Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
  • C10L—FUELS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; NATURAL GAS; SYNTHETIC NATURAL GAS OBTAINED BY PROCESSES NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASSES C10G OR C10K; LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS; USE OF ADDITIVES TO FUELS OR FIRES; FIRE-LIGHTERS
  • C10L1/00—Liquid carbonaceous fuels
  • C10L1/32—Liquid carbonaceous fuels consisting of coal-oil suspensions or aqueous emulsions or oil emulsions
  • C10L1/328—Oil emulsions containing water or any other hydrophilic phase
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C09—DYES; PAINTS; POLISHES; NATURAL RESINS; ADHESIVES; COMPOSITIONS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; APPLICATIONS OF MATERIALS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • C09K—MATERIALS FOR MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS, NOT PROVIDED FOR ELSEWHERE
  • C09K23/00—Use of substances as emulsifying, wetting, dispersing, or foam-producing agents
  • C09K23/017—Mixtures of compounds
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
  • Y10S—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10S516/00—Colloid systems and wetting agents; subcombinations thereof; processes of
  • Y10S516/01—Wetting, emulsifying, dispersing, or stabilizing agents
  • Y10S516/06—Protein or carboxylic compound containing

Definitions

• This invention relates to the utilization of highly viscous hydrocarbons, including heavy crude oils and residual oils. More particularly, this invention relates to the transportation of viscous hydrocarbons through the formation of low-viscosity bioemulsifier-stabilized hydrocarbon-in- water emulsions, or hydrocarbosols, in which the hydrocarbon droplets dispersed in the continuous aqueous phase are substantially stabilized from coalescence by the presence of bioemulsifiers and in particular, microbial bioemulsifiers, surrounding the droplets at the hydrocarbon/water interface. Furthermore, this invention relates to the combustion of pre-atomized fuels which include both hydrocarbosols and other viscous hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions.
• This invention presents an alternative means to viscosity reduction, potentially more economical than methods requiring heating or dilution with lighter petroleum stocks.
• Formation of hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions effectively reduces the viscosity of heavy hydrocarbon materials, thereby facilitating shipping and pumping with conventional equipment, as well as _in situ handling.
• the pre-atomized fuels formed by the methods of this invention can be burned directly by conventional means, without de-watering or demulsification, potentially resulting in emissions reductions.
• hydrocarbosols Under circumstances where transportation distances from production location to utilization sites are considerable, giving rise to long transit times and/or the potential for shutdowns en route, or .where long storage periods are required, the use of hydrocarbosols is especially advantageous. Because the microbial bioemulsifiers predominantly reside at the hydrocarbon/water interface, essentially covering the surface of the hydrocarbon droplets, the hydrocarbon droplets are effectively protected from coalescence and the reduced viscosity of the hydrocarbosols is effectively maintained over time. The substantial stability and improved pumpability of the hydrocarbosols allows them to be transported practically over long distances or remain stationary for long periods of time prior to utilization.
• Viscous hydrocarbons present in natural deposits have been generally classified as viscous crude oils, bitumen or tar and have been variously called heavy crudes, native bitumen, natural bitumen, oil sands, .tar sands, bituminous sands or deposits and natural asphalts, all of which materials are chemically gradational and nearly indistinguishable without standardized analyses.
• oil- in-water emulsions can present a problem; for instance, oil- in-water emulsions are known to break or invert into unpumpable forms. Increasing the amount of chemicals used to maintain stability can result in prohibitive costs.
• Patents Nos. 3,352,109; 3,490,237 and 4,084,940 Under resting (stationary) conditions, these oil-in-water emulsions are in the form of gels with apparent rest viscosities of 1000 cps and preferably 50,000-100,000 cps. These thixotropic oil-in-water emulsions exhibit low viscosities under high pumping (high shear) rates.
• hydrocarbon substrates may be linear, branched, cyclic or aromatic.
• the microbes In order to rapidly assimilate such water- insoluble substrates, the microbes require a large contact area between themselves and the oil. This is achieved by emulsifying the oil in the surrounding aqueous medium. Hydrocarbon degrading microbes frequently synthesize and excrete surface active agents which promote such emulsification.
• Torulopsis gropengiesseri was found to produce a sophorose lipid, while rhamnolipids are reported by K. Hisatsuka et al. [Agric. Biol. Chem., 35, 686 (1971)] to have been produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain S7B1 and by S. Itoh et al. [Agric. Biol. Chem., _3£ / 22 33 (1971)] to have been produced by another P ⁇ aeruginosa strain, KY4025. The growth of Corynebacterium hydrocarboclastus on kerosene was reported by J.E. Zajic and his associates [Dev. Ind.
• Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 (previously designated Acinetobacter sp. ATCC 31012 and also called RAG-1 ) produces interfacially active extracellular protein-associated lipopolysaccharide biopolymers called emulsans. These biopolymers are produced and build up as a capsule or outer layer around the bacterial cell during growth and are eventually released or sloughed off into the medium, from which they can be harvested as extracellular products.
• Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 produces ⁇ -emulsans when grown on ethanol or fatty acid salts [U.S. Patents Nos.
• OMPI emulsans can be deproteinized to yield apo- ⁇ -emulsans, apo- ⁇ -emulsans and apo-psi-emulsans, respectively [U.S. Patents Nos. 4,311,830; 4,311,829 and 4,311,831, respectively].
• This invention provides novel compositions and methods for manipulating viscous hydrocarbons including highly viscous crude and residual oils, generally characterized by API gravities of about 20°API or less, viscosities of about 100 centipoise or greater at 150°F, paraffin contents of about 50% by weight or less, and aromatic contents of about 15% or greater by weight, into an emulsified form which (a) can be stored in facilities or transported by methods presently used to handle less viscous materials and (b) can be burned directly as quality combustible fuels.
• the emulsified form of the viscous hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbosol defined as a bioemulsifer- stabilized hydrocarbon-in-water emulsion wherein the individual hydrocarbon droplets are essentially covered * by water-soluble bioemulsifier molecules predominantly residing at the hydrocarbon/water interface, which bioemulsifier • molecules form an effective barrier against droplet coalescence and hence promote the maintenance of discrete hydrocarbon droplets dispersed in a continuous, low-viscosity aqueous phase.
• the hydrocarbosols of this invention have viscosities reduced by at least a factor of about 10 and preferably at least 10 2 compared to that of the viscous hydrocarbon starting material, said hydrocarbosol viscosities remaining so reduced under static conditions for periods of at least about 1 day, and preferably at least about 30 days.
• Surfactant packages for forming hydrocarbosols comprise a water-soluble chemical surfactant, or a combination of water-soluble chemical and/or biological co-surfactants, preferably nonionic and anionic surfactants, together with a bioemulsifier which, because of any number of characteristics including, but not limited to, high molecular weight, highly specific three-dimensional structure, hydrophobic and hydrophilic nature, polymeric nature and/or 11 sparing solubility in hydrocarbons, binds tightly to the hydrocarbon/water interface and essentially covers the surface of individual hydrocarbon droplets in hydrocarbon- in-water emulsions, effectively maintaining discrete droplets and preventing coalescence and imparting substantial stability to hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions.
• a bioemulsifier which, because of any number of characteristics including, but not limited to, high molecular weight, highly specific three-dimensional structure, hydrophobic and hydrophilic nature, polymeric nature and/or 11 sparing solubility in hydrocarbons, binds tightly to the hydrocarbon
• a surfactant package is used in a proportion from about 1:100 to about 1:20,000 based on oil to form a hydrocarbosol containing up to about 90% by volume of hydrocarbon in an aqueous phase variously comprising deionized water, municipal water, brines or alcohol/water mixtures, which hydrocarbosol can be shipped by conventional means or pumped through conventional, non-heated pipelines.
• Methods are also provided for utilizing viscous hydrocarbons by forming pre-atomized- fuels, i.e., hydrocarbosol fuels or hydrocarbon-in-water emulsion fuels and burning them in conventional combustion facilities.
• pre-atomized- fuels i.e., hydrocarbosol fuels or hydrocarbon-in-water emulsion fuels
• hydrocarbosol is defined as any bioemulsifier-stabilized hydrocarbon-in-water emulsion wherein the individual hydrocarbon droplets are essentially surrounded or covered by water-soluble bioemulsifier molecules predominantly residing at the hydrocarbon/water interface, which bioemulsifier molecules form an effective barrier against droplet coalescence and hence promote the maintenance of discrete hydrocarbon droplets suspended or dispersed in the continuous, low-viscosity aqueous phase.
• water-soluble is defined to include water-dispersible substances.
• viscous hydrocarbon is defined as any naturally occurring crude oil or any residual oil remaining after refining operations which is generally characterized by a viscosity of about 10 2-106 centipoise or greater and otherwise generally, but not necessarily, characterized by an
• API gravity of about 20"API or less high metal content, high sulfur content, high asphaltene content and/or high pour point.
• viscous hydrocarbon also encompasses the following nomenclature: vacuum residuals, vis-breaker residuals, catalytic-cracker residuals, catalytic hydrogenated residuals, coker residuals,
• ROSE residual oil supercritical extraction
• pre-atomized fuel is defined as any hydrocarbosol and any viscous hydrocarbon-in-water emulsion formed by methods described herein for use as a combustible fuel.
