CN100409008C - 电化学方法 - Google Patents
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Abstract
一种用于测定样品中的还原或氧化形态的氧化还原物质的浓度的方法,包括如下步骤:在电化学电池的工作电极和反电极之间施加电压,其中这些电极被隔开以致于反应产物从反电极到达工作电极,使得氧化还原物质的电解氧化受扩散控制;测定作为时间函数的电流;估算稳态电流的强度;反转电压;再次测定作为时间函数的电流并且估算稳定状态的反转电压。
Description
(本申请是申请日为1996年11月15日、申请号为96199076.7、发明名称相同的申请的分案申请。)
技术领域
本发明涉及一种用于测定载体中分析物浓度的电化学方法并涉及一种用于实施该方法的装置。
背景技术
此处描述的发明是对我们共同未决的申请PCT/AU96/00365中所述的发明的改进或修改,其内容在此引入以供参考。
此处将特别结合一种用以测量血液中葡萄糖浓度的生物传感器对本发明进行描述,但是应当理解本发明并不限于这种特定应用,也可以用于其它分析测量中。
为测量含水液体样品中的待分析成分的浓度,公知方法是通过将样品置于电化学电池的反应区进行测量,其中电化学电池具有两个电极,其间具有使它们适于电流测量的阻抗。允许待分析成分直接与一个电极反应,或者直接或间接与氧化还原剂反应,从而形成一种可氧化的(或可还原的)物质,其总量与待分析成分的浓度相对应。然后通过电化学方法测量存在的可氧化(或可还原的)物质的分量。这种方法通常需要使电极充分分离,以使测量期间一个电极的电解产物不会到达另一电极而影响另一电极的反应过程。
在我们共同未决的申请中,我们描述了一种用于测定在具有一个工作电极和一个与该工作电极隔开的反电极(或反/参考电极)的电化学电池中还原(或氧化)形态的氧化还原物质的浓度的新方法。该方法包括如下步骤,在电极之间施加电位差,将工作电极与反电极隔开以便反应产物从反电极到达工作电极,以及选择工作电极的电位使得还原形态的物质的电解氧化(或氧化形态物质的电解还原)速率受扩散控制。通过在施加电压之后并且在达到稳态电流之前测定作为时间函数的电流,然后估算稳态电流的强度,前述方法使得能够测定还原(或氧化)形态物质的扩散系数和/或浓度。
在我们共同未决的申请中,结合使用了采用GOD/氰亚铁酸盐系统(GOD)/Ferrocyanide system)的“薄层”电池对该方法进行了举例说明。这里所用的术语“薄层电化学电池”是指具有小间距的电极从而使反应产物可由反电极到达工作电极的电池。实际上,用于测量血液中葡萄糖浓度的这种电池中电极的间隔小于500微米,并且最好小于200微米。
例示的电化学电池中所用化学原理如下:
葡萄糖+GOD→葡糖酸+GOD* 反应1
GOD*+2氰铁酸盐→GOD+2氰亚铁酸盐 反应2
其中GOD为葡萄糖氧化酶,GOD*为‘活化’酶。氰铁酸盐([Fe(CN)6]3)为使GOD*返回其催化状态的‘介体’。反应过程中只要存在过量介体,催化酶GOD就不会消耗。氰亚铁酸盐([Fe(CN)6]4)为整个反应的产物。理论上开始时没有氰亚铁酸盐,但实际中常有少量。在反应结束后,氰亚铁酸盐的浓度(以电化学方法测量)表示葡萄糖的初始浓度。整个反应过程是反应1和2之和:
“葡萄糖”具体指β-D-葡萄糖。
已有技术具有诸多缺点。首先,所需样品尺寸大于所希望尺寸。通常希望能对较小体积的样品进行测量,因为这反过来使得能够在获取样品时采用损失更小的方法。
其次,通常希望提高测量精度并且消除或减少由于例如电池不对称或者在批量生产微电池时引入的其它因素所导致的偏差。
再者,通常希望减少得到测量值所需的时间。目前市场上可获得的电化学葡萄糖探测器中采用的测试议定书在开始测试时包含一个预定的等待时间,此时酶与葡萄糖反应以产生供电化学探测的物质。此开始时间设定为在所有使用条件下实现所需反应所必需的最大值。
