Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/02—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC
  • H02M3/04—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters
  • H02M3/06—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using resistors or capacitors, e.g. potential divider
  • H02M3/07—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using resistors or capacitors, e.g. potential divider using capacitors charged and discharged alternately by semiconductor devices with control electrode, e.g. charge pumps
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/02—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/02—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC
  • H02M3/04—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters
  • H02M3/10—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M3/00—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output
  • H02M3/02—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC
  • H02M3/04—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters
  • H02M3/10—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode
  • H02M3/145—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode using devices of a triode or transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal
  • H02M3/155—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode using devices of a triode or transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only
  • H02M3/156—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode using devices of a triode or transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only with automatic control of output voltage or current, e.g. switching regulators
  • H02M3/158—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode using devices of a triode or transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only with automatic control of output voltage or current, e.g. switching regulators including plural semiconductor devices as final control devices for a single load
  • H02M3/1588—Conversion of DC power input into DC power output without intermediate conversion into AC by static converters using discharge tubes with control electrode or semiconductor devices with control electrode using devices of a triode or transistor type requiring continuous application of a control signal using semiconductor devices only with automatic control of output voltage or current, e.g. switching regulators including plural semiconductor devices as final control devices for a single load comprising at least one synchronous rectifier element
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02J—ELECTRIC POWER NETWORKS; CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS OR SYSTEMS FOR SUPPLYING OR DISTRIBUTING ELECTRIC POWER; SYSTEMS FOR STORING ELECTRIC ENERGY
  • H02J2207/00—Details of circuit arrangements for charging or discharging batteries or supplying loads from batteries
  • H02J2207/20—Charging or discharging characterised by the power electronics converter
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02J—ELECTRIC POWER NETWORKS; CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS OR SYSTEMS FOR SUPPLYING OR DISTRIBUTING ELECTRIC POWER; SYSTEMS FOR STORING ELECTRIC ENERGY
  • H02J7/00—Circuit arrangements for charging or discharging batteries or for supplying loads from batteries
  • H02J7/855—Circuit arrangements for charging or discharging batteries or for supplying loads from batteries with circuits adapted for supplying loads from the battery
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H02—GENERATION; CONVERSION OR DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC POWER
  • H02M—APPARATUS FOR CONVERSION BETWEEN AC AND AC, BETWEEN AC AND DC, OR BETWEEN DC AND DC, AND FOR USE WITH MAINS OR SIMILAR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS; CONVERSION OF DC OR AC INPUT POWER INTO SURGE OUTPUT POWER; CONTROL OR REGULATION THEREOF
  • H02M1/00—Details of apparatus for conversion
  • H02M1/0067—Converter structures employing plural converter units, other than for parallel operation of the units on a single load
  • H02M1/007—Plural converter units in cascade
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02B—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES RELATED TO BUILDINGS, e.g. HOUSING, HOUSE APPLIANCES OR RELATED END-USER APPLICATIONS
  • Y02B70/00—Technologies for an efficient end-user side electric power management and consumption
  • Y02B70/10—Technologies improving the efficiency by using switched-mode power supplies [SMPS], i.e. efficient power electronics conversion e.g. power factor correction or reduction of losses in power supplies or efficient standby modes

Definitions

• This invention pertains to the design, operation and performance of switching power supplies for use in DC/DC conversion and voltage regulation, and to the semiconductor components used in such converters.
• Voltage regulation is commonly required to prevent variation in the supply voltage powering various microelectronic components such as digital ICs, semiconductor memories, display modules, hard disk drives, RF circuitry, microprocessors, digital signal processors and analog ICs, especially in battery- powered applications such as cell phones, notebook computers and consumer products. Since the battery or DC input voltage of a product often must be stepped- up to a higher DC voltage, or stepped-down to a lower DC voltage, such regulators are referred to as DC-to-DC converters. Step-down converters, commonly referred to as “Buck converters,” are used whenever a battery's voltage is greater than the desired load voltage. Step-down converters may comprise inductive switching regulators, capacitive charge pumps, and linear regulators.
• step-up converters are needed whenever a battery's voltage is lower than the voltage needed to power its load.
• Step-up converters may comprise inductive switching regulators or capacitive charge pumps.
• Another type of converter may operate as either a step-up or a step-down converter depending on whether the power input to the converter has a voltage above or below its output voltage.
• Buck-boost converters such circuitry is needed whenever a regulator's input and output are similar in voltage, where variations in the input voltage preclude the use of a simple boost or Buck converter.
• Lilon battery exhibits a terminal voltage which decays from 4.2V when fully charged to below 3V when discharged. Since the initial battery voltage is above 3.3V and the final battery voltage is below 3.3V, the converter must be able to step-down initially and step-up later.
• the inductive switching converter can achieve superior performance over the widest range of currents, input voltages and output voltages.
• the fundamental principal of a DC/DC inductive switching converter is that the current in an inductor (coil or transformer) cannot be changed instantly and that an inductor will produce an opposing voltage to resist any change in its current.
• the inductor can be used to step-up or step-down the converter's input, producing an output voltage different from its input.
• the transistors are typically implemented using MOSFETs with a low on-state resistance, commonly referred to as "power MOSFETs". Using feedback from the converter's output voltage to control the switching conditions, a constant well-regulated output voltage can be maintained despite rapid changes in the converter's input voltage or its output current.
• an output capacitor is placed across the output of the switching regulator circuit. Together the inductor and the output capacitor form a "low-pass” filter able to remove the majority of the transistors' switching noise from reaching the load.
• the switching frequency typically 1 MHz or more, must be “high” relative to the resonant frequency of the filter's "LC” tank. Averaged across multiple switching cycles, the switched-inductor behaves like a programmable current source with a slow-changing average current. Since the average inductor current is controlled by transistors that are biased either as “on” or “off” switches, the power dissipation in the transistors is theoretically small and high converter efficiencies, in the 80% to 90% range, can be realized.
• a power MOSFET's drain current loss is very small, typically well below one microampere and more generally nanoamperes. The current loss is primarily due to junction leakage. So a power MOSFET used as a switch in a DC/DC converter is efficient, since in its off condition it exhibits low currents at high voltages, and in its on state it exhibits high currents at a low voltage drop. Excepting switching transients, the ID # V D S product in the power MOSFET remains small, and power dissipation in the switch remains low.
• the transistor switching events i.e., the time it takes to switch the MOSFET from off to on, and vice-versa
• the power loss during switching can in circuit analysis be considered negligible or alternatively treated as a fixed power loss.
• the switching waveform analysis becomes more significant and must be considered by analyzing a device's drain voltage, drain current, and gate bias voltage versus time.
• step-up, step-down or up-down DC-to-DC switching converters one or more power switch elements are required to control the current and energy flow in the converter circuitry. During operation, these power devices act as power switches, toggling on and off at high frequencies and with varying frequency or duration.
• the efficiency of a converter therefore depends on minimizing the I 0n ⁇ V 0n conduction loss in every conducting switch or rectifier diode, and in minimizing the gate drive current need to charge the switch's input capacitance at the desired frequency, also known as CG # VQ 2 losses.
• the power loss in one switch can be reduced by minimizing the sum of its conduction loss and the gate drive loss, where
• I 2 R D S represents the conduction loss in a power MOSFET and the ratio (t sw /T) represents the portion of the time the MOSFET is switched fully on and conducting current.
• the conduction loss term l » Vf represents power dissipated in a diode having a forward voltage V f .
• (t rect /T) represents the fraction of time in a period T the diode is conducting current.
• QG # VG # f describes the aforementioned C-G # V G 2 gate drive loss described in terms of gate charge Q G .
• Gate charge QG is preferred over capacitance CG since the capacitance is highly non-linear and difficult to model accurately. Moreover, using gate charge QG offers greater accuracy is predicting efficiency since in nature charge is always conserved, but capacitance is not.
• MOSFETs with lowest possible resistance and the minimum gate input capacitance, but must also employ a minimal number of switching elements, with each MOSFET optimized in size for its nominal operating current and switching frequency.
• Non-isolated converter topologies like synchronous Buck and synchronous boost converters exhibit high efficiencies because they employ only two MOSFET switches. Unfortunately, up-down converters typically require four switches and suffer in efficiency as a result. While transformers or coupled inductors may be used to achieve up-down regulator operation and avoid the need for more switches, in non-isolated converter applications, multi-winding inductors are unacceptably large compared to single-winding coils.
• Non-Isolated Switching Converter Topologies Figs. 1A and 1 B illustrate two common switching regulators, a synchronous Buck step-down converter and a synchronous boost step-up converter.
• Converter 1 comprises a power MOSFET 3, an inductor 4, a synchronous rectifier power MOSFET 2, with an intrinsic rectifier diode 7, and a capacitor 5. Operation of MOSFET 3 is controlled by a pulse-width modulation (PWM) control circuit (not shown), driving the gate of MOSFET 3. Synchronous rectifier MOSFET 2 is driven out of phase with MOSFET 3, but MOSFET 2 is not necessarily on the entire time when MOSFET 3 is off.
• PWM pulse-width modulation
• control circuit controlling the converter's operation is referred to as PWM control implying fixed-frequency variable-pulse-width operation, it may alternatively operate in a variable frequency mode where the clock period is allowed to vary, or alternatively alternating between varying and fixed frequency modes depending on load and input conditions.
• MOSFET 3 With its positive terminal connected to the battery or input, MOSFET 3 acts like a "high-side" switch controlling the current in inductor 4.
• Diode 8 is a P-N junction parasitic to MOSFET 3, in parallel to the transistor's drain and source, which remains reverse-biased under normal Buck converter operation.
• synchronous rectifier MOSFET 2 conducts some portion of the time when MOSFET 3 is off. With its positive terminal connected to the inductor 4, i.e. to node V x , and its negative terminal connected to circuit ground, MOSFET 2 acts like a "low-side" switch, shunting the current flowing in diode 7.
• Diode 7 is a P-N junction parasitic to synchronous rectifier MOSFET 2, in parallel to the transistor's drain and source. Diode 7 conducts substantial inductor current only during intervals when both MOSFETs 2 and 3 are off.
• Both MOSFETs 2 and 3 are simultaneously off during every switching transition to prevent shorting the input power source to ground.
• This so-called "break-before-make” (BBM) interval prevents shoot through conduction by guaranteeing that both MOSFETs 2 and 3 do not conduct simultaneously and short or "crow-bar" the input and power source of converter 1.
• diode 7 in parallel to synchronous rectifier MOSFET 2 must, along with any parasitic capacitance associated with diode 7, carry the load current L through inductor 4. Unwanted noise can occur during the transitions associated with BBM operation.
• the converter's duty factor D as the time that energy flows from the battery or other power source into the DC/DC converter, i.e. the time during which MOSFET switch 3 is on
• the ratio of output to input voltage in Buck converter 1 is proportionate to its duty factor, i.e. where t sw is the time period that MOSFET 3 is turned on during each clock period T.
• t sw is limited to some portion of the clock period T, e.g. 5% ⁇ D ⁇ 95%, essentially due to turn-on and turn-off delay within the MOSFET switch and its control loop.
• T some portion of the clock period
• the off time for the high-side MOSFET 3 is only 5% of the 333 nsec period, or just 16 nsec. This means the high side MOSFET 3 must turn off and back in only 16nsec - too rapidly to regulate over a 95% output-to-input conversion ratio.
• This minimum off- time problem impacts both synchronous and non-synchronous Buck converters. This problem is further exacerbated in a synchronous DC/DC converter, since no time remains for the synchronous rectifier MOSFET 2 to turn on and then off again and still exhibit BBM operation.