• bioemulsifier is defined as any biologically derived substance which, by virtue of any combination of characteristics including, but not limited to, high molecular weight, polymeric nature, highly specific three-dimensional structure, hydrophobic and hydrophilic moieties and sparing solubility in hydrocarbons, binds tightly to the hydrocarbon/water interface and essentially covers the surface of individual hydrocarbon droplets in hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions, effectively maintaining discrete droplets and preventing coalescence, and thereby imparting substantial stability to hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions.
• An example of a bioemulsifier is ⁇ -emulsan.
• biosurfactant is defined as any biologically derived substance which reduces the interfacial 13 tension between water and a hydrocarbon and,, as a result, reduces the energy requirement (mixing energy) for creation of additional interfacial area.
• An example of a biosurfactant is a glycolipid.
• surfactant package is defined as any composition useful for forming hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions of viscous hydrocarbons generally characterized by a paraffin content of about 50% by weight or less and an aromatic content of about 15% by weight or greater with viscosities of about 100 centipoise or greater at 150 ⁇ F, which composition may comprise a chemical surfactant or a combination of chemical co-surfactants or a combination of co-surfactant(s) and biosurfactant(s) or a combination of chemical surfactant(s) and bioemulsifier(s) or a combination of chemical surfactant(s) , biosurfactant(s) and bioemulsifier(s) , and which may also include chemical emulsion stabilizers, and which may be in aqueous form.
• emulsans which reflects the polysaccharide structure of these compounds and the exceptional bioemulsifier activity of these materials, generically identifies those capsular/extracellular microbial protein-associated lipoheteropolysaccharides produced by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 and its derivatives or mutants, which may be subdivided into the ⁇ -emulsans and the ⁇ -emulsans.
• the name “apoemulsan” generically identifies those deproteinized lipopolysaccharides obtained from the emulsans.
• ⁇ -emulsans defines those extracellular microbial protein-associated lipopolysaccharides produced by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 and its derivatives or mutants in which the lipopolysaccharide components (i.e., without the associated protein) are completely N-acylated and
• OMPI partially O-acylated heteropolysaccharides made up of major amounts of D-galactosamine and an aminouronic acid, the lipopolysaccharide components containing at least 5 percent by weight of fatty acid esters in which (1) the fatty acids contain from about 10 to about 18 carbon atoms; and (2) about 50 percent by weight or more of such fatty acids are composed of 2-hydroxydodecanoic acid and 3-hydroxydodecanoic acid. It follows, therefore, that the deproteinized ⁇ -emulsan are called "apo- ⁇ -emulsans.”
• ⁇ -emulsans defines those extracellular microbial protein-associated lipopolysaccharides produced by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 and its mutants in which the lipopolysaccharide components (i.e., without the associated protein) are completely N-acylated and partially 6-acylated heteropolysaccharides made up of major amounts of D-galactosamine and an aminouronic acid, the lipopolysaccharide components containing- less than 5 percent by weight of fatty acid esters in which (1) the fatty acids contain from about 10 to about 18 carbon atoms; and (2) less than 50 percent by we . ight of such fatty acids are composed of 2-hydroxydodecanoic acid.
• the deproteinized ⁇ -emulsans are called " po- -emulsans.”
• psi-emulsans defines the O-deacylated extracellular protein-associated microbial polysaccharides obtained from the emulsans, the protein-free components of such psi-emulsans being completely N-acylated heteropolysaccharides made up of major amounts of D- galactosamine and an aminouronic acid and containing from 0 to 1 percent of fatty acid esters in which, when present, the fatty acids contain from about 10 to about 18 carbon atoms. These protein-free components are called "apo-psi-emulsans," regardless of how they are prepared.
• polyanionic heteropolysaccharide biopolymers defines those biopolymers in which (a) substantially all of the sugar moieties are N-acylated aminosugars, a portion of which is N-acylated-D-galactosamine 5 and another portion of which is N-acylated aminouronic acid, a part of the N-acyl groups of such heteropolysacchardide being N-3-hydroxydodecanoyl groups; and (b) at least 0.2 micromoles per milligram of such heteropolysaccharide consist of fatty acid esters in which (1) the fatty acids contain about 10 to about 18 carbon atoms and (2) about 50 percent by weight or higher of such fatty acids are composed of 2- hydroxydodecanoic acid and 3-hydroxydodecanoic acid.
• FIG. 1 is a graphical representation of the viscosity versus water content profile of emulsan-stabilized hydrocarbosols. formulated with Boscan crude oil, wherein the dashed line (at 30% water) indicates near-optimum operating conditions;
• FIG. 2 is a graphical representation of the viscosity versus temperature profiles for a heavy crude oil (Boscan) and two emulsan-stabilized hydrocarbosols formulated with Boscan crude oil;
• FIG. 3 is a graphical representation of the viscosity versus time profiles for two emulsions formulated with a Texas fireflood crude oil and a surfactant package comprising a nonionic surfactant and an anionic surfactant, showing the 'effect on viscosity of the addition of emulsan to the surfactant package;
• FIG. 4 is a graphical representation of the 5 viscosity versus time profiles for two emulsions formulated
• FIG. 5 is a graphical representation of the viscosity versus time profiles for two emulsions formulated with a Kansas crude oil and tap water using a surfactant package comprising a nonionic surfactant and an anionic surfactant, showing the effect on viscosity of the addition of emulsan to the surfactant package;
• FIG. 6 is a graphical representation of the viscosity versus time profiles for two emulsions formulated with a Kansas crude oil and Texas brine using a surfactant package comprising a nonionic surfactant and an anionic surfactant, showing the effect on viscosity of the addition of emulsan to the surfactant package; -
• FIG. 7 is a graphical representation of the viscosity versus time profiles for four emulsions formulated with a Texas fireflood crude oil and a surfactant package comprising a nonionic surfactant and an anionic surfactant, comparing the effect on viscosity of the addition of an emulsion stabilizer (emulsan, or the commonly used emulsion stabilizers, lignin sulfonate and naphthalene sulfonate) to the surfactant package;
• an emulsion stabilizer emulsan, or the commonly used emulsion stabilizers, lignin sulfonate and naphthalene sulfonate
• FIG. 8 is a schematic representation of a pilot system used for forming and pumping a hydrocarbosol through a three-inch pipeline
• FIG. 9 is a graphical representation of the changes in solids concentration along the flame axis during combustion of a Number 6 fuel oil and a pre-ato ized fuel made from Number 6 fuel oil as a function of distance from the front wall of the furnace;
• FIG. 10 is a graphical representation of the variation of axial flame temperatures during combustion of a Number 6 fuel oil and a pre-atomized fuel made from Number 6 fuel oil as a function of distance from the front wall of the furnace.
• the surfactant packages of this invention can be formulated with a wide variety of chemical and microbial surface active agents and are preferably formulated with water-soluble surface active agents to provide for the formation of oil-in-water, as opposed to water-in-oil, emulsions.
• the surfactant packages can be ormulated with numerous chemical surfactants, used alone or in conjunction with chemical co-surfactants of the same type (e.g., a combination of water-soluble nonionic surfactants) or of different types (e.g., a combination of water-soluble nonionic, anionic, cationic and/or amphoteric surfactants), and can be further formulated in combination with (a) a water-soluble biosurfactant or combination of biosurfactants as co-surfactant(s) and/or (b) a water-soluble bioemulsifier or combination of bioemulsifiers as emulsion stabilizeds) .
• chemical emulsion stabilizers may also be used in place of bioemulsifiers.
• surfactant packages comprising only microbial surface active agents, i.e., combinations of biosurfactants and bioemulsifiers.
• the surfactant packages of this invention vary with the type of viscous oil to be emulsified. The following general compositions are offered by way of illustration. For viscous crudes, surfactant packages can be 18
• surfactant packages can be formulated to comprise at least one water-soluble non-ionic surfactant or at least one anionic surfactant or combinations of non-ionic surfactants and anionic surfactants and which can further comprise biosurfactants and/or bioemulsifiers.
• Carboxylic Acid Esters Carboxylic Amides, Ethoxylated Amines, polyoxyalkylated
• -gJRE OMPI 19 ethoxylated alkyl phenols and ethoxylated alcohols.
• the preferred water-soluble nonionic surfactants are, again, ethoxylated alkyl phenols and also polyoxyalkylated amines.
• the ethoxylated alkyl phenols are of the general formula:
• R represents an alkyl group containing from about 8 to about 12 carbon atoms (i.e., about C g to about C--), x represents the number of alkyl groups and is either 1 or 2, and wherein n represents the number of ethoxy groups (moles ethylene oxide) which can range from about 1 to about 100.
• preferred ethoxylated alkyl phenols are those having R groups of 8 or 9 carbon atoms and having from about 7 to about 100 ethoxy groups.
• An example of a particularly preferred ethoxylated alkyl phenol is onononylphenol with about 40 ethoxy groups.
• preferred ethoxylated alkyl phenols are those having alkyl groups of 8 or 9 carbon atoms and having from about 9 to about 70 ethoxy groups.
• the ethoxylated alcohols are of the general formula: R(OC 2 H 4 ) n OH wherein R represents an aliphatic group (linear or branched) containing from about 6 to about 18 carbon atoms and wherein n represents the number of ethoxy groups which can range from about 2 to about 100.
• R represents an aliphatic group (linear or branched) containing from about 6 to about 18 carbon atoms and wherein n represents the number of ethoxy groups which can range from about 2 to about 100.
