US20160015760A1 - Newcastle disease viruses and uses thereof - Google Patents

Newcastle disease viruses and uses thereof Download PDF

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US20160015760A1
US20160015760A1 US14/774,962 US201414774962A US2016015760A1 US 20160015760 A1 US20160015760 A1 US 20160015760A1 US 201414774962 A US201414774962 A US 201414774962A US 2016015760 A1 US2016015760 A1 US 2016015760A1
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ndv
chimeric
cell
protein
cancer
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Peter Palese
Adolfo Garcia-Sastre
Dmitriy Zamarin
James Allison
Jedd D. Wolchok
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Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
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Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
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    • C07K16/2803—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants against the immunoglobulin superfamily
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    • C07K16/2878—Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants against the NGF-receptor/TNF-receptor superfamily, e.g. CD27, CD30, CD40, CD95
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    • C12N2760/00011—Details
    • C12N2760/18011—Paramyxoviridae
    • C12N2760/18111—Avulavirus, e.g. Newcastle disease virus
    • C12N2760/18133—Use of viral protein as therapeutic agent other than vaccine, e.g. apoptosis inducing or anti-inflammatory
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    • C12N2760/00011—Details
    • C12N2760/18011—Paramyxoviridae
    • C12N2760/18111—Avulavirus, e.g. Newcastle disease virus
    • C12N2760/18141—Use of virus, viral particle or viral elements as a vector
    • C12N2760/18143—Use of virus, viral particle or viral elements as a vector viral genome or elements thereof as genetic vector

Definitions

  • chimeric Newcastle disease viruses engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and compositions comprising such viruses. Also described herein are chimeric Newcastle disease viruses engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell and compositions comprising such viruses. The chimeric Newcastle disease viruses and compositions are useful in the treatment of cancer. In addition, described herein are methods for treating cancer comprising administering Newcastle disease viruses in combination with an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • Newcastle Disease Virus is a member of the Avulavirus genus in the Paramyxoviridae family, which has been shown to infect a number of avian species (Alexander, D J (1988). Newcastle disease, Newcastle disease virus—an avian paramyxovirus. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp 1-22). NDV possesses a single-stranded RNA genome in negative sense and does not undergo recombination with the host genome or with other viruses (Alexander, D J (1988). Newcastle disease, Newcastle disease virus—an avian paramyxovirus. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht, The Netherlands. pp 1-22).
  • the genomic RNA contains genes in the order of 3′-NP-P-M-F-HN-L-5′, described in further detail below. Two additional proteins, V and W, are produced by NDV from the P gene by alternative mRNAs that are generated by RNA editing.
  • the genomic RNA also contains a leader sequence at the 3′ end.
  • the structural elements of the virion include the virus envelope which is a lipid bilayer derived from the cell plasma membrane.
  • the glycoprotein, hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) protrudes from the envelope allowing the virus to contain both hemagglutinin (e.g., receptor binding/fusogenic) and neuraminidase activities.
  • the fusion glycoprotein (F) which also interacts with the viral membrane, is first produced as an inactive precursor, then cleaved post-translationally to produce two disulfide linked polypeptides.
  • the active F protein is involved in penetration of NDV into host cells by facilitating fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell plasma membrane.
  • the matrix protein (M) is involved with viral assembly, and interacts with both the viral membrane as well as the nucleocapsid proteins.
  • the main protein subunit of the nucleocapsid is the nucleocapsid protein (NP) which confers helical symmetry on the capsid.
  • NP nucleocapsid protein
  • P phosphoprotein
  • L L protein
  • the phosphoprotein (P) which is subject to phosphorylation, is thought to play a regulatory role in transcription, and may also be involved in methylation, phosphorylation and polyadenylation.
  • the L gene which encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, is required for viral RNA synthesis together with the P protein.
  • the L protein which takes up nearly half of the coding capacity of the viral genome is the largest of the viral proteins, and plays an important role in both transcription and replication.
  • the V protein has been shown to inhibit interferon-alpha and to contribute to the virulence of NDV (Huang et al. (2003). Newcastle disease virus V protein is associated with viral pathogenesis and functions as an Alpha Interferon Antagonist. Journal of Virology 77: 8676-8685).
  • NDV Newcastle disease virus
  • NDV Newcastle disease virus
  • NDVs Newcastle disease viruses
  • chimeric NDVs engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, wherein the agonist is expressed.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, wherein the antagonist is expressed.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and a mutated F protein that causes the NDV to be highly fusogenic, wherein the agonist and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and a mutated F protein with a mutated cleavage site, wherein the agonist and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • the chimeric NDVs expressing the mutated F protein have increased fusogenic activity relative to the corresponding virus expressing the counterpart F protein without the mutations to the cleavage site.
  • the modified F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell and a mutated F protein that causes the NDV to be highly fusogenic, wherein the antagonist and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell and a mutated F protein with a mutated cleavage site, wherein the antagonist and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • the chimeric NDVs expressing the mutated F protein have increased fusogenic activity relative to the corresponding virus expressing the counterpart F protein without the mutations to the cleavage site.
  • the modified F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and a cytokine (e.g., interleukin (IL)-2), wherein the agonist and the cytokine are expressed.
  • a cytokine e.g., interleukin (IL)-2
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, a cytokine (e.g., IL-2) and a mutated F protein that causes the NDV to be highly fusogenic, wherein the agonist, the cytokine and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, a cytokine (e.g., IL-2) and a mutated F protein with a mutated cleavage site, wherein the agonist, the cytokine and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • a cytokine e.g., IL-2
  • a mutated F protein with a mutated cleavage site wherein the agonist, the cytokine and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • the chimeric NDVs expressing the mutated F protein with the mutated cleavage site are highly fusogenic.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell of an immune cell and a cytokine (e.g., IL-2), wherein the antagonist and the cytokine are expressed.
  • a cytokine e.g., IL-2
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, a cytokine (e.g., IL-2) and a mutated F protein that causes the NDV to be highly fusogenic, wherein the antagonist, the cytokine and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, a cytokine (e.g., IL-2) and a mutated F protein with a mutated cleavage site, wherein the antagonist, the cytokine and the mutated F protein are expressed.
  • the chimeric NDVs expressing the mutated F protein with the mutated cleavage site are highly fusogenic.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell is an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor expressed by an immune cell.
  • co-stimulatory receptors include glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR), Inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS or CD278), OX40 (CD134), CD27, CD28, 4-1BB (CD137), CD40, CD226, cytotoxic and regulatory T cell molecule (CRTAM), death receptor 3 (DR3), lymphotoxin-beta receptor (LTBR), transmembrane activator and CAML interactor (TACI), B cell-activating factor receptor (BAFFR), and B cell maturation protein (BCMA).
  • GITR glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor
  • ICOS or CD278 Inducible T-cell costimulator
  • OX40 CD134
  • CD40 CD226, cytotoxic and regulatory
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor expressed by an immune cell is an antibody (or an antigen-binding fragment thereof) or ligand that specifically binds to the co-stimulatory receptor.
  • the antibody is a monoclonal antibody.
  • the antibody is an sc-Fv.
  • the antibody is a bispecific antibody that binds to two receptors on an immune cell.
  • the bispecific antibody binds to a receptor on an immune cell and to another receptor on a cancer cell.
  • the antibody is a human or humanized antibody.
  • the ligand or antibody is a chimeric protein comprising a NDV F protein or fragment thereof, or NDV HN protein or fragment thereof.
  • Methods for generating such chimeric proteins are known in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012-0122185, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Also see Park et al., PNAS 2006; 103:8203-8 and Murawski et al., J Virol 2010; 84:1110-23, the disclosures of which is herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.
  • the ligand or antibody is expressed as a chimeric F protein or NDV F-fusion protein, wherein the chimeric F protein or NDV F-fusion protein comprises the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains or fragments thereof of the NDV F glycoprotein and the extracellular domain comprises the ligand or antibody.
  • the ligand is expressed as a chimeric HN protein or NDV HN-fusion protein, wherein the chimeric HN protein or NDV HN-fusion protein comprises the transmembrane and extracellular domains or fragments thereof of the NDV HN glycoprotein and the extracellular domain comprises the ligand or antibody.
  • the ligand or antibody is expressed as a chimeric protein, such as described in Section 7, Example 2, infra.
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell is an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor expressed by an immune cell.
  • inhibitory receptors include cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4 or CD52), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1 or CD279), B and T-lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA), killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR), lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG3), T-cell membrane protein 3 (TIM3), adenosine A2a receptor (A2aR), T cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and ITIM domains (TIGIT), leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor 1 (LAIR1), and CD160.
  • CTLA-4 or CD52 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4
  • PD1 or CD279 programmed cell death protein 1
  • B and T-lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA) killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor
  • KIR killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory receptor expressed by an immune cell is an antibody (or an antigen-binding fragment thereof) that specifically binds to the co-stimulatory receptor.
  • the antibody is a monoclonal antibody.
  • the antibody is an sc-Fv.
  • the antibody is a human or humanized antibody.
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory receptor is a soluble receptor or antibody (or an antigen-binding fragment thereof) that specifically binds to a ligand of the inhibitory receptor.
  • the antibody is a chimeric protein comprising a NDV F protein or fragment thereof, or NDV HN protein or fragment thereof. See, e.g., U.S.
  • the antibody is expressed as a chimeric F protein or NDV F-fusion protein, wherein the chimeric F protein or NDV-F-fusion protein comprises the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains or fragments thereof of the NDV F glycoprotein and the extracellular domain comprises the antibody.
  • the antibody is expressed as a chimeric HN protein or NDV HN-fusion protein, wherein the chimeric HN protein or NDV HN-fusion protein comprises the transmembrane and intracellular domains or fragments thereof of the NDV HN glycoprotein and the extracellular domain comprises the antibody.
  • the NDVs described herein can be propagated in any cell, subject, tissue or organ susceptible to a NDV infection.
  • the NDVs described herein e.g., chimeric NDVs described herein
  • the NDVs described herein e.g., chimeric NDVs described herein
  • the NDVs described herein may be propagated in an embryonated egg.
  • presented herein are isolated cells, tissues or organs infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein). See, e.g., Section 5.4, infra, for examples of cells, animals and eggs to infect with an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein).
  • presented herein are isolated cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein).
  • presented herein are cell lines infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein).
  • presented herein are embryonated eggs infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein).
  • compositions comprising an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein).
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprising an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein) and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprising cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • the cancer cells have been treated with gamma radiation prior to incorporation into the pharmaceutical composition.
  • the cancer cells have been treated with gamma radiation before infection with the NDV (e.g., chimeric NDV).
  • the cancer cells have been treated with gamma radiation after infection with the NDV (e.g., chimeric NDV).
  • NDV e.g., chimeric NDV
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprising protein concentrate from lysed NDV-infected cancer cells (e.g., chimeric-NDV infected cancer cells), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • a method for producing a pharmaceutical composition comprises: (a) propagating an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein) in a cell line that is susceptible to an NDV infection; and (b) collecting the progeny virus, wherein the virus is grown to sufficient quantities and under sufficient conditions that the virus is free from contamination, such that the progeny virus is suitable for formulation into a pharmaceutical composition.
  • a method for producing a pharmaceutical composition comprises: (a) propagating an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein) in an embryonated egg; and (b) collecting the progeny virus, wherein the virus is grown to sufficient quantities and under sufficient conditions that the virus is free from contamination, such that the progeny virus is suitable for formulation into a pharmaceutical composition.
  • an NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein
  • a method for treating cancer comprises infecting a cancer cell in a subject with a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition thereof.
  • a method for treating cancer comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition thereof.
  • an effective amount of a chimeric NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra
  • a composition comprising an effective amount of a chimeric NDV described herein is administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a genome, the genome comprising an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell) and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor of an immune cell).
  • the genome of the NDV also comprises a mutated F protein.
  • two or more chimeric NDVs are administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • a method for treating cancer comprises administering to a subject in need thereof cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or composition thereof.
  • the cancer cells have been treated with gamma radiation prior to administration to the subject or incorporation into the composition.
  • a method for treating cancer comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a protein concentrate or plasma membrane fragments from cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition thereof.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a genome, the genome comprising an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell) and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor of an immune cell).
  • the genome of the NDV also comprises a mutated F protein.
  • presented herein are methods for treating cancer utilizing an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV such as described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition comprising such the NDV in combination with one or more other therapies.
  • methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV, such as described in Section 5.2.1, infra) and one or more other therapies.
  • methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of an NDV described herein or a composition comprising an effective amount of an NDV described herein, and one or more other therapies.
  • the NDV and one or more other therapies can be administered concurrently or sequentially to the subject. In certain embodiments, the NDV and one or more other therapies are administered in the same composition. In other embodiments, the NDV and one or more other therapies are administered in different compositions. The NDV and one or more other therapies can be administered by the same or different routes of administration to the subject.
  • any NDV type or strain may be used in a combination therapy disclosed herein, including, but not limited to, naturally-occurring strains, variants or mutants, mutagenized viruses, reassortants and/or genetically engineered viruses.