再次,希望消除由氧引起的偏差。氧可以富含于血液中,或者溶解在血浆中,或者与血红蛋白结合。它也可以在“指刺”(finger sticking)时引入,其时小体积而大表面积的血滴在加入电池之前暴露于空气中。因为氧是GOD的介体,所以氧会造成干扰。其反应如下:
葡萄糖+GOD→葡糖酸+GOD* 反应4
GOD*+氧+水→GOD+过氧化氢 反应5
其总体反应由下式给出:
在多数场合,氧气也用作介体的复杂状态是不希望的,因为最终氰亚铁酸盐的浓度已不再直接与初始葡萄糖浓度成正比。其结果是,初始葡萄糖浓度既与氰亚铁酸盐的最终浓度也与过氧化氢的最终浓度相关。
发明内容
本发明目的在于提供一种用于测定载体中分析物浓度的方法,它避免或弥补了已有技术的缺点。本发明优选形式的目的在于提供一种具有改进精度、和/或可靠性和/或速度的生物传感器。
根据一个方面,本发明包括一种用于测定在具有一个工作电极和一个与该工作电极隔开一予定间距的反电极的电化学电池中还原(或氧化)形态的氧化还原物质的浓度的方法,所述方法包括如下步骤:
(a)在电极之间施加电压,其中该电极被隔开以致于反应产物从反电极通过扩散到达工作电极,并且其中工作电极的电位使得还原形态(或氧化形态)的氧化还原物质的电解氧化速率受扩散控制,
(b)在施加电压之后并且在达到稳定状态之前,测定作为时间函数的电流,
(c)估算稳态电流的强度,
(d)中断电压,或者反转电压极性,
(e)重复步骤(b)和步骤(c)。
本发明缘于如下发现,即如果在达到初始稳定状态之后反转极性(即阳极变为阴极而阴极变为阳极),则可以观察到第二暂态电流,并且在过一段时间后达到第二稳定状态。这已被证明对诊断是有帮助的,有助于降低电池不对称和其它影响暂态电流的因素所造成的影响。通过采用反转电极允许重复进行测量,还可以实现较高可靠性和/或精度的测量。类似地,如果使电压中断一段足以使浓度分布恢复随机状态的时间,然后再重新施加,则可以重复步骤(b)和步骤(c)。
根据第二方面,本发明包括一种根据第一方面的方法,用于通过一个电池测量样品中的葡萄糖浓度,其中该电池具有一个工作电极、一个反电极、催化酶和氧化还原介体,该方法包括使电池在高于氧化还原反应电位的电位下工作的步骤,以便使过氧化氢在阳极氧化,从而构成一种根据第一方面的方法。
通过此方法可以弥补氧气影响,这在后面将进一步说明。
根据第三方面,本发明包括一种根据第一或第二方面的方法,其中允许样品与催化酶及氧化还原介体反应,包括如下步骤:
(a)在填充电池之前或其间,在电极之间施加电压,
(b)测量作为时间函数的电流的增加,
(c)根据步骤(b)中的测量结果确定或预计与所述催化剂反应完成的时间,以及
(d)然后中断电压,或者反转电压极性。
附图说明
下面仅以示例方式并且参照附图对本发明进行更详细的说明,附图中:
图1例示出在根据本发明的电池中发生的反应。
图2表示在根据本发明的电化学电池中,在施加电压之前和施加电压之后且在达到稳定状态之前的浓度分布以及在稳定状态的浓度分布。
图3表示在施加电压之前和之后电流随时间变化的曲线。
图4表示在根据本发明的电化学电池中,在极性反转之前,反转之后达到稳定状态之前,以及在稳定状态时氰亚铁酸盐的浓度分布。
图5表示在极性反转之前和之后电流随时间变化的曲线。
图6表示在中断所施加电压15秒之前和之后电流随时间变化的曲线。
图7表示其中过氧化物被氧化的电化学电池中发生的反应。
图8表示在施加足以使过氧化氢氧化的初始电压时电流随时间变化的曲线。
图9画出了图7中电池的平面图。
图10通过沿图9中线10-10的剖面图描述了适用于本发明的电池的一个实施例。
图11画出了图7中电池的端剖面图。
具体实施方式
参照图9、10和11,仅以示例方式画出了(未按比例)适于本发明方法采用的一种电化学电池。