• ethoxylated alcohols include ethoxylated trimethylnonanols with about 3 to about 9 ethoxy groups and ethoxylated secondary alcohols having R groups of about 11 to about 15 carbon atoms with about 3 to about 30 ethoxy groups, but preferably greater than about 7 ethoxy groups.
• the polyoxyalkylated amines are of the general formula: R ⁇ N y (CH2) 2 wherein R represents an oxyalkyl group containing either 2 or
• R groups can range in number from about 4 to about 500, and that number is represented by x.
• the number of amine groups is represented by y and the alkyl group is preferably ethyl (C 2 H 4 ).
• Preferred polyoxyalkylated amines are those having R groups of 2 or 3 carbon atoms and having from about 50 to about 450 oxyalkyl groups.
• An example of a particularly preferred polyoxyalkylated amine is a polyoxyalkylated diamine with about 50 ethoxy groups and about 60 propoxy groups.
• the preferred water-soluble anionic chemical surfactants are sulfonated or sulfated forms of nonionic surfactants.
• ethoxylated alcohol sulfates are preferred.
• surfactant packages for viscous residuals sulfonated or sulfated ethoxylated alkylphenols and ethoxylated alcohol sulfates are preferred.
• alkylaryl sulfonates are also preferred anionic chemical surfactants.
• the ethoxylated and sulfated alcohols are of the general formula: wherein R represents an aliphatic group containing from about 6 to about 16 carbon atoms, preferably from about 12 to about 14, n represents the number of ethoxy groups which can range from about 1 to about 4, preferably from about 2 to about 3, and M includes, but is not limited to, ammonium (NH4), sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) or triethanolamine, preferably ammonium.
• R represents an aliphatic group containing from about 6 to about 16 carbon atoms, preferably from about 12 to about 14
• n represents the number of ethoxy groups which can range from about 1 to about 4, preferably from about 2 to about 3
• M includes, but is not limited to, ammonium (NH4), sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) or triethanolamine, preferably ammonium.
• the • alcohol moiety of the ethoxylated alcohol sulfate can be an even or odd number or mixture thereof.
• an example of a particularly preferred nonethoxylated alcohol sulfate is the sodium salt of a sulfated lauryl alcohol.
• the sulfated ethoxylated alkylphenols are of the general formula:
• RC c 6H4.(0C2,H4,)n0S03,M wherein R represents an aliphatic group containing at least about 8 or 9 carbon atoms, n represents the number of ethoxy groups which can range from about 1 to about 100, preferably
• OMP from about 4 to about 9 and M includes, but is not limited to, ammonium (NH.), sodium (Na ), potassium (K ) and calcium (Ca ) or triethanoloamine (TEA), preferably ammonium.
• NH. ammonium
• Na sodium
• K potassium
• Ca calcium
• TAA triethanoloamine
• An example of a particularly preferred sulfated ethoxylated alkylphenol is the ammonium salt of a sulfated nonylphenol ethoxylate containing, but not limited to, about 4 ethoxy groups.
• alkylaryl sulfonates are of the general formula:
• RnArm(SOi,)xM wherein Ar is an aromatic group which is benzyl, naphthyl, phenyl, tolyl, xylyl or ethylphenyl, R is a linear or branched chain alkyl group containing from about 2 to about 16 carbon atoms, n is 1 or 2, m is 1 or greater, x is at least about 1, and M includes, but is not limited to, ammonium, sodium, potassium, calcium or triethaholamine.
• alkylaryl sulfonate is a modified amine dodecylbenzene sulfonate.
• an example of a particularly preferred alkylaryl sulfonate is the sodium salt of polymerized alkylnaphthalene sulfonate.
• the preferred water-soluble microbial surface active agents for use in the surfactant packages of this invention are any microbial or other biologically-derived substances which function as bioemulsifiers, i.e., substances which, by virtue of such characteristics as large molecular weight, polymeric nature, highly specific three-dimensional structure, hydrophobic and hydrophilic nature, and sparing solubility in oil, effectively cover the oil/water interface maintaining discrete, individual oil droplets in oil-in-water
• OMPI 24 emulsions thereby substantially stabilizing emulsions from coalescence.
• preferred bioemulsifiers are heteropolysaccharide biopolymers produced by bacteria of the genus Acinetobacter and the genus Arthrobacter, and in particular, those produced by strains of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus.
• Such Acinetobacter heteropolysaccharide biopolymers include, but are not limited to, polyanionic heteropolysaccharide biopolymers, ⁇ -emulsans, ⁇ -emulsans, psi-emulsans, apo- ⁇ -emulsans, apo- ⁇ -emulsans and apo-psi- emulsans produced by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 (deposited at the American Type Culture Collection in Rockville, MD) defined in Section 4 and described in U.S. Patents Nos.
• Acinetobacter calcoaceticus materials that can be used are the products of strains NS-1 (NRRL B-15847), NS-4 (NRRL B-15848), NS-5 (NRRL B-15849), NS-6 (NRRL B-15860) and NS-7 (NRRL B-15850) .
• Particularly preferred Acinetobacter heteropolysaccharide biopolymers are the ⁇ -emulsans, the production of which is further described in U.S. Patents Nos. 4,230,801 and 4,234,689 (hereby incorporated by reference).
• the ⁇ -emulsans are characterized by a Specific Emulsification Activity of about 200 units per millligram or higher, where one unit per milligram of Specific Emulsification Activity is defined as that amount ' of emulsifying activity per milligram of bioemulsifier which yields 100 Klett absorption units using a standard hydrocarbon mixture consisting of 0.1 ml of 1:1 (v/v) hexadecane/2-methylnaphthalene and 7.5 ml of Tris- Magnesium buffer.
• Acinetobacter bioemulsifiers can be used in the surfactant packages of this invention in a variety of forms including, but not limited to, post- fermentation whole broth; cell-free (Millipore-filtered, e.g.) or partially cell-free supernatants of post- fermentation culture broth; the cells themselves; protease- treated, liquid or dried materials; and protease-treated, ultrafiltered, liquid or dried materials.
• the surfactant packages of this invention may also be formulated with water-soluble cationic chemical surfactants, including, but not limited to, oxygen-free amines, oxygen-containing amines, amide-linked amines and quaternary ammonium salts.
• Use of cationic chemical surfactants in conjunction with microbial surface active agents would require that the charge characteristic of the biological compounds be considered. For example, cationic chemical surfactants would probably best be used in conjunction with neutral microbial surface active agents and would probably best not be used in conjunction with the preferred polyanionic heteropolysaccharide bioemulsifiers.
• Lipopeptides Bacillus subtilis Bacillus " mesentericus Candida petrophilum Streptomyces canus Corynebacterium lepus Nocardia asteroides Mycobactrium paratuberculosis Mycobacterium fortuitum
• Candida utilis ATCC 9226 Candida guilliermondii Candida rugosa Candida lypolytica Aspergillus niger Aspergillus versicolor Desulfovibrio hydrocarbono- clasticus Desulfovibrio desulfuricans Endomycopsis lipolytica Saccharomycopsis lipolytica Aerobacter aerogenes Aerobacter aceti Aerobacter peroxydans Alcaligines entrophus Achromobacter spp. Achromobacter sp. ATCC 21910 Achromobacter agile Achromobacter tropunctatum Actinomyces oligocarbophilus Aureobasidium pullulans Arthrobacter sp. ATCC 21908 Micrococcus spp. Micrococcus sp. ATCC 21909 Micrococcus cerificans ATCC
• Micrococcus paraffinae Microbacterium thodochrous Mycobacterium ⁇ phlei Nocardia opacus Nocardia " corrallina Pencil ⁇ Tu spp. Pichia spartinae
• Surfactant packages can be formulated from nonionic chemical surfactants or combinations of nonionic and anionic chemical surfactants (preferably in about a 1:1 ratio by weight) without bioemulsifiers but preferably, for emulsion stabilization, with bioemulsifiers in the range of about 1% to about 50% by weight.
• Surfactant packages comprising bioemulsifiers in the range of about 10% to about 20% by weight and particularly around 15% by weight are preferred.
• surfactant packages are: (a) about 10% to about 15% ⁇ -emulsan by weight in combination with ethoxylated secondary alcohols having carbon chains of about 11 to about 15 carbon atoms in length [e.g., Tergitol 15-S-X (Union Carbide Corp.)], where X represents the number of moles of ethylene oxide and is preferably greater than 7; (b) about 10% to about 15% ⁇ -emulsan by weight in combination with about 20% to about 25% by weight of an ethoxylated tri ethylnonanol [e.g., Tergitol TMN-6 (Union Carbide Corp.)] and about 60% to about 70% by weight of an ethoxylated alkyl phenol [e.g., Triton X-114 (Rohn & Haas Co.)]; and (c) about 15% ⁇ -emulsan by weight in combination with an ethoxylated alkyl phenol having an R group of about 8 or 9 carbon atom
• a particularly preferred surfactant package comprises about 10% to about 20% ⁇ -emulsan by weight in combination with a nonionic ethoxylated alkyl phenol [e.g., Tergitol NP-40] and an anionic ethoxylated alcohol sulfate [e.g., Alfonic 1412-A (Conoco, Inc.)], using the nonionic and anionic surfactants in a proportion of about 1:1.
• the particularly preferred 30 surfactant packages are exemplified by the surfactant package comprising about 15% by weight ⁇ -emulsan, about 42.5% by weight Tergitol NP-40 and about 42.5% by weight Alfonic 1412-A.