  • the NDV used in a combination with one or more other therapies is a naturally-occurring strain.
  • the NDV used in combination with one or more other therapies is a chimeric NDV.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising a cytokine (e.g., IL-2, IL-7, IL-15, IL-17, or IL-21).
  • the cytokine is expressed by cells infected with the chimeric NDV.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising a tumor antigen.
  • the tumor antigen is expressed by cells infected with the chimeric NDV.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising a pro-apoptotic molecule or an anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • the pro-apoptotic molecule or anti-apoptotic molecule is expressed by cells infected with the chimeric NDV.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell) and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor of an immune cell).
  • the agonist and/or antagonist are expressed by cells infected with the chimeric NDV.
  • the genome of the NDV also comprises a mutated F protein.
  • the one or more therapies used in combination with an NDV described herein is one or more other therapies described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • the one or more therapies used in combination with an NDV described herein is an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (see, e.g., Section 5.6.4.1, infra). See, e.g., Section 5.2.1, infra, for examples of agonists of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and antagonists of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell is the anti-CTLA-4 antibody described in Sections 6 and 7, infra.
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell is anti-PD-1 antibody or an anti-PD-L1 antibody described in Section 7, infra.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell is the ICOS ligand described in Sections 6 and 7, infra.
  • the term “about” or “approximately” when used in conjunction with a number refers to any number within 1, 5 or 10% of the referenced number.
  • an agonist refers to a molecule(s) that binds to another molecule and induces a biological reaction.
  • an agonist is a molecule that binds to a receptor on a cell and triggers one or more signal transduction pathways.
  • an agonist includes an antibody or ligand that binds to a receptor on a cell and induces one or more signal transduction pathways.
  • the antibody or ligand binds to a receptor on a cell and induces one or more signal transduction pathways.
  • the agonist facilitates the interaction of the native ligand with the native receptor.
  • an antagonist refers to a molecule(s) that inhibits the action of another molecule without provoking a biological response itself.
  • an antagonist is a molecule that binds to a receptor on a cell and blocks or dampens the biological activity of an agonist.
  • an antagonist includes an antibody or ligand that binds to a receptor on a cell and blocks or dampens binding of the native ligand to the cell without inducing one or more signal transduction pathways.
  • Another example of an antagonist includes an antibody or soluble receptor that competes with the native receptor on cells for binding to the native ligand, and thus, blocks or dampens one or more signal transduction pathways induced when the native receptor binds to the native ligand.
  • antibody refers to molecules that contain an antigen binding site, e.g., immunoglobulins.
  • Antibodies include, but are not limited to, monoclonal antibodies, bispecific antibodies, multispecific antibodies, human antibodies, humanized antibodies, synthetic antibodies, chimeric antibodies, polyclonal antibodies, single domain antibodies, camelized antibodies, single-chain Fvs (scFv), single chain antibodies, Fab fragments, F(ab′) fragments, disulfide-linked bispecific Fvs (sdFv), intrabodies, and antiidiotypic (anti-Id) antibodies (including, e.g., anti-Id and anti-anti-Id antibodies to antibodies), and epitope-binding fragments of any of the above.
  • antibodies include immunoglobulin molecules and immunologically active fragments of immunoglobulin molecules.
  • Immunoglobulin molecules can be of any type (e.g., IgG, IgE, IgM, IgD, IgA and IgY), class (e.g., IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1 and IgA2) or subclass.
  • an antibody is a human or humanized antibody.
  • an antibody is a monoclonal antibody or scFv.
  • an antibody is a human or humanized monoclonal antibody or scFv.
  • the antibody is a bispecific antibody.
  • the bispecific antibody specifically binds to a co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell or an inhibitory receptor of an immune, and a receptor on a cancer cell. In some embodiments, the bispecific antibody specifically binds to two receptors immune cells, e.g., two co-stimulatory receptors on immune cells, two inhibitory receptors on immune cells, or one co-stimulatory receptor on immune cells and one inhibitory receptor on immune cells.
  • the term “derivative” in the context of proteins or polypeptides refers to: (a) a polypeptide that is at least 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% or is 40% to 65%, 50% to 90%, 65% to 90%, 70% to 90%, 75% to 95%, 80% to 95%, or 85% to 99% identical to a native polypeptide; (b) a polypeptide encoded by a nucleic acid sequence that is at least 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% or is 40% to 65%, 50% to 90%, 65% to 90%, 70% to 90%, 75% to 95%, 80% to 95%, or 85% to 99% identical a nucleic acid sequence encoding a native polypeptide; (c) a polypeptide that contains 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
  • Derivatives also include a polypeptide that comprises the amino acid sequence of a naturally occurring mature form of a mammalian polypeptide and a heterologous signal peptide amino acid sequence.
  • derivatives include polypeptides that have been chemically modified by, e.g., glycosylation, acetylation, pegylation, phosphorylation, amidation, derivitization by known protecting/blocking groups, proteolytic cleavage, linkage to a cellular ligand or other protein moiety, etc.
  • derivatives include polypeptides comprising one or more non-classical amino acids.
  • a derivative is isolated.
  • a derivative retains one or more functions of the native polypeptide from which it was derived.
  • Percent identity can be determined using any method known to one of skill in the art. In a specific embodiment, the percent identity is determined using the “Best Fit” or “Gap” program of the Sequence Analysis Software Package (Version 10; Genetics Computer Group, Inc., University of Wisconsin Biotechnology Center, Madison, Wis.). Information regarding hybridization conditions (e.g., high, moderate, and typical stringency conditions) have been described, see, e.g., U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2005/0048549 (e.g., paragraphs 72-73).
  • fragment is the context of a fragment of a proteinaceous agent (e.g., a protein) refers to a fragment that is 8 or more contiguous amino acids, 10 or more contiguous amino acids, 15 or more contiguous amino acids, 20 or more contiguous amino acids, 25 or more contiguous amino acids, 50 or more contiguous amino acids, 75 or more contiguous amino acids, 100 or more contiguous amino acids, 150 or more contiguous amino acids, 200 or more contiguous amino acids, or in the range of between 10 to 300 contiguous amino acids, 10 to 200 contiguous amino acids, 10 to 250 contiguous amino acids, 10 to 150 contiguous amino acids, 10 to 100 contiguous amino acids, 10 to 50 contiguous amino acids, 50 to 100 contiguous amino acids, 50 to 150 contiguous amino acids, 50 to 200 contiguous amino acids, 50 to 250 contiguous amino acids, 50 to 300 contiguous amino acids, 25 to 50 contiguous amino acids, 25 to 75 contiguous amino acids,
  • a fragment of a proteinaceous agent retains one or more functions of the proteinaceous agent—in other words, it is a functional fragment.
  • a fragment of a proteinaceous agent retains the ability to interact with another protein and/or to induce, enhance or activate one or more signal transduction pathways.
  • the term “functional fragment,” in the context of a proteinaceous agent, refers to a portion of a proteinaceous agent that retains one or more activities or functions of the proteinaceous agent.
  • a functional fragment of an inhibitory receptor may retain the ability to bind one or more of its ligands.
  • a functional fragment of a ligand of a co-stimulatory receptor may retain the ability to bind to the receptor and/or induce, enhance or activate one or more signal transduction pathways mediated by the ligand binding to its co-stimulatory receptor.
  • heterologous refers an entity not found in nature to be associated with (e.g., encoded by and/or expressed by the genome of) a naturally occurring NDV.
  • yielderly human refers to a human 65 years or older.
  • human adult refers to a human that is 18 years or older.
  • human child refers to a human that is 1 year to 18 years old.
  • human toddler refers to a human that is 1 year to 3 years old.
  • human infant refers to a newborn to 1 year old year human.
  • cells infected with an NDV described herein that is engineered to express a mutated F protein have an increased ability to form syncytia relative to cells infected with the parental virus from which the virus is derived, which parental virus has an unmutated F protein.
  • the syncytia are quantitated microscopically by counting the number of nuclei per syncytium after a certain period of time (e.g., about 8 hours to about 12 hours, about 12 hours to about 24 hours, about 24 hours to about 36 hours, or about 36 hours to about 48 hours).
  • an interferon antagonist refers to an agent that reduces or inhibits the cellular interferon immune response.
  • an interferon antagonist is a proteinaceous agent that reduces or inhibits the cellular interferon immune response.
  • an interferon antagonist is a viral protein or polypeptide that reduces or inhibits the cellular interferon response.
  • an interferon antagonist is an agent that reduces or inhibits interferon expression and/or activity.
  • the interferon antagonist reduces or inhibits the expression and/or activity of type I IFN.
  • the interferon antagonist reduces or inhibits the expression and/or activity of type II IFN.
  • the interferon antagonist reduces or inhibits the expression and/or activity of type III IFN.
  • the interferon antagonist reduces or inhibits the expression and/or activity of either IFN- ⁇ , IFN- ⁇ or both.
  • the interferon antagonist reduces or inhibits the expression and/or activity of IFN- ⁇ .
  • the interferon antagonist reduces or inhibits the expression and/or activity of one, two or all of IFN- ⁇ , IFN- ⁇ , and IFN- ⁇ .
  • the expression and/or activity of IFN- ⁇ , IFN- ⁇ and/or IFN- ⁇ in an embryonated egg or cell is reduced approximately 1 to approximately 100 fold, approximately 5 to approximately 80 fold, approximately 20 to approximately 80 fold, approximately 1 to approximately 10 fold, approximately 1 to approximately 5 fold, approximately 40 to approximately 80 fold, or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 or 100 fold by an interferon antagonist relative to the expression and/or activity of IFN- ⁇ , IFN- ⁇ , and/or IFN- ⁇ in a control embryonated egg or a cell not expressing or not contacted with such an interferon antagonist as measured by the techniques described herein or known to one skilled in the art.
  • the expression and/or activity of IFN- ⁇ , IFN- ⁇ and/or IFN- ⁇ in an embryonated egg or cell is reduced by at least 20% to 25%, at least 25% to 30%, at least 30% to 35%, at least 35% to 40%, at least 40% to 45%, at least 45% to 50%, at least 50% to 55%, at least 55% to 60%, at least 60% to 65%, at least 65% to 70%, at least 70% to 75%, at least 75% to 80%, at least 80% to 85%, at least 85% to 90%, at least 90% to 95%, at least 95% to 99% or by 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% by an interferon antagonist relative to the expression and/or activity of IFN- ⁇ , IFN- ⁇ , and/or IFN- ⁇ in a control embryonated egg or a cell not expressing or not contacted with such an interferon antagonist as
  • IFN deficient systems or “IFN-deficient substrates” refer to systems, e.g., cells, cell lines and animals, such as mice, chickens, turkeys, rabbits, rats, horses etc., which do not produce one, two or more types of IFN, or do not produce any type of IFN, or produce low levels of one, two or more types of IFN, or produce low levels of any IFN (i.e., a reduction in any IFN expression of 5-10%, 10-20%, 20-30%, 30-40%, 40-50%, 50-60%, 60-70%, 70-80%, 80-90% or more when compared to IFN-competent systems under the same conditions), do not respond or respond less efficiently to one, two or more types of IFN, or do not respond to any type of IFN, have a delayed response to one, two or more types of IFN, and/or are deficient in the activity of antiviral genes induced by one, two or more types of IFN, or induced by any type of IFN
  • immunospecifically binds As used herein, the terms “immunospecifically binds,” “immunospecifically recognizes,” “specifically binds,” and “specifically recognizes” are analogous terms in the context of antibodies and refer to molecules that specifically bind to an antigen (e.g., epitope or immune complex) as understood by one skilled in the art.
  • an antigen e.g., epitope or immune complex
  • a molecule that specifically binds to an antigen may bind to other peptides or polypeptides with lower affinity as determined by, e.g., immunoassays (e.g., ELISA), surface plasmon resonance (e.g., BIAcore®), a KinEx assay (using, e.g., a KinExA 3000 instrument (Sapidyne Instruments, Boise, Id.)), or other assays known in the art.
  • immunoassays e.g., ELISA
  • surface plasmon resonance e.g., BIAcore®
  • KinEx assay using, e.g., a KinExA 3000 instrument (Sapidyne Instruments, Boise, Id.)
  • molecules that specifically bind to an antigen bind to the antigen with a dissociation constant (i.e., Ka) that is at least 2 logs, 2.5 logs, 3 logs, 3.5 logs, 4 logs or greater than the Ka when the molecules bind to another antigen.
  • a dissociation constant i.e., Ka
  • molecules that specifically bind to an antigen do not cross react with other proteins.
  • the term “monoclonal antibody” is a term of the art and generally refers to an antibody obtained from a population of homogenous or substantially homogeneous antibodies, and each monoclonal antibody will typically recognize a single epitope (e.g., single conformation epitope) on the antigen.
  • MOI multiplicity of infection
  • the term “native ligand” refers to any naturally occurring ligand that binds to a naturally occurring receptor.
  • the ligand is a mammalian ligand.
  • the ligand is a human ligand.