• 1 B includes a low-side power MOSFET 11 , a battery-connected inductor 13, an output capacitor 14, and a "floating" synchronous rectifier MOSFET 12 with an intrinsic parallel rectifier diode 16.
• the gates of the MOSFETs 1 1 and 12 are driven by break-before-make circuitry (not shown) and controlled by a PWM control circuit (not shown) in response to a voltage V FB that is fed back from the output voltage V O u ⁇ across filter capacitor 14. BBM operation is needed to prevent shorting out output capacitor 14.
• the synchronous rectifier MOSFET 12 is considered to be floating in the sense that neither its source nor drain terminal is not permanently connected to any supply rail, i.e. ground or V batt -
• Diode 16 is a P-N diode intrinsic to synchronous rectifier MOSFET 12, regardless whether MOSFET 12 is a P- channel or an N-channel device.
• a Schottky diode may be included in parallel with MOSFET 12 but with series inductance may not operate fast enough to divert current from forward biasing intrinsic diode 16.
• Diode 17 represents a P-N junction diode intrinsic to N-channel low-side MOSFET 11 and remains reverse- biased under normal boost converter operation.
• the converter's duty factor D is the time that energy flows from the battery or power source into DC/DC converter 10, i.e. during the time that low-side MOSFET switch 11 is on and inductor 13 is being magnetized, then the output to input voltage ratio of a boost converter is proportionate to the inverse of 1 minus its duty factor, i.e.
• the off time for the low-side MOSFET 11 is only 5% of the 333 nsec period, or just 16 nsec. This means the low side MOSFET 11 must turn on and back off in only 16 nsec - too rapidly to regulate below a 5% output-to-input conversion ratio. This minimum on-time problem impacts either synchronous or non-synchronous boost converters.
• Graph 25 illustrates the discharge characteristic of a Lilon battery under a constant load current, starting at 4.2V at full charge, decaying rapidly during discharge interval 26, then slowly decaying from 3.7V to 3.5V in interval 27, and finally dropping quickly in interval 28 to its cutoff at below 3V.
• a Buck-boost converter can easily be derived by combining synchronous Buck and boost converters into a merged or cascade circuit.
• a synchronous boost converter 30 comprising a low-side MOSFET 31 , an inductor 33, a synchronous rectifier MOSFET 35, an intrinsic diode 35, and a filter capacitor 34, is used to power a synchronous Buck converter comprising a MOSFET 37, an inductor 39, a synchronous rectifier MOSFET 38, an intrinsic diode 42, and a filter capacitor 40, the combined cascade converter 30 collectively driving a load 41.
• the input voltage is first stepped-up to a voltage V y higher than the desired output, then back down to produce V ou t-
• a synchronous Buck converter comprising a MOSFET 52, an inductor 53, a synchronous rectifier MOSFET 51 , an intrinsic diode 55, and a filter capacitor 54, is used to power a synchronous boost converter comprising a low-side MOSFET 58, an inductor 57, a synchronous rectifier MOSFET 59, an intrinsic diode 62, a filter capacitor 60, and a load 61.
• the cascade Buck-boost converter 50 first steps down and regulates the input voltage V y lower than the desired output, then steps this voltage up to produce V out .
• the overall loss in a Buck-boost cascade converter is worse than the loss in a synchronous Buck converter or a synchronous boost converter alone, because there are more transistors in series between the input and output terminals, and because all the MOSFETs are switching all the time.
• converter 50 has two inductors 53 and 57 connected in series. Since series-connected inductors share the same current, they can be replaced by a single inductor, and doing so also eliminates the need for capacitor 54.
• the resulting Buck-boost converter 70 is illustrated in Fig. 4, comprising a single inductor 73, four MOSFETs 71 , 72, 76, and 77, a filter capacitor 80, a load 81 , a PWM control circuit 83 and a break-before-make and gate buffer circuit 82.
• An intrinsic diode 74 in parallel with MOSFET 71 , and an intrinsic diode 78 in parallel with MOSFET 77 act as rectifiers during certain operating conditions such as BBM intervals, while diodes 75 and 79 normally remain reversed biased.
• converter 70 can operate in three distinct modes, Buck, boost, and Buck-boost.
• FIG. 5A schematic diagram 85 represents the operation of Buck-boost converter 70 as a Buck converter where MOSFETs 71 and 72 are switched out of phase under PWM control while MOSFET 77 remains turned-on and MOSFET 76 is biased off.
• the equivalent circuit 90 of Fig. 5B illustrates MOSFET 72, synchronous rectifier MOSFET 71 , parallel rectifier diode 74, inductor 73 and series resistance 91 of fully-enhanced MOSFET 77 shunting diode 78.
• Off state MOSFET 76 is illustrated as reverse-biased P-N diode 79.
• the Buck converter mode of Buck boost converter 70 works so long as the criterion Vj n > (V ou t + ⁇ ) is maintained.
• schematic diagram 95 represents the operation of Buck-boost converter 70 as a boost converter where MOSFETs 76 and 77 are switched out of phase under PWM control while MOSFET 72 remains turned-on and MOSFET 71 is biased off.
• the converter's overall loss is greater than the loss of a synchronous Buck converter because it now includes the conduction loss of MOSFET 72, namely
• the equivalent circuit 100 of Fig. 6B illustrates switch MOSFET 76, synchronous rectifier MOSFET 77, parallel rectifier diode 78, inductor 73 and series resistance 101 of fully-enhanced MOSFET 72. Diodes 74, 75 and 79 remain reverse-biased and off.
• the boost converter mode of Buck-boost converter 70 works so long that the criterion Vi n ⁇ (V out - ⁇ ) is maintained. Because of series resistance 101 associated with on MOSFET 72, the efficiency of a Buck-boost converter 70 of Fig. 4 operating in boost converter mode 95 is lower than that of the simple boost converter 10 shown in Fig. 1 B. This characteristic can be seen in the efficiency graph of Fig. 7A, where the boost-only efficiency (curve 111 ) is higher, typically 5% to 15% percent higher, than the boost-mode efficiency (curve 108) of a Buck-boost converter.
• boost mode operation efficiency (curve 108) is lower than Buck-mode operation, primarily because boost converters require higher average switch currents than Buck converters, increasing conduction losses.
• the higher conduction losses in boost converter MOSFETs can be compensated by employing larger lower-resistance power MOSFETs, but only by increasing the input capacitance, gate charge, and gate drive related switching losses, canceling most of the benefit of the lower conduction loss device.
• the problem is further exacerbated in a Buck-boost converter operating in boost mode, since more series resistance is present at all times due to the resistance 101 related to MOSFET 72.
• the circuit In between the Buck-only and the boost-only modes, when the converter approaches a unity conversation ratio, the circuit must operate in true Buck-boost mode where all four transistors are switching. That range occurs where the converter exceeds the maximum duty factor D ma ⁇ for a Buck converter or falls below the minimum duty factor Dmin, for a boost.
• Table 1 summarizes the operation of Buck-boost converter 70 in the Buck, boost and Buck-boost modes:
• the switching converter's Buck-boost mode therefore occurs whenever
• Fig. 7A where the efficiency of converter 70 in the Buck-boost mode (curve 106) is lower than the efficiency of Buck-boost converter 70 operating in Buck-only mode (curve 107) and boost-only mode (curve 108), resulting a rapid drop in efficiency whenever four-switch Buck-boost operation commences.
• converter 70 operates only in Buck-boost mode when it has to do so, i.e. for V out /V ⁇ n conversion ratios near unity, and by example between 0.9 and 1.1.
• the Buck-boost switching regulator Since producing a regulated 3.3V output from a Lilon battery falls close to this ⁇ range surrounding a unity voltage conversion ratio, the greatest portion of the Lilon battery's stored energy occurs at a voltage where the Buck-boost converter's efficiency is poorest, in the range of 3.5V to 3.6V. Moreover, the fact that the converter must go through a mode transition whenever the conversion ratio is near unity can be a real problem in a number of applications, affecting transient regulation, stability and noise. Clearly, the Buck-boost switching regulator has many disadvantages, and especially so when operating at or near unity conversion ratios.
• An alternative to the switched-inductor converter is a charge pump, a voltage conversion circuit using only switches and capacitors to perform voltage translation through repeated charge redistribution, i.e. the continuous charging and discharging of a capacitor network driven by a clock or oscillator.
• the advantage of a charge pump is that at specific voltage conversion ratios, it can exhibit extremely high conversion efficiencies approaching 100%.
• the disadvantage is that it can only efficiently generate voltages that are exact integral multiples of the number of flying capacitors used in its converter circuit. Voltages other than select multiples exhibit low efficiencies.
• a common charge pump 150 is illustrated in Fig. 8A, where a single capacitor is employed as a "doubler", i.e. to double the battery's input voltage.
• Charge pump 150 comprises four MOSFETs, 152, 153, 154 and 155 configured similar to an H-bridge except that one terminal, the source of MOSFET 154 is connected to the charge pump output Vcp and reservoir capacitor 166 rather than to ground.
• Charge pump operation can be understood by modeling the MOSFETs as ideal switches where in the equivalent circuits 160 and 180 of Figs. 8B and 8C, MOSFETs 152, 153, 154 and 155 are represented as switches 162, 163, 164 and 165 respectively.
• switches 162 and 165 are closed, driving node V x to ground and node V y to V ba tt and charging a flying capacitor 151 to the voltage V b att-
• switches 163 and 164 remain open.
• switches 162 and 165 are opened, switches 163 and 164 are closed, and energy is transferred from the flying capacitor 151 to the output reservoir capacitor 166, pumping the V C p voltage to a value twice the battery voltage or 2 » V ba t t -
• the purpose of the switch network is essentially to place flying capacitor 151 in parallel with the battery during charging and in series, i.e. stacked on top of the battery's positive terminal, during discharging. The cycle then repeats with another charging phase.
• a single flying capacitor charge pump is capable of efficiently delivering power only at twice its input, or alternatively if the capacitor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery to produce a mirror-image negative voltage of the battery, i.e. -Vbatt, also known as an inverter.
• Fig. 9A illustrates a charge pump 170 utilizing two flying capacitors 173 and 177 and a network of seven MOSFETs 171 , 172, 174, 175, 176, 178 and 179.
• the purpose of the network is to charge the capacitors in series, charge them each to half the battery voltage, i.e. V ba tt/2. After charging, the two charged capacitors are connected in parallel, and connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
• the resulting output is then V batt + V ba tt/2 for an output voltage of 1.5V batt . Because the output is 1.5 times its input this charge pump is sometimes referred to as a "fractional" charge pump.
• FIG. 9B Schematic diagram 183 and 185 in Figs. 9B and 9C represent the simple switch equivalent model for operating a fractional charge pump where switches 181 , 182, 184, 185, 186, 188 and 189 represent MOSFETs 171 , 172, 174, 175, 176, 178 and 179, respectively.
• switch 181 is closed grounding V x
• switch 189 is closed driving the voltage V z to the input voltage V ba tt
• Figs. 10A-10D illustrate several charge pump voltage converters possible with switched-capacitor networks, represented during their discharge cycle.
• a charge pump doubler 200 combines a battery input voltage source 201 with a single flying capacitor 202 stacked atop it, to produce a voltage twice the battery input, i.e. 2 » Vbatt.
• an inverter 205 stacks a single flying capacitor 206 beneath voltage input 207 to produce a below ground output voltage of -V ba tt, essentially a negative mirror image of the input voltage.
