Classifications

• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B23—MACHINE TOOLS; METAL-WORKING NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • B23K—SOLDERING OR UNSOLDERING; WELDING; CLADDING OR PLATING BY SOLDERING OR WELDING; CUTTING BY APPLYING HEAT LOCALLY, e.g. FLAME CUTTING; WORKING BY LASER BEAM
  • B23K35/00—Rods, electrodes, materials, or media, for use in soldering, welding, or cutting
  • B23K35/22—Rods, electrodes, materials, or media, for use in soldering, welding, or cutting characterised by the composition or nature of the material
  • B23K35/24—Selection of soldering or welding materials proper
  • B23K35/26—Selection of soldering or welding materials proper with the principal constituent melting at less than 400 degrees C
  • B23K35/262—Sn as the principal constituent
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
  • C22C—ALLOYS
  • C22C13/00—Alloys based on tin
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C22—METALLURGY; FERROUS OR NON-FERROUS ALLOYS; TREATMENT OF ALLOYS OR NON-FERROUS METALS
  • C22C—ALLOYS
  • C22C13/00—Alloys based on tin
  • C22C13/02—Alloys based on tin with antimony or bismuth as the next major constituent
• • H—ELECTRICITY
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  • H01L23/00—Details of semiconductor or other solid state devices
  • H01L23/48—Arrangements for conducting electric current to or from the solid state body in operation, e.g. leads, terminal arrangements ; Selection of materials therefor
  • H01L23/488—Arrangements for conducting electric current to or from the solid state body in operation, e.g. leads, terminal arrangements ; Selection of materials therefor consisting of soldered or bonded constructions
  • H01L23/492—Bases or plates or solder therefor
  • H01L23/4924—Bases or plates or solder therefor characterised by the materials
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  • H01L24/26—Layer connectors, e.g. plate connectors, solder or adhesive layers; Manufacturing methods related thereto
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  • H01L24/80—Methods for connecting semiconductor or other solid state bodies using means for bonding being attached to, or being formed on, the surface to be connected
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  • H01L2224/05155—Nickel [Ni] as principal constituent
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Definitions

• the present disclosure relates generally to lead-free solder alloy compositions for use in electronics and, in particular, to lead-free solder preforms, solder powder, solder balls, solder pastes, and solder joints made of a lead-free solder alloy.
• High-Pb solder alloys are currently one of the most widely used die attach materials in power semiconductor packages, especially in large-sized dies.
• the microstructures of the high- Pb solders are generally quite stable and they do not change much during long-term aging at elevated temperatures.
• These high-melting, high-Pb alloys which combine the high-temperature capability and stability with high ductility and acceptable thermal/electrical conductivity for most applications, are widely used in a range of applications including the packaging of high power modules.
• Harsh environment electronic industries that are currently exempted from RoHS regulations are actively searching for a suitable replacement solder.
• this search is driven by more stringent electronics reliability requirements due to the increasing utilization of electronics in automotive vehicles.
• the automotive industry's trend toward higher power electrical vehicles requires that the power modules in the vehicles (e.g., the IGBT module) have a higher efficiency, lighter weight, smaller size, and higher reliability at high operating temperatures. This in turn drives demand for the use of Pb-free solder alloys with a reliability even higher than that of current high-Pb solders.
• it is also intended to reduce the soldering process temperatures to those of the popular SAC alloys since there are no subsequent soldering assembly requirements.
• a SnAgCuSb-based Pb-free solder alloy is disclosed.
• the disclosed solder alloy is particularly suitable for, but not limited to, producing solder joints, in the form of solder preforms, solder balls, solder powder, or solder paste (a mixture of solder powder and flux), for harsh environment electronics.
• An additive selected from 0.1-2.5 wt.% of Bi and/or 0.1-4.5 wt.% of In may be included in the solder alloy.
• the term “about” in quantitative terms refers to plus or minus 10%. For example, “about 10” would encompass 9-11. Moreover, where "about” is used herein in conjunction with a quantitative term it is understood that in addition to the value plus or minus 10%, the exact value of the quantitative term is also contemplated and described. For example, the term “about 10" expressly contemplates, describes and includes exactly 10.
• FIG. 1 is a table listing SnAgCuSbBi-system embodiments of a solder alloy in accordance with the disclosure (Alloy Nos. 1-5) and a comparative industry standard high-Pb solder alloy (Alloy No. 6).