  • native polypeptide(s) in the context of proteins or polypeptides refers to any naturally occurring amino acid sequence, including immature or precursor and mature forms of a protein.
  • native polypeptide is a human protein or polypeptide.
  • the term “native receptor” refers to any naturally occurring receptor that binds to a naturally occurring ligand.
  • the receptor is a mammalian receptor.
  • the receptor is a human receptor.
  • the terms “subject” or “patient” are used interchangeably.
  • the terms “subject” and “subjects” refers to an animal.
  • the subject is a mammal including a non-primate (e.g., a camel, donkey, zebra, cow, horse, horse, cat, dog, rat, and mouse) and a primate (e.g., a monkey, chimpanzee, and a human).
  • the subject is a non-human mammal.
  • the subject is a pet (e.g., dog or cat) or farm animal (e.g., a horse, pig or cow).
  • the subject is a human.
  • the mammal e.g., human
  • the mammal is 0 to 6 months old, 6 to 12 months old, 1 to 5 years old, 5 to 10 years old, 10 to 15 years old, 15 to 20 years old, 20 to 25 years old, 25 to 30 years old, 30 to 35 years old, 35 to 40 years old, 40 to 45 years old, 45 to 50 years old, 50 to 55 years old, 55 to 60 years old, 60 to 65 years old, 65 to 70 years old, 70 to 75 years old, 75 to 80 years old, 80 to 85 years old, 85 to 90 years old, 90 to 95 years old or 95 to 100 years old.
  • the subject is an animal that is not avian.
  • the terms “treat” and “treating” in the context of the administration of a therapy refers to a treatment/therapy from which a subject receives a beneficial effect, such as the reduction, decrease, attenuation, diminishment, stabilization, remission, suppression, inhibition or arrest of the development or progression of cancer, or a symptom thereof.
  • the treatment/therapy that a subject receives results in at least one or more of the following effects: (i) the reduction or amelioration of the severity of cancer and/or a symptom associated therewith; (ii) the reduction in the duration of a symptom associated with cancer; (iii) the prevention in the recurrence of a symptom associated with cancer; (iv) the regression of cancer and/or a symptom associated therewith; (v) the reduction in hospitalization of a subject; (vi) the reduction in hospitalization length; (vii) the increase in the survival of a subject; (viii) the inhibition of the progression of cancer and/or a symptom associated therewith; (ix) the enhancement or improvement the therapeutic effect of another therapy; (x) a reduction or elimination in the cancer cell population; (xi) a reduction in the growth of a tumor or neoplasm; (xii) a decrease in tumor size; (xiii) a reduction in the formation of a tumor; (xiv) eradication
  • the treatment/therapy that a subject receives does not cure cancer, but prevents the progression or worsening of the disease. In certain embodiments, the treatment/therapy that a subject receives does not prevent the onset/development of cancer, but may prevent the onset of cancer symptoms.
  • the term “in combination” in the context of the administration of (a) therapy(ies) to a subject refers to the use of more than one therapy.
  • the use of the term “in combination” does not restrict the order in which therapies are administered to a subject.
  • a first therapy can be administered prior to (e.g., 5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 6 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, 96 hours, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 4 weeks, 5 weeks, 6 weeks, 8 weeks, or 12 weeks before), concomitantly with, or subsequent to (e.g., 5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 6 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, 96 hours, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 4 weeks, 5 weeks, 6 weeks, 8 weeks, or 12 weeks after) the administration of a second therapy to a subject.
  • the terms “therapies” and “therapy” can refer to any protocol(s), method(s), and/or agent(s) that can be used in the treatment of cancer.
  • the terms “therapies” and “therapy” refer to biological therapy, supportive therapy, hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy and/or other therapies useful in the treatment of cancer.
  • a therapy includes adjuvant therapy.
  • the term “therapy” refers to a chimeric NDV described herein. In other embodiments, the term “therapy” refers to an agent that is not a chimeric NDV.
  • FIG. 1 NDV infection upregulates the expression of MHC I, MHC II, and ICAM-1 on the surface of in vitro infected B16-F10 cells (24 hours post-infection).
  • FIGS. 2A-2E Intratumoral NDV treatment leads to infiltration with macrophages, NK cells, CD8 and CD4 effector cells and decreases the frequency of Tregs.
  • FIGS. 3A-3C Therapy with NDV exhibits favorable effects on tumor microenvironment of distant tumors.
  • FIGS. 4A-4C Lymphocytes infiltrating distant tumors upregulate activation, lytic, and proliferation markers. Representative expression plots on CD4 effector cells (left) and the corresponding percentages in the CD4 effector, CD8, Tregs (right) are shown for A) CD44, B) Granzyme B, and C) Ki-67.
  • FIGS. 5A-5D NDV Monotherapy delays the growth of distant tumors and provides some protection against tumor rechallenge. Bilateral flank tumors were established as described in FIG. 2A and the animals were treated and followed for survival. A) Growth of right flank (treated) tumors. B) Growth of left flank (non-treated) tumors. C) Overall survival. Numbers in boxes indicate percent of animals free of tumors. D) Survival in animals cured of B16-F10 melanoma by NDV re-challenged on day 75 with B16-F10 melanoma cells. Representative results of two different experiments with 10 mice per group.
  • FIGS. 6A-6B Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from both treated and non-treated tumors upregulate CTLA-4 in response to NDV therapy.
  • FIG. 7A-7C Combination therapy with NDV and CTLA-4 blockade enhances anti-tumor effect in the injected and distant tumors.
  • Bilateral B16 flank tumors were established and the animals were treated as described in FIG. 2A with or without anti-CTLA-4 antibody 9H10.
  • FIG. 8 Combination therapy with NDV and anti-CTLA-4 is effective systemically against non-virus-permissive prostate TRAMP tumors.
  • Right (day 12) and left (day 3) flank TRAMP tumors were established and the animals were treated with NDV as described in FIG. 2 A with or without systemic anti-CTLA-4 antibody. Growth of left flank (non-injected) tumors is shown. Numbers in boxes indicate percent of animals free of tumors.
  • FIG. 9A-9C NDV infection upregulates expression of PD-L1 in B16-F10 tumors.
  • FIGS. 10A-10F Combination therapy with NDV and anti-PD-1 is effective systemically against B16 melanoma and results in increased T cell infiltration with upregulation of activation markers.
  • D-E Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from distant tumors were isolated and stained for expression of ICOS (D) and Granzyme B (E).
  • F Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes were restimulated with dendritic cells loaded with tumor lysates and assessed for expression of IFN gamma by intracellular cytokine staining.
  • FIG. 11 Combination therapy with NDV and CTLA-4 induces upregulation of ICOS and CD4 effector cells in distant tumors and tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLN).
  • TDLN tumor-draining lymph nodes
  • FIGS. 12A-12D Generation and in vitro evaluation of NDV-ICOSL virus.
  • FIGS. 13A-13C Combination therapy with NDV-mICOSL and anti-CTLA-4 protects mice from contralateral tumor challenge and results in long-term animal survival.
  • Animals were challenged with a larger tumor dose and treated with NDV as described in FIG. 2A with or without systemic anti-CTLA-4 antibody. Growth of left flank (non-injected) tumors is shown.
  • FIG. 14A-14B Combination therapy with NDV-mICOSL and anti-CTLA-4 protects mice from contralateral tumor challenge and results in long-term animal survival in the CT26 colon carcinoma model.
  • Animals were challenged with a larger tumor dose and treated with NDV as described in FIG. 2A with or without systemic anti-CTLA-4 antibody. Growth of left flank (non-injected) tumors is shown. Numbers in boxes indicate percent of animals protected from tumors.
  • FIGS. 15A-15C NDV treatment leads to distant B16 tumor infiltration with macrophages, NK cells, CD8 and CD4 effector cells and decreases the frequency of Tregs.
  • FIG. 16A-16B Lymphocytes infiltrating distant B16 tumors upregulate activation, lytic, and proliferation markers.
  • FIG. 17 Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes from treated animals secrete IFN-gamma in response to stimulation with DC's loaded with B16-F10 lysates. Representative dot plots are shown.
  • FIGS. 18A-18B Animals cured by combination therapy are protected from further tumor challenge.
  • FIG. 19A-19B Recombinant ICOSL-F chimeric protein is efficiently expressed on surface.
  • FIG. 20A-20D NDV infection is restricted to the injected tumor.
  • FIG. 21A-21F NDV infection increases tumor leukocyte infiltration in the virus-injected tumors. Animals were treated according to the scheme described in FIG. 22A . Tumors were excised on day 15, and TILs were labeled and analyzed by flow cytometry.
  • FIG. 22A-22M NDV increases distant tumor lymphocyte infiltration and delays tumor growth.
  • F Representative flow cytometry plots of percentages of CD4+FoxP3+ (Treg) and CD4+FoxP3 ⁇ (Tconv) cells.
  • G Absolute numbers of conventional and regulatory CD4+ cells and CD8+ cells/g tumor calculated from flow cytometry.
  • H Relative percentages of Tregs out of CD45+ cells.
  • I Calculated Tconv/Treg and CD8+/Treg ratios.
  • J, K Upregulation of ICOS, Granzyme B, and Ki-67 on tumor-infiltrating Tconv (J) and CD8+ cells (K).
  • L Growth of NDV-injected and distant tumors.
  • FIG. 23A-23E NDV therapy increases distant tumor lymphocyte infiltration in bilateral footpad melanoma model. Animals bearing bilateral footpad melanoma tumors were treated according to the schedule described in FIG. 22A . Distant tumors were excised on day 15 and TILs were labeled and analyzed by flow cytometry. A) Representative flow cytometry plots of percentages of tumor-infiltrating CD45+ and CD3+ cells. B) Representative flow cytometry plots of percentages of CD4+FoxP3+ and CD4+FoxP3 ⁇ cells. C) Absolute numbers of conventional and regulatory CD4+ cells and CD8+ cells/g tumor.
  • FIG. 24A-24I NDV induces infiltration of adoptively-transferred tumor-specific lymphocytes and facilitates tumor inflammation.
  • F Representative flow cytometry plots of percentages of CD45+ and CD3+ cells infiltrating distant tumors of animals treated per treatment scheme in panel (A).
  • H Representative flow cytometry plots of percentages of CD45+ and CD3+ cells infiltrating serum-injected tumors.
  • I Absolute numbers of the indicated cell subsets in serum-injected tumors calculated from flow cytometry.
  • FIG. 25 Intratumoral NDV provides protection from tumor rechallenge. Animals cured of B16-F10 melanoma by NDV were injected on day 75 with 1 ⁇ 10 5 B16-F10 melanoma cells, monitored for tumor growth, and euthanized when the tumors reached 1000 mm 3 . Overall animal survival is shown. Data show cumulative results from 1 of 2 independent experiments with 10 mice/group. ****p ⁇ 0.0001.
  • FIG. 26A-26B Tumor-infiltrating CD8+ lymphocytes upregulate CTLA-4 in response to NDV therapy. Representative dot plots (left) and cumulative results (right) of CTLA-4 expression in CD8+ cells in NDV-treated (A), and distant (B) tumors. Representative results from 1 of 3 experiments with 3 mice per group. *p ⁇ 0.05.
  • FIG. 27A-27K NDV and CTLA-4 blockade synergize to reject local and distant tumors.
  • E) Surviving animals were injected with 1 ⁇ 10 5 B16-F10 cells in right flank on day 90 and followed for survival. Data represent cumulative results from 3 experiments with n 6-11 per group.
  • F Growth of virus-treated (right flank) and distant (left flank) TRAMP C2 tumors.
  • FIG. 28A-28E Systemic anti-tumor effect is restricted to the injected tumor type.
  • D, E) Growth of distant tumors (D) and overall survival (E) of animals that received right B16-F10 or MC38 tumors. Data represent results from 1 out of 2 independent experiments with n 10 per group. **p ⁇ 0.01, ****p ⁇ 0.0001.
  • FIG. 29A-29E Combination therapy with NDV and anti-CTLA-4 enhances tumor infiltration with innate and adaptive immune cells.
  • Animals were treated with combination therapy as described in FIG. 27A .
  • Tumors were harvested on day 15 and analyzed for infiltrating immune cells by flow cytometry.
  • FIG. 30A-30J Combination therapy with NDV and CTLA-4 blockade induces inflammatory changes in distant tumors.
  • Animals were treated per schema in FIG. 27A .
  • Tumors were harvested on day 15 and analyzed for infiltrating immune cells.
  • FIG. 31 Antibodies to CD8, CD4, and NK1.1 deplete the cells of interest in vivo. Depleting antibodies were injected as discussed in Materials and Methods in Section 7.1, infra. Blood samples were collected on day 5 and processed by flow cytometry for CD4+, CD8+, and NK cells with non-crossreactive antibodies. Positive staining is represented by the horizontal bars. Representative plots from 1 of 2 independent experiments with 5 mice per group are shown.
  • FIG. 32A-32F Anti-tumor activity of NDV combination therapy depends on CD8+ and NK cells and type I and type II interferons.
  • A-C Animals were treated as described in FIG. 27A with or without depleting antibodies for CD4+, CD8+, NK cells, or IFN ⁇ .