• Surfactant packages may be formulated full strength or in diluted aqueous solution.
• the surfactant package most preferred for use with viscous residuals is a combination of anionic surfactants, 85% by weight of an ethoxylated sulfated nonylphenol, and 15% by weight of the sodium salt of a polymerized alkylnaphthalene sulfonic acid with a molecular weight of at least about 500 daltons and preferably at least about 2000 daltons.
• the surfactant package compositions of this invention can be used to emulsify or emulsify and substantially stabilize numerous viscous hydrocarbons in oil-in-water emulsions which may be subsequently transported and/or directly burned.
• viscous hydrocarbons encompass naturally-occuring viscous crude oils (also called heavy crude oils) as well as residual bottom-of-the-barrel 5 products from refineries, such as vacuum resid, other residual fuel oils and asphalt. [See Section 4, Nomenclature, supra. ] While low gravity r*oes not necessarily coincide with high density, these characteristics are generally correlated in viscous hydrocarbons. 0
• compositions and methods of this 5 invention are considered typical of the types of crude oils and residual oils, the handling and utilization of which can be facilitated by the compositions and methods of this 5 invention:
• High sulfur content e.g., 3 weight percent or
• lighter crudes may also be emulsified and/or stabilized with the surfactant packages of this invention.
• surfactant packages of this invention since the transportation and combustion of light oils do not present the same problems as
• compositions and methods of this invention are more particularly directed to the use of heavy materials. Nevertheless, it may be useful to form pre-atomized fuels out of these light oils for emissions reductions purposes. Those viscous hydrocarbons
• the viscous residuals generally are characterized by a paraffin content in the range from about 4% to about 40% by weight, an aromatic content in the range from about 15% to about 70% by weight and an asphaltene content from about 5% to about 80% by weight.
• the types of crude oils that can be successfully emulsified and stabilized with the surfactant packages of this invention include Boscan (Venezuela) crude, an east Texas crude, Jibaro and Bartra (Peru) crudes. El Jobo (Venezuela) crude, and a Kansas crude.
• the specific viscous residuals that can be successfully emulsified and stabilized with surfactant packages of this invention include California vacuum resid, Oklahoma vacuum resid, German visbreaker resid, Texas visbreaker resid, catalytic hydrogenated resid, ROSE resid, and cutback tar.
• Number 6 oils sometimes referred to as "Bunker C” oils, are high-viscosity oils used mostly in commercial and industrial heating. Their utilization normally requires preheating in the storage tank to permit pumping, and additional preheating at the burner to permit atomizing. The extra equipment and maintenance required to handle Number 6 fuels in nonemulsified form usually precludes its use in small installations.
• the ASTM standard specifications for Number 6 fuel oils are summarized in Table VI ["Standard Specification for Fuel Oils," ASTM Designation D396-80, in: 1981 Book of ASTM Standards, Part 23].
• Viscosity values in parentheses are for information only and not necessarily limiting.
• the amount of water by distillation plus the sediment by extraction shall not exceed 2.00%.
• the amount of sediment by extraction shall not exceed 0.50%.
• a deduction in quantity shall be made for all water and sediment in excess of 1.0%.
• the surfactant packages of Section 6.1 can be used to form oil-in-water emulsions containing as much as about 90% by volume of the viscous hydrocarbons described in Section 6.2.
• the aqueous phase into which the hydrocarbon is emulsified can be deionized water, water from a municipal 34 source, or any water, even water with relatively large amounts of dissolved solids such as connate waters or brines, normally located in proximity to oil production, transportation or utilization sites.
• the aqueous phase can 5 also be an alcohol/water mixture such as methanol/water, ethanol/water or other lower alkanol/water mixtures, and may further contain additives such as anti-corrosion agents, anti-pollution agents or combustion improvers.
• Oil-in-water emulsions preferably contain oil/water ratios of about 60/40 0 to about 80/20, and more preferably from about 65/35 to about 75/25.
• the surfactant packages of Section 6.1 can be used in proportions of surfactant package:hydrocarbon from about 1:100 to about 1:20,000 by 0 weight. The proportion used can depend on the type of hydrocarbon to be emulsified and/or the purpose for emulsifying it.
• Oil-in-water emulsion formation can be brought 25 about by any number of suitable procedures.
• the aqueous phase containing an effective amount of surfactant package can be contacted with the hydrocarbon phase by metered injection just prior to a suitable mixing device.
• Metering is preferably maintained such that the desired 30 hydrocarbon/water ratio remains relatively constant.
• Mixing devices such as pump assemblies or in-line static mixers can be used to provide sufficient agitation to cause emulsification.
• OMPI aqueous phase (v/v) with one of the surfactant packages of Section 6.1 as it exits the vacuum still of a refinery.
• Some low gravity residual hydrocarbons are extremely viscous and require very high temperatures to make them fluid enough to handle. Such hydrocarbons can be characterized by a viscosity greater than about 1000 cp at 212 ⁇ F. Maintaining such high temperatures is not economically feasible for the long term storage and transportation of these hydrocarbons. Also, it is not economically feasible to blend these viscous hydrocarbons with much lighter oils (cutter stock) due to either the quantity of lighter oil required to achieve a viscosity which can be handled or the unfavorable characteristics of the viscous hydrocarbon which do not allow for homogeneous blending of lighter oils.
• This invention offers a novel approach to handling extremely viscous hydrocarbons by the stable dispersion of such viscous hydrocarbons into water to form pre-atomized fuels.
• Pre-atomized fuel formation is achieved by heating the viscous hydrocarbon to a high temperature in order to make it fluid.
• the hot hydrocarbon phase is brought in contact with the aqueous phase containing appropriate surfactants and/or stabilizers as described in Section 6.1.
• a key to achieving successful pre-atomized fuel formation is the maintenance of pressure throughout the entire process such that the aqueous phase is not allowed to vaporize.
• the aqueous phase By maintaining the appropriate pressure, i.e., the pressure required to prevent the water in the aqueous phase from boiling, the aqueous phase remains in a liquid state, thus allowing the stable dispersion of the hydrocarbon phase into a continuous water phase.
• / ⁇ IPO fuel may be rapidly cooled using an appropriate heat exchange device so that the outlet temperature of the pre-atomized fuel is below the vaporization temperature of the aqueous phase at ambient pressure.
• the pressure may be reduced and the mixture cooled by flashing a portion of the water contained in the pre-atomized f el.
• phase consist of a low API gravity hydrocarbon bottom phase, a water/surf ctant middle phase, and a high API gravity hydrocarbon upper phase.
• separation may be due to the slow cooling of the pre-atomized fuel which allows sufficient time for the occurrence of complex interactions that may be attributed to both "sticky state” and Ostwald ripening phenomena.
• the tendency toward separation can be decreased by the use of an appropriate heat exchange device or method to rapidly quench the freshly formed pre-atomized
• OMPI fuel to a temperature at least about 100°F below the softening point of the hydrocarbon.
• An economical way to increase the btu content of a liquid fuel is achieved by incorporating a high softening point hydrocarbonaceous material (such as coal, coke, ROSE residual, etc.) into a lower softening point fuel. This is usually accomplished by grinding a high softening point hydrocarbon to form very small particles (usually approximately 100 Mm in size) and then, dispersing the solid particle's in the liquid fuel. The dispersion of ' a solid in a liquid, however, usually results in the production of a fuel with unfavorable characteristics such as increased viscosity.
• a high softening point hydrocarbonaceous material such as coal, coke, ROSE residual, etc.
• a novel method of economically utilizing a high softening point hydrocarbonaceous material is achieved by incorporating it into a pre-atomized fuel. This is accomplished by first grinding a material of high softening point to form very small particles (generally less than about 30 Mm) and then forming a slurry by dispersing the particles in a continuous aqueous phase containing a pre-atomized fuel-compatible surfactant package.
• the slurry of dispersed particles is mixed at an appropriate ratio with a pre-atomized fuel formulated from a hydrocarbon other than that used to form the slurry.
• a pre-atomized fuel formulated from a hydrocarbon other than that used to form the slurry.
• hydrocarbon droplets of hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions generally rise to the surface and "float" on the aqueous phase in a process known as creaming, provided the density of the hydrocarbon phase is less than that of the aqueous phase and the droplets in the dispersed phase are too big to be stabilized by Brownian motion. If the "cream” remains undisturbed for a given period of time, the droplets coalesce, giving rise to two separate phases.
• the emulsans, particularly ⁇ -emulsan are extremely effective in retarding coalescence and the ' emulsan-stabilized droplets in the "cream" are easily redispersible in the aqueous phase.
• emulsion stability The principal factors controlling emulsion stability are electrostatic (charge) effects and steric effects.
• electrostatic (charge) effects and steric effects The properties of emulsans lend themselves to optimal exploitation of these mechanisms. Their large ' molecular weight and highly specific three-dimensional structure result in an efficient coverage of the hydrocarbon/water interface. This effectively prevents oil-to-oil contact when collisions occur between adjacent droplets. Simultaneously, the polyanionic nature of emulsans causes the surfaces of emulsion droplets to be negatively charged which creates repulsive forces and significantly decreases the collision frequency between hydrocarbon droplets.
• emulsans offer over classical emulsion stabilizers may be summarized as follows.
• emulsan predominantly resides at the oil/water interface only; essentially no measurable emulsan is found in the water phase nor in the oil phase. Very small amounts of emulsan are required, even in the presence of excess water.