• FIG. 2 is a table listing embodiments of a solder alloy in accordance with the disclosure (Alloy Nos. 7-21), and a comparative Pb-free commercial alloy Sn3.8Ag0.7Cu3.0Bil.4Sb0.15Ni (Alloy No. 22 - Innolot).
• FIG. 3 illustrates the average solder joint shear strengths after 250, 500, 1000, and 1500 thermal shock cycles for solder joints comprising tested Alloy Nos. 1-6 of FIG. 1.
• FIG. 4 illustrates the average crack lengths in solder joints measured after thermal shock cycles of 500, 1000, and 1500 for solder joints comprising tested Alloy Nos. 1-6 of FIG. 1.
• FIG. 5 shows a set of optical micrographs at the ends of cross-sectional solder joints for solder joints comprising tested Alloy Nos. 1-6 after TS testing of 1000 cycles.
• FIG. 6 shows optical micrographs including a close-up view of the cross-sections for a high-PB solder joint after TS testing of 1000 cycles.
• FIG. 7 shows a set of cross-sectional micrographs of solder joints for Alloy No. 3 and
• FIG. 8 shows the experimental results of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility of as-cast solder alloys listed in FIG. 2.
• FIG. 9 shows the experimental results of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility of the solder alloys listed in FIG. 2 after a thermal aging treatment at 200 °C for 1000 hours.
• FIG. 10 shows the shear strength variations after 840 and 1585 cycles, respectively, of - 55 °C/200 °C temperature cycling tests (TCT) for Si die-attach solder joints on a Cu substrate made from selected solder alloys of FIG. 2. Note that for the Sb3.5 and Sb5.5 alloys, shear strengths were tested after 860 and 1607 cycles of TCT, respectively.
• FIG. 11 shows the shear strength variations after 602 and 1838 cycles of -55 °C/200 °C TCT for Si die-attach solder joints on Ni substrate made from the same alloys as in FIG. 10.
• FIG. 12 shows the shear strength results after 1360 and 2760 cycles, respectively, of -40
• FIG. 13 shows the shear strength results for the as-reflowed condition, after 1360 and 2760 cycles, respectively, of -40 °C/175 °C TCT for Invar die-attach solder joints on Cu substrate made from solder alloys in FIG. 2.
• FIG. 14 shows the shear strength results for the as-reflowed condition, after 1360 and 2760 cycles, respectively, of -40 °C/175 °C TCT for Invar die-attach solder joints on Ni substrate made from the same alloys as in FIG. 13.
• FIG. 15 shows the variations of solidus and liquidus temperatures with In contents in Sn(3.2-3.8)Ag(0.7-0.9)Cu(3.0-4.0)SbxIn alloys according to the present disclosure.
• FIG. 16 shows a Sn-Sb binary phase diagram.
• solder alloy is particularly suitable for, but not limited to, producing solder joints, in the form of solder preforms, solder balls, solder powder, or solder paste (a mixture of solder powder and flux), for harsh environment electronics applications that require high reliability at higher service or operation temperatures such as 150 °C or higher.
• the solder alloy comprises 2.5-4.5 wt.% of Ag, 0.6-2.0 wt.% of Cu, 2.5-9.0 wt.% of Sb, and the remainder of Sn.
• the solder alloy may additionally include at least one of the following additives selected from (a) 0.1-2.5 wt.% of Bi, (b) 0.1-4.5 wt.% of In, and (c) 0.001-0.2 wt.% of Ni, or Co, or both.
• the solder alloy is a SnAgCuSbBi-system alloy comprising
• the solder alloy consists essentially of 3.0-4.0 wt.% of Ag, 0.6-1.2 wt.% of Cu, 5.0-6.0 wt.% of Sb, about 0.3 wt.% of Bi, and the remainder of Sn.
• the solder alloy may consist essentially of about 3.8 wt.% of Ag, about 1.0 wt.% of Cu, about 6.0 wt.% of Sb, about 0.3 wt.% of Bi, and the remainder of Sn.
• the solder alloy is a SnAgCuSb-system alloy consisting essentially of 3.0-4.0 wt.% of Ag, 0.6-1.2 wt.% of Cu, 3.0-9.0 wt.% of Sb, and the remainder of Sn.
• the Sb content may be 5.0-6.0 wt.%.
• the solder alloy is a SnAgCuSbIn(Bi)-system alloy comprising: 2.5-4.5 wt.% of Ag, 0.6-2.0 wt.% of Cu, 2.5-9.0 wt.% of Sb, 0.1-4.5 wt.% of In, and the remainder of Sn.