  • D Growth of injected tumors.
  • E Growth of distant tumors.
  • FIG. 33A-33B NDV therapy leads to upregulation of PD-L1 on tumors and tumor-infiltrating leukocytes.
  • MFI median fluorescence intensity
  • B PD-L1 expression on the surface of tumor-infiltrating leukocytes isolated from distant tumors. Left: representative flow cytometry histograms, right: calculated average MFI for each cell subset.
  • FIG. 34A-34D Combination therapy of NDV with antibodies blocking PD-1 leads to enhanced anti-tumor efficacy in bilateral flank B16 melanoma model.
  • FIG. 35A-35D Combination therapy of NDV with antibodies blocking PD-L1 leads to enhanced anti-tumor efficacy in bilateral flank B16 melanoma model.
  • FIG. 36A-36E Combination therapy with NDV and anti-PD-1 therapy results in increased distant tumor infiltration with effector but not regulatory T cells.
  • FIG. 37A-37B TILs from distant tumors in animals treated with combination NDV and anti-PD-1 therapy upregulate lytic and proliferation markers.
  • FIG. 38A-38C NDV induces tumor immune infiltration and upregulation of ICOS on CD4 and CD8 cells in the virus-injected and distant tumors.
  • FIG. 39A-39D Generation and in vitro evaluation of NDV-ICOSL virus.
  • FIG. 40A-40F NDV-ICOSL causes growth delay of distant tumors and induces enhanced tumor lymphocyte infiltration.
  • Bilateral flank B16-F10 tumors were established as previously and the animals were treated with 4 intratumoral injections of the indicated virus to the right tumor.
  • E Absolute numbers of tumor-infiltrating leukocytes in the left (distant tumors).
  • FIG. 41A-41E Combination therapy of NDV-ICOSL and CTLA-4 blockade results in rejection of the injected and distant tumors in the B16-F10 model and protects against tumor rechallenge.
  • FIG. 42A-42E Combination therapy of NDV-ICOSL and CTLA-4 blockade results in rejection of the injected and distant tumors in the CT26 model.
  • FIG. 43A-43J Combination therapy of NDV-ICOSL and anti-CTLA-4 leads to enhanced tumor infiltration with innate and adaptive immune cells.
  • Animals bearing bilateral flank B16-F10 tumors were treated according to the schedule described in FIG. 41A . On day 15 the animals were sacrificed and distant tumors were processed for analysis of TIL's.
  • E Absolute numbers of tumor-infiltrating, CD3+, CD8+, CD4+FoxP3 ⁇ (CD4eff), and CD4+FoxP3+ (Treg) per gram of tumor.
  • F Relative percentage of Tregs of all CD45+ cells.
  • G Calculated effector/Treg ratios. H, I, J) relative percentages of tumor-infiltrating CD8+ and CD4+ effector cells positive for ICOS, granzyme B, and Ki67, respectively.
  • FIG. 44A-44C Schematic diagram for additional generated recombinant NDV viruses expressing chimeric and native immunostimulatory proteins.
  • FIG. 45A-45C Confirmation of rescue of recombinant NDV's.
  • FIG. 46 B16-F10 cells infected with recombinant NDVs express the ligands on the surface. B16-F10 cells were infected with the indicated recombinant NDV's at MOI of 2 and were analyzed for surface ligand expression by flow cytometry 18 hours later. Representative flow cytometry plots are shown.
  • FIG. 47 NDV-HN-4-1BBL induces increased distant tumor immune infiltration.
  • Animals bearing bilateral flank B16 melanoma tumors were treated intratumorally into single flank with the indicated virus as previously. After 3 treatments, animals were euthanized and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from distant tumors were analyzed by flow cytometry. Total number of tumor-infiltrating CD3, CD4+FoxP3+ (Treg), CD4+FoxP3 ⁇ (Tconv), CD8, NK, and CD11b+ cells per gram of tumor is shown.
  • NDVs Newcastle disease viruses
  • chimeric NDVs engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, wherein the agonist is expressed.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a packaged genome which encodes an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, wherein the antagonist is expressed.
  • NDVs described herein e.g., chimeric NDVs described herein.
  • the NDVs described herein can be propagated in any cell, subject, tissue, organ or animal susceptible to a NDV infection.
  • compositions comprising an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein).
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprising an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein) and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprising cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprising protein concentrate from lysed NDV-infected cancer cells (e.g., chimeric-NDV infected cancer cells), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • a method for producing a pharmaceutical composition comprises: (a) propagating an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein) in a cell line that is susceptible to an NDV infection; and (b) collecting the progeny virus, wherein the virus is grown to sufficient quantities and under sufficient conditions that the virus is free from contamination, such that the progeny virus is suitable for formulation into a pharmaceutical composition.
  • a method for producing a pharmaceutical composition comprises: (a) propagating an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein) in an embryonated egg; and (b) collecting the progeny virus, wherein the virus is grown to sufficient quantities and under sufficient conditions that the virus is free from contamination, such that the progeny virus is suitable for formulation into a pharmaceutical composition.
  • an NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described herein
  • a method for treating cancer comprises infecting a cancer cell in a subject with a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition thereof.
  • a method for treating cancer comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition thereof.
  • an effective amount of a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition comprising an effective amount of a chimeric NDV described herein is administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell) and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor of an immune cell), wherein the agonist and/or antagonist are expressed by the NDV.
  • the genome of the NDV also comprises a mutated F protein.
  • two or more chimeric NDVs are administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • a method for treating cancer comprises administering to a subject in need thereof cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or composition thereof.
  • the cancer cells have been treated with gamma radiation prior to administration to the subject or incorporation into the composition.
  • a method for treating cancer comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a protein concentrate or plasma membrane fragments from cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition thereof.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell) and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor of an immune cell), wherein the agonist and/or antagonist are expressed by the NDV.
  • the genome of the NDV also comprises a mutated F protein, which is expressed by the NDV.
  • presented herein are methods for treating cancer utilizing an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV such as described in Section 5.2, infra) or a composition comprising such the NDV in combination with one or more other therapies.
  • methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV, such as described in Section 5.2, infra) and one or more other therapies.
  • presented herein are methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of an NDV described herein or a composition comprising an effective amount of an NDV described herein, and one or more other therapies.
  • the NDV and one or more other therapies can be administered concurrently or sequentially to the subject. In certain embodiments, the NDV and one or more other therapies are administered in the same composition. In other embodiments, the NDV and one or more other therapies are administered in different compositions. The NDV and one or more other therapies can be administered by the same or different routes of administration to the subject.
  • any NDV type or strain may be used in a combination therapy disclosed herein, including, but not limited to, naturally-occurring strains, variants or mutants, mutagenized viruses, reassortants and/or genetically engineered viruses.
  • the NDV used in a combination with one or more other therapies is a naturally-occurring strain.
  • the NDV used in combination with one or more other therapies is a chimeric NDV.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising a cytokine (e.g., IL-2, IL-7, IL-15, IL-17 or IL-21).
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising a tumor antigen.
  • the tumor antigen is expressed by cells infected with the chimeric NDV.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising a pro-apoptotic molecule (e.g., Bax, Bak, Bad, BID, Bcl-xS, Bim, Noxa, Puma, AIF, FasL, and TRAIL) or an anti-apoptotic molecule (e.g., Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Mcl-1, and XIAP).
  • a pro-apoptotic molecule e.g., Bax, Bak, Bad, BID, Bcl-xS, Bim, Noxa, Puma, AIF, FasL, and TRAIL
  • an anti-apoptotic molecule e.g., Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Mcl-1, and XIAP
  • the pro-apoptotic molecule or anti-apoptotic molecule is expressed by cells infected with the chimeric NDV.
  • the chimeric NDV comprises a packaged genome, the genome comprising an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell) and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (e.g., an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor of an immune cell).
  • the agonist and/or antagonist are expressed by cells infected with the chimeric NDV.
  • the genome of the NDV also comprises a mutated F protein, a tumor antigen, a heterologous interferon antagonist, a pro-apoptotic molecule and/or an anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • the one or more therapies used in combination with an NDV described herein is one or more other therapies described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • the one or more therapies used in combination with an NDV described herein are an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell is the anti-CTLA-4 antibody described in Section 6, infra.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell is the ICOS ligand described in Section 6, infra.
  • any NDV type or strain may be used in a combination therapy disclosed herein, including, but not limited to, naturally-occurring strains, variants or mutants, mutagenized viruses, reassortants and/or genetically engineered viruses.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a naturally-occurring strain.
  • the NDV is a lytic strain.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a non-lytic strain.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is lentogenic strain.
  • the NDV is a mesogenic strain.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a velogenic strain.
  • NDV strains include, but are not limited to, the 73-T strain, NDV HUJ strain, Ulster strain, MTH-68 strain, lentil strain, Hickman strain, PV701 strain, Hitchner B1 strain (see, e.g., Genbank No. AF309418 or NC — 002617), La Sota strain (see, e.g., Genbank No. AY845400), YG97 strain, MET95 strain, Roakin strain, and F48E9 strain.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a B1 strain as identified by Genbank No.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is the NDV identified by ATCC No. VR2239. In another specific embodiment, the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is the La Sota strain.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is not pathogenic birds as assessed by a technique known to one of skill. In certain specific embodiments, the NDV used in a combination therapy is not pathogenic as assessed by intracranial injection of 1-day-old chicks with the virus, and disease development and death as scored for 8 days. In some embodiments, the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein has an intracranial pathogenicity index of less than 0.7, less than 0.6, less than 0.5, less than 0.4, less than 0.3, less than 0.2 or less than 0.1. In certain embodiments, the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein has an intracranial pathogenicity index of zero.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a mesogenic strain that has been genetically engineered so as not be a considered pathogenic in birds as assessed by techniques known to one skilled in the art. In certain embodiments, the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a velogenic strain that has been genetically engineered so as not be a considered pathogenic in birds as assessed by techniques known to one skilled in the art.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein expresses a mutated F protein.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy expresses a mutated F protein is highly fusogenic and able to form syncytia.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • a genome of a NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is engineered to express a mutated F protein with a mutated cleavage site.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is engineered to express a mutated F protein in which the cleavage site of the F protein is mutated to produce a polybasic amino acid sequence, which allows the protein to be cleaved by intracellular proteases, which makes the virus more effective in entering cells and forming syncytia.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is engineered to express a mutated F protein in which the cleavage site of the F protein is replaced with one containing one or two extra arginine residues, allowing the mutant cleavage site to be activated by ubiquitously expressed proteases of the furin family.
  • Specific examples of NDVs that express such a mutated F protein include, but are not limited to, rNDV/F2aa and rNDV/F3aa.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is engineered to express a mutated F protein with the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the L289A mutated F protein possesses one, two or three arginine residues in the cleavage site.
  • the mutated F protein is from a different type or strain of NDV than the backbone NDV.
  • the mutated F protein is in addition to the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein replaces the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is attenuated such that the NDV remains, at least partially, infectious and can replicate in vivo, but only generate low titers resulting in subclinical levels of infection that are non-pathogenic (see, e.g., Khattar et al., 2009, J. Virol. 83:7779-7782).
  • the NDV is attenuated by deletion of the V protein.
  • Such attenuated NDVs may be especially suited for embodiments wherein the virus is administered to a subject in order to act as an immunogen, e.g., a live vaccine.
  • the viruses may be attenuated by any method known in the art.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein does not comprise an NDV V protein encoding sequence.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein expresses a mutated V protein. See, e.g., Elankumaran et al., 2010, J. Virol. 84(8): 3835-3844, which is incorporated herein by reference, for examples of mutated V proteins.
  • a mesogenic or velogenic NDV strain used in a combination therapy disclosed herein expresses a mutated V protein, such as disclosed by Elankumaran et al., 2010, J. Virol. 84(8): 3835-3844.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is an NDV disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,442,379, U.S. Pat. No. 6,451,323, or U.S. Pat. No. 6,146,642, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is genetically engineered to encode and express a heterologous peptide or protein.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV known to one of skill in the art, or a chimeric NDV disclosed herein (see, e.g., Section 5.2, infra).
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV comprising a genome engineered to express a tumor antigen (see below for examples of tumor antigens).
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV comprising a genome engineered to express a heterologous interferon antagonist (see below for examples of heterologous interferon antagonists).
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV disclosed in U.S. patent application publication No. 2012/0058141, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV disclosed in U.S. patent application publication No. 2012/0122185, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV comprising a genome engineered to express a cytokine, such as, e.g., IL-2, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, IL-17, IL-21, IL-22, IFN-gamma, GM-CSF, and TNF-alpha.
  • a cytokine such as, e.g., IL-2, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, IL-17, IL-21, IL-22, IFN-gamma, GM-CSF, and TNF-alpha.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV comprising a genome engineered to express IL-2, IL-15, or IL-21.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a chimeric NDV comprising a genome engineered to express a cytokine as described in Section 7, Example 2, infra.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or Natural Killer (NK) cell.
  • the agonist and/or antagonist is incorporated into the virion.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell.