• a fractional charge pump 210 charges capacitors 212 and 213 to Vba tt /2 then stacks them atop V ba tt voltage source 211 to produce an output 1.5 times its input.
• capacitors 217 and 218 charged to Vbatt/2 are connected to ground, the same negative terminal of voltage source 216, producing an output voltage of one-half the battery voltage, i.e. +0.5V ba tt- A voltage -O. ⁇ Vbatt is also possible by referencing the flying capacitors below ground, i.e. with their positive terminal tied to groundr
• charge pumps with two flying capacitors can produce various integral multiples "n" of one-half their input voltage, or as
• V C p +2
• V ba tt 2 » V ba tt
• V C p +1.5 » V b att-
• V C p 0, i.e. grounded or alternatively floating.
• a fractional charge pump can actually switch among these various inverting, fractional and doubler modes automatically as needed.
• a problem with charge pump converters is they operate efficiently only at integral multiples of the number of flying capacitors; in other words, they are not voltage regulators. Specifically, as a desired load voltage V out drops below the voltage VCP that the capacitor network produces, the converter cannot adapt.
• V V l cp ⁇ V V CP "keep (V V batt ⁇
• V batt V 1n for various integral multipliers, including a doubler (curve 221), an inverter (curve 222), and fractional charge pumps (curves 223, 224 and 225).
• Curve 226 represents a direct battery connection, identical to a linear regulator's maximum theoretical efficiency, i.e. assuming no quiescent operating current. In each case, as the input to output ratio approaches an integral multiple of ⁇ 1 /2V ba tt, the efficiency increases.
• the charge pump is not capable of delivering a voltage higher than that voltage, and a different capacitor multiplier, i.e. a different operating mode must be employed.
• Each curve shown in Fig. 11 A represents a specific charge pump circuit, e.g. including those shown previously in Figs. 8, 9 and 10. Unless a load operates at an exact half-volt integral multiple of the input voltage, however, the efficiency of the charge pump converter will suffer. This behavior is especially problematic for battery powered products where the battery voltage changes markedly as the cell discharges. In the case of Lilon batteries, the voltage can decay more than 1 V during discharge, representing a 25% change. Even if the peak efficiency may be high at one specific operating condition and battery voltage, the overall efficiency of the converter averaged over the battery discharge curve is poor. Weighted average efficiencies can be lower than 60% using a single-mode charge pump.
• One way to improve the average efficiency of the converter is to switch modes between 1 X, 1.5X and 2X automatically within one circuit. This feature is particularly useful to supply a fixed voltage over a wide input range.
• An example of the efficiency of a mode changing charge pump is illustrated in Fig. 11 B, which shows the efficiency as a tri-mode converter circuit switches from 1X- battery-direct mode (curve 247), to 1.5X-f ractional-mode (curve 244), and again to a 2X-doubler-mode (curve 241) as the battery decays.
• the efficency of the charge pump converter is improved because the output is not pumped to an excessively high value compared to the load, and the overall efficiency improves.
• graph 240 also includes curves 248, 249, and 250 relating the required input voltage range and conversion ratios to produce output voltages of 3V, 3.5V and 4V, respectively.
• the charge pump converter in 1.5X mode does not perform well for conditions slightly above a unity conversion ratio, unfortunately manifesting even lower efficiencies than an inductive Buck-boost converter.
• charge pump as a power supply
• the charge pump converter is not by itself a voltage regulator since it produces only certain fixed voltage multiples.
• the charge pump To regulate its output voltage or output current, the charge pump must produce a voltage greater than the desired output and some pass element must be inserted in series between the load and the output of the charge pump converter.
• the voltage differential between the charge pump's higher output voltage and a specific desired output voltage must then be supported across this series element.
• Examples of prior art series-pass elements include linear regulators, current sources, or resistors, all of which are lossy, i.e. dissipate power as heat and reduce the charge pump regulator's overall efficiency. Losses are given by the voltage differential present across the series pass element and the current flowing through such an element.
• a charge pump 262 with capacitors 263 and 264 is powered by a battery or other voltage source 261 to produce a voltage Vcp across a reservoir capacitor 265. Since this voltage is higher than a desired output voltage V out needed to power load 262, a low dropout (LDO) linear regulator 266 must support the difference ⁇ V L DO while conducting current, thereby dissipating heat and reducing efficiency. Even if the quiescent currents IQ CP and IQLDO flowing to ground in charge pump 262 and LDO regulator 266 are zero, the efficiency is still limited to a maximum value of Vout/Vcp, the output to input ratio of the LDO pass element. The greater the voltage differential between the charge pump's output Vcp and the desired regulated load voltage V ou t (i.e. the greater the ⁇ V across the LDO regulator), the worse the converter's efficiency becomes.
• LDO low dropout
• a current source 326 represents one switch of a charge pump doubler comprising MOSFETs 322, 323 and 324 and a capacitor 325.
• a selector switch 327 biases current source 326 as either an “on” current source or an “off switch, depending on the mode, so that it behaves as a switched current source conducting a fixed current or no current at all.
• current source 326 When the current through current source 326 is zero, no power is dissipated in the switched current source 326.
• current source 326 When it current source 326 is on and acting as a current source, however, current source 326 must still must dissipate power. Specifically, during conduction, this controlled current source 326 must support a differential voltage Vy - V 0Ut across its terminals. As a consequence, it still dissipates power and degrades efficiency.
• Eliminating the series pass device in a charge pump regulator does not improve efficiency.
• a distributed parasitic resistance 346 present in the circuit will necessarily support the ⁇ V between the load 347 and charge pump 342, and power is lost in this resistance in the form of heat as if a series pass device were intentionally inserted.
• the voltage differential would appear across one of the MOSFET switches, forcing the device to saturate, and drop the full voltage differential across its terminals while conducting current. In such a case power is still lost, in an amount equal to the differential voltage times the load current, no matter how the differential voltage is distributed throughout the circuit.
• Buck-boost converter doesn't really exhibit permanent dropout, it can easily suffer a voltage glitch during mode transitions whenever the converter mode switches from a Buck converter into its Buck mode into its Buck- boost mode, or when switching from Buck-boost mode to boost mode. Mode transitions occur whenever the converter changes from a circuit where two power devices are switching into one where four devices are switching, or vice versa.
• a Buck boost converter can be run continuously in Buck-boost mode with all four power devices switching continuously, but then the efficiency is degraded under all input-output conditions and conversion ratios.
• a charge pump is incapable of regulating voltage without the use of a series-connected linear regulator or a current source such as shown in Figs. 12A through 12D to provide the regulation function.
• a regulated charge pump cannot impose too much voltage across its series regulator, and must therefore change modes during varying input-output conditions as shown in Fig. 11 B.
• the most efficient operating mode is the 1X mode shown by curve 247 in Fig. 11 B. Under the 1 X mode the charge pump is not switching and a series connected linear regulator or current source must provide regulation.
• a MOSFET capable of operating as a current source at a lower ⁇ V is substituted for the bipolar pass element, but the linear regulator still drops out at 200 to 300 mV as the power MOSFET pass element transitions from its saturation, i.e. constant current, region into its linear, i.e. resistive, region of operation.
• prior-art non-isolated high-efficiency converters exhibit dropout at voltage conversion ratios approaching unity. Mode switching, loss of regulation and dropout can be avoided, but only by sacrificing efficiency. Isolated converters such as the flyback and forward converter are able to operate at high efficiencies near unity conversion without the need switching modes, but their use of physically-large tapped inductors, coupled inductors, and transformers precludes their application in most portable products.
• a DC/DC converter comprises a step- down, switched-inductor pre-regulator and a switched-capacitor post-converter.
• the output terminal of the step-down, switched-inductor pre-regulator is connected to the input terminal of the switched-capacitor post-converter.
• the switched-capacitor post-converter may comprise a charge pump that multiplies the voltage at its input terminal by an integral or fractional value, or it may be an inverter that multiplies the voltage at its input terminal by a negative integral or fractional value.
• the step-down, switched-inductor pre-regulator may comprise a Buck converter having a high-side switch connected in a series path with a low- side switch and an inductor connected to a point in the series path between the high-side switch and the low-side switch.
• each of the high-side and low-side switches comprises a MOSFET.
• the pre-regulator steps the input voltage down, and the post-converter either steps the voltage produced by the pre-regulator up or down by an integral or fractional value or multiplies the voltage produced by the pre-regulator by a negative integral or fractional value.
• the output voltage of the DC/DC converter is controlled by a feedback path that may extend from the output terminal of the pre-regulator or the post-converter to a pulse width modulation unit that controls the duty factor of the pre-regulator.
• the feedback path includes a level shift unit or other circuitry that modifies the feedback signal.
• the DC/DC converter of this invention is capable of operating over a wide range of voltage conversion ratios, ranging from step-up to step-down conversion without the need for mode switching. Free from mode switching and dropout problems when V ou t ⁇ Vi n , the converter does not suffer from noise glitches, poor regulation, and instability, even near unity input-to-output voltage conversion ratios. While the converter includes switched-inductor operation, it avoids the minimum pulse width problem plaguing conventional switching regulators at very high and very low duty factors, including regulator dropout, narrow pulses and associated high-current spikes, variable frequency operation, inadequate time to perform break-before-make transitions.
• Another aspect of this invention comprises a method of converting a first DC voltage to a second DC voltage.
• the method comprises: providing at least one inductor and at least one capacitor; during a first time interval coupling a first terminal of the at least one inductor to the first DC voltage; during a second time interval coupling the first terminal of the at least one inductor to a second voltage, thereby producing an intermediate voltage at a second terminal of the at least one inductor; during a third time interval coupling a first terminal of the at least one capacitor to the intermediate voltage and coupling a second terminal of the at least one capacitor to a third voltage; and during a fourth time interval coupling the second terminal of the at least one capacitor to the intermediate voltage and coupling the first terminal of the at least one capacitor to an output terminal, thereby providing the second DC voltage at the output terminal.
• Variations of the method comprise, during the fourth time interval, coupling the second terminal of the at least one capacitor to a fourth voltage and coupling the first terminal of the at least one capacitor to an output terminal or coupling the first terminal of the at least one capacitor to ground and coupling the second terminal of the at least one capacitor to an output terminal.
• FIG. 1 A is a schematic circuit diagram of a prior-art non-isolated DC/DC synchronous Buck converter.
• Fig. 1 B is a schematic circuit diagram of a prior-art synchronous boost converter.
• Fig. 1C is a graph showing the duty factor dependence of conversion ratio as a function of the duty factor for the devices shown in Figs. 1 A and 1 B.
• Fig. 2 is a graph showing the discharge characteristics of single-cell Lilon battery.
• Fig. 3A is a circuit diagram of a prior art cascaded boost-Buck converter.
• Fig. 3B is a circuit diagram of a prior art cascaded Buck-boost converter.
• Fig. 4 is a circuit diagram of a prior art Buck-boost converter.
• Fig. 5A is a circuit diagram illustrating bias conditions in the Buck mode operation of Buck-boost converter.
• Fig. 5B is an equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 5A.
• Fig. 6A is a circuit diagram illustrating bias conditions in the boost mode operation of Buck-boost converter.
• Fig. 6B is an equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 6A.
• Fig. 7 is a graph illustrating the efficiency of a Buck-boost converter as a function of the conversion ratio.
• Fig. 8A is a circuit diagram of a prior art charge pump doubler.
• Fig. 8B is a circuit diagram illustrating the charging operation of the charge pump doubler.