该电池包括一聚酯芯层4,大约18mm×5mm且厚约100微米,并且具有一直径3.4mm的圆孔8。孔8限定了一个圆柱状电池侧壁10。在芯层4的一侧粘接有一个带有钯溅射镀层2的聚酯板1。溅镀是在4至6毫巴压强的氩气氛中进行的,以产生厚约100-1000埃的均匀镀层。所述板通过粘合剂3粘接至芯层4,使钯2与芯层4相邻并覆盖孔8。
具有第二钯溅射镀层6的第二聚酯板7,通过压合式粘合剂5粘接至芯层4的另一侧并覆盖孔8。从而确定了一个具有圆柱状侧壁10和靠近的金属钯端部的电池。该组件在9处开有凹口,以便使溶液可以进入电池或者通过虹吸或毛细作用吸入,并且使空气可以逸出。金属膜2、6以适当的电连接方式或形式加以连接,从而可以施加电压并且可以用测量电流的方式对电压进行测量。对该电池装以干燥形式的GOD和氰亚铁酸盐。图1中简要画出了此电池。
在使用时,根据本方法,在9处通过毛细作用向电池中加入一滴血液并使其反应。
实施例
可以参照图1考虑用于测量完全反应后的氰亚铁酸盐浓度的电化学装置。
在薄层电池中,氰亚铁酸盐和氰铁酸盐的浓度(在完成‘酶催化’反应之后)在整个电池中都是相等的(所考虑轴线处在两电极之间)。图2给出了氰亚铁酸盐的浓度分布曲线。
当在电池之中施加一定电压时,氰铁酸盐在阴极处转化为氰亚铁酸盐,而氰亚铁酸盐在阳极处转化为氰铁酸盐。其化学计量设置为在完全反应后与氰亚铁酸盐相比仍然具有过量的氰铁酸盐。由于此原因,限制完全电化学反应的过程在于氰亚铁酸盐在阳极处向氰铁酸盐的转化,仅因为氰亚铁酸盐具有明显较低的浓度。对氰亚铁酸盐反应的速率限制措施还在于氰亚铁酸盐向阳极的扩散。经过一段时间后,达到稳定状态,氰亚铁酸盐和氰铁酸盐的浓度保持不变(见图2)。
因此,存在两个限制条件:最初时20氰亚铁酸盐均匀地分布于整个电池中。接着,在电池中施加一个已知电压,经过一段时间之后,达到氰亚铁酸盐的稳态浓度分布23。‘过渡状态’22反映随着浓度从初始条件向最终稳态条件23的调整,所测得的通过电池的电流。这在图3中显示为时间的函数。已经发现,在此‘过渡’期间,电流随时间的变化决定于氰亚铁酸盐的总浓度和氰亚铁酸盐的扩散系数。
通过解此条件下的扩散方程,表明通过在有限的可计算时间范围内的下述方程可以充分描述此过渡状态:
其中i为所测电流,iss为稳态电流,D为氰亚铁酸盐在电池中的扩散系数,L为阳极和阴极之间的间隔距离,t为时间。
这是一般扩散方程的简单解。然而,也有可能采用其它解。
最终的稳态电流也决定于氰亚铁酸盐的总浓度和氰亚铁酸盐的扩散系数。稳态电流还可以根据扩散理论建立模型,由下式给出:
其中F为法拉第常数,C为氰亚铁酸盐的初始浓度,A为工作电极的面积。初始浓度表示未经扰动的浓度(如图2中20所示)。
对过渡状态以及稳定状态时观测的电流进行分析,可以计算出氰亚铁酸盐的浓度和扩散系数,从而可以计算出初始的葡萄糖浓度。
通过作出如下曲线可以进行这种分析:
时间函数在一个有限的和可计算的时间范围内基本上是线性的,并且可以通过线性最小二乘回归法进行分析。由于L对于给定电池是一个常数,所以测量作为时间函数的i以及iss,可以计算出氧化还原介体的扩散系数值并且可以确定分析物的浓度。
另一种分析数据的可能方式是利用在向电极施加电压差之后不久电流随时间的变化。在此时间内,其电流可以通过科特雷耳方程充分描述。也即:
i-FAD1/2C/(pi1/2t1/2) 方程4
通过对i随1/t1/2变化的曲线进行最小二乘回归,可以由该曲线的斜率估算出FAD1/2C/pi1/2的值。稳态电流iss如前给出,因此通过结合上述曲线的斜率和稳态电流,可以计算出氰亚铁酸盐的浓度值,它与电池中的氰亚铁酸盐扩散系数无关。这由下式给出:
C=2slope2pi/(FALiss) 方程5
在根据本发明的一个例子中,将血样引入一个薄层电池中,该电池中含有如前面结合图7、8和9所述的GOD/氰亚铁酸盐系统。如图3所示,进行短时间20的反应之后,在电极之间施加一电压,当在施加电压21时开始出现电流,但是电流随后作为一个过渡22降低至稳态水平23。扩散系数和/或葡萄糖浓度可以通过测量作为时间函数的电流和测量稳态电流求得。