  • the NDV serves as the “backbone” that is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or Natural Killer (NK) cell.
  • NK Natural Killer
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a mutated F protein.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a mutated F protein.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a mutated F protein.
  • the mutated F protein is highly fusogenic and able to form syncytia.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • the genome of a NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell comprises an NDV V protein encoding sequence.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a mutated F protein with a mutated cleavage site.
  • the NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein in which the cleavage site of the F protein is mutated to produce a polybasic amino acid sequence, which allows the protein to be cleaved by intracellular proteases, which makes the virus more effective in entering cells and forming syncytia.
  • the NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein in which the cleavage site of the F protein is replaced with one containing one or two extra arginine residues, allowing the mutant cleavage site to be activated by ubiquitously expressed proteases of the furin family.
  • NDVs that express such a mutated F protein include, but are not limited to, rNDV/F2aa and rNDV/F3aa.
  • the chimeric NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein with the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the mutated F protein is from a different type or strain of NDV than the backbone NDV.
  • the L289A mutated F protein possesses one, two or three arginine residues in the cleavage site.
  • the mutated F protein is in addition to the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein replaces the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • the genome of a NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell comprises a mutated NDV V protein encoding sequence, such as disclosed by Elankumaran et al., 2010, J. Virol. 84(8): 3835-3844.
  • the genome of a NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell does not comprise an NDV V protein encoding sequence.
  • parental backbone of the chimeric NDV is a mesogenic or velogenic NDV strain that is engineered to express a mutated V protein, such as disclosed by Elankumaran et al., 2010, J. Virol. 84(8): 3835-3844.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a cytokine.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a cytokine.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a cytokine
  • an immune cell such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell
  • cytokine Specific examples of cytokines include, but are not limited to, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, IL-17, IL-21, IL-22, interferon (IFN) gamma, GM-CSF, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, a mutated F protein, and a cytokine (e.g., IL-2, IL-7, IL-9, IL-15, IL-17, IL-21, IL-22, IFN-gamma, GM-CSF, and TNF-alpha).
  • the mutated F protein are highly fusogenic.
  • the mutated F protein has a mutant cleavage site (such as described herein).
  • the mutated F protein comprises the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the chimeric NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein with the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the mutated F protein is from a different type or strain of NDV than the backbone NDV.
  • the L289A mutated F protein possesses one, two or three arginine residues in the cleavage site.
  • the mutated F protein is in addition to the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein replaces the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDV comprising a genome engineered to express a cytokine such as, e.g., IL-7, IL-15, IL-21 or another cytokine described herein or known to one of skill in the art. See, e.g., Section 7 for examples of chimeric NDVs engineered to express cytokines as well as methods of producing such chimeric NDVs.
  • a cytokine such as, e.g., IL-7, IL-15, IL-21 or another cytokine described herein or known to one of skill in the art. See, e.g., Section 7 for examples of chimeric NDVs engineered to express cytokines as well as methods of producing such chimeric NDVs.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express (i) an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, and (ii) a tumor antigen.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a tumor antigen.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a tumor antigen.
  • Tumor antigens include tumor-associated antigens and tumor-specific antigens.
  • Specific examples of tumor antigens include, but are not limited to, MAGE-1, MAGE-3, BAGE, GAGE-1, GAGE-2, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase-V, p-15, gp100, MART-1/MelanA, TRP-1 (gp75), Tyrosinase, cyclin-dependent kinase 4, ⁇ -catenin, MUM-1, CDK4, HER-2/neu, human papillomavirus-E6, human papillomavirus E7, CD20, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), epidermal growth factor receptor, MUC-1, caspase-8, CD5, mucin-1, Lewisx, CA-125, p185HER2, IL-2R, Fap- ⁇ , tenascin, antigens associated with a metalloproteinase, and CAMPATH-1.
  • KS 1/4 pan-carcinoma antigen such as ovarian carcinoma antigen (CA125), prostatic acid phosphate, prostate specific antigen, melanoma-associated antigen p97, melanoma antigen gp75, high molecular weight melanoma antigen (HMW-MAA), prostate specific membrane antigen, CEA, polymorphic epithelial mucin antigen, milk fat globule antigen, colorectal tumor-associated antigens (such as: CEA, TAG-72, CO17-1A, GICA 19-9, CTA-1 and LEA), Burkitt's lymphoma antigen-38.13, CD19, B-lymphoma antigen-CD20, CD33, melanoma specific antigens (such as ganglioside GD2, ganglioside GD3, ganglioside GM2, ganglioside GM3), tumor-specific transplantation type of cell-surface antigen (TSTA) (such as ganglioside GD
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, a mutated F protein, and a tumor antigen.
  • the mutated F protein are highly fusogenic.
  • the mutated F protein has a mutant cleavage site (such as described herein).
  • the mutated F protein comprises the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the chimeric NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein with the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the mutated F protein is from a different type or strain of NDV than the backbone NDV.
  • the L289A mutated F protein possesses one, two or three arginine residues in the cleavage site.
  • the mutated F protein is in addition to the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein replaces the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express (i) an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, and (ii) a heterologous interferon antagonist.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a heterologous interferon antagonist.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a heterologous interferon antagonist.
  • an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell
  • a heterologous interferon antagonist See, e.g., U.S. patent application publication No. 2012-0058141, which is incorporated herein by reference, for examples of chimeric NDV engineered to express heterologous interferon antagonists.
  • Interferon antagonists may be identified using any technique known to one of skill in the art, including, e.g., the techniques described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,635,416; 7,060,430; and 7,442,527; which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.
  • the heterologous interferon antagonist is a viral protein.
  • viral proteins may be obtained or derived from any virus and the virus may infect any species (e.g., the virus may infect humans or non-human mammals).
  • heterologous interferon antagonists include, without limitation, Nipah virus W protein, Nipah V protein, Ebola virus VP35 protein, vaccinia virus E3L protein, influenza virus NS1 protein, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) NS2 protein, herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 ICP34.5 protein, Hepatitis C virus NS3-4 protease, dominant-negative cellular proteins that block the induction or response to innate immunity (e.g., STAT1, MyD88, IKK and TBK), and cellular regulators of the innate immune response (e.g., SOCS proteins, PIAS proteins, CYLD proteins, IkB protein, AtgS protein, Pin1 protein, IRAK-M protein, and UBP43). See, e.g., U.S. patent application publication No. 2012-0058141, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, for additional information regarding heterologous interferon antagonist.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, a mutated F protein, and a heterologous interferon antagonist.
  • the mutated F protein are highly fusogenic.
  • the mutated F protein has a mutant cleavage site (such as described herein).
  • the mutated F protein comprises the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the chimeric NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein with the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the mutated F protein is from a different type or strain of NDV than the backbone NDV.
  • the L289A mutated F protein possesses one, two or three arginine residues in the cleavage site.
  • the mutated F protein is in addition to the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein replaces the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a pro-apoptotic molecule.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a pro-apoptotic molecule.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and a pro-apoptotic molecule.
  • an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell
  • a pro-apoptotic molecule include, but are not limited to, Bax, Bak, Bad, BID, Bcl-xS, Bim, Noxa, Puma, AIF, FasL, and TRAIL.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, a mutated F protein, and a pro-apoptotic molecule.
  • the mutated F protein are highly fusogenic.
  • the mutated F protein has a mutant cleavage site (such as described herein).
  • the mutated F protein comprises the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the chimeric NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein with the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the mutated F protein is from a different type or strain of NDV than the backbone NDV.
  • the L289A mutated F protein possesses one, two or three arginine residues in the cleavage site.
  • the mutated F protein is in addition to the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein replaces the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and an anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and an anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • a genome of a NDV is engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and an anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • an anti-apoptotic molecule include, but are not limited to, Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Mcl-1, and XIAP.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, a mutated F protein, and an anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • the mutated F protein are highly fusogenic.
  • the mutated F protein has a mutant cleavage site (such as described herein).
  • the mutated F protein comprises the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the chimeric NDV is engineered to express a mutated F protein with the amino acid mutation L289A.
  • the mutated F protein is from a different type or strain of NDV than the backbone NDV.
  • the L289A mutated F protein possesses one, two or three arginine residues in the cleavage site.
  • the mutated F protein is in addition to the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein replaces the backbone NDV F protein.
  • the mutated F protein is incorporated into the virion.
  • chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered express a pro-apoptotic molecule. In certain aspects, provided herein are chimeric NDVs comprising a genome engineered to express an anti-apoptotic molecule. Examples of pro-apoptotic molecules and anti-apoptotic molecules are provided herein.
  • Any NDV type or strain may be used as a backbone that is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and in certain embodiments, engineered to express a cytokine, tumor antigen, heterologous interferon antagonist, pro-apoptotic molecule, anti-apoptotic molecule and/or mutated F protein, including, but not limited to, naturally-occurring strains, variants or mutants, mutagenized viruses, reassortants and/or genetically engineered viruses.
  • the NDV used in a combination therapy disclosed herein is a naturally-occurring strain.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is a lytic strain.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is a non-lytic strain.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is lentogenic strain.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is mesogenic strain.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is a velogenic strain.
  • NDV strains include, but are not limited to, the 73-T strain, NDV HUJ strain, Ulster strain, MTH-68 strain, lentil strain, Hickman strain, PV701 strain, Hitchner B1 strain, La Sota strain (see, e.g., Genbank No. AY845400), YG97 strain, MET95 strain, Roakin strain, and F48E9 strain.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is the Hitchner B1 strain.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is a B1 strain as identified by Genbank No. AF309418 or NC — 002617.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is the NDV identified by ATCC No. VR2239.
  • the NDV that serves as the backbone for genetic engineering is the La Sota strain.
  • Attenuation, or further attenuation, of the chimeric NDV is desired such that the chimeric NDV remains, at least partially, infectious and can replicate in vivo, but only generate low titers resulting in subclinical levels of infection that are non-pathogenic (see, e.g., Khattar et al., 2009, J. Virol. 83:7779-7782).
  • the NDV is attenuated by deletion of the V protein.
  • Such attenuated chimeric NDVs may be especially suited for embodiments wherein the virus is administered to a subject in order to act as an immunogen, e.g., a live vaccine.
  • the viruses may be attenuated by any method known in the art.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein expresses one, two, three, or more, or all of the following, and a suicide gene: (1) an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell; (2) an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell; (3) a cytokine; (4) a tumor antigen; (5) a heterologous interferon antagonist; (6) a pro-apoptotic molecule; (7) an anti-apoptotic molecule; and/or (8) a mutated F protein.
  • a chimeric NDV in addition to expressing an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and in certain embodiments, a mutated F protein and a cytokine, a chimeric NDV is engineered to express a suicide gene (e.g., thymidine kinase) or another molecule that inhibits NDV replication or function (a gene that makes NDV sensitive to an antibiotic or an anti-viral agent).
  • a suicide gene e.g., thymidine kinase
  • another molecule that inhibits NDV replication or function a gene that makes NDV sensitive to an antibiotic or an anti-viral agent
  • a chimeric NDV in addition to expressing an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte or NK cell, and in certain embodiments, a mutated F protein and a cytokine, a chimeric NDV is engineered to encode tissue-specific microRNA (miRNA) target sites (e.g., sites targeted by miR-21, miR-184, miR-133a/133b, miR-137, and/or miR-193a microRNAs).
  • miRNA tissue-specific microRNA
  • the tropism of the chimeric NDV is altered.
  • the tropism of the virus is altered by modification of the F protein cleavage site to be recognized by tissue-specific or tumor-specific proteases such as matrix metalloproteases (MMP) and urokinase.
  • MMP matrix metalloproteases
  • tropism of the virus is altered by introduction of tissue-specific miRNA target sites.
  • NDV HN protein is mutated to recognize tumor-specific receptor.
  • a chimeric NDV as a chimeric protein or fusion protein: (1) an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell; (2) an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell; (3) a cytokine; (4) a tumor antigen; (5) a heterologous interferon antagonist; (6) a pro-apoptotic molecule; (7) an anti-apoptotic molecule; and/or (8) a mutated F protein.
  • the chimeric protein or fusion protein comprises the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains or fragments thereof of the NDV F or NDV HN protein and an extracellular domain that comprises one of the molecules referenced in the previous sentence. See U.S. Patent Application No. 2012-0122185 for a description of such chimeric proteins or fusion proteins, and International Application Publication No. WO 2007/064802, which are incorporated herein by reference.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or the antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell may be inserted into the genome of the backbone NDV between two transcription units.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or the antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell is inserted into the genome of the backbone NDV between the M and P transcription units or between the HN and L transcription units.
  • the cytokine, tumor antigen, heterologous interferon antagonist, pro-apoptotic molecule, anti-apoptotic molecule and/or mutated F protein are inserted into the genome of the backbone NDV between two or more transcription units (e.g., between the M and P transcription units or between the HN and L transcription units).
  • the chimeric NDVs described herein may be engineered to express any agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or any antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte, NK cell or antigen-presenting cell (e.g., a dendritic cell or macrophage), known to one of skill in the art.