• the solder alloy consists essentially of 3.0-4.0 wt.% of Ag, 0.6-1.2 wt.% of Cu, 3.0-5.0 wt.% of Sb, 1.0-4.0 wt.% of In, about 0.5 wt.% of Bi, and the remainder of Sn.
• the solder alloy consists essentially of 3.0-4.0 wt.% of Ag, 0.6-1.2 wt.% of Cu, 5.0-6.0 wt.% of Sb, about 0.5 wt.% of In, and the remainder of Sn.
• solder joints made of embodiments of the Pb-free solder alloys disclosed herein have a greater thermal fatigue resistance at thermal cycling and thermal shock testing compared to those made of the industry standard high-Pb solder alloy (Pb5Sn2.5Ag). Additionally, solder joints made of embodiments of the Pb-free solder alloys disclosed herein substantially outperformed a standard Pb-free commercial alloy Sn3.8Ag0.7Cu3.0Bil.4Sb0.15Ni (Innolot) in thermal fatigue resistance, in shear strength tests under a variety of conditions especially after thermal cycling tests.
• Pb-free solder alloy (alloy nos. 1-5 and 7-21), an industry standard high-Pb solder alloy (alloy no. 6), and a Pb-free commercial alloy Sn3.8Ag0.7Cu3.0Bil.4Sb0.15Ni (Innolot, alloy no. 22) were measured with Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) analysis, as shown in FIGs. 1 and 2, which list chemical compositions by wt%.
• ICP Inductively Coupled Plasma
• Thermal fatigue resistance of solder joints comprising embodiments of SnAgCuSbBi- system solder alloys, shown in FIG. 1, was evaluated using thermal shock testing.
• the thermal shock testing was conducted using the following procedure. Two types of Si die metallized with Ti/Ni/Ag films, with dimensions of 8x8x0.25 mm and 3x3x0.7 mm, respectively, were soldered to a lead frame substrate of pure Ni coated Cu to form die-attach solder joints. Solder preforms were used, with dimensions of 8x8x0.15 mm and 3x3x0.15 mm, respectively.
• Soldering was conducted by assembling the set of Si die/solder preform/substrate with a jig to facilitate the positioning and coplanarity of the assembly, followed by heating in a reflow oven with a peak temperature of 246 °C and time above 220 °C of 61 seconds for the Pb-free experimental solder alloys, or with a peak temperature of 335 °C and TAL (time above liquidus) of 61 seconds for the standard high-Pb solder alloy (Pb5Sn2.5Ag).
• the resulting die-attach solder joints were placed into an air-to-air thermal shock tester, where two separate chambers were set to opposite temperature extremes, respectively, and a mechanism moved the tested samples between the two chambers and maintained at each temperature extreme for a specific time (dwell time). Thermal shock tests were carried out in the present experiments under -40 °C/150 °C with a dwell time of 20 minutes for a maximum of 1500 cycles. At cycle numbers of 250, 500, 1000, and 1500, a set of samples were taken out from each of the 3x3 mm and 8x8 mm type die-attach solder joint samples for various testing and measurement purposes.
• the 3x3 mm type die-attach joints were shear tested using a Condor 250 XYZTEC die shear tester at a shear speed of 6 mm per minute, and the remaining shear strengths after various thermal shock cycles for each alloy were measured in MPa.
• the 8x8 mm type die-attach joints were used for cracking detection by C-SAM imaging analyses and for crack length measurements by cross- sectioning and microscopy observations.
• FIG. 3 illustrates the average solder joint shear strengths after 250, 500, 1000, and 1500 thermal shock cycles for solder joints comprising tested alloys No. 1-6 of FIG. 1.
• the shear strength of solder joints decreases with increasing thermal shock cycles due to increased damage in the solder joints caused by thermal shock cycling tests.
• the decrease rate of the shear strengths is generally reduced with the increasing thermal shock cycles.
• solder alloy Alloy Nos. 1-5) exhibited higher shear strengths than a solder joint including the industry standard high-Pb solder alloy (Alloy No. 6). Alloy No. 3 showed shear strengths that doubled those of the high-Pb solder joints under all test conditions.
• FIG. 4 illustrates the average crack lengths in solder joints measured after thermal shock cycles of 500, 1000, and 1500 for solder joints comprising tested alloys No. 1-6 of FIG. 1.
• the average crack length increases with the increase in number of cycles. The slower the crack propagates in a solder joint, the more resistant it is to thermal fatigue failure.