根据本发明,随后中断电流,或者例如通过一个适当的切换开关倒转其极性。如果倒转其极性,则随后会观察到一个第二过渡状态,并且在经过更长时间后达到一个第二稳定状态,尽管其分布图相反。图4简要画出了电池中氰亚铁酸盐浓度分布所经历的改变。电流反转前的初始浓度分布为23。新的稳态浓度分布显示为25。过渡状态的浓度分布由24给出例示。
通过解此条件下的扩散方程,表明过渡电流可以描述如下:
因此,在反转极性的情况下易于重新计算其扩散系数和浓度。理论上,其结果应当与过渡状态或极性的形式无关。实际上,其结果由于影响过渡状态的因素的原因会有所变化,例如由于样品不均匀、电极状态,或者更重要地由于电池结构的不对称性。因而此测量对于电池诊断是有用的,并且通过进行重复测量和以反转极性取平均,还可以达到更高的精度。
类似地,如果在达到稳态后中断电压,其初始浓度分布将在短时间(例如4秒)内重新建立起来。
一旦重新建立起(或者接近于)初始状态之后,便可以施加电压,从而重复上述步骤而无需电流反转。图6画出了电流随时间变化的曲线,类似于图3,但是其电压在26处被中断,15秒之后在27处被重新施加,从而产生一个新的过渡电流28和状态29。
如前所述,血液中氧的存在是一个干扰因素,因为最终的氰亚铁酸盐浓度不再直接正比于初始的葡萄糖浓度。初始葡萄糖浓度而是与氰亚铁酸盐加上过氧化氢一起的最终浓度有关。然而,本发明人已经发现,过氧化氢可以在一个高于氰亚铁酸盐/氰铁酸盐氧化还原反应电位的已知电位在阳极处被氧化。图7给出了其整个电化学途径。过氧化氢反应为:
过氧化氢→氧气+2H++2e″ 反应7
如果在酶催化反应过程中向电池中施加一个足以氧化过氧化氢的电压,则在此期间将会发生下述过程:
(a)葡萄糖反应变为葡糖酸。
(b)产生氰亚铁酸盐和过氧化氢。
(c)氰亚铁酸盐/氰铁酸盐氧化还原反应最终达到稳定状态。
(d)过氧化氢在阳极被氧化,产生电子用于将氰铁酸盐转化为氰亚铁酸盐。
总体上,在恒定电压经过一段时间(在图8中大约21/2秒)之后,所有过氧化物将转化为氧气(氧气随后作为催化剂,用于接着完成更多的酶化学反应直到葡萄糖完全消耗),而电子将用于将氰铁酸盐转化为氰亚铁酸盐。
在此阶段(在图8中60秒)施加一个反转过渡状态。也就是说,切换电池的极性,但现在施加适于氰铁酸盐/氰亚铁酸盐氧化还原反应的较低电压。最终的稳定状态时氰亚铁酸盐将再次反映初始的葡萄糖浓度。这可以用前述方式分析以确定初始样品中的葡萄糖总体浓度。
采用本发明的方法,可以用电化学方法就地监测测试的反应阶段,而无须干扰其测量阶段。当反应结束时即可以进行测量,而无需进一步延迟。考虑到不同电池之间酶活性的变化以及不同的温度和葡萄糖浓度,其等待时间因测试而异,并且可以是任何特殊样品和电池所必要的最少时间。这与现有技术形成了鲜明的对比,在现有技术中,在考虑到所有这些因素后,其测量需延迟到反应所需的最长时间。
在本方法中,电池刚开始充满样品后便通过在两个电极之间施加例如-300mV的电压来监测其反应阶段。
很快便可获得还原介体在电池中的线性浓度分布曲线。随着与葡萄糖的酶催化反应所产生的还原介体的增多,此线性浓度分布曲线变得更加陡峭,并且电流也随着增加。当反应结束时电流不再增加。该点可以由熟知的电子手段加以检测,接着便可开始该测试的测量阶段。
通过将理论上的分子运动方程拟合至在测试的此阶段获得的电流时间曲线,还可以估算反应的结束点。此方程可以预测任何时刻的反应进行程度,因而可以得知该结束点何时发生,而不必等到那时。这进一步缩短了测试时间。例如,可以将方程拟合至所测得的前脉冲电流随时间变化的曲线。该方程因而可以预测,在时刻X反应将完成例如90%。如果测量时刻X的浓度,可以将答案除以0.90以得到真实浓度。