• Fig. 8C is a circuit diagram illustrating the discharging operation of the charge pump doubler.
• Fig. 9A is a circuit diagram of a prior art fractional charge pump.
• Fig. 9B is a circuit diagram illustrating the charging operation of the fractional charge pump.
• Fig. 9C is a circuit diagram illustrating the discharging operation of the fractional charge pump.
• Fig. 1OA is an equivalent circuit showing a +2X-mode single-capacitor doubler during its discharge cycle.
• Fig. 1OB is an equivalent circuit showing a -X-mode single-capacitor inverter during its discharge cycle.
• Fig. 1OC is an equivalent circuit showing a +1.5X-mode dual-capacitor fractional charge pump during its discharge cycle.
• Fig. 1OD is an equivalent circuit showing a +0.5X-mode dual-capacitor fractional charge pump during its discharge cycle.
• Fig. 11 A is a graph showing the efficiency of a single-mode charge pump as a function of its conversion ratio.
• Fig. 11 B is a graph showing the efficiency of a tri-mode charge pump as a function of its conversion ratio.
• Fig. 12A is an equivalent circuit of a charge pump with LDO post- converter.
• Fig. 12B is an equivalent circuit of a charge pump with LDO pre-regulator.
• Fig. 12C is an equivalent circuit of a charge pump with current source follower.
• Fig. 12D is an equivalent circuit of a charge pump with integral switched current source.
• Fig. 12E is an equivalent circuit of a charge pump with series output resistance.
• Fig. 13 is a graph showing the requisite voltage conversion ratio V 0Ut AA n of a DC/DC converter operating at a variety of voltage outputs and for inputs ranging from 1.8V to 6.6V.
• Fig. 14A is a schematic circuit diagram of a switched LCDU down-up regulating converter in accordance with the invention.
• Fig. 14B is a circuit diagram of a feedback circuit that may used to control the output voltage of the converter.
• Fig. 15A is a behavioral model of the switched LCDU regulating converter of this invention.
• Fig. 15B is a graph showing the input voltage dependence of output voltage V out , intermediate voltage V y , and voltage conversion ratio for a 3.3V LCDU regulator of this invention.
• Fig. 15C is a graph showing the voltage conversion ratio as a function of the duty factor for a 2X LCDU converter of this invention.
• Fig. 15D is a graph showing the efficiency of the LCDU converter as a function of the pre-regulator voltage conversion ratio V y / V in .
• Fig. 15E is a graph showing the efficiency of the up converter as a function of the voltage conversion ratio V ou t / V y .
• Fig. 15F is a graph showing the overall efficiency of the converter as a function of the conversion ratio of V ou t / V in .
• Fig. 15G is a graph showing the efficiency of the converter as a function of the duty factor and voltage conversion ratio.
• Fig. 15H is a graph of the efficiency of an idealized 2X-type LCDU converter as a function of the duty factor for various voltage conversion ratios.
• Fig. 151 is a graph of the efficiency of a non-idealized 2X-type LCDU converter as a function of the duty factor for various voltage conversion ratios.
• Fig. 16 is a graph comparing the efficiency of Buck, CP and switched LCDU converters as a function of voltage conversion ratio.
• Fig. 17 is a graph showing the input voltage, intermediate voltage Vy, and output voltage of a switched LCDU regulating converter during the discharge of single-cell Lilon battery.
• Fig. 18 is a schematic circuit diagram of a doubler-type switched LCDU regulating converter of this invention.
• Fig. 19A is a circuit diagram illustrating the operation of a switched LCDU regulating converter during the magnetizing-charging stage.
• Fig. 19B is a circuit diagram illustrating the operation of a switched LCDU regulating converter during the recirculating-transferring stage.
• Fig. 20 is a circuit diagram illustrating the operation of a switched LCDU converter in CP-bypass down-only mode.
• Fig. 21 A is a circuit diagram of a doubler type LCDU converter.
• Fig. 21 B is a circuit diagram of a fractional type LCDU converter.
• Fig. 21 C is a circuit diagram of a fractional type LCDD converter.
• Fig. 22 is a graph showing the voltage conversion ratio as a function of duty factor for various LCDX-type regulating converters.
• Fig. 23A is a circuit diagram of a fractional 1.5X LCDU regulating converter.
• Fig. 23B is a circuit diagram of the fractional 1.5X LCDU regulating converter during the magnetizing-charging stage.
• Fig. 23C is a circuit diagram of a fractional 1.5X LCDU regulating converter during the recirculating-transferring stage.
• Fig. 24A is a circuit diagram of a fractional 0.5X LCDD regulating converter.
• Fig. 24B is a circuit diagram of a fractional 0.5X LCDD regulating converter during the magnetizing-charging stage.
• Fig. 24C is a circuit diagram of a fractional 0.5X LCDD regulating converter during the recirculating-transferring stage.
• Fig. 25A is a circuit diagram of a -1X LCDI regulating inverter.
• Fig. 25B is a circuit diagram of a -0.5X LCDI fractional regulating inverter.
• Fig. 26 is a graph showing the voltage conversion ratios for several LCDI- type regulating inverters as a function of the duty cycle.
• Fig. 27A is a circuit diagram of a -1 X type LCDI regulating inverter.
• Fig. 27B is a circuit diagram of the -1 X type LCDI inverter during the magnetizing-charging stage.
• Fig. 27C is a circuit diagram of the -1 X type LCDI inverter during the recirculating-transferring stage.
• Fig. 28A is a circuit diagram of a fractional -0.5X LCDI regulating inverter.
• Fig. 28B is a circuit diagram of the fractional -0.5X LCDI regulating inverter during the magnetizing-charging stage.
• Fig. 28C is a circuit diagram of the fractional -0.5X LCDI regulating inverter during the recirculating-transferring stage.
• Fig. 29A is a schematic circuit diagram of a level-shifted feedback network for a doubler type LCDU converter.
• Fig. 29B is a schematic circuit diagram of a level-shifted feedback network for a fractional 1.5X type LCDU converter.
• Fig. 29C is a schematic circuit diagram of a bipolar current mirror feedback network for a fractional 0.5X type LCDD converter.
• Fig. 29D is a schematic circuit diagram of a MOSFET current mirror feedback network for a fractional 0.5X type LCDD converter.
• Fig. 29E is a schematic circuit diagram of a bipolar current mirror feedback network for a 1 X type LCDI inverter.
• Fig. 29F is a schematic circuit diagram of a MOSFET current mirror feedback network for a -1 X type LCDI inverter.
• Fig. 29G is a schematic circuit diagram of a MOSFET current mirror feedback network for a fractional -0.5X type LCDI inverter.
• Fig. 3OA is a circuit diagram of a level-shifted feedback circuit from the output terminal of a switched LCDX regulating converter.
• Fig. 3OB is a circuit diagram of a non-level shifted feedback from intermediate V y terminal of a switched LCDX regulating converter.
• Fig. 31 A is a circuit diagram of a gate buffer driven from Vbatt for a high- side P-channel power MOSFET in a switched LCDX converter.
• Fig. 31 B is a circuit diagram of a gate buffer driven from the intermediate voltage V y for a high-side P-channel power MOSFET in a switched LCDX converter.
• Fig. 31 C is a circuit diagram of a boot strap gate buffer with resistive level shifting for a high-side N-channel power MOSFET in a switched LCDX converter.
• Fig. 31 D is a circuit diagram of a boot strap gate buffer with cross-coupled level shifting for a high-side N-channel power MOSFET in a switched LCDX converter.
• Fig. 31 E is a circuit diagram of a gate buffer driven from V ba tt for a low- side N-channel power MOSFET in a switched LCDX converter.
• Fig. 31 F is a circuit diagram of a gate buffer driven from the intermediate voltage V y for a low-side N-channel power MOSFET in a switched LCDX converter.
• Fig. 32 is a graph showing a comparison of the efficiencies of a tri-mode charge pump and Buck-boost converter to the efficiency of an LCDU converter according to this invention.
• Fig. 13 graphically illustrates the requisite voltage conversion ratio V out /V ⁇ n of a DC/DC converter operating at a variety of output voltages for various input voltages ranging from 1.8V to 6.6V.
• curve 361 illustrates that for a 4.5V to 5.5V input range, regulating a 5V output to ⁇ 1 % accuracy requires operation above and below a unity conversion ratio, meaning an up-down regulating converter is required to hold a tighter tolerance than the ⁇ 5% or ⁇ 10% accuracy commonly guaranteed by low cost AC/DC wall adapters.
• Another need for up-down conversion occurs when using a lithium ion battery to produce a voltage intermediate to its wide voltage range.
• Curve 365 illustrates a 3V output, which theoretically should require only step-down conversion, but because of the aforementioned problem of dropout, a Lilon battery supplying a 3V output must cutoff above 3.2V, thereby wasting useful battery life.
• New generation Lilon cells under development may allow operation down to 2.7V, requiring up-down conversion for 2.7 V outputs as shown by curve 366.
• dropout issues may also require the use of an up-down converter even to supply a regulated 2.5V output, as shown by curve 367. If, however, up-down conversion results in a loss of efficiency exceeding the extra operating time gained by the extended battery range, then the user lifetime benefit of using a battery capable of lower voltage operation is lost entirely.
• Another situation requiring an efficient low-dropout up-down converter is the use of a power supply designed to operate with two NiMH dry-cells, two alkaline cells, or a single-cell Lilon battery. Since the output voltage of a 2-series- cell NiMH battery pack ranges from 1.8V to 2.4V, the output voltage of 2-series- cell alkaline batteries ranges from 1.8V up to 3.4V during charging, and the output voltage of a single-cell Lilon battery ranges from 4.2V down to 3V or even 2.7V, any load voltage between 4.2V and 1.8V needs an up-down converter to maximize efficiency and battery life.
• the input voltage supplied to a system's DC/DC converter input can be considerably higher than if the battery were present, and may reach as high as 6.5V.
• the input voltage may be as low as 1.8V.
• every output voltage represented by curves 361 to 368 in Fig. 13, i.e., ranging from 5V down to a 1.8V output requires an up-down converter.
• Today most electrical loads are supplied by an up-only or down-only converter, where the battery is cut off prematurely to avoid requiring up-down conversion, even at the expense of wasting usable stored charge in a battery.
• Up-down conversion is therefore avoided at any cost except in extreme situations.
• the poor efficiency, mode switching, noise glitches, regulation dropout, and poor regulation offered by existing up-down solutions be they DC/DC converters, charge pumps, or linear regulators, a requirement for up- down conversion and regulation is extremely problematic and cannot meet the needs of today's efficiency-focused consumer marketplace.
• the new non-isolated DC/DC converter and voltage regulation topology described herein is capable of operating over a wide range of voltage conversion ratios ranging from step-up to step-down conversion without the need for mode switching. Free from mode switching and dropout problems when V out ⁇ V in , the converter does not suffer from noise glitches, poor regulation, and instability, even near unity input-to-output voltage conversion ratios. While the regulator includes switched-inductor operation, it avoids the minimum pulse width problem plaguing conventional switching regulators at very high and very low duty factors, including regulator dropout, narrow pulses and associated high-current spikes, variable frequency operation, inadequate time to perform break-before-make transitions.
• prior-art non-isolated DC/DC converters suffer from one or more of the aforementioned problems at extreme duty factors, and their use near unity voltage conversion ratios remains problematic.
• the method and apparatus of this invention can be used in applications requiring up-down conversion, and avoid the problems of existing Buck-boost and flyback converters. While preferred embodiments of this invention specifically address the implementation of up-down converters, variants include improved down-only regulating converters and DC/DC inverters capable of producing negative, i.e. below ground, supply voltages.