• the emulsan-stabilized hydrocarbosol effectively resists inversion to water-in-oil emulsions, even at water:oil ratios of less than about 1:4. This is partly due to emulsans' insolubility in oil and may also be due in part to the specific three-dimensional structure of the emulsan molecule. ⁇
• hydrocarbons may be too viscous for conventional processing or have characteristics (i.e., low gravity; excessive paraffinic, aromatic, and/or asphaltic contents; etc.) which make them unfavorable to incorporate into stable pre-atomized fuels.
• One method to reduce viscosity for processing or alleviate unfavorable characteristics is blending the unfavorable hydrocarbon with one which is favorable resulting in a hydrocarbon having characteristics suitable for pre-atomized fuel formation. In this way an otherwise unusable hydrocarbon can be "adjusted" to a usable form.
• Hydrocarbosols because they contain bioemulsifiers, have properties which allow them to be transported in tankers, barges and more importantly through conventional pipelines, including standard, non-heated pipeline networks.
• properties exhibited by hydrocarbosols that are particularly important for pipelining are reduced viscosity, stabilization against coalescence even under considerable rates of shear, compatibile formation with high-salinity aqueous phases, and non-corrosive nature.
• Hydrocarbosols with viscosities below about 500 cp at about 60°F allow the economical use of centrifugal pumps for transportation of oil at acceptable flow rates and reasonable pressure drops.
• the surfactant packages of Section 6.1 For pipelining purposes, it is desirable to use the surfactant packages of Section 6.1 at their minimum effective concentrations which frequently are in a proportion within the range of about 1:100 to about 1:5,000. Hydrocarbosols may be stored in non-heated storage tanks where agitation may be optionally supplied to maintain homogeneity.
• hydrocarbosols can be demulsified if desired. More importantly, hydrocarbosols like other pre-atomized fuels can be utilized directly, without dewatering, as burnable fuels. They can be used in combustion facilities which presently use Number 6 fuel oils, or so-called Bunker C oils, to fire, inter alia, steam generators, heating systems or blast furnaces. Hydrocarbosols, as is the case with other pre- atomized fuels, may potentially allow for less expensive plant operation by reducing fuel costs, storage costs and material handling costs. Hydrocarbosols and other pre- atomized fuels may have applications as substitutes for Number 2 or higher grade fuels depending on the situation. 41
• hydrocarbosols Where long storage periods or transportation over long distances prior to utilization is not required, the stability exhibited by hydrocarbosols becomes less critical. If short distance-transportation or on-site utilization is contemplated, it may not be necessary to form bioemulsifier- stabilized emulsions. Further, it is not necessary to form stabilized emulsions in order to facilitate combustion; i.e., emulsion stability is not generally required for good combustion characteristics. Therefore, pre-atomized fuels suitable for burning can be made by emulsifying viscous hydrocarbons with the surfactant packages of Section 6.1 which are formulated with a chemical surfactant alone or a combination of chemical surfactants.
• a 70/30, Number 6 fuel oil/water emulsion can be made with a surfactant package comprising a nonionic chemical surfactant and an anionic chemical surfactant in equal proportion by weight and the resulting oil-in-water emulsion (which can also be referred , to as a pre-atomized fuel) can be burned directly.
• a surfactant package comprising a nonionic chemical surfactant and an anionic chemical surfactant in equal proportion by weight and the resulting oil-in-water emulsion (which can also be referred , to as a pre-atomized fuel) can be burned directly.
• the ⁇ -emulsans produced by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 during fermentation on ethanol are known bioemulsifiers as described in U.S. Patent No. 4,395,354, incorporated by reference supra.
• the ⁇ -emulsans used in the experiments described infra were technical grade materials (unless otherwise indicated) which were prepared in either of two ways. Both methods of preparation involved enzyme treatment and drying but differed in the order in which these steps were performed. By one method, centrifuged (approximately 90% cell-free) fermentation broth containing ⁇ -emulsans resulting from a fermentation of Acinetobacter 4
• calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 in ethanol medium was drum-dried and the resulting material was treated in the following manner prior to use.
• the pH of the suspension was adjusted to pH 8.5 by adding 50% by weight sodium hydroxide (diluted, if necessary).
• Protease enzyme (NOVO Industries, 1.5M Alcalase) was added at a level of 1 part protease:500 parts solid ⁇ - emulsan. The mixture was allowed to remain at 50 * -60 * C while being stirred for about three hours.
• reaction mixtures were run to completion as judged by the absence of visible precipitable emulsan following centrifugation of the reaction mixture. After completion of the enzyme treatment, the reaction mixtures were raised to approximately 70 * C to denature the protease and stop its activity. The solutions were cooled to ' room temperature and Cosan PMA-30 (Cosan Corporation), a preservative, was added at a level of 1 part Cosan:500 parts ⁇ -emulsan solution.
• Cosan PMA-30 Cosan Corporation
• enzyme treatment of the ⁇ - emulsan was performed prior to drum drying according to the folowing protocol. Fermentation broth containing ⁇ -emulsan resulting from a fermentation of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 in ethanol medium was centrifuged to remove approximately 90% of the bacterial cells.
• protease enzyme (as previously described) was added in a ratio of 1 gram protease:500 units per milligram of Specific Emulsification Activity (where one unit per milligram of Specific Emulsification Activity is defined as that amount of emulsifying activity per milligram of bioemulsifier which yields 100 Klett absorption units using a standard hydrocarbon mixture consisting of 0.1 mi of 1:1 (v/v) hexadecane/2-methylnaphthalene and 7.5 ml of Tris- Magnesium buffer). The protease reaction was run to
• the protease-treated centrifuged broth was then evaporated to a 10% (w/v) slurry of ⁇ -emulsan.
• the slurry was sprayed dried and the resulting material is also referred to as technical grade ⁇ -emulsan.
• Fermentations of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 were run on ethanol as described in U.S. Patent No. 4,395,354. The following fractions of the resulting broth were used to formulate surfactant packages: whole broth, supernatants, cells, enzyme-treated whole broth, enzyme- treated supernatants, enzyme-treated cells (where the enzyme treatment was as described for the second method in Section 7.1.1. supra) , homogenized cells, boiled cells, and so-called "Millipore emulsan.” Millipore emulsan is prepared by Millipore filtering whole broth to remove cells, followed by enzyme treatment (described supra) and ultrafiltration. The foregoing preparations were used in liquid or wet form. The Millipore emulsan samples can be further dialyzed against ammonium bicarbonate and freeze-dried prior to use in surfactant packages.
• Acinetobacter calcoaceticus NS-1 (NRRL B-15847) was grown in a fermentor on ethanol medium under conditions similar to those described in U.S. Patent No. 4,395,354. Both whole broth and enzyme-treated whole broth were used to formulate surfactant packages.
• Acinetobacter calcoaceticus strains NS-4 (NRRL B- 15848), NS-5 (NRRL B-15849), NS-6 (NRRL B-15860) and NS-7 (NRRL B-15850) were grown for 3 days in shake flask cultures in 2% ethanol medium as described in U.S. Patent No. 4,395,354.
• Enzyme-treated whole broth samples were prepared from the NS-4, NS-5 and NS-7 cultures.
• Enzyme-treated supernatant samples were prepared from NS-4, NS-5, NS-6 and NS-7 cultures. These preparations were also used to formulate surfactant packages.
• the Boscan crude oil used in the experiments described infra was a heavy crude produced from the oilfields of western Venezuela.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• Aromatic content 60.0% (w/w)
• Asphaltene content 22.0% (w/w)
• the Texas crude oil used in the experiments described infra was produced from an oilfield in east Texas (Quitman, TX) by the fireflood method.
• the ' characteristics of the crude, its specific gravity at 26 * C [ASTM D1217-81], API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content and viscosity versus temperature profile, were determined experimentally as described in Section 7.2.11, infra, and are summarized in Table VIII.
• Aromatic content 51.1% (w/w)
• the Number 6 residual fuel oil used in the experiment described in Section 7.5 was obtained from the MIT Energy Laboratory (Cambridge, Massachusetts).
• the characteristics of this residual fuel oil, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content and viscosity versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table IX.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• Aromatic content 38% (w/w)
• the Union cutback tar used in the experiments described infra was a Californi resid which had been mixed with cutter stock to facilitate handling.
• the characteristics of this tar, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content, ash content and viscosity versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table X.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• Aromatic content 54% (w/w)
• Asphaltene content 24% (w/w)
• Ash content 7% (w/w)
• the California Vacuum Resid used in the experiments described infra was a vacuum bottom obtained from a Kern' County crude oil and provided by a California refinery.
• the characteristics of this residual oil, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content, and viscosity versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table XI.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• Aromatic content 72% (w/w)
• Asphaltene content 11% (w/w) Viscosity (cp) Temperature ( * F)
• the Oklahoma vacuum resid used in the experiments described infra was a vacuum bottom obtained from a mid continent refinery.
• the characteristics of this residual oil, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content, and viscosity versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table XII.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• Aromatic content 70% (w/w)
• Asphaltene content 10% (w/w) Viscosity (cp) Temperature ( * F)
• the H-oil used in the experiments described infra was obtained by a process in which residual oil is catalytically hydrogenated. This resid was- from a refinery in Louisiana. The characteristics of this residual oil, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content, and viscosity versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table XIII. The paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• the ROSE resid used in the experiments described infra was obtained by the ROSE ⁇ Residuum Oil Supercritical Extraction) process which extracts remaining light fractions from vacuum bottoms.