• Solder joints including SnAgCuSbBi-system embodiments of the disclosed solder alloy (Alloy Nos. 1-5) had substantially shorter average crack lengths than a solder joint including the industry standard high-Pb solder alloy (Alloy No. 6).
• FIG. 5 shows a set of optical micrographs at the ends of cross-sectional solder joints for solder joints comprising tested alloys No. 1-6 after TS testing of 1000 cycles.
• the cross-section observations of cracks illustrate the longer crack length of solder joints formed using the high-Pb solder alloy (Alloy No. 6).
• Alloy No. 6 cracks are observed to propagate from the edge through the whole view field of each picture (as marked by the white arrows). These cracks in the high-Pb solder joints extended well into the inside of the joints away from both ends, as shown in FIG. 6.
• FIG. 7 shows a set of cross-sectional micrographs of solder joints for Alloy No. 3 and Alloy No. 6 after thermal shock testing of 250 cycles. As demonstrated by FIG. 7, for the Pb- free alloys the thermal fatigue cracks generally initiated after 250 cycles of TS testing, whereas for the high-Pb alloy the cracks initiated before 250 cycles.
• FIG. 1 SnAgCuSbBi system
• alloys in the SnAgCuSb and SnAgCuSbln(Bi) systems (Alloys No. 11-21), as shown in FIG. 2, were tested.
• Tensile tests were conducted in accordance with standard ASTM testing procedure to evaluate the mechanical properties of the solder alloys. Round test specimens with a diameter of 1 ⁇ 4" and gauge length of 1" and a testing speed of 0.05 inch per minute were used in the tensile tests.
• FIG. 8 shows the results of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility of as-cast solder alloys listed in FIG. 2.
• alloys No. 7-21 are solder alloys according to the present disclosure
• FIG. 22 is a commercial high-reliability Pb-free alloy used as a comparative alloy.
• FIG. 9 shows the results of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility of the solder alloys listed in FIG. 2 after a thermal aging treatment at 200 °C for 1000 hours.
• Solder pastes were made by mixing the Type 4 (38-20 microns in particle sizes) solder alloy powder (with a metal load of 88.25%) with a no-clean flux following a standard paste making procedure. Die-attach solder joints, assembled with a solder paste on either a pure Cu or a pure Ni substrate, were used for evaluation in the subsequent reliability tests.
• the Cu substrates were cleaned with a 10% HBF4 acid solution, then rinsed with DI water.
• the pure Ni substrates were cleaned with a nitric acid pickling solution (14% HN03 in water), then rinsed with DI water.
• Si dies metallized with Ti/Ni/Ag films 75nm Ti/300nm Ni/75nm Ag), with sizes of 3x3x0.7 mm, were used for the solder joints assembly.
• the solder paste was printed onto the substrate using a stencil of 8 mils (0.2 mm) thickness with 3x3 mm openings, and then the die was placed onto the printed solder paste.
• the solder joint shear strength cannot be measured under the as-reflowed conditions because in die shear testing of the as-reflowed joints the fracture occurs completely in the Si die.
• Invar dies with sizes of 3x3x1.0 mm were used to make the metal die-attach solder joints.
• Invar is the 64Fe36Ni alloy, known for its uniquely low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).
• CTE coefficient of thermal expansion
• Invar has a CTE of about 1.2 ppm/°C, about half the value compared to a CTE of about 2.6 ppm/°C for Si.
• the Invar die-attach solder joints have a much higher CTE mismatch, and are expected to have a shorter lifetime than the Si die- attach joints in thermal cycling tests.
• the bare Invar dies without coating were cleaned in the same way as for pure Ni substrate before soldering.
• Soldering was conducted in a reflow oven with a peak temperature of 243-248 °C and time above liquidus (TAL) of 50-60 seconds for the Pb-free solder alloys, or with a peak temperature of 335 °C and TAL of about 60 seconds for the standard high-Pb solder alloy (Pb5Sn2.5Ag).
• the thermal fatigue resistance of solder joints was evaluated using accelerated temperature cycling tests (TCT).
• TCT accelerated temperature cycling tests
• the temperature cycling tests were carried out in the present experiments under a profile of -55 °C/200 °C with a dwell time of 5 minutes at each temperature extreme (about 40 minutes per cycle), as well as under a profile of -40 °C/175 °C with a dwell time of 5 minutes at each temperature extreme (about 33 minutes per cycle).
• solder joints were shear tested using a Condor 250 XYZTEC die shear tester at a shear speed of 6 mm per minute, and the remaining shear strengths after various temperature cycles for each alloy were measured in MPa. For each condition, seven solder joints were shear tested.