• the new DC/DC converters disclosed herein comprise three new converter topologies and variants thereof, referred to herein by acronym as
• switched-inductor-capacitor regulating converters comprising an inductive step-down pre-regulator feeding a switched-capacitor implemented step-up, step-down, or inverting post-converter.
• the first L in the acronym represents the energy storage element, i.e. the coil or inductor, in the first stage of the regulator, or pre- regulator.
• the C represents the energy storage element in the post-converter or second stage of the converter.
• the third character "D" in the converter's name indicates that the pre-regulator steps the input or battery voltage down and feeds the stepped-down voltage to the post-converter.
• AATI-22-DS-US titled “High-Efficiency DC/DC Voltage Converter Including Capacitive Pre.-Converter and Down Inductive Switching Post-Regulator,” each of which is filed contemporaneously herewith and incorporated herein by reference, describe switched-capacitor-inductor (CL) regulating converters, where pre- conversion is achieved by a switched-capacitor stage and post-regulation is accomplished by a switched-inductor method.
• CL switched-capacitor-inductor
• Fig. 14A illustrates a schematic circuit diagram of a switched LCDX regulating converter 400 comprising a step-down, switched-inductor pre-regulator 401 supplying a voltage V y as an input to a switched-capacitor charge-pump post-converter 402 with a conversion ratio n, where the output voltage VOUT is further used as a feedback voltage V F B to control the operating condition and output of the pre-regulator 401.
• the output voltage V y of the pre-regulator 401 is thereby dynamically adjusted to a voltage that optimizes the efficiency of the nX charge-pump converter 402 while simultaneously producing a well-regulated output at a desired voltage VOUT
• the switched-inductor pre-regulator 401 comprises a PWM controller 406, a break-before-make gate buffer 405, a high-side P-channel power MOSFET 417, a low-side N-channel synchronous rectifier power MOSFET 403 with an intrinsic PN diode 404, and an inductor 418.
• An optional filter capacitor 407 is connected across the output of pre-regulator 401 to reduce ripple and improve transient response.
• the step-down switched-inductor pre-regulator 401 is topological ⁇ configured as a synchronous Buck converter, although any step-down switched-inductor DC/DC converter may be used.
• N-channel MOSFET 403 may be eliminated and diode 404 replaced by a Schottky rectifier to implement a Buck converter in lieu of the synchronous Buck converter shown.
• PWM controller 406 controls the on-time of high-side P-channel MOSFET 417 by varying the duty factor D in response to its feedback input, operating at a fixed frequency ⁇ as determined by a ramp-clock/oscillator 413.
• PWM controller 406 may operate at a variable frequency with either a fixed or variable on-time for P-channel MOSFET 417. Whenever P-channel MOSFET 417 is on, current flows from input power source V ba tt through inductor 418. The coil is thereby magnetized, storing energy in an amount equal to VfeLI 2 and resisting any rapid changes in current.
• inductor 418 Compared to the switching frequency ⁇ , current in inductor 418 cannot react to the rapid switching of MOSFET 417, so that inductor 418 behaves as a nearly lossless current source, whose average current changes slowly, over many clock cycles in response to pulse width modulation controlled by PWM circuit 406.
• inductor 418 drives the voltage at node V x below ground, forward biasing diode 404 and allowing current in inductor 418 to flow uninterrupted, i.e. to recirculate.
• the power dissipated in diode 404 is l ⁇ _ # V f where V f is the forward voltage of P-N junction diode 404.
• N-channel synchronous rectifier MOSFET 403 conducts all or some portion of the time during which P-channel MOSFET 417 is off, shunting the current in diode 404 and redirecting the recirculation current through the channel of low-side MOSFET 403.
• MOSFET 403 Since MOSFET 403 only conducts when rectifier diode 404 is conducting, it operates as a "synchronous" rectifier. During conduction, the voltage drop across the synchronous rectifier is given by IL # RD S (O ⁇ ) and its instantaneous power dissipation is l L 2# R D s(on). Break-before make (BBM) buffer 405 insures that high-side power
• MOSFET 417 and low-side power MOSFET 403 never conduct simultaneously to prevent shoot-through conduction.
• Shoot-through conduction is an undesirable condition leading to wasted power and a loss in efficiency, and potentially resulting in MOSFET device damage.
• BBM intervals must be sufficiently long to prevent shoot-through, excessively long BBM intervals are, however, also undesirable since they force diode 404 to carry current for longer times and to dissipate more power.
• synchronous rectifier MOSFET 403 ideally should be turned on and conducting whenever high-side MOSFET 417 is off. In some circumstances, however, it may be advantageous to turn off synchronous rectifier MOSFET 403 prematurely or not to turn it on at all. For example at very low output currents, unwanted oscillations and reverse current flow may occur if MOSFET 403 is left on for an extended duration. Shutting MOSFET 403 off disables channel conduction, and diode 404 under a reverse-bias condition prevents reverse current conduction, improving the converter's light load efficiency.
• the synchronous rectifier MOSFET may remain on but controlled in a manner to limit the magnitude of its drain current, when it is not being operated as a fully-on device.
• the method reduces electrical noise in switched-inductor converters.
• the intermediate voltage V y can be used as a feedback signal to control PWM circuit 406.
• the value of Vy produced by the pre-regulator circuit 401 is important in setting the overall efficiency of DC/DC converter 400.
• the output voltage of level shifter 414 should force the value of V y to a voltage equal to V 0 Jn.
• level shifter 414 comprises a network of two resistors 415 and 416 acting as a voltage divider.
• PWM circuit 406 includes an error circuit whereby the output voltage of level shifter 414 is compared against a reference voltage and the result of the comparison is used to control the switching MOSFETs 403 and 417. For example, as shown in Fig.
• the output voltage VFBI ⁇ from level shifter 414 may be compared in an error amplifier 406A against a reference voltage V ref generated by a band-gap generator 406B, and the error signal generated by error amplifier 406A may in turn be compared to an oscillating ramp signal in a comparator 406C.
• Comparator 406C generates a digital output which is fed through a flip-flop circuit 406D and a BBM buffer 405 to control the switching of MOSFETs 403 and 417 and in particular the duty factor of MOSFET 417.
• level shifter 414 is constructed such that when V 0Ut is at the target level, the error amplifier 406A produces an output which maintains the duty factor constant.
• LCDX converter 400 Another feature of LCDX converter 400 is the use of clock/oscillator 413 to control the switching of MOSFETs 417 and 403 in pre-regulator 401 as well as the switching elements in charge pump 408. By synchronizing the switched- inductor pre-regulator 401 and switched-capacitor post-converter 402, the size of intermediate filter capacitor 407 can be greatly reduced or in some cases, capacitor 407 may be eliminated altogether. Regulating Vout through V y Pre-Regulation
• One novel aspect of the LCDX converter 400 is the dependence of its overall efficiency ⁇ on the value of intermediate voltage V y , the output of the pre- regulator 401. Another important consideration is the way the voltage V y is controlled with closed loop feedback to improve the converter's transient regulation.
• step-down pre-regulator 401 is powered from input voltage Vj n , producing an intermediate voltage V y .
• the pre-regulator 401 operates as a step-down converter, given by
• Vy D-V 1n where D is the duty cycle of the high side MOSFET, ranging between 0% and
• the V y output of the pre-regulator 401 powers switched-capacitor post-converter 402, outputting a voltage V 2 .
• the input voltage source 421 powers the entire LCDX converter.
• This power source may represent the output of any power supply but commonly comprises a Lilon battery.
• the cell voltage V ba t t is substantially equal to V in except in the event of high- current transients when some voltage drop may occur inside the battery pack, further exemplifying the need for regulating voltage converters.
• the output of the switching LCDX regulator powers a load 425, operating at a voltage V out , the desired output voltage of the regulator.
• the parasitic lossy element 424 is included schematically to model the impact of a voltage mismatch between the output V z of the post-converter 402 and the load's desired supply voltage V ou t- Assuming that the output voltage V 2 of post- converter 402 is substantially the same as the desired output voltage V ou t, then the voltage ⁇ V across lossy parasitic element 424 is negligible, and V ou t s V z . Combining the above equations, yields the relation
• the LCDX converter transfer equation specifically becomes
• the conversion ratio of this 2X-type LCDU converter voltage is illustrated by the dashed line in Fig. 15B and by line 434 in Fig. 15C.
• the dashed curve varies above and below unity, having a magnitude ranging roughly between 0.67 to over 1.5.
• V in 3.3V
• the voltage conversion ratio is unity, and the converter is operating at the edge between step-up and step-down conversion. Notice that the LCDU converter 400 passes through this unity conversion condition without ever changing operating modes.
• graph 432 of Fig. 15C illustrates that the voltage conversion ratio of converter 400 is linearly dependent on its duty factor D, shown by line 434, having twice the slope of line 433 describing only the output to input ratio of pre-regulator 401. While theoretically the converter is able to regulate output voltages ratios from zero to twice the input voltage, operation below 10% and above 90% duty factors is complicated by the need for narrow on or off pulses which are difficult to control.
• the output voltage of the 2X LCDU converter covers a wide range, from a minimum step-down factor 0.2 times the input to a maximum step-up factor 1.8 times the input - a voltage conversion range twice that of a Buck converter.
• the duty factor of the pre- regulator 401 is only 50%. At only a 50% duty factor, a switching converter can easily be implemented for operation at high frequencies without being limited by problematic extremes in duty factor suffered by conventional Buck, boost, and Buck-boost converter topologies.
• the overall efficiency of the LCDX converter 400 can also be estimated using behavioral model 420 shown in Fig. 15B.
• the efficiency of the pre- regulator 401 can then be expressed as y ' in
• Fig. 15D illustrates that the efficiency ⁇ i of pre-regulator 401 is relatively constant and independent of its voltage conversion ratio V y / Vj n . Typical values range from 96% to 90%, depending on operating conditions, power MOSFET resistance and operating currents.
• post- converter 402 has an efficiency given by
• quiescent operating current IQ 2 is substantially zero in the charge pump 408 and its peak theoretical efficiency approaches 100%.
• quiescent current IQ 2 is not zero and the peak efficiency is limited to less than 100%, specifically to some value n.2, typically 95 to 97% as shown by curve 439.
• Fig. 15G illustrates the same expression plotted as duty factor D versus the V 0 Ut / Vin voltage conversion ratio for lines of constant ⁇ 3 efficiency.
• lines 452A through 452E represent the duty factor dependence for ⁇ 3 efficiencies of 100%, 90%, 80%, 70% and 60% respectively.
• line 452 describes the duty factor where the 2X LCDU converter exhibits maximum efficiency for any given V out / V in conversion ratio.
• the optimum duty factor D is over 50% for step-up conversion, and below 50% for step-down conversion.
• Fig. 15H is a plot of the efficiency of an LCDU converter containing a 2X- type post-converter as a function of the duty factor D and the voltage conversion ratio V out / V in , assuming 100%.
• the converter maintains operation in its high efficiency region of operation by controlling the duty factor D through the use of feedback control techniques, specifically to maintain an adequate but not excessive duty factor.
• open loop operation could easily suffer loss of efficiency as well as degraded regulation.
• Insufficient duty factors result in an output voltage that is too low; when the duty factor is too high, the efficiency is degraded.
• Real efficiencies are lower than the curves shown in Fig. 15H because ⁇ i # ⁇ 2 ⁇ 100%, i.e. in reality, some power is lost in the switched-inductor pre- regulator 401 and in the switched-capacitor post-converter 402.
