector.
  • the cell was cycled at the C/10 rate (i.e., 10 hours to charge/discharge) at 80 °C. The results of the cycling of this cell are presented in Figure 13 .
  • the electrochemical stability of phosphonium based RTILs is indicated by example 13.
  • a room temperature ionic liquid comprising a phosphonium cation with three n-butyl groups, a single n-hexadecane chain and xylene sulfonate anion (P 44416 XS) was used.
  • the phosphonium based RTIL was tested in the 3-electrode cell, using a platinum working electrode, glassy carbon counter electrode and a silver quasi-reference electrode. The test was conducted at 100mVs -2 at 100°C. The results are presented in Figure 14 . This figure shows that electrode exhibits minimal current response over a 10V range, indicating sufficient stability for application in an electrochemical device such as a rechargeable lithium cell.

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