• the characteristics of this residual oil, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content, and viscosity versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table XIV.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• API Gravity (calculated) -10.6°API
• Aromatic content 18% (w/w)
• Asphaltene content 78% (w/w)
• the German visbreaker used in the experiments described infra was obtained by thermal cracking of vacuum bottoms.
• the visbreaker resid was from a refinery located in the Federal Republic of Germany.
• the characteristics of this residual oil, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content, and viscosity -versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table XV.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• the Texas visbreaker used in the experiments described infra was obtained by thermal cracking of vacuum bottoms.
• the visbreaker resid was from a refinery located in Texas.
• the characteristics of this residual oil, its specific gravity, API gravity, paraffin content, aromatic content, asphaltene content, and viscosity versus temperature profile were determined experimentally and are summarized in Table XVI.
• the paraffin, aromatic and asphaltene content were determined by the methods described in Section 7.2.12, infra.
• Aromatic content 48% (w/w)
• Asphaltene content 24% (w/w)
• Viscosity versus temperature profiles were obtained by heating the oils to the given temperatures of Tables VII- XIII and XV-XVI and measuring viscosities in a Rheomat 30 rheometer (Contraves AG), at an approximate shear rate of 30 sec.
• paraffin content and aromatic content of some of the oils of the foregoing examples were determined by a method in which the oil is separated into fractions based on hydrocarbon solubilities in n-heptane and methylene chloride.
• the paraffin fraction is defined as that hydrocarbon fraction which is soluble in n-heptane.
• the aromatic fraction is defined as that hydrocarbon fraction which is soluble in methylene chloride.
• the materials used are as follows: an analytical balance, accurate to 0.1 milligram (mg) , a 500 millimeter (mm) burette-type chromatography column, tared collection flasks, reagent grade methylene chloride, n-heptane (99 mole percent) and alumina adsorbent.
• the alumina was activated by heating it in an oven set at 310 * C far 12-14 hours.
• the alumina was cooled in a dessicator and stored in a tightly capped bottle prior to use. Chromatography columns packed 3/4 full were used.
• the separation was carried out by quantitatively weighing 500 to 1000 mg (-0.1mg) of sample oil. Viscous oils were weighed into sample pouches made of tissue paper which were subsequently placed into the column. (Non-viscous oils are usually weighed directly into the columns.) After introduction of the sample oil into the columns, 200 to 250 mi of n-heptane were allowed to flow through the column. It was preferable for the solvent to be added in a manner which did not excessively disturb the alumnina packing. The eluent was collected in a tared evaporating flask. After all the n-heptane had flowed through the column, the first evaporating flask was replaced with another tared flask. Methylene chloride was then introduced into the column and allowed to flow through it.
• the paraffin, asphaltene and aromatic contents of the sample hydrocarbons were obtained by a method in which the hydrocarbons are dispersed in n-heptane, the asphaltenes removed by filtration and the remaining components separated based on their solubilities in n-heptane and methylene chloride.
• the asphaltene fraction (the precipitate) is filtered from a dispersion of the hydrocarbon in n-heptane.
• the paraffin fraction is that portion soluble in n-heptane.
• The. aromatic fraction is that portion soluble in methylene chloride.
• the materials used are as folows: an analytical balance, accurate to 0.1 milligram (mg), a blender (Osterizer Galaxy 14) and blades fitted to a 500 mi Mason jar, preweighed Whatman #1 paper, filter funnel, rotary evaporation apparatus, a 500 millimeter (mm) burette-type chromatography column, tared collection flasks, reagent grade methylene chloride, n-heptane (99 mole percent) and alumina adsorbent.
• the alumina was activated by heating it in an oven at 310 ⁇ C for 12-14 hours.
• the alumina was cooled in a dessicator and stored in a tightly capped bottle prior to use. Chromatography columns packed 3/4 full were used.
• Hydrocarbon samples of 1-2 g were quantitatively added to Mason jars containing 100 mi of n-heptane. After blending for 1-2 minutes at maximum speed, the jar and its contents were washed with an additional 100 mi of n-heptane. The dispersed sample was filtered through Whatman #1 paper and the filtrate colected into Erlenmeyer flasks. After introduction of the filtrate to the column, the effluent was collected into a tared evaporation flask. When n-heptane was completely eluted, 200 mi of methylene chloride was added to the column and the eluted material collected into another tared evaporation flask until the column ran dry.
• the eluting solvents were removed using a rotating vacuum evaporator at temperatures appropriate to the solvents.
• compositions of five surfactant packages which have been used successfully to emulsify Boscan crude oil are presented in Table XVII.
• the ⁇ -emulsan used was a technical grade ⁇ -emulsan prepared according to the first method described in Section 7.1.1.
• the chemical surfactants, Tergitol 15-S-X (where X indicates the number of moles of ethylene oxide), Tergitol TMN-6, Tergitol NP-40 (Union Carbide Corp.), Triton X-114 (Rohm & Haas Co.) and Alfonic 1412-A (Conoco.) are commercially available.
• Emulsions were formed in an Osterizer Galaxy 14 blender at low speed in a manner preventing the beating of air into the emulsion.
• the ratio of Boscan crude to deionized water was 70:30 by volume (v/v).
• the surfactant packages were used successfully over a range of 1:250 - 1:2,000 [surfactant package:oil, by weight (w/w)].
• the surfactant package comprising 15% ⁇ -emulsan, 42.5% Tergitol NP-40 and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A was considered a preferred surfactant package for use with Boscan crude oil.
• Emulsions (70/30, Boscan crude/deionized water) formed with this surfactant package at 1 part per 2,000 parts oil have been observed to be stable and maintain reduced viscosities for a period of at least three weeks.
• this surfactant package has been used to form 70/30 Boscan crude/water emulsions at as low a treatment rate as 1 part per 20,000 parts oil. 58
• surfactants which successfully [alone or in combination] emulsified general type viscous oils included Alfonic 1012-60 (Conoco, Inc.), an ethoxylated linear alcohol with chain lengths of 10 to 12 carbon atoms ⁇ I Q -C .
• Protowet 4196 Proctor Chemical Co.
• Protowet 4337 Proctor Chemical Co.
• sodium dicyclohexyl sulfosuccinate Tween 80 (ICI Americas, Inc.), polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan onooleate
• Pluronic F88 BASF Wyandotte
• a block copolymer of propylene oxide and ethylene oxide Petronate L (Witco Chemical Corp.) a sodium petroleum sulfonate
• Conoco AXS Conoco, Inc.
• compositions of several surfactant packages which have been successfully used to emulsify Oklahoma vacuum resid are listed in Table XVIII.
• the ⁇ -emulsan used was prepared from a whole broth of emulsan according to the methods described in Section 7.1.2.
• Emulsions were formed in an Osterizer Galaxy 14 blender at medium speed in a manner preventing the beating of air into the emulsion.
• the ratio of the Oklahoma vacuum resid to tap water was 70:30 by weight (w/w).
• the surfactant packages were used successfully over a range of 1:10 to 1:250 (surfactant pa ⁇ kage:oil) by weight (w/w).
• the surfactant package comprising 15% Daxad 17 and 85% Alipal CO-436 was considered a preferred surfactant package for use with Oklahoma vacuum resid.
• the emulsion produced with this package has been observed to be stable and maintain a reduced viscosity for at least 5 weeks.
• This formulation has been used to form a 70/30 resid/water emulsion at a treatment as low as 1 part to 750 parts of oil.
• the residual hydrocarbons described in Sections 7.2.4. through 7.2.10. were successfully emulsified into stable pre-atomized fuels with certain of the surfactant packages listed in Table XVIII.
• the preferred surfactant package was Package #19.
• the preferred surfactant package was Package #25.
• Package #18 was preferred for use with the German visbreaker resid and Package #17 was preferred for the Texas visbreaker resid, the ROSE resid and the catalytically hydrogenated residual oil.
• Table XIX lists the types of oils that have and have not yet been successfully emulsified into stable emulsions (see Section 3) with various surfactant packages.
• oils listed as having been successfully emulsified to form stable emulsions can be emulsified with a surfactant package comprising 15% ⁇ -emulsan (technical grade), 42.5% Tergitol NP-40, and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A (weight percent) used at 1 part per 500 parts oil by weight.
• the method used for determining paraffin and aromatic content (weight percent) is described in Sections 7.2.11 and 7.2.12.
• Pre-atomized fuels were formed in a blender at low speed (in a manner preventing the beating of air into the emulsion) with methanol incorporated into the aqueous phase.
• the hydrocarbon used was a mixture of Number 6 residual fuel oils, designated Amelia Fuel oil.
• the specific gravity of Amelia Fuel oil was 0.996 and its API gravity was 10.6 ⁇ API.
• the viscosity versus temperature profile is shown in Table XX. TABLE XX
• the surfactant package comprised 15% ⁇ -emulsan (technical grade), 42.5% Tergitol NP-40 and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A (w/w) .
• the surfactant package was added to aqueous phases containing various proportions of methanol and deionized water.
• the * aqueous phases were blended at low speed" for approximately 15 seconds to form pre-atomized fuels wherein the ratio of Amelia Fuel to aqueous phase was 70:30 (v/v).