• the test results for the examples of solder alloys according to the present disclosure and for comparative alloys are shown in FIGs. 10-14.
• FIG. 10 shows the shear strength variations after 840 and 1585 cycles, respectively, of - 55 °C/200 °C temperature cycling tests (TCT) for Si die-attach solder joints on a Cu substrate made from selected alloys of FIG. 2.
• TCT temperature cycling tests
• FIG. 11 shows the shear strength variations after 602 and 1838 cycles of -55 °C/200 °C TCT for Si die-attach solder joints on Ni substrate made from the same alloys as in FIG. 10.
• the Si die-attach solder joints on Ni substrate have a much higher average remaining shear strength after TCT than their counterparts on Cu substrate. This is due to the fact that the mismatch of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) in the solder joints of Ni substrate (with CTE 13 ppm/°C for Ni vs. ⁇ 3 ppm/°C for Si) is lower than the CTE mismatch in those of Cu substrate (with CTE 17 ppm/°C for Cu vs. ⁇ 3 ppm/°C for Si).
• CTE coefficient of thermal expansion
• FIG. 12 shows the shear strength results after 1360 and 2760 cycles, respectively, of -40 °C/175 °C TCT for Si die-attach solder joints on Cu substrate made from exemplary solder alloys as well as from the comparative alloys (the Innolot alloy and the Indalloyl51 high-Pb standard alloy).
• the comparative alloys the Innolot alloy and the Indalloyl51 high-Pb standard alloy.
• all solder joints on Cu made from the exemplary solder alloys exhibit higher average shear strengths after TCT not only than the comparative Pb-free Innolot solder joint, but also than the comparative high-Pb
• FIG. 13 shows the shear strength results for the as-reflowed condition, after 1360 and 2760 cycles, respectively, of -40 °C/175 °C TCT for Invar die-attach solder joints on Cu substrate made from exemplary solder alloys in FIG. 2 as well as from the comparative Innolot alloy.
• the Indalloyl51 high-Pb solder alloy was not included in the evaluation as a comparative alloy because the solder joints made with the bare Invar die were weak due to the poor wetting of the high-Pb solder on the Invar alloy.
• one of the advantages in using the Invar dies for making the metal die-attach solder joints is to be able to measure the as- reflowed solder joints shear strengths. As illustrated in FIG.
• the as-reflowed solder joints on Cu substrate made from the exemplary solder alloys have very high average shear strengths, ranging from 76 to 94 MPa, as compared to 68 MPa for the comparative Innolot solder joint.
• the average shear strengths of solder joints decrease significantly, but those of solder joints made from the exemplary solder alloys are much higher than the Innolot solder joints shear strength.
• FIG. 14 shows the shear strength results for the as-reflowed condition, after 1360 and 2760 cycles, respectively, of -40 °C/175 °C TCT for Invar die-attach solder joints on Ni substrate made from the same alloys as in FIG. 13.
• the as-reflowed Invar die-attach solder joints on Ni substrate have a similar average shear strength to their counterparts on Cu substrate.
• the decrease rates of the shear strengths are considerably reduced after TCT for the Invar die-attach solder joints on Ni substrate, as compared to their counterparts on Cu substrate. As illustrated in FIG.
• FIG. 15 shows the variations of solidus and liquidus temperatures with In contents in Sn(3.2-3.8)Ag(0.7-0.9)Cu(3.0-4.0)SbxIn alloys according to the present disclosure.
• the In concentration increases, both the solidus and liquidus temperatures are reduced.
• the addition of In to the SnAgCuSb alloys can effectively decrease the melting temperature of the alloy.
• the melting temperature range (between solidus and liquidus) also becomes wider.
• the In addition should be no more than 5 wt%.
• FIG. 16 shows a Sn-Sb binary phase diagram. Based on the equilibrium phase diagram, a
• Sn(Sb) solid solution forms after solidification of a Sn-Sb alloy of less than 10.2 wt% Sb.
• SnSb intermetallic phase is precipitated from the supersaturated Sn(Sb) solid solution (>3 wt% Sb).
• the ⁇ -SnSb phase is a quasicubic NaCl (B l) face-centered cubic (FCC) type. This structure contains one sublattice of Sb atoms and another sublattice of Sn atoms, with each Sn atom being surrounded by six Sb first neighbors and each Sb atom by six Sn first neighbors.