  • the agonist and/or antagonist is an agonist of a human co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or antagonist of a human inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory signal is an agonist of a co-stimulatory molecule (e.g., co-stimulatory receptor) found on immune cells, such as, e.g., T-lymphocytes (e.g., CD4+ or CD8+ T-lymphocytes), NK cells and/or antigen-presenting cells (e.g., dendritic cells or macrophages).
  • a co-stimulatory molecule e.g., co-stimulatory receptor
  • immune cells such as, e.g., T-lymphocytes (e.g., CD4+ or CD8+ T-lymphocytes), NK cells and/or antigen-presenting cells (e.g., dendritic cells or macrophages).
  • co-stimulatory molecules include glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR), Inducible T-cell costimulator (ICOS or CD278), OX40 (CD134), CD27, CD28, 4-1BB (CD137), CD40, lymphotoxin alpha (LT alpha), LIGHT (lymphotoxin-like, exhibits inducible expression, and competes with herpes simplex virus glycoprotein D for HVEM, a receptor expressed by T lymphocytes), CD226, cytotoxic and regulatory T cell molecule (CRTAM), death receptor 3 (DR3), lymphotoxin-beta receptor (LTBR), transmembrane activator and CAML interactor (TACI), B cell-activating factor receptor (BAFFR), and B cell maturation protein (BCMA).
  • GITR glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor
  • ICOS or CD278 Inducible T-cell costimulator
  • OX40 CD134
  • the agonist is an agonist of a human co-stimulatory receptor of an immune cell.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor is not an agonist of ICOS.
  • the antagonist is an antagonist of an inhibitory molecule (e.g., inhibitory receptor) found on immune cells, such as, e.g., T-lymphocytes (e.g., CD4+ or CD8+ T-lymphocytes), NK cells and/or antigen-presenting cells (e.g., dendritic cells or macrophages).
  • inhibitory molecules include cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4 or CD52), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1 or CD279), B and T-lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA), killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR), lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG3), T-cell membrane protein 3 (TIM3), CD160, adenosine A2a receptor (A2aR), T cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and ITIM domains (TIGIT), leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor 1 (LAIR1), and CD160.
  • CTLA-4 or CD52 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4
  • PD1 or CD279 programmed cell death protein 1
  • B and T-lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA) killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor
  • KIR killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor
  • LAG3 lymphocyte activation gene 3
  • TIM3 T-cell membrane protein 3
  • CD160 CD160
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor is an antibody or antigen-binding fragment thereof that specifically binds to the co-stimulatory receptor.
  • co-stimulatory receptors include GITR, ICOS, OX40, CD27, CD28, 4-1BB, CD40, LT alpha, LIGHT, CD226, CRTAM, DR3, LTBR, TACI, BAFFR, and BCMA.
  • the antibody is a monoclonal antibody.
  • the antibody is an sc-Fv.
  • the antibody is a bispecific antibody that binds to two receptors on an immune cell.
  • the bispecific antibody binds to a receptor on an immune cell and to another receptor on a cancer cell.
  • the antibody is a human or humanized antibody.
  • the antibody is expressed as a chimeric protein with NDV F protein or fragment thereof, or NDV HN protein or fragment thereof. See, e.g., U.S. patent application Publication No. 2012/0122185, which is incorporated herein by reference for a description regarding generation of chimeric F or chimeric HN proteins.
  • the chimeric protein is the chimeric F protein described in Sections 6 and/or 7, infra. The techniques described below for generating the chimeric ICOSL-F protein and the chimeric CD28-F protein can be used to generate other chimeric F proteins or chimeric HN proteins.
  • the agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor is a ligand of the co-stimulatory receptor.
  • the ligand is fragment of a native ligand.
  • native ligands include ICOSL, B7RP1, CD137L, OX40L, CD70, herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM), CD80, and CD86.
  • HVEM herpes virus entry mediator
  • B7RP1 also known as ICOSL; GenBank human: NM — 015259.4, NP — 056074.1 murine: NM — 015790.3, NP — 056605.1), CD137L (GenBank human: NM — 003811.3, NP — 003802.1, murine: NM — 009404.3, NP — 033430.1), OX40L (GenBank human: NM — 003326.3, NP — 003317.1, murine: NM — 009452.2, NP — 033478.1), CD70 (GenBank human: NM — 001252.3, NP — 001243.1, murine: NM — 011617.2, AAD00274.1), CD80 (GenBank human: NM — 005191.3, NP — 005182.1, murine: NM — 009855.2,
  • the ligand is a derivative of a native ligand.
  • the ligand is a fusion protein comprising at least a portion of the native ligand or a derivative of the native ligand that specifically binds to the co-stimulatory receptor, and a heterologous amino acid sequence.
  • the fusion protein comprises at least a portion of the native ligand or a derivative of the native ligand that specifically binds to the co-stimulatory receptor, and the Fc portion of an immunoglobulin or a fragment thereof.
  • a ligand fusion protein is a 4-1BB ligand fused to Fc portion of immunoglobulin (described by Meseck M et al., J Immunother. 2011 34:175-82).
  • the ligand is expressed as a chimeric protein with the NDV F protein or fragment thereof, or NDV HN protein or fragment thereof.
  • the protein is the chimeric HN protein described in Section 7, infra. The techniques described below for generating the chimeric HN-GITRL, chimeric HN-OX40-L, chimeric HN-4-1BBL, and/or chimeric HN-CD40L can be used to generate other chimeric F proteins or chimeric HN proteins.
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory receptor is an antibody (or an antigen-binding fragment) or a soluble receptor that specifically binds to the native ligand for the inhibitory receptor and blocks the native ligand from binding to the inhibitory receptor and transducing an inhibitory signal(s).
  • native ligands for inhibitory receptors include PDL-1, PDL-2, B7-H3, B7-H4, HVEM, Gal9 and adenosine.
  • Specific examples of inhibitory receptors that bind to a native ligand include CTLA-4, PD-1, BTLA, KIR, LAG3, TIM3, and A2aR.
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory receptor is a soluble receptor that specifically binds to the native ligand for the inhibitory receptor and blocks the native ligand from binding to the inhibitory receptor and transducing an inhibitory signal(s).
  • the soluble receptor is a fragment of a native inhibitory receptor or a fragment of a derivative of a native inhibitory receptor that specifically binds to native ligand (e.g., the extracellular domain of a native inhibitory receptor or a derivative of an inhibitory receptor).
  • the soluble receptor is a fusion protein comprising at least a portion of the native inhibitory receptor or a derivative of the native inhibitory receptor (e.g., the extracellular domain of the native inhibitory receptor or a derivative of the native inhibitory receptor), and a heterologous amino acid sequence.
  • the fusion protein comprises at least a portion of the native inhibitory receptor or a derivative of the native inhibitory receptor, and the Fc portion of an immunoglobulin or a fragment thereof.
  • An example of a soluble receptor fusion protein is a LAG3-Ig fusion protein (described by Huard B et al., Eur J Immunol. 1995 25:2718-21).
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory receptor is an antibody (or an antigen-binding fragment) that specifically binds to the native ligand for the inhibitory receptor and blocks the native ligand from binding to the inhibitory receptor and transducing an inhibitory signal(s).
  • the antibody is a monoclonal antibody.
  • the antibody is an scFv.
  • the antibody is a human or humanized antibody.
  • a specific example of an antibody to inhibitory ligand is anti-PD-L1 antibody (Iwai Y, et al. PNAS 2002; 99:12293-12297).
  • the antagonist of an inhibitory receptor is an antibody (or an antigen-binding fragment) or ligand that binds to the inhibitory receptor, but does not transduce an inhibitory signal(s).
  • inhibitory receptors include CTLA-4, PD1, BTLA, KIR, LAG3, TIM3, and A2aR.
  • the antibody is a monoclonal antibody.
  • the antibody is an scFv.
  • the antibody is a human or humanized antibody.
  • a specific example of an antibody to inhibitory receptor is anti-CTLA-4 antibody (Leach D R, et al. Science 1996; 271: 1734-1736).
  • Another example of an antibody to inhibitory receptor is anti-PD-1 antibody (Topalian S L, NEJM 2012; 28:3167-75).
  • a chimeric NDV described herein is engineered to an antagonist of CTLA-4, such as, e.g., Ipilimumab or Tremelimumab.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein is engineered to an antagonist of PD1, such as, e.g., MDX-1106 (BMS-936558), MK3475, CT-011, AMP-224, or MDX-1105.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein is engineered to express an antagonist of LAG3, such as, e.g., IMP321.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein is engineered to express an antibody (e.g., a monoclonal antibody or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, or scFv) that binds to B7-H3, such as, e.g., MGA271.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein is engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra.
  • NDV described herein is engineered to express anti-CD28 scvFv, ICOSL, CD40L, OX40L, CD137L, GITRL, and/or CD70.
  • an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell induces (e.g., selectively) induces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of a co-stimulatory receptor to its ligand.
  • an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor induces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to one or more of its ligands by at least 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99%, or in the range of between 25% to 50%, 25% to 75%, 50% to 75%, 50% to 95%, 75% to 95%, or 75% to 100% relative to the one or more signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to one or more of its ligands in the absence of the agonist.
  • an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor induces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to one particular ligand by at least 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99%, or in the range of between 25% to 50%, 25% to 75%, 50% to 75%, 50% to 95%, 75% to 95%, or 75% to 100% relative to the one or more signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to the particular ligand in the absence of the agonist; and (ii) does not induce, or induces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to one or more other ligands by less than 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 2%, or in the range of between 2% to 5%, 2% to 10%, 5% to 10%, 5% to 15%, 5% to 20%, 10% to 15%, or 15% to
  • an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell activates or enhances (e.g., selectively activates or enhances) one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of a co-stimulatory receptor to its ligand.
  • an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor activates or enhances one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to one or more of its ligands by at least 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99%, or in the range of between 25% to 50%, 25% to 75%, 50% to 75%, 50% to 95%, 75% to 95%, or 75% to 100% relative to the one or more signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of co-stimulatory receptor to one or more of its ligands in the absence of the agonist.
  • an agonist of a co-stimulatory receptor activates or enhances one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to one particular ligand by at least 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99%, or in the range of between 25% to 50%, 25% to 75%, 50% to 75%, 50% to 95%, 75% to 95%, or 75% to 100% relative to the one or more signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to the particular ligand in the absence of the agonist; and (ii) does not activate or enhance, or activates or enhances one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the co-stimulatory receptor to one or more other ligands by less than 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 2%, or in the range of between 2% to 5%, 2% to 10%, 5%
  • an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell inhibits or reduces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of an inhibitory receptor to its ligand.
  • an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor inhibits or reduces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the inhibitory receptor to one or more of its ligands by at least 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99%, or in the range of between 25% to 50%, 25% to 75%, 50% to 75%, 50% to 95%, 75% to 95%, or 75% to 100% relative to the one or more signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the inhibitory receptor to one or more of its ligands in the absence of the antagonist.
  • an antagonist of an inhibitory receptor (i) inhibits or reduces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the inhibitory receptor to one particular ligand by at least 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99%, or in the range of between 25% to 50%, 25% to 75%, 50% to 75%, 50% to 95%, 75% to 95%, or 75% to 100% relative to the one or more signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the inhibitory receptor to the one particular ligand in the absence of the antagonist; and (ii) does not inhibit or reduce, or inhibits or reduces one or more of the signal transduction pathways induced by the binding of the inhibitory receptor to one or more other ligands by less than 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 2%, or in the range of between 2% to 5%, 2% to 10%, 5% to 10%, 5% to 15%, 5% to 20%, 10% to 15%, or 15% to 20% relative to the one or
  • an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell induces, activates and/or enhances one or more immune activities, functions or responses.
  • the one or more immune activities, functions or responses can be in the form of, e.g., an antibody response (humoral response) or a cellular immune response, e.g., cytokine secretion (e.g., interferon-gamma), helper activity or cellular cytotoxicity.
  • expression of an activation marker on immune cells e.g., CD44, Granzyme, or Ki-67
  • expression of a co-stimulatory receptor on immune cells e.g., ICOS, CD28, OX40, or CD27
  • expression of a ligand for a co-stimulatory receptor e.g., B7HRP1, CD80, CD86, OX40L, or CD70
  • cytokine secretion infiltration of immune cells (e.g., T-lymphocytes, B lymphocytes and/or NK cells) to a tumor, antibody production, effector function, T cell activation, T cell differentiation, T cell proliferation, B cell differentiation, B cell proliferation, and/or NK cell proliferation is induced, activated and/or enhanced following contact with an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • myeloid-derived suppressor cell tumor infiltration and proliferation, Treg tumor infiltration, activation and proliferation, peripheral blood MDSC and Treg counts are inhibited following contact with an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • the NDVs described herein can be generated using the reverse genetics technique.
  • the reverse genetics technique involves the preparation of synthetic recombinant viral RNAs that contain the non-coding regions of the negative-strand, viral RNA which are essential for the recognition by viral polymerases and for packaging signals necessary to generate a mature virion.