• Enough of the surfactant package was added to the aqueous phase such that the final proportion of surfactant package to Amelia Fuel in the pre-atomized fuel was 1:250.
• Table XXI summarizes the variation of viscosity of the pre-atomized fuel as the composition of the aqueous phase was varied. The results suggest that addition of methanol up to at least about 45% does ' not significantly affect viscosity reduction by the surfactant package.
• OMPI _ O Boscan crude oil was emulsified at low speed in a blender (as in Section 7.3.1) in various proportions of water using a surfactant package ratio of 1:250 based on oil. Viscosities were measured at 100 * F. The data are tabulated in Table XXII and presented graphically in FIG. 1.
• Number 6 residual test fuel oil was emulsified in various proportions of deionized water using a surfactant package ratio of 1:250 based on oil. Viscosities were measured at 100 ⁇ F. The data are tabulated in Table XXIII.
• Amelia Fuel oil was emulsified in various proportions of an aqueous phase consisting of 13.3% (w/w) methanol and 86.7% (w/w) deionized water using a surfactant package ratio of 1:250 based on oil. Viscosities were measured at 100 * F. The data are tabulated in Table XXIV.
• Hydrocarbosols were prepared at low speed in a blender (as in Section 7.3.1) with Boscan crude oil at oil:water ratios of 72:28 and 63:37 (v/v) using a surfactant package comprising 15% ⁇ -emulsan (technical grade), 42.5% Tergitol-NP40 and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A, (w/w), at a ratio of 1:250 based on oil.
• the viscosity versus temperature profiles of emulsan-stabilized Boscan crude oil hydrocarbosols were compared to the viscosity versus temperature profiles of the unemulsified crude oil. The temperature effects on hydrocarbosols were much less pronounced than on the crude oil from which the hydrocarbosols were formulated as depicted in FIG. 2.
• the surfactants used to formulate the surfactant packages of Table XXV are commercially available: Tergitol NP-40 (Union Carbide Corporation) or Alfonic 1412-A (Conoco, Inc.).
• the surfactant packages were formulated with or without ⁇ -emulsan (technical grade) as indicated in the table directly below.
• the method used to prepare oil-in-water emulsions for these experiments was as follows. Into a suitable container, an amount of crude oil was weighed so as to make U p 70% (v/v) of the final emulsion.
• the crude oils used were the Boscan and Texas Fireflood crudes as described in Sections 7.2.1 and 7.2.2, supra and also a Kansas crude. The oil was then heated to 50-60°C.
• the particular surfactant package chosen was weighed so as to yield a 1:500 ratio (w/w) of surfactant package to oil in the final emulsion.
• Sufficient make-up water was added to the surfactant package to provide a 30% (v/v) aqueous phase in the final emulsion.
• Three types of aqueous phases were used: tap water, deionized water, or
• the Texas brine comprised ions in the following approximate concentrations [in parts per million (ppm)]: sodium, 28,600; calcium, 1,800; magnesium, 290; ferric, 27; barium, 17; chloride, 47,900; bicarbonate, 540; and sulfate, 12.
• the aqueous phase was added to the oil phase and blended using typical blender blades at low speed, as in Section 7.3.1, i.e., in a manner preventing the beating of air into the emulsion.
• the individual emulsions were stored in sealed containers for periods of up to 29 days.
• the viscosity was measured daily with a Brookfield RVT Viscometer (Brookfield Engineering), equipped with an RV3 spindle, at 10 rpm at ambient (70-80 * F) temperature. Five groups of emulsions were subjected to the test and their compositions are indicated in Table XXVI.
• Surfactant Packages are defined in Table XXV and were used at 1:500, surfactant package:oil (w/w), except for Groups
• the results for Group 2 indicate that for emulsions of the Boscan crude in deionized water, the addition of 15% (w/w) ⁇ -emulsan to a surfactant package containing Tergitol NP-40 only did not improve viscosity reduction, although the measured viscosities of either emulsion, i.e., with or without ⁇ -emulsan, were acceptably reduced.
• the results for Group 3 indicate that for emulsions of the Boscan crude in Texas brine, the addition of ⁇ -emulsan to a surfactant package containing Tergitol NP-40 alone did not yield significantly different results from the surfactant package without ⁇ -emulsan.
• the data indicate that the use of Texas brine is preferable to the use of deionized water for forming oil-in-water emulsions with Texas fireflood crude.
• the results for Groups 6 and 7 indicate that for emulsions of the Kansas crude in tap water or Texas brine, the addition of 15% (w/w) ⁇ -emulsan to a surfactant package containing co-surfactants Tergitol NP-40 and Alfonic 1412-A was preferable to the exclusion of ⁇ -emulsan from the surfactant package.
• FIGS. 3, 4, 5 and 6 where the data from Groups 1, 4, 6 and 7 (Tables XXVII, XXX, XXXII and XXXIII for 0% and 15% ⁇ -emulsan) are presented graphically.
• the lower curves in each figure represent the viscosity versus time profiles for ⁇ -emulsan- stabilized hydrocarbosols.
• the viscosities of the ⁇ - emulsan-stabilized hydrocarbosols remain significantly more reduced than that of the emulsions formed with surfactant packages that did not include ⁇ -emulsan.
• the results are shown in FIG. 7.
• the ⁇ -emulsan-stabilized hydrocarbosol was formulated with a surfactant package comprising 15% ⁇ -emulsan (technical grade), 42.5% Tergitol NP-40, and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A (w/w); its viscosity versus time profile is the curve depicted by closed circles.
• the naphthalene sulfonate- stabilized emulsion was formulated with a surfactant package comprising 15% naphthalene sulfonate, 42.5% Tergitol NP-40 and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A (w/w); its viscosity versus time profile is the curve depicted by closed triangles.
• the lignin sulfonate-stabilized emulsion was formulated with a surfactant package comprising 15% lignin sulfonate; 42.5% Tergitol NP-40 and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A (w/w); its viscosity versus time profile is the curve depicted by closed inverted closed triangles.
• a fourth emulsion (the control) was formulated with a surfactant package comprising 50% Tergitol NP-40 and 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A (w/w) with no additional emulsion stabilizer; its viscosity versus time profile is the curve depicted by open squares.
• ⁇ -emulsan was a significantly more effective stabilizer of Texas fireflood crude oil:water emulsions than were either of the two chemical stabilizers (lignin sulfonate and naphthalene sulfonate) or the co-surfactants (Tergitol NP-40 and Alfonic 1412-A) alone.
• ⁇ -Emulsan preparations in the form of purified grade, technical grade, whole broth> supernatant, and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012 bacterial cells were compared in terms of their ability to form and stabilize emulsions of Oklahoma vacuum resid. All of the emulsions were produced at an oil to water ratio of 70:30 (w/w) .
• the aqueous phase contained 1 part surfactant package to 200 parts oil (w/w).
• the surfactants present at 85% (w/w) were either Triton-165, Alipal EP-110 or Alipal CO-436. Performance was characterized according to emulsion viscosity, phase separation and degree of hydrocarbon incorporation.
• the ⁇ -emulsan present in cells has shown variable results in maintaining emulsions exhibiting reduced viscosities, but this material consistently prevented creaming. Additionally, enzyme treatment offers little benefit in the performance of the emulsans for preparing emulsions with this hydrocarbon. Thus, due to the consistent results obtained with whole broth, it is the ⁇ -emulsan source of choice for the emulsification of Oklahoma vacuum resid.
• ATCC 31012 cultures which utilized soap stock as the carbon source displayed results similar to those obtained from cultures grown on ethanol.
• Acinetobacter calcoaceticus as described in Section 7.1.2. were used to form and stabilize emulsions of Oklahoma vacuum resid. All of the emulsions were produced at an oil-to-water ratio of 70:30 (w/w).
• the aqueous phase contained 1 part surfactant package to 200 parts oil (w/w).
• the surfactant present at 85% (w/w) was Alipal CO-436.
• the NS materials comprised 15% (w/w) of the total surfactant package.
• lignin sulfonates and naphthalene sulfonates are examples of such materials. Replacement of ⁇ -emulsan with these surfactants also allows production of oil-in-water emulsions.
• the lignin sulfonates do not produce emulsions of reduced viscosity, whereas the naphthalene sulfonates are generally satisfactory replacements for ⁇ -emulsan for use with viscous residuals.
• naphthalene sulfonates not only produce very fluid emulsions, they also minimize, if not entirely prevent, creaming of the oil.
• anionic surfactants perform well with all of the co-surfactants mentioned earlier, and will successfully produce emulsions.
• composition of a surfactant package that was successfully used both to form a stable pre-atomized fuel from a California vacuum resid and to form a stable slurry from a ROSE resid is listed in Table XVIII, Package 17.
• the ⁇ -emulsan used was prepared from a technical grade of emulsan 'as described in Section 7.1.1.
• the surfactants Lignosol BD (Reed Ltd. Chemical Div.), Triton X series (Rohm & Haas Co.), and Tergitol NP series (Union Carbide Corp.) are commercially available.
• Both the pre-atomized fuels and slurries were formed in an Osterizer Galaxy 14 blender at high speed in a manner which prevents the incorporation of air into the resulting dispersion.
• the ratio of California resid and ROSE resid to their respective aqueous phases was 70:30 by weight (w/w).
• the surfactant package was used at a ratio of 1:100 (surfactant/hydrocarbon) by weight (w/w) for both the pre- atomized fuel and the slurry.