• the Sb content in the alloys according to the present disclosure is preferred to be below about 9 wt%.
• the ternary eutectic composition is approximately Sn3.7Ag0.9Cu, with a eutectic temperature of 217°C.
• Ag is a major strengthening element in the alloy by forming the Ag 3 Sn intermetallic particles to act as dispersion strengthening phases. Ag also improves the wettability of solder alloys.
• the Ag content is preferred to be in the range of 2.5-4.5 wt%. When Ag is less than 2.5 wt%, mechanical properties and thermal cycling reliability performance of solder joints are not good enough for harsh environment electronics applications.
• the Ag content is preferably in the range of 3.0-4.0 wt%.
• Cu improves the alloy's mechanical properties by the formation of Cu 6 Sn 5 intermetallic particles in the solder matrix. It also greatly reduces the dissolution of Cu substrate metal or Cu pads. Based on observations of solder joint microstructure, it was found by the inventors that a higher Cu content in the solder can improve the reliability of solder joints especially with Ni substrate metal or surface finishes by promoting and stabilizing a (Cu,Ni) 6 Sn 5 intermetallic layer structure and preventing the (Cu,Ni)6Sn5/(Cu,Ni) 3 Sn 4 dual layer structure from formation at the solder joint interfaces.
• a higher Cu content in the solder can also suppress the occurrences of Ag 3 Sn plates in solder joints with high Ag content (3 wt% or higher) by initiating the Cu 6 Sn 5 primary solidification instead of the Ag 3 Sn primary solidification phase formation.
• Cu is less than 0.6 wt%, the above-mentioned beneficial effects are not expected to be utilized.
• Cu is more than 2.0 wt%, the alloys liquidus temperature becomes too high and the melting temperature range becomes too wide for reflow soldering, which affects the soldering
• the Cu content is preferably in the range of 0.6-1.2 wt%.
• Sb is found to be a key element improving the thermal fatigue resistance of solder joints made of the disclosed alloys in very severe thermal cycling or thermal shock testing conditions used in the present investigations.
• Sb content is less than 2.5 wt%
• Sb is dissolved in the Sn matrix to form a Sn(Sb) solid solution as well as in the Ag 3 Sn phase.
• Sb >3 wt% in the solder alloys the ⁇ -SnSb (Fig. 16) intermetallic phase is precipitated from the supersaturated Sn(Sb) solid solution, providing both solid-solution and precipitation strengthening to the SnAgCu alloy.
• the SnAgCuSb alloys according to the present disclosure exhibit superior comprehensive mechanical properties (both high strength and high ductility), as shown in Fig. 8, as well as greatly improved solder joint reliability performance.
• the addition of Sb increases both the solidus and liquidus temperatures of the alloy.
• the Sb content according to the present disclosure should be below about 9 wt%.
• Sb content is more preferably in the range of 3.0-8.0 wt%. Based on the reliability test results in the present investigations, an optimum Sb content is about 5-6 wt% for
• both Bi and In can decrease the solidus and liquidus temperatures of the alloy.
• Bi also reduces the surface tension of liquid solders, and thus improves the alloys wettability.
• the Bi addition increases the alloys strengths, but reduces its ductility significantly, making solder joints brittle with decreased thermal fatigue resistance.
• a Bi addition of 1.5 wt% or below is preferred for harsh environment electronics applications.
• In is also an alloying element prone to oxidation, especially in the form of fine solder powder for solder paste applications. It was found by the inventors that soldering performance is decreased (e.g., reduced wetting and increased voiding) with alloys of In additions higher than 4.5 wt%. Thus, In addition of 4.5 wt% or below is generally preferred in the present disclosure.
• a preferred In content in the alloy also depends on the Sb content. When Sb content is higher than 5.0 wt%, the In addition is preferred to be less than 3.0 wt% to avoid incipient melting phases in the alloy.
• an amount of 0.001-0.2 wt.% of Ni, or Co, or both can be added to further improve the alloy's mechanical properties and solder joint reliability performance.
• the alloy's liquidus temperature is increased excessively.
• these elements are also prone to oxidation, and thus adversely affect soldering performance when the total addition is more than 0.2 wt%, especially in the form of fine solder powder for solder paste applications.
• the upper limit for these additions is 0.2 wt%.
• module does not imply that the components or functionality described or claimed as part of the module are all conFIG.d in a common package. Indeed, any or all of the various components of a module, whether control logic or other components, can be combined in a single package or separately maintained and can further be distributed in multiple groupings or packages or across multiple locations.

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