该系统中的浓度测量通过反转电压进行,即在电极之间施加+300mV电压。接着得出电流时间曲线,它与双瞬态实验中的第二过渡状态的曲线相同,即通过转换在测量阶段所测的电流i,可以获得ln(i/iss-1)随时间变化的曲线,它具有-4pi^2D/l^2的斜率和ln(4)的截距。因而可以利用正常分析得出葡萄糖的浓度。
在某些情况下难于或不可能知道电化学电池中电极间的距离。例如,很难重复制造或测量非常小的间隔(大约10微米)。在这些情况下,如果其中一个电池在加入样品之前含有已知浓度的分析物或者相应的还原介体,则可以利用来自两个邻接电池的信息,计算样品中分析物的浓度,而无须知道电池的间隔。或者,也可以在向电池中加入样品之前,向将用于两电池之一的样品中加入已知量的该分析物或还原介体。另一种替代方法是,如果两个电池都含有一定浓度的分析物或还原介体,但是每个电池具有的浓度不同。再一个替代方法是,如果向两等份样品中加入两份不同既定量的分析物或还原介体,然后将该两等份样品加入邻接电池。
然后以通常方式利用这两个电化学电池,并且在每个电池中测量下列参数:稳态电流(iss)和由ln(i/iss-1)随时间变化曲线限定的直线的斜率,其中i为所测电流。当知道这些值以及知道两个电池中的分析物或还原介体的浓度差之后(其浓度是已知的,它等于特意加入一个电池中的值),就有可能计算出样品中分析物或还原介体的浓度,而无须知道电极的间隔距离。
上述结构可以与一个第三电池结合使用,该第三电池用于测量由于如下原因引起的背景电流或浓度:例如,通过施加和干燥化学品形成的还原介体,金属表面的催化作用,金属表面的氧化,影响分析物或介体的样品成分,样品的电化学响应成分等等。从上述两个电池所测量的值中减去该背景浓度或电流,对于每个电池计算出样品中分析物所产生的真实值,在其中一种情况下还计算出特意加入电池或样品中的分析物或还原介体所产生的真实值。
本领域技术人员根据此处教导会很清楚,此方法适于与自动测量设备一起使用。所述种类的电池可以用电连接方式连接至配有微处理器的装置或者用以使所需测量进行所需计算并显示其结果的其它编程电子控制和显示电路。除了可以测量血液中葡萄糖浓度之外,此方法还可以用于测量液体中其它分析物的浓度。
本方法可以使用其它方案和/或结构的电池,以及使用不同于例示的已知催化剂和氧化还原引发系统来实施。
Claims (24)
1. 一种用于测定在样品中的还原或氧化形态的氧化还原物质的浓度的方法,所述方法包括如下步骤:
(a)在第一电化学电池的工作电极和反电极之间施加电压,其中这些电极被隔开,使得反应产物从反电极通过扩散到达工作电极,且工作电极的电位使得还原或氧化形态的氧化还原物质的电解氧化速率受扩散控制;
(b)在施加电压之后并且在达到稳定状态之前,测定作为时间函数的电流;
(c)估算稳态电流的强度;
(d)中断或者重新施加电压,或者反转电压极性;
(e)重复步骤(b)和步骤(c);以及
(f)利用包含已知浓度的氧化还原物质或已知浓度的还原的氧化还原介体的第二电池校准第一电池。
2. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中在步骤(d)中反转其极性。
3. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中电极间隔小于500微米。
4. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中电极间隔小于200微米。
5. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中工作电极在平行于且面向反电极延伸的平面的平面内延伸。
6. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中电压重复反转,且由每次反转之前测得结果的平均值计算物质浓度。
7. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中第一电池中含有酶和氧化还原介体。
8. 如权利要求7所述的方法,其中第一电池中含有葡萄糖氧化酶。
9. 如权利要求7所述的方法,其中第一电池中含有氰铁酸盐。
10. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中还包括以下步骤:使氧化还原物质与催化酶和氧化还原介体反应,且所述方法还包括使电池工作在比氧化还原反应电位高的电位,以使过氧化氢在阳极处氧化的前置步骤。
11. 如权利要求1所述的方法,其中向第一电池加入含有分析物的样品,使分析物反应以生成电化学可氧化的物质或电化学可还原的物质,该方法还包括如下步骤:
(g)在填充电池之前或其间,在电极之间施加电压;
(h)测量作为时间函数的电流的变化;
(i)根据步骤(h)中的测量结果确定或预测所述反应基本上完成的时间和/或在所述反应基本上完成时测得的电流的大小;以及
(j)中断或者重新施加电压,或者反转电压极性;
(k)在重新施加电压或反转电压之后并且在达到稳定状态之前,测定作为时间函数的电流;
(l)估算稳态电流的强度;
(m)基于步骤(i)、(k)、(l)的结果估算样品中分析物的浓度。
12. 如权利要求11所述的方法,其中在步骤(g)和(i)之间,在电极之间连续地施加电压。
13. 一种用于测定在样品中的还原或氧化形态的氧化还原物质的浓度的方法,所述方法包括如下步骤:
(a)在电化学电池的工作电极和反电极之间施加电压,其中这些电极被隔开,使得反应产物从反电极通过扩散到达工作电极,且工作电极的电位使得还原或氧化形态的氧化还原物质的电解氧化速率受扩散控制;
(b)在施加电压之后并且在达到稳定状态之前,测定作为时间函数的电流;
(c)估算稳态电流的强度;
(d)中断或者重新施加电压,或者反转电压极性;
(e)重复步骤(b)和步骤(c);以及
(f)向样品加入已知浓度的氧化还原物质或已知浓度的还原的介质,对电化学电池进行校准。
14. 如权利要求13所述的方法,其中在步骤(d)中反转其极性。
15. 如权利要求13所述的方法,其中电极间隔小于500微米。
16. 如权利要求13所述的方法,其中电极间隔小于200微米。
17. 如权利要求13所述的方法,其中工作电极在平行于且面向反电极延伸的平面的平面内延伸。
18. 如权利要求13所述的方法,其中电压重复反转,由每次反转之前测得结果的平均值计算物质浓度。
19. 如权利要求13所述的方法,其中电池中含有酶和氧化还原介体。
20. 如权利要求19所述的方法,其中电池中含有葡萄糖氧化酶。
21. 如权利要求19所述的方法,其中电池中含有氰铁酸盐。
22. 如权利要求21所述的方法,其中还包括以下步骤:使氧化还原物质与催化酶和氧化还原介体反应,且所述方法还包括使电池工作在比氧化还原反应电位高的电位,以使过氧化氢在阳极处氧化的前置步骤。
23. 如权利要求13所述的方法,其中向电池加入含有分析物的样品,使分析物反应以生成电化学可氧化的物质或电化学可还原的物质,该方法还包括如下步骤:
(g)在填充电池之前或其间,在电极之间施加电压;
(h)测量作为时间函数的电流的变化;
(i)根据步骤(b)中的测量结果确定或预测所述反应基本上完成的时间和/或在所述反应基本上完成时测得的电流的大小;以及
(j)中断或者重新施加电压,或者反转电压极性;
(k)在重新施加电压或反转电压之后并且在达到稳定状态之前,测定作为时间函数的电流;
(l)估算稳态电流的强度;
(m)基于步骤(i)、(k)、(l)的结果估算样品中分析物的浓度。
24. 如权利要求23所述的方法,其中在步骤(g)和(i)之间,在电极之间连续地施加电压。
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