• the surfactant package comprising 42.8% Triton X-405, 28.6% Tergitol NP-40, 14.2% Lignosol BD, and 14.2% technical grade ⁇ -emulsan was the preferred surfactant package for use with both California vacuum resid and ROSE resid. Results of mixing the slurry with the pre-atomized fuel are listed in Table XXXIV. TABLE XXXIV VISCOSITY OF PRE-ATOMIZED FUEL/SLURRY MIXTURE
• composition of a surfactant package that was successfully used to form a stable pre-atomized fuel at a high temperature and under pressure was as folows: 88.5% (w/w) Nacconal 90-F (Stepan Chemical Co.), a linear dodecyl benzene sulfonate and 11.5% ⁇ -emulsan whole broth.
• the ⁇ - emulsan used was prepared from a post-fermentation whole broth as described in Section 7.1.2.
• the ratio of the hydrocarbon phase to the aqueous phase was 70:30 (California vacuum resid/tap water) by weight.
• the surfactant was used at a ratio of 1:200 (surfactant/hydrocarbon) by weight.
• the pre-atomized fuel was formed as described in Section 6.3. with the folowing modification: the pre-atomized fuel was formed at 300°F and approximately 70 psi pressure was maintained in order to prevent the vaporization of the aqueous phase. The pre-atomized fuel was then cooled to a temperature lower than 212°F using an appropriate heat exhange device and pressure was released. The foregoing experiment was performed with a surfactant package containing only Nacconal 90-F with similar results. 82
• composition of a surfactant package that was successfully used to form a stable pre-atomized fuel from a German Visbreaker resid was as folows: 50% Triton X-705 (w/w) (Rohm & Haas Co.), 33.3% Tergitol NP-70 (Union Carbide Corp.) and 16.7% whole broth ⁇ -emulsan.
• the ⁇ -emulsan used was prepared from a post-fermentation whole broth according to the methods described in Section 7.1.2.
• the pre-atomized fuel was formed in an Osterizer Galaxy 14 blender at the highest speed setting in a manner which prevents the incorporation of air into the resulting dispersion.
• the ratio of the hydrocarbon phase to the aqueous phase was 69.2:30.8 by weight (w/w).
• the surfactant package was used at a ratio of 1:350 (surfactant/hydrocarbon) by weight (w/w).
• the method used to form the pre-atomized fuel is described in Section 6.3 with the following modifications:
• the water used to form the pre-atomized fuel was divided into two parts: 37.5% by weight of the water was placed in a container and partially frozen to make a slush and 62.5% by weight of the water was combined with the surfactant package and used to form a pre-atomized fuel as described in Section 6.3.
• the ratio of the hydrocarbon phase to the aqueous phase at this point was 78.3% by weight German visbreaker resid and 21.7% by weight water/surfactant package.
• the newly formed hot pre-atomized fuel was then combined with the remaining water which had been frozen and the total mixture was immediately placed in an ice bath.
• a pilot scale field test was conducted to determine how a hydrocarbosol would perform under simulated pipelining conditions.
• Approximately 29 barrels (BBL) of the Boscan crude oil described in Section 7.2.1. were emulsified into approximately 12 barrels of aqueous phase to form an oil-in- water emulsion.
• the final oil phase to aqueous phase ratio was 70/30 (v/v).
• the aqueous phase consisted of tapwater supplied by the Tulsa, Oklahoma municipal system (total dissolved solids: 221 ppm; total hardness: 151 pp ) .
• Emulsification was accomplished by mixing warm oil with surfactant-containing aqueous phase using a centrifugal pump.
• the surfactant package used comprised ⁇ -emulsan (technical grade) and Tergitol NP-40 at 15% and 85% by weight, respectively.
• the surfactant package was used at a treatment ' rate of 1 part surfactant package to 500 parts oil by weight.
• the resulting hydrocarbosol was continuously circulated in a pipe loop at an average velocity of 6.7 ft/sec (3.125 inch I.D., 2,560 feet long) for 96 hours using a centrifugal pump. This is shown schematically in FIG. 8.
• the hydrocarbosol was pumped an actual physical distance of approximately 380 miles. It traversed the pump once every 17 minutes. In this manner, the hydrocarbosol was subjected to stress (shear) roughly equivalent to being pumped a distance of 26,000 miles in a commercial pipeline (considering pipe diameters, pump transits, flow rates, etc.). Such stress is known to cause failure (inversion) of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by conventional surfactants. Laboratory evaluation of the hydrocarbosol upon completion of the test demonstrated that, should demulsification be desirable, the emulsion could be demulsified readily using standard oilfield techniques.
• Table XXXV summarizes the pertinent numbers, results, and conditions of the pipelining pilot test.
• the direct combustion test was run in a large scale (1 Megawatt) furnace assembly, essentially comprising in sequential arrangement: a burner, a brick-lined experimental chamber (also called the refractory-lined combustion tunnel) , an after burner, a water-cooled (cold-wall) chamber and an exhaust section, approximately 1.14 meters (m), 4.55 m, 1.24 m, 4.55 and 1.65 m in length, respectively.
• the other major components of the facility used include the systems for storage, metering, feeding and control of fuels, for pumping, preheating, and metering of the combustion air, and for cleaning and pumping the combustion products-.
• the furnace assembly is equipped with water-cooled probes for sampling combustion gases which are drawn off under vacuum and pass through a sample transport line to a set of continuous on-line gas analyzers, specifically a Chemiluminescent NO-NOX Gas Analyzer (Thermo Electron Corporation, Model 10A), an Infrared CO Analyzer (Beckman, Inc., Model 865), an Infrared C0 2 Analyzer (Beckman, Inc., Model 865) and a Paramagnetic 0 2 Analyzer (Beckman, Inc., Model 755).
• the furnace assembly is also equipped with a water-cooled suction pyrometer for measuring axial flame temperatures at various flame positions within the experimental combustion tunnel.
• the furnace assembly is further equipped with water-cooled water quench sampling probes through which combustion gases, including particulates, are drawn off under vacuum, are quenched with water and flow through a sampling train, the first component of which is a filter (paper) for collection of solids.
• This equipment provides for the quantitation of solids in the combustion gases.
• the Number 6 fuel oil was emulsified in water using a surfactant package comprising 15% ⁇ -emulsan (technical grade), 42.5% Tergitol NP-40, 42.5% Alfonic 1412-A (in weight percent).
• the surfactant package was used at a rate of 1 part per 250 parts oil (w/w) .
• the ratio of oil to water in the resulting pre-atomized fuel was approximately 70:30
• v/v One hundred ten gallons of pre-atomized fuel were prepared in a fuel preparation system which incorporates a Gaulin mechanical homogenizer.
• the aqueous solution containing the surfactant package was fed via a centrifugal pump into a mixing-T located in the Number 6 fuel oil supply line.
• This arrangement provided in-line pre-mixing of the oil and water prior to entering a 45 g.p.h. high-pressure mechanical homogenizer (Gaulin).
• the minimum homogenization pressure of 1000 psi was employed for producing the pre- atomized fuel.
• the resulting pre-atomized fuel had a viscosity ranging from 70-120 cp at 80 * F.
• the refractory-lined combustion tunnel was brought up to operating temperature (approximately 1000 * C) using natural gas.
• the gas gun was then removed and replaced by a standard oil gun fitted with a twin fluid atomizer of the Y- jet type. Compressed air at approximately 60 psi was used for the atomizing fluid.
• the initial light-off on the oil burner was accomplished using a Number 2 oil as is standard practice.
• the air and fuel flow rates were then adjusted to give a thermal input of approximately 1 MW or 3.4 MM Btu/hr.
• a simple on-load fuel transfer from Number 2 fuel oil to the 70/30 pre-atomized fuel was then effected by transferring the suction hose from the barrel of Number 2 fuel to the barrel of pre-atomized fuel.
• a significant reduction in fuel flow rate occurred shortly after transfer to the pre-atomized fuel due primarily to the higher viscosity of the pre-atomized fuel and the resultant pressure drop in the fuel lines. Stable flame conditions were maintained during the fuel transfer but good flame conditions could not be achieved as the fuel flow rate fell below the minimum required.
• the ignitability and stability of the 70/30 pre- atomized fuel were found to be comparable with those of a Number 6 fuel-oil when fired under similar conditions in the furnace assembly used.
• the visible flame length under these conditions was approximately 6 ft. and the general appearance of the flame was very similar to that of a Number 6 fuel oil flame.
• the exhaust gas on exit from the high temperature combustion zone appeared to contain a small amount of 'white-smoke', very similar in appearance to that observed when firing coal-water slurries under similar conditions. This 'white-smoke' was not visible on exit from the stack and its nature was not determined.
• FIG. 9 shows the concentration profiles along the flame axis for a Number 6 fuel oil and the 70/30 pre-atomized fuel.
• the solids concentration at the exit from the combustor was almost identical for these two fuels.
• the solids concentration within the flame was slightly lower for the 70/30 pre-atomized fuel.
• Axial flame temperatures were also measured using a water cooled suction pyrometer and these are shown in FIG. 10.
• the 70/30 pre-atomized fuel flame exhibited a slightly lower temperature along the entire length of the combustion chamber. This was entirely compatible with the quenching effect expected from the 30% water content.
• the measured reduction in flame temperature of 100-150"C does not represent a serious problem in most industrial combustion systems.

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• 1984
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