  • the recombinant RNAs are synthesized from a recombinant DNA template and reconstituted in vitro with purified viral polymerase complex to form recombinant ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) which can be used to transfect cells.
  • RNPs ribonucleoproteins
  • the synthetic recombinant RNPs can be rescued into infectious virus particles.
  • the foregoing techniques are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,166,057 issued Nov. 24, 1992; in U.S. Pat. No. 5,854,037 issued Dec. 29, 1998; in U.S. Pat. No. 6,146,642 issued Nov. 14, 2000; in European Patent Publication EP 0702085A1, published Feb. 20, 1996; in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/152,845; in International Patent Publications PCT WO97/12032 published Apr. 3, 1997; WO96/34625 published Nov. 7, 1996; in European Patent Publication EP A780475; WO 99/02657 published Jan. 21, 1999; WO 98/53078 published Nov.
  • the helper-free plasmid technology can also be utilized to engineer a NDV described herein.
  • a complete cDNA of a NDV e.g., the Hitchner B1 strain
  • a plasmid vector e.g., the Hitchner B1 strain
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a heterologous amino acid sequence e.g., a nucleotide sequence encoding an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell
  • a nucleotide sequence encoding a heterologous amino acid sequence may be engineered into a NDV transcription unit so long as the insertion does not affect the ability of the virus to infect and replicate.
  • the single segment is positioned between a T7 promoter and the hepatitis delta virus ribozyme to produce an exact negative transcript from the T7 polymerase.
  • the plasmid vector and expression vectors comprising the necessary viral proteins are transfected into cells leading to production of recombinant viral particles (see, e.g., International Publication No.
  • Bicistronic techniques to produce multiple proteins from a single mRNA are known to one of skill in the art.
  • Bicistronic techniques allow the engineering of coding sequences of multiple proteins into a single mRNA through the use of IRES sequences.
  • IRES sequences direct the internal recruitment of ribozomes to the RNA molecule and allow downstream translation in a cap independent manner.
  • a coding region of one protein is inserted into the ORF of a second protein.
  • the insertion is flanked by an IRES and any untranslated signal sequences necessary for proper expression and/or function.
  • the insertion must not disrupt the open reading frame, polyadenylation or transcriptional promoters of the second protein (see e.g., Garc ⁇ a-Sastre et al., 1994, J. Virol. 68:6254-6261 and Garc ⁇ a-Sastre et al., 1994 Dev. Biol. Stand. 82:237-246, each of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety
  • the NDVs described herein can be propagated in any substrate that allows the virus to grow to titers that permit the uses of the viruses described herein.
  • the substrate allows the NDVs described herein (e.g., the chimeric NDVs) to grow to titers comparable to those determined for the corresponding wild-type viruses.
  • the NDVs described herein may be grown in cells (e.g., avian cells, chicken cells, etc.) that are susceptible to infection by the viruses, embryonated eggs (e.g., chicken eggs or quail eggs) or animals (e.g., birds). Such methods are well-known to those skilled in the art.
  • the NDVs described herein may be propagated in cancer cells, e.g., carcinoma cells (e.g., breast cancer cells and prostate cancer cells), sarcoma cells, leukemia cells, lymphoma cells, and germ cell tumor cells (e.g., testicular cancer cells and ovarian cancer cells).
  • the NDVs described herein may be propagated in cell lines, e.g., cancer cell lines such as HeLa cells, MCF7 cells, THP-1 cells, U87 cells, DU145 cells, Lncap cells, and T47D cells.
  • the cells or cell lines e.g., cancer cells or cancer cell lines
  • the NDVs described herein are propagated in chicken cells or embryonated eggs. Representative chicken cells include, but are not limited to, chicken embryo fibroblasts and chicken embryo kidney cells.
  • the NDVs described herein are propagated in Vero cells.
  • the NDVs described herein are propagated in cancer cells in accordance with the methods described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra.
  • the NDVs described herein are propagated in chicken eggs or quail eggs.
  • a NDV virus described herein is first propagated in embryonated eggs and then propagated in cells (e.g., a cell line).
  • the NDVs described herein may be propagated in embryonated eggs, e.g., from 6 to 14 days old, 6 to 12 days old, 6 to 10 days old, 6 to 9 days old, 6 to 8 days old, or 10 to 12 days old. Young or immature embryonated eggs can be used to propagate the NDVs described herein (e.g., the chimeric NDVs).
  • Immature embryonated eggs encompass eggs which are less than ten day old eggs, e.g., eggs 6 to 9 days old or 6 to 8 days old that are IFN-deficient.
  • Immature embryonated eggs also encompass eggs which artificially mimic immature eggs up to, but less than ten day old, as a result of alterations to the growth conditions, e.g., changes in incubation temperatures; treating with drugs; or any other alteration which results in an egg with a retarded development, such that the IFN system is not fully developed as compared with ten to twelve day old eggs.
  • the NDVs described herein e.g., the chimeric NDVs
  • the growth and propagation viruses see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,852,522 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,494,808, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.
  • the NDVs described herein can be removed from cell culture and separated from cellular components, typically by well known clarification procedures, e.g., such as gradient centrifugation and column chromatography, and may be further purified as desired using procedures well known to those skilled in the art, e.g., plaque assays.
  • compositions are used in methods of treating cancer.
  • a NDV described herein e.g., the chimeric NDVs
  • plasma membrane fragments from NDV infected cells or whole cancer cells infected with NDV in compositions.
  • the compositions are pharmaceutical compositions, such as immunogenic formulations (e.g., vaccine formulations).
  • the compositions may be used in methods of treating cancer.
  • a pharmaceutical composition comprises a NDV described herein (e.g., the chimeric NDVs), in an admixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more additional prophylactic or therapeutic agents, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • a pharmaceutical composition comprises an effective amount of a NDV described herein (e.g., the chimeric NDVs), and optionally one or more additional prophylactic of therapeutic agents, in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • the NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • the NDV is the only active ingredient included in the pharmaceutical composition.
  • a pharmaceutical composition (e.g., an oncolysate vaccine) comprises a protein concentrate or a preparation of plasma membrane fragments from NDV infected cancer cells, in an admixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more additional prophylactic or therapeutic agents, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • a pharmaceutical composition (e.g., a whole cell vaccine) comprises cancer cells infected with NDV, in an admixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
  • the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more additional prophylactic or therapeutic agents, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • compositions provided herein can be in any form that allows for the composition to be administered to a subject.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions are suitable for veterinary and/or human administration.
  • pharmaceutically acceptable means approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeiae for use in animals, and more particularly in humans.
  • carrier refers to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the pharmaceutical composition is administered. Saline solutions and aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions can also be employed as liquid carriers, particularly for injectable solutions.
  • Suitable excipients include starch, glucose, lactose, sucrose, gelatin, malt, rice, flour, chalk, silica gel, sodium stearate, glycerol monostearate, talc, sodium chloride, dried skim milk, glycerol, propylene, glycol, water, ethanol and the like.
  • suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in “Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences” by E. W. Martin. The formulation should suit the mode of administration.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions are formulated to be suitable for the intended route of administration to a subject.
  • the pharmaceutical composition may be formulated to be suitable for parenteral, intravenous, intraarterial, intrapleural, inhalation, intraperitoneal, oral, intradermal, colorectal, intraperitoneal, intracranial, and intratumoral administration.
  • the pharmaceutical composition may be formulated for intravenous, intraarterial, oral, intraperitoneal, intranasal, intratracheal, intrapleural, intracranial, subcutaneous, intramuscular, topical, pulmonary, or intratumoral administration.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein may be used in the treatment of cancer.
  • methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra) or a composition thereof.
  • a method for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra) or a composition thereof.
  • a chimeric NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell, or a composition thereof is administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • a chimeric NDV engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell, or a composition thereof is administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • a chimeric NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and a mutated F protein or a composition thereof is administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • a chimeric NDV engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell and a mutated F protein or a composition thereof is administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • a chimeric NDV (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra) described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell cancer vaccine used in a method for treating cancer may be used as any line of therapy (e.g., a first, second, third, fourth or fifth line therapy).
  • a chimeric NDV described herein is the only active ingredient administered to treat cancer.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein is the only active ingredient in a composition administered to treat cancer.
  • the chimeric NDV (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra) or a composition thereof may be administered locally or systemically to a subject.
  • the chimeric NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra
  • a composition thereof may be administered parenterally (e.g., intravenously, intraarterially, or subcutaneously), intratumorally, intrapleurally, intranasally, intraperitoneally, intracranially, orally, rectally, by inhalation, intramuscularly, topically or intradermally to a subject.
  • the chimeric NDV is administered via the hepatic artery, by, e.g., hepatic artery injection, which can be performed by interventional radiology or through placement of an arterial infusion pump.
  • the chimeric NDV is administered intraoperatively, laparoscopically, or endoscopically.
  • intraperitoneal administration of the chimeric NDV is performed by direct injection, infusion via catheter, or injection during laparoscopy.
  • the methods described herein include the treatment of cancer for which no treatment is available.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra
  • a composition thereof is administered to a subject to treat cancer as an alternative to other conventional therapies.
  • a method for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra) or a composition thereof and one or more additional therapies, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • one or more therapies are administered to a subject in combination with a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra) or a composition thereof to treat cancer.
  • the additional therapies are currently being used, have been used or are known to be useful in treating cancer.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra
  • a composition thereof is administered to a subject in combination with a supportive therapy, a pain relief therapy, or other therapy that does not have a therapeutic effect on cancer.
  • the one or more additional therapies administered in combination with a chimeric NDV described herein is one or more of the therapies described in Section 5.6.4.1, infra.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra) and one or more additional therapies are administered in the same composition.
  • a chimeric NDV and one or more additional therapies are administered in different compositions.
  • two, three or multiple NDVs are administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • the second or more chimeric NDVs used in accordance with methods described herein that comprise administration of two, three or multiple NDVs to a subject to treat cancer may be naturally occurring chimeric NDVs or engineered chimeric NDVs that have been engineered to express heterologous amino acid sequence (e.g., a cytokine)
  • the first and second chimeric NDVs may be part of the same pharmaceutical composition or different pharmaceutical compositions.
  • first chimeric NDV and the second chimeric NDV are administered by the same route of administration (e.g., both are administered intratumorally or intravenously). In other embodiments, the first chimeric NDV and the second chimeric NDV are administered by different routes of administration (e.g., one is administered intratumorally and the other is administered intravenously).
  • a first chimeric NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell is administered to a patient to treat cancer in combination with a second chimeric NDV engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell.
  • a first chimeric NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune is administered in combination with a second chimeric NDV engineered to express one, two or more of the following: a cytokine (e.g., IL-2), a heterologous interferon antagonist, a tumor antigen, a pro-apoptotic molecule, and/or anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • the first chimeric NDV, the second chimeric NDV, or both express a mutated F protein that increases the fusogenic activity of the chimeric NDV.
  • the first chimeric NDV, the second chimeric NDV or both express a mutated F protein with a mutation in the cleavage site (such as described herein).
  • a first composition e.g., a pharmaceutical composition
  • a second composition e.g., a pharmaceutical composition
  • a second composition comprising a second chimeric NDV engineered to express an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell
  • a first composition comprising a first chimeric NDV engineered to express an agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or an antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune is administered in combination with a second composition (e.g., a pharmaceutical composition) comprising a second chimeric NDV engineered to express one, two or more of the following: a cytokine (e.g., IL-2), a heterologous interferon antagonist, a tumor antigen, a pro-apoptotic molecule, and/or anti-apoptotic molecule.
  • a cytokine e.g., IL-2
  • a heterologous interferon antagonist e.g., IL-2
  • the first chimeric NDV, the second chimeric NDV, or both express a mutated F protein that increases the fusogenic activity of the chimeric NDV.
  • the first chimeric NDV, the second chimeric NDV or both express a mutated F protein with a mutation in the cleavage site (such as described herein).
  • an NDV described herein may be used in combination with one or more additional therapies, such as described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1, infra), in the treatment of cancer.
  • additional therapies such as described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1, infra)
  • methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an NDV described herein (e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra) or a composition thereof and one or more additional therapies, such as described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra. (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1).
  • a method for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of an NDV described herein (e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra) or a composition thereof and an effective amount of one or more additional therapies, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra. (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1).
  • an NDV described herein e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra
  • one or more additional therapies such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1)
  • an NDV e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra
  • one or more additional therapies are administered in different compositions.
  • the NDV used in combination with one ore more additional therapies can be administered systemically or locally.
  • the NDV or composition thereof may be administered parenterally (e.g., intravenously, intraarterially, or subcutaneously), intratumorally, intrapleurally, intranasally, intraperitoneally, intracranially, orally, rectally, by inhalation, intramuscularly, topically or intradermally to a subject.
  • the NDV is administered via the hepatic artery, by, e.g., hepatic artery injection, which can be performed by interventional radiology or through placement of an arterial infusion pump.
  • the NDV is administered intraoperatively, laparoscopically, or endoscopically.