• curves 461 A through 461 E describe step-down conversion for voltage conversion ratios of 0.9, 0.7, 0.5, 0.3 and 0.1 respectively.
• curves 462A through 462E describe a step-up converter with output- to-input voltage ratios of 1.1 , 1.3, 1.5, 1.7 and 1.9 respectively.
• the 2X type LCDU converter cannot exceed a step up ratio of 2, and in practice should not be used above step up ratios of 1.8 to 1.9 to avoid narrow pulses.
• the switching LCDU regulator of this invention can produce a well regulated output in either step-up or step-down modes without exhibiting any mode changes, narrow pulse, or dropout effects near unity voltage conversion ratios, i.e. when V out ⁇ V in .
• the LCDU regulator is able to operate over a range of output to input voltage ratios far beyond that of a Buck converter, boost converter or charge pump. Assuming a practical limitation on duty factor ranges between 10% and 90%, Table 2 compares the usable range of voltage conversion ratios of the LCDU regulator to those of a charge pump doubler, Buck converter, and boost converter.
• the efficiency of a 2X charge pump (curve 467) is high only for conversion ratios exceeding 1.8.
• FIG. 17 An example of a switched LCDU regulating converter in operation is illustrated in Fig. 17, where the voltage of a single-cell Lilon battery is used to generate a regulated a 3.3V output during the entire battery discharge cycle.
• the cell voltage starts at 4.2V and then decays during interval 471 to around 3.5V to 3.6V, where the voltage remains during most of the discharge cycle (curve 472).
• curve 473 illustrates that the battery voltage decays below 3.5V into a range ⁇ Vout ⁇ Vbatt ⁇ (Vout + ⁇ ) ⁇ between lines 477 and 478, a condition where a normal converter would suffer dropout or mode switching problems.
• curve 474 the battery voltage is well below the 3.3V output of the converter. Only specialized Lilon batteries 475 can operate down to 2.7V without growing crystallites that short out the cell.
• the LCDU converter steps the battery voltage down by duty factor D to a constant pre-regulated voltage V y shown by curve 476, then steps the voltage back up by 2X in the charge pump post- converter to produce a regulated 3.3V output V ou t (curve 477).
• the converter's condition can be described as shown in Table 3:
• Fig. 18 illustrates a schematic circuit diagram of a doubler-type switched LCDU regulating converter 480.
• the LCDU switching converter 480 includes a high-side power MOSFET 481 , a low-side N-channel synchronous rectifier 483 with an intrinsic P- N diode 484 and an inductor 482. These elements are included in a pre-regulator 480A, converting an input voltage V batt .to an intermediate voltage V y .
• the voltage Vy across an optional filter capacitor 485 forms the input to a 2X-type charge pump post-converter 480B, comprising power MOSFETs 486, 487, 488 and 489 together sequentially charging and discharging a flying capacitor 490 from pre- regulator 480A into an output filter capacitor 491.
• High-side configured power MOSFETs 481 , 487, and 488, along with floating power MOSFET 489 may be either N-channel or P-channel devices, with appropriate changes in the gate drive signal and gate buffer circuitry.
• Low-side power MOSFETs 483 and 486 are preferably implemented as N-channel devices.
• Output voltage V ou t is used as a feedback signal V F B, scaled by level shift resistors 496 and 497 to produce a voltage as a control input to an error amplifier within PWM controller 493. This control voltage is chosen to force the output of. the pre-regulator 480A to an intermediate voltage V y having a magnitude equal to one-half of the magnitude of the output voltage V ou t- PWM controller 493, synchronized to a clock and ramp generator circuit
• BBM buffer 492 drives high-side MOSFET 481 and synchronous rectifier MOSFET 483 out of phase with gate biases V G i and VG2 to prevent shoot-through conduction.
• the polarity of VG I is positive with respect to the source of MOSFET 481 if MOSFET 481 is an N-channel device, and negative if MOSFET 481 is a P-channel device.
• Synchronous rectifier MOSFET 483 is controlled to conduct all or some portion of the time when MOSFET 481 is off, but never to conduct significant current when MOSFET 481 is on.
• the clock signal controlling PWM controller 493 also controls BBM buffer 495, producing gate signals V G s3, V G s4, VGS S and VGS ⁇ to control the sequenced switching of charge pump MOSFETs 487, 486, 488, and 489, respectively.
• These MOSFETs conduct in diagonal fashion, with MOSFETs 488 and 486 conducting while MOSFETs 487 and 489 are off so as to charge capacitor 490; and then MOSFETs 487 and 489 conducting while MOSFETs 486 and 488 are off so as to discharge capacitor 490 by transferring its charge onto reservoir capacitor 491.
• BBM buffer 495 prevents shoot-through conduction between MOSFETs 487 and 486, and also between MOSFETs 488 and 489.
• the MOSFETs in post-converter 480B may be switched synchronously to those in pre-regulator 480A at the frequency ⁇ or at some higher multiple of the clock frequency, i.e. m ⁇ , or alternatively at a frequency independent of the clock frequency used to switch MOSFETs 481 and 483 in pre-regulator 480A.
• all of the power MOSFETs in pre-regulator 480A and charge pump post-converter 480B are switched in synchronous fashion whereby filter capacitor 485 can be made small or may be eliminated.
• capacitor 485 is required to temporarily store energy needed to support momentary load and line transients.
• FIG. 19A schematic diagram 500 represents converter 480 during magnetizing of inductor 482 and the simultaneous charging of flying capacitor 490, with current flowing from V ba tt through on-state MOSFETs 481 , 488 and 486 and during which time V x is biased to V ba tt, V w is grounded, V 2 is biased to V y , and flying capacitor 490 charges to a voltage +V y .
• Off MOSFET 483 is represented by reversed bias diode 484.
• Off MOSFETs 487 and 489 are represented by open circuits 504 and 506 respectively.
• schematic diagram 520 represents LCDU converter 480 during the recirculation of current through inductor 482 and the discharge of flying capacitor 490.
• an inductive recirculation current flows through forward-biased diode 484, shunted by on-state MOSFET 483, and through MOSFETs 487 and 489, charging output capacitor 491.
• the voltage V x is biased near, but slightly below ground, specifically within a diode's forward bias V f of ground.
• high-side MOSFET 481 is represented by reverse-biased P-N diode 481.
• Off MOSFETs 488 and 486 are represented by open circuits 528 and 526.
• a first terminal of the inductor 482 is coupled to a first voltage (V b att) during a first time interval and to a second voltage (ground) during a second time interval.
• V b att first voltage
• ground second voltage
• inductor 482 is magnetizing and during the second time interval the current is recirculating through inductor 482.
• This cycle is repeated, and as a result of the electric characteristics of inductor 482 an intermediate voltage (V y ) is produced at a second terminal of inductor 482.
• the first time interval as a percentage of the total time of each cycle defines the duty factor of pre-regulator 480A.
• the intermediate voltage V y is a percentage of V bat t, which percentage is determined by the duty factor.
• the first and second time intervals are separated by a break-before-make (BBM) interval.
• a first terminal of the flying capacitor 490 is coupled to a the intermediate voltage (V y ) and a second terminal of capacitor 490 is coupled to a third voltage (ground).
• capacitor 409 charges to approximately the intermediate voltage (V y ).
• the second terminal of capacitor 490 is coupled to the intermediate voltage (V y ) and the first terminal of capacitor 490 is coupled to the output terminal of the charge pump.
• capacitor 490 is charging, and during the fourth time interval capacitor 490 is discharging. Normally, the third and fourth time intervals are separated by a BBM interval.
• Pre-regulator 480A and post-converter 480B can be operated synchronously such that the first and third time intervals overlap and the second and fourth time intervals overlap. If so, the first terminal of inductor 482 is coupled to the first voltage (Vbatt) during all or at least part of the time that the capacitor 490 is charging, and the first terminal of the inductor 482 is coupled to the second voltage (ground) during all or at least part of the time that the capacitor 490 is discharging.
• Vbatt first voltage
• ground ground
• 2X post-conversion can be eliminated by discontinuing the switching of the charge pump MOSFETs and turning on both MOSFET 488 and 489 so that V y « Vz ⁇ V 0 U t , the voltage across output capacitor 491.
• MOSFET 487 is biased off, represented here as open circuit 545.
• MOSFETs 486 and 488 biased on, V w is grounded and V 2 is connected to V y , pre-charging capacitor 490 to +V y , essentially in parallel with output capacitor 491.
• MOSFETs 481 and 483 with parallel diode 484 continue to switch under PWM control to regulate the voltage at node V y .
• This condition may be considered a charge pump bypass mode.
• Feedback using a doubler-type charge-pump post-converter requires only a resistor divider comprising resistors 581 and 582 to adjust the signal for the PWM converter's control input.
• the output voltage VFB is twice the magnitude of the desired voltage V y .
• the feedback divider may utilize equal size resistors to divide the output signal in half as an input to the PWM controller V F Bin-
• the feedback input voltage VFBI ⁇ to the PWM controller is defined as the voltage that will cause the PWM controller will try to force Vy to a voltage equal to V out /2, i.e. so under closed loop control V y ⁇ V out /2.
• the disclosed LCDX family of converters may also utilize a step-up fractional charge pump in place of a doubler.
• the feedback from the converter's output to the VFBI ⁇ pin is scaled, i.e. level shifted, by a network of resistors 600 and 601 so that under closed loop control V y ⁇ (V ou t/1.5).
• the 1.5X-type LCDU regulator supplies a lower output voltage at the same duty factor.
• the 1.5X-type LCDU regulator is preferable over the doubler type when delivering lower output voltages.
• a doubler-type LCDU regulator For example delivering a 3.0V output from a Lilon battery charged to 4.2V, a doubler-type LCDU regulator must operate at a 35% duty factor while the 1.5X-type LCDU regulator operates at a 48% duty factor. Operating near a 50% duty factor allows higher-frequency switching than operation at extreme duty factors.
• Another version of the LCDX converter utilizes a step-down fractional charge pump, where the output voltage of the charge-pump post-converter is equal to, for example, one-half its input voltage.
• both the pre- regulator and post-converter stages perform a step-down function.
• the resulting , converter can be referred to as a down-down or LCDD switching converter.
• the feedback from the converter's output to the VFBI ⁇ pin is scaled by a level shifting circuit to the desired voltage V y so that under closed loop control V y ⁇ (V O ut/0.5). Since the level shifted feedback signal VFBI ⁇ may higher than VFB, not lower, a level shift circuit containing active transistor devices may be required in place of the passive resistor voltage-divider network of LCDU converters 570 and 590. Examples of active level shift feedback networks are described below. While 1.5X-type fractional LCDU converter 590 offers similar benefits to 2X-type LCDU converter 570 by performing both step-up and step-down conversion without the need for mode switching and without suffering dropout, the benefit and motivation for 0.5X-type LCDD converter 610 is different. As a step-down only converter it should be compared to the Buck converter in its operating characteristics and not against LCDU down-up converters.
• the Buck converter must regulate at a 21% duty factor while the 0.5X-type LCDD converter is still operating at a relatively high 42% duty ratio.
• Fig. 23A illustrates schematic diagram of a fractional 1.5X-type LCDU regulating converter 650.
• a step-down pre-regulator 650A comprises a PWM controller 668; a clock 667; a BBM buffer 670; a high-side power MOSFET 651 ; an N-channel synchronous rectifier MOSFET 652 with an intrinsic P-N diode 653; an inductor 654; and an optional filter capacitor 655.
• a fractional charge pump post-converter 650B comprises a high-side MOSFET 656, a middle MOSFET 657 and a low-side MOSFET 658 with flying capacitors 663 and 664.
• the discharge path comprises output connected MOSFETs 661 and 662 connected to output capacitor 665 and V y connected MOSFETs 659 and 660.
• Grounded MOSFETs 652 and 658 are N-channel devices. The remaining devices may comprise either N-channel or P-channel MOSFETs with appropriate modification to the gate drive polarity and circuitry.
• the charge pump MOSFETs are controlled by a BBM buffer 666, circuitry ideally synchronized to the same clock 667 controlling pre-regulator MOSFETs 651 and 652.
• the output V out having a voltage 1.5 times V y is used to control PWM circuit 668 via feedback VFB-
• the VFB signal is appropriately level shifted by resistors 669A and 669B to produce a VFBI ⁇ signal equal to a voltage equal to V ou t/1 -5, the desired voltage V y for optimum converter efficiency.
• BBM buffer 666 need not be driven by PWM 668, but preferably the MOSFETs in the post- converter 650B are turned on simultaneously with the MOSFETs in the pre- regulator 650A.
• Fig. 23B illustrates the equivalent circuit 680 of converter 650 during the cycle when inductor 654 is magnetized and capacitors 663 and 664 are charged, during which time MOSFETs 651 , 656, 657, and 658 are conducting and all other MOSFETs are off. During this cycle, series connected capacitors 656 and 664 each charge to a voltage V y /2.
• Fig. 23C illustrates the equivalent circuit 690 of converter 650 in the next phase when the inductor current re-circulates and the flying capacitors 663 and 664 transfer their charge onto output capacitor 665.
• MOSFETs 651 , 656, 657 and 658 are shut off, and MOSFET 652 is turned on shunting a significant portion of inductor recirculation current from forward-biased diode 653.
• the positive terminals of flying capacitors 663 and 664 are shorted together and connected to output capacitor 665 through on MOSFETs 661 and 662.
• the negative terminals of capacitors 663 and 664 are shorted together and connected to voltage V y by on MOSFETs 659 and 660.
• capacitors 663 and 664 are therefore connected in parallel, each being previously charged to a voltage V y /2.
• V y the voltage at their positive terminals connected to the output is the sum of V y and 0.5V y , for a total output voltage of +1.5V y relative to ground.
• Fig. 24A illustrates a schematic circuit diagram of a fractional 0.5X-type LCDD regulating converter 700, also referred to herein as a "down-down" converter.
• a step-down pre-regulator 700A comprises a PWM controller 717; a clock 716; a BBM buffer 706; a high-side power MOSFET 701 ; an N-channel synchronous rectifier MOSFET 703 with an intrinsic P-N diode 704; an inductor 702; and an optional filter capacitor 705.
• a fractional charge pump post-converter 700B comprises MOSFETs 707 and 708, which are used to charge flying capacitors 709 and 710.
• the discharge path comprises output connected MOSFETs 712 and 713 - connected to an output capacitor 714 and a ground-connected MOSFET 711.
• the negative terminal of capacitor 710 is hard wired to ground.
• Grounded synchronous rectifier MOSFET 703 is an N-channel device.
• the remaining devices may comprise either N-channel or P-channel MOSFETs with appropriate modification to the gate drive polarity and circuitry.
• MOSFETs 707, 708, 712 and 713 within charge pump post-converter 700B are controlled by a BBM buffer 715, which ideally is driven by the same clock generator 716 that controls the switching of MOSFETs 701 and 703 within pre-regulator 700A.
• the output voltage V out is used to control PWM controller 717 via a feedback voltage V F B-
• the V F B signal is appropriately level-shifted by a level shift circuit 719 to produce a VFB I ⁇ signal that drives the intermediate voltage V y to a voltage equal to V out /0.5, the desired level of V y for optimum converter efficiency.
• Fig. 24B illustrates the equivalent circuit 720 of converter 700 during the cycle when inductor 702 is magnetized and capacitors 709 and 710 are charged, during which time MOSFETs 701 , 707, and 708 are conducting and all other MOSFETs are off. During this cycle, series connected capacitors 709 and 710 each charge to a voltage V y /2.
• Fig. 24C illustrates the equivalent circuit 725 of same circuit 700 in the next phase when the inductor current re-circulates and the flying capacitors 709 and 710 transfer their charge onto output capacitor 714.
• MOSFETs 701 , 707, and 708 are shut off, and MOSFET 703 is turned on shunting a significant portion of inductor recirculation current from forward-biased diode 704.
• the positive terminals of flying capacitors 709 and 710 are shorted together and connected to output capacitor 714 through on MOSFETs 712 and 713.
• the negative terminal of capacitor 702 is connected to ground by turning on MOSFET 711.
• the negative terminal of capacitor 710 is hard wired shorted to ground.
• capacitors 709 and 710 are therefore connected in parallel, each being previously charged to a voltage V y /2.
• V y the voltage at their positive terminals connected to the output is 0.5V y relative to ground.
• the operation of the fractional charge pump is similar to the operation of a voltage-raising charge pump, described above, except that during the fourth time interval the second terminal of the capacitor is coupled to a fourth voltage instead of the second terminal of the inductor.
• the fourth voltage may be equal to the third voltage.
• An LCDX switching regulator can also be used to generate an output voltage below ground, i.e. inverted. As stated previously, an LCDX switching regulator exhibits an output-to-input voltage conversion ratio governed by the equation v
• n is negative
• the output voltage of the converter is negative.
• a converter that generates a negative output voltage from a positive voltage input is referred to as an inverter, and using the aforementioned nomenclature is herein described as a LCDI switching regulator.
• FIGs. 25A and 25B various topologies of LCDI converters fall within the numerous embodiments of this invention.
• the level shift circuit may invert the -V F B signal into +V F B for use as an input to the PWM controller V F Bin.
• the feedback input voltage V FB i n to the PWM controller is defined as the voltage that will cause the PWM controller to force the intermediate voltage V y to -V ou t, i.e., under closed loop control V y ⁇ (-V 0Ut ).
• V y is a positive voltage if V ou t is a negative voltage.
• the disclosed LCDI family of inverters may also utilize a inverting fractional charge pump.
• the feedback from the converter's output to the VFBI ⁇ pin is scaled, i.e. level shifted, by a level shift circuit to force the intermediate voltage V y to -V out /0.5, i.e., under closed loop control V y ⁇ (-V ou t/0.5).
• V y is a positive voltage if V out is a negative voltage.
• the relationship between the duty factor D and the voltage conversion ratio V 0 Ut / V in of various LCDI converters is illustrated in graph 780 of Fig. 26, including -1X LCDI (curve 782) and the -0.5X type LCDI (curve 683) characteristics contrasted to the positive polarity V y signal 781 used in generating the negative supply.
• the -1X-type LCDX converter has a characteristic which is a mirror image of V y .
• D 50%
• Vbatt - O. ⁇ Vbatt-
• the output approaches zero while at high duty factors, e.g. at 90%, the output approaches -V ba tt-
• FIG. 27A illustrates a circuit diagram of a -1 X switched LCDI regulating converter 790.
• LCDI switching converter 790 includes a high-side power
• MOSFET 791 a low-side N-channel synchronous rectifier MOSFET 792 with an intrinsic P-N diode 793 and an inductor 794. These elements are included in a pre-regulator 790A converting an input voltage V batt to an intermediate voltage V y .
• the intermediate voltage V y across an optional filter capacitor 795 forms the input to a -1X type charge pump inverting post-converter 790B comprising power MOSFETs 796, 797, 798 and 799 together sequentially charging and discharging a flying capacitor 800 from pre-regulator 790A into the an output filter capacitor 801.
• High-side configured power MOSFETs 791 , 796, and 798 may be either N-channel or P-channel devices, with appropriate changes in the gate drive signal and gate buffer circuitry.
• Low-side power MOSFETs 792, 797 and 799 are preferably implemented as N-channel devices.
• Output voltage V out is used as feedback signal V F B, inverted by a level shift circuit 802 to produce a positive voltage as the control voltage input to an error amplifier within PWM controller 804. This control voltage is chosen to force the output voltage of pre-regulator 790A, across optional or parasitic capacitor 795, to a voltage V y having a magnitude equal to but the inverse of the output voltage V out .
• PWM controller 804 is driven by a clock and ramp generator circuit 805 at a clock frequency ⁇ and drives a break-before-make buffer 806 at the same frequency.
• BBM buffer 806 drives high-side MOSFET 791 and synchronous rectifier MOSFET 792 out of phase with gate biases VG I and VG2 to prevent shoot-through conduction.
• the polarity of V G i is positive with respect to the source of MOSFET 791 if it is an N-channel device, and negative if MOSFET 791 is a P-channel device.
• Synchronous rectifier MOSFET 792 is controlled to conduct all or some portion of the time when MOSFET 791 is off, but never to conduct significant current when high-side MOSFET 791 is on.
• the clock signal controlling PWM controller 804 also controls BBM buffer 803, producing gate signals V G s3, V G s4, V G ss and V GS 6 to control the sequenced switching of charge pump MOSFETs 796, 797, 798, and 799, respectively.
• These MOSFETs conduct in diagonal fashion, with MOSFETs 796 and 799 conducting while MOSFETs 797 and 798 are off so as to charge capacitor 800; and with MOSFETs 798 and 797 conducting while MOSFETs796 and 799 are off so as to discharge capacitor 800 by transferring its charge onto output filter capacitor 801.
• BBM buffer 803 prevents shoot-through conduction between MOSFETs 796 and 797, and also between MOSFETs 798 and 799.
• the MOSFETs 796-799 within charge pump post-converter 790B may be switched synchronously to the pre-regulator clock at the frequency ⁇ or at some higher multiple of the clock frequency, i.e. m ⁇ , or alternatively at a frequency independent of the clock frequency ⁇ .
• all the power MOSFETs in pre-regulator 790A and charge pump post-converter 790B are switched in synchronous fashion whereby filter capacitor 795 can be made small or may be eliminated.
• capacitor 795 is required to temporarily store energy needed to support momentary load and line transients.
• Figs. 27B and 27C Synchronous operation of pre-regulator 790A and post-converter 790B in - 1X type LCDI converter 790 is illustrated in Figs. 27B and 27C.
• schematic diagram 810 represents converter 790 during the magnetizing of inductor 794 and simultaneous charging of the flying capacitor 800, with current flowing from V b att through on-state MOSFETs 791 , 796 and 797 and during which time V x is biased to V ba tt, V z is grounded, V w is biased to V y , and flying capacitor 800 charges to a voltage +V y .
• Off MOSFETs 792, 797, and 798 behave as open circuits and are not shown.
• schematic diagram 820 represents converter 790 during the recirculation of current through inductor 794 and discharging of flying capacitor 800.
• an inductive recirculation current flows through forward- biased diode 793 shunted by on-state MOSFET 792, and through MOSFETs 797 and 798, charging output capacitor 801.
• V x is near, but slightly below ground, specifically within a diode's forward bias Vf of ground.
• the operation of the inverter is similar to the operation of an voltage- raising charge pump, described above, except that during the fourth time interval the first terminal of the capacitor is coupled to ground instead of the output terminal and the second terminal of the capacitor is coupled to the output terminal of the inverter instead of the intermediate voltage.
• the second and/or third voltages may also be ground.
• Fig. 28A illustrates a fractional -0.5X LCDI regulating converter 840, also referred to herein as a fractional inverter.
• a step-down pre-regulator 840A comprises a PWM controller 837; a clock generator 859; a BBM buffer 860; a high-side power MOSFET 841 ; an N-channel synchronous rectifier MOSFET 842 with an intrinsic P-N diode 843; an inductor 844; and an optional filter capacitor 845.
• the inverting fractional charge pump post-converter 790B comprises MOSFETs 846, 847 and 848 which charge flying capacitors 849 and 850.
• the discharge path comprises output-connected MOSFETs 853 and 854, which are connected to an output capacitor 855, and ground-connected MOSFETs 851 and 852.
• Grounded synchronous rectifier MOSFET 842 is an N-channel device.
• the remaining devices may comprise either N-channel or P-channel MOSFETs with appropriate modification to the gate drive polarity and circuitry.
• the MOSFETs in charge pump post-converter 790B are controlled by a BBM buffer 856, which is ideally driven by the same clock generator 859 that controls MOSFETs 841 and 842 in pre-regulator 840A.
• the output voltage V ou t being equal to -0.5 times the intermediate voltage V y , is used to control a PWM circuit 857 via a feedback voltage VFB- V F B is appropriately level-shifted by a level-shift circuit 858 to produce a VFBin signal that drives the intermediate voltage V y to - Vout/0.5, the desired voltage V y for optimum converter efficiency.
• Fig. 28B illustrates an equivalent circuit 870 of converter 840 during the cycle when inductor 844 is magnetized and capacitors 849 and 850 are charged, during which time MOSFETs 846, 847, and 848 are conducting and all other MOSFETs are off. During this cycle, series-connected capacitors 849 and 850 each charge to a voltage +V y /2.
• Fig. 28C illustrates an equivalent circuit 875 of converter 840 in the next phase when the inductor current re-circulates and the flying capacitors 849 and 850 transfer their charge onto output capacitor 855.
• MOSFETs 841 , 846, 847; and 848 are shut off, and MOSFET 842 is turned on, shunting a significant portion of inductor recirculation current from forward-biased diode 843.
• the negative terminals of flying capacitors 849 and 850 are shorted together and connected to output capacitor 855 through on MOSFETs 853 and 854.
• the positive terminals of capacitors 849 and 850 are connected to ground by turning on MOSFETs 851 and 852.
• capacitors 849 and 850 are therefore connected in parallel, each of capacitors 849 and 850 being previously charged to a voltage +V y /2.
• the voltage at their negative terminals which are connected to the output terminal is equal to -0.5V y relative to ground, i.e. a negative fractional output.
• the switched-inductor pre-regulator provides the regulation feature, with pulse widths preferably near a 50% duty factor, while the charge pump post-converter scales this output for up- down conversion or inversion. Because the voltage range of the output is scaled up, down, or inverted into a different voltage range than the V y output of the pre- regulator, any feedback signal V F B coming from the converter's V ou t must be adjusted, i.e. level shifted, before it can be fed into the VFBI ⁇ input of the PWM controller. Alternatively the output of the pre-regulator V y can be used as feedback to force the voltage at V y to a particular value needed to produce the required output voltage V ou t at the maximum converter efficiency.
• Several methods to dynamically adjust the duty factor D of the pre- regulator's PWM controller exist including deriving feedback from V out , V y or some combination thereof. The examples shown here are illustrative but not intended to be limiting as to the various methods to achieve closed-loop control of LCDX regulators. As shown in feedback circuit 890 in Fig.
• a PWM controller 893 includes an error amplifier implemented as a differential-input operational amplifier, with its inverting input constituting the feedback input VFB I ⁇ and its non- inverting input tied to a reference voltage generator 895, which generates a reference voltage V re f.
• Feedback control occurs by controlling the pulse width and inductor current such that whenever the VFB I ⁇ input is less than V re f, the converter reacts by increasing pulse-width and switch on-time, increasing average inductor current, and driving V out to a higher voltage. Conversely, whenever the VFBI ⁇ input is greater than V ref , the converter reacts by decreasing pulse-width and shortening switch on-time, reducing average inductor current, and driving V ou t to a lower voltage.
• V re t may be determined by a band-gap voltage reference circuit operating at 1.2V
• the reference voltage may in some implementations be scaled to the desired output voltage of the pre-regulator, i.e. Vy, as shown in Fig. 29A.
• Vy desired output voltage of the pre-regulator
• either the input V F Bm can be divided down to the value of V re f, or conversely V re f can be multiplied up to match the V y « V F Bm value. Both cases are considered in the following discussion.
• feedback VFB from the output V out has a voltage twice that of the pre-regulator output voltage V y .
• a simple resistor divider comprising two resistors 891 and 892 of equal value R easily performs the level shift function.
• the resistor ratio divides the feedback signal by 1.2V/1.5V y or 1.2WV 0Ut rather than by two-thirds.
• the input voltage VF BI ⁇ to error amplifier 917 can then be adjusted to equal the voltage V r ⁇ f of reference voltage generator 918 by the ratio of the resistances of resistors 915 and 914. In this manner VFB I ⁇ > V F B and fluctuates in proportion to the output voltage.
• the input voltage V F Bin to error amplifier 936 can then be adjusted to equal the voltage V re t of reference 937 by the ratio of the resistances of resistors 933 and 934. In this manner V F Bin > VFB and fluctuates in proportion to the output voltage.
• An active feedback circuit is also required for inverting LCDI regulators, specifically since the error amplifier operates in circuitry biased above ground but the feedback signal VFB is below ground, i.e. negative, or vice-versa.
• One approach to implement a negative-to-positive level shift employs multiple current mirrors as shown in the feedback circuit 950 of Fig. 29E. In feedback circuit 950 the feedback signal is negative, i.e., V F B ⁇ 0.
• Collector current Ic2 is then mirrored in a PNP transistor 954 to establish a current Ic3 in a mirror PNP transistor 955 sourced from a positive supply rail, in this example +V ba tt.
• This mirror current is then converted to a positive feedback voltage V FB in, the input to an error amplifier 960, using a resistor divider comprised of resistors 956 and 957 and an optional grounded NPN transistor 958, and VFB is adjusted to be equal to the value of a reference voltage V ret generated by a voltage reference generator 961.
• V ret a reference voltage generated by a voltage reference generator 961.
• Feedback circuit 970 in Fig, 29F represents the CMOS equivalent of feedback circuit 950, with NMOS mirror transistors 972 and 973, PMOS mirror transistors 974 and 975 and a feedback voltage VFBI ⁇ delivered to an error amplifier 980, adjusted using resistors 976 and 977 to be equal to voltage.
• 29G can also be used for negative-to-positive level shifting whereby bi in an NMOS 1002 is mirrored by an NMOS 1003 and adjusted by resistors 1005 and 1004 to produce a positive feedback v>Bin to error amplifier 1007 at a voltage equal to V re f of voltage reference 1008.
• feedback circuits 950, 970 and 1000 may be used for both -1X
• Fig. 3OA illustrates that an LCDX DC/DC converter 1040 utilizing closed loop feedback from V out to a PWM controller 1050 requires a level shift circuit 1049.
• LCDX converter 1060 shown in Fig. 3OB, utilizing feedback from the output V y of the pre-regulator does not need any special level shifting of the feedback signal to a PWM controller 1069, except to adjust for the ratio of V y to V re f.
• Power MOSFET Gate Drive in LCDX Regulators Figs. 31 A-31 F illustrate a variety of gate buffers driving the gates of various power MOSFETs used in the disclosed switched LCDX converters.
• the power MOSFET device conductivity type, i.e. N-channel or P-channel, and its associated gate drive circuitry can affect performance and efficiency and are therefore another consideration in optimizing an LCDX switching regulator.
• High-side MOSFETs i.e. those with one high-current terminal permanently tied to the battery voltage b a tt or the intermediate voltage V y , may comprise either NMOS or PMOS devices.
• Such devices include MOSFETs 481 , 487 and 488 in the LCDU converter 480 of Fig. 18. They may also be used for floating devices such as MOSFET 489.
• a high-side PMOS 1102 tied to the battery input as shown in circuit 1100 of Fig. 31 A has its gate buffer 1101 powered by Vbatt so that its gate-to-source voltage VQSP ranges from -V ba tt to 0.
• PMOS 1102 as shown includes a source-body short forming anti-parallel P-N diode 1103 with its cathode connected to the transistor's source and with its anode tied to its drain. The diode 1103 remains reversed biased under normal operating conditions.
• a high-side PMOS 1112 tied to the intermediate voltage V y has its gate buffer 111 1 powered by V y so that its gate-to-source voltage V G SP ranges from -Vy to 0.
• PMOS transistors benefit from their ease of gate drive but unfortunately exhibit on-state resistances two and half times larger than NMOS transistors for the same active device area.
• PMOS 1112 as shown includes a source-body short forming anti-parallel P-N diode 1113 with its cathode connected to the transistor's source and with its anode tied to its drain. The diode 1113 remains reverse-biased under normal operating conditions.
• the gate drive In the case of a high-side power NMOS source-follower 1 122 as shown in circuit 1120 of Fig. 31 C, the gate drive must supply a voltage higher than the MOSFET's drain voltage and ideally should float with respect to the MOSFET's source so that a constant V GS N can be applied regardless of the output voltage of the source follower.
• One means to implement floating NMOS gate drive is bootstrap circuit
• bootstrap capacitor 1 124 charges to a voltage (V batt -Vf) or (V y -V f ), depending on the supply input.
• V f is the forward voltage of bootstrap diode 1125.
• Bootstrap gate drive requires constant switching to operate properly or the voltage across bootstrap capacitor 1124 may sag and allow NMOS 1122 to inadvertently turn off.
• buffer 1 121 drives the gate of NMOS 1122 on
• capacitor 1 124 holds NMOS 1122 in its on state while its source voltage rises to near V ba tt-
• the positive terminal of bootstrap capacitor 1124 then rises to approximately (2V batt - V f ) or (2Vy-V f ) above ground maintaining VQS N at a constant gate drive (V batt -Vf) or (Vy-V f ) throughout the transition.
• the input signal controlling gate buffer 1121 is resistive level shift circuit 1126 comprising resistor 1127, NMOS 1128 and gate buffer 1129 powered by V batt .
• cross coupled level shift 1145 does not exhibit static power dissipation.
• inverter 1150 driving NMOS level shift transistors 1149 and 1150 out of phase pulling the gate of PMOS 1146 to ground and forcing the gate of 1147 to the bootstrap voltage, thereby latching the level shift circuit into a stable but non-conducting state.
• Boot strap drive circuits 1120 and 1140 may be used for any high side or floating NMOS utilized in the pre-regulator circuit or in the charge pump post- converter.
• a special gate drive circuit may be used for driving floating or high-side NMOS in the charge pump post-converter. Since in any LCDX converter the first stage is a down converter, then it follows that V ba tt > V y .
• gate buffer 1161 powers the gate of NMOS 1162 whose drain is biased to pre-regulator output voltage V y . Without using floating gate drive, buffer 1161 applies the voltage V ba tt to the gate of NMOS 1162 regardless of its source voltage.
• V GS N Vba tt -
• V ba tt V ba tt (1 -D).
• NMOS transistors such as transistors 483 and 486 in Fig. 18 are permanently connected to ground and do not require floating gate drive.
• NMOS 1182 shown in Fig. 31 F, is driven by gate buffer 1181 powered by input Vbatt to minimize on-resistance. Notice also that low side NMOS 483 is used to recirculate inductor current and thereby forward biases PN diode 1183, shunted by on NMOS 1182.

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