  • intraperitoneal administration of the NDV is performed by direct injection, infusion via catheter, or injection during laparoscopy.
  • NDV e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell cancer vaccine in combination with one or more additional therapies, such as described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra may be used as any line of therapy (e.g., a first, second, third, fourth or fifth line therapy) for treating cancer in accordance with a method described herein.
  • whole cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV described herein can be used to treat cancer.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra
  • a cancer cell or a population of cancer cells may be contacted with a cancer cell or a population of cancer cells and the infected cancer cell or population of cancer cells may be administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • the cancer cells are subjected to gamma radiation prior to infection with a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra).
  • the cancer cells are subjected to gamma radiation after infection with a chimeric NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra).
  • the cancer cells are treated prior to administration to a subject so that the cancer cells cannot multiply in the subject.
  • the cancer cells cannot multiply in the subject and the virus cannot infect the subject.
  • the cancer cells are subjected to gamma radiation prior to administration to subject.
  • the cancer cells are sonicated prior to administration to a subject.
  • the cancer cells are treated with mitomycin C prior to administration to a subject.
  • the cancer cells are treated by freezing and thawing prior to administration to a subject.
  • the cancer cells are treated with heat treatment prior to administration to a subject.
  • the cancer cells may be administered locally or systemically to a subject.
  • the cancer cells may be administered parenterally (e.g., intravenously or subcutaneously), intratumorally, intranasally, orally, by inhalation, intrapleurally, topically or intradermally to a subject.
  • the cancer cells are administered intratumorally or to the skin (e.g., intradermally) of a subject.
  • the cancer cells used may be autologous or allogeneic.
  • the backbone of the chimeric NDV is a non-lytic strain.
  • the cancer cells may be administered to a subject alone or in combination with an additional therapy.
  • the cancer cells are preferably in a pharmaceutical composition.
  • the cancer cells are administered in combination with one or more additional therapies, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • the cancer cells and one or more additional therapies are administered in the same composition.
  • the cancer cells and one or more additional therapies are administered in different compositions.
  • whole cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein may be used in combination with one or more additional therapies described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra, in the treatment of cancer.
  • methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof whole cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra) in combination with one or more additional therapies described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • a method for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of whole cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra) in combination with an effective amount of one or more additional therapies described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • whole cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra
  • one or more additional therapies described in Section 5.6.4, infra are administered in the same composition.
  • whole cancer cells infected with an NDV described herein (e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra) and one or more additional therapies are administered in different compositions.
  • a protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation from lysed cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV can be used to treat cancer.
  • a plasma membrane preparation comprising fragments from cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV described herein can be used to treat cancer.
  • a protein concentrate from cancer cells infected with a chimeric NDV described herein can be used to treat cancer. Techniques known to one of skill in the art may be used to produce the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein may be contacted with a cancer cell or a population of cancer cells and the infected cancer cell or population of cancer cells may be lysed using techniques known to one of skill in the art to obtain protein concentrate or plasma membrane fragments of the NDV-infected cancer cells, and the protein concentrate or plasma membrane fragments of the NDV-infected cancer cells may be administered to a subject to treat cancer.
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane fragments may be administered locally or systemically to a subject.
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane fragments may be administered parenterally, intratumorally, intranasally, intrapleurally, orally, by inhalation, topically or intradermally to a subject.
  • a protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation is administered intratumorally or to the skin (e.g., intradermally) of a subject.
  • the cancer cells used to produce the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation may be autologous or allogeneic.
  • the backbone of the chimeric NDV is a lytic strain.
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation may be administered to a subject alone or in combination with an additional therapy.
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation is preferably in a pharmaceutical composition.
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation is administered in combination with one or more additional therapies, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1)
  • additional therapies such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1)
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation and one or more additional therapies are administered in the same composition.
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation and one or more additional therapies are administered in different compositions.
  • a protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation from lysed cancer cells infected with an NDV may be used in combination with one or more additional therapies, such as described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1), in the treatment of cancer.
  • additional therapies such as described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1)
  • methods for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation from lysed cancer cells infected with an NDV (e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra) in combination with one or more additional therapies, such as described herein in Section 5.6.4, infra. (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1).
  • a method for treating cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation from lysed cancer cells infected with an NDV (e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1, supra) in combination with an effective amount of one or more additional therapies, such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra. (e.g., Section 5.6.4.1).
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation and one or more additional therapies such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra, are administered in the same composition.
  • the protein concentrate or plasma membrane preparation and one or more additional therapies are administered in different compositions.
  • the chimeric NDVs described herein can be used to produce antibodies which can be used in diagnostic immunoassays, passive immunotherapy, and the generation of antiidiotypic antibodies.
  • a chimeric NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra
  • a subject e.g., a mouse, rat, pig, horse, donkey, bird or human
  • a subject e.g., a mouse, rat, pig, horse, donkey, bird or human
  • an NDV described herein e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1 or 5.2, supra
  • a subject e.g., a mouse, rat, pig, horse, donkey, bird, or human
  • additional therapies such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra
  • the generated antibodies may be isolated by standard techniques known in the art (e.g., immunoaffinity chromatography, centrifugation, precipitation, etc.) and used in diagnostic immunoassays, passive immunotherapy and generation of antiidiotypic antibodies.
  • the antibodies isolated from subjects administered a chimeric NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, supra
  • isolated from subjects administered an NDV described herein e.g., an NDV described in Section 5.1 or 5.2, supra
  • additional therapies such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra
  • any immunoassay system known in the art may be used for this purpose including but not limited to competitive and noncompetitive assay systems using techniques such as radioimmunoassays, ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assays), “sandwich” immunoassays, precipitin reactions, gel diffusion precipitin reactions, immunodiffusion assays, agglutination assays, complement fixation assays, immunoradiometric assays, fluorescent immunoassays, protein A immunoassays and immunoelectrophoresis assays, to name but a few.
  • radioimmunoassays ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assays), “sandwich” immunoassays, precipitin reactions, gel diffusion precipitin reactions, immunodiffusion assays, agglutination assays, complement fixation assays, immunoradiometric assays, fluorescent immunoassays, protein A immunoassays and immunoelectrophoresis assays, to name
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject suffering from cancer.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject predisposed or susceptible to cancer.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject diagnosed with cancer.
  • specific examples of the types of cancer are described herein.
  • the subject has metastatic cancer.
  • the subject has stage 1, stage 2, stage 3, or stage 4 cancer.
  • the subject is in remission.
  • the subject has a recurrence of cancer.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a human that is 0 to 6 months old, 6 to 12 months old, 6 to 18 months old, 18 to 36 months old, 1 to 5 years old, 5 to 10 years old, 10 to 15 years old, 15 to 20 years old, 20 to 25 years old, 25 to 30 years old, 30 to 35 years old, 35 to 40 years old, 40 to 45 years old, 45 to 50 years old, 50 to 55 years old, 55 to 60 years old, 60 to 65 years old, 65 to 70 years old, 70 to 75 years old, 75 to 80 years old, 80 to 85 years old, 85 to 90 years old, 90 to 95 years old or 95 to 100 years old.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a human infant.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a human toddler.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a human child.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a human adult.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to an elderly human.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject in an immunocompromised state or immunosuppressed state or at risk for becoming immunocompromised or immunosuppressed.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject receiving or recovering from immunosuppressive therapy.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject that has or is at risk of getting cancer.
  • the subject is, will or has undergone surgery, chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.
  • the patient has undergone surgery to remove the tumor or neoplasm.
  • the patient is administered an NDV (e.g., a chimeric NDV) or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein following surgery to remove a tumor or neoplasm.
  • the patient is administered an NDV (e.g., a chimeric NDV) or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein prior to undergoing surgery to remove a tumor or neoplasm.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject that has, will have or had a tissue transplant, organ transplant or transfusion.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a patient who has proven refractory to therapies other than the chimeric NDV or composition thereof, oncolysate, whole cell vaccine, or a combination therapy but are no longer on these therapies.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a patient who has proven refractory to chemotherapy.
  • a cancer is refractory to a therapy means that at least some significant portion of the cancer cells are not killed or their cell division arrested.
  • the determination of whether the cancer cells are refractory can be made either in vivo or in vitro by any method known in the art for assaying the effect of a therapy on cancer cells, using the art-accepted meanings of “refractory” in such a context.
  • refractory patient is a patient refractory to a standard therapy.
  • a patient with cancer is refractory to a therapy when the tumor or neoplasm has not significantly been eradicated and/or the symptoms have not been significantly alleviated.
  • the determination of whether a patient is refractory can be made either in vivo or in vitro by any method known in the art for assaying the effectiveness of a treatment of cancer, using art-accepted meanings of “refractory” in such a context.
  • the patient to be treated in accordance with the methods described herein is a patient already being treated with antibiotics, anti-virals, anti-fungals, or other biological therapy/immunotherapy or anti-cancer therapy.
  • these patients are refractory patients, and patients who are too young for conventional therapies.
  • the subject being administered an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein has not received therapy prior to the administration of the chimeric NDV or composition, the oncolysate vaccine, or the whole cell vaccine, or the combination therapy.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a patient to prevent the onset of cancer in a patient at risk of developing cancer.
  • compounds are administered to a patient who are susceptible to adverse reactions to conventional therapies.
  • the subject being administered an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein has not received prior therapy.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein is administered to a subject who has received a therapy prior to administration of the NDV (e.g., a chimeric NDV) or composition, the oncolysate vaccine, the whole cell vaccine, or the combination therapy.
  • the subject administered an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine described herein, or a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein experienced adverse side effects to a prior therapy or a prior therapy was discontinued due to unacceptable levels of toxicity to the subject.
  • an NDV or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine which will be effective in the treatment of cancer will depend on the nature of the cancer, the route of administration, the general health of the subject, etc. and should be decided according to the judgment of a medical practitioner. Standard clinical techniques, such as in vitro assays, may optionally be employed to help identify optimal dosage ranges.
  • suitable dosage ranges of an NDV for administration are generally about 10 2 , 5 ⁇ 10 2 , 10 3 , 5 ⁇ 10 3 , 10 4 , 5 ⁇ 10 4 , 10 5 , 5 ⁇ 10 5 , 10 6 , 5 ⁇ 10 6 , 10 7 , 5 ⁇ 10 7 , 10 8 , 5 ⁇ 10 8 , 1 ⁇ 10 9 , 5 ⁇ 10 9 , 1 ⁇ 10 1 °, 5 ⁇ 10 10 , 1 ⁇ 10 11 , 5 ⁇ 10 11 or 10 12 pfu, and most preferably about 10 4 to about 10 12 , 10 6 to 10 12 , 10 8 to 10 12 , 10 9 to 10 12 or 10 9 to 10 11 , and can be administered to a subject once, twice, three, four or more times with intervals as often as needed.
  • Dosage ranges of oncolysate vaccines for administration may include 0.001 mg, 0.005 mg, 0.01 mg, 0.05 mg. 0.1 mg. 0.5 mg, 1.0 mg, 2.0 mg. 3.0 mg, 4.0 mg, 5.0 mg, 10.0 mg, 0.001 mg to 10.0 mg, 0.01 mg to 1.0 mg, 0.1 mg to 1 mg, and 0.1 mg to 5.0 mg, and can be administered to a subject once, twice, three or more times with intervals as often as needed.
  • Dosage ranges of whole cell vaccines for administration may include 10 2 , 5 ⁇ 10 2 , 10 3 , 5 ⁇ 10 3 , 10 4 , 5 ⁇ 10 4 , 10 5 , 5 ⁇ 10 5 , 10 6 , 5 ⁇ 10 6 , 10 7 , 5 ⁇ 10 7 , 10 8 , 5 ⁇ 10 8 , 1 ⁇ 10 9 , 5 ⁇ 10 9 , 1 ⁇ 10 10 , 5 ⁇ 10 10 , 1 ⁇ 10 11 , 5 ⁇ 10 11 or 10 12 cells, and can be administered to a subject once, twice, three or more times with intervals as often as needed.
  • dosages similar to those currently being used in clinical trials for NDV, oncolysate vaccines or whole cell vaccines are administered to a subject. Effective doses may be extrapolated from dose response curves derived from in vitro or animal model test systems.
  • an NDV e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof is administered to a subject as a single dose followed by a second dose 1 to 6 weeks, 1 to 5 weeks, 1 to 4 weeks, 1 to 3 weeks, 1 to 2 weeks later.
  • booster inoculations may be administered to the subject at 6 to 12 month intervals following the second inoculation.
  • an oncolysate vaccine or a whole cell vaccine is administered to a subject as a single dose followed by a second dose 1 to 6 weeks, 1 to 5 weeks, 1 to 4 weeks, 1 to 3 weeks, 1 to 2 weeks later.
  • administration of the same NDV e.g., chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, oncolysate vaccine, or whole cell vaccine may be repeated and the administrations may be separated by at least 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, 6 says, 7 days, 10 days, 14 days, 15 days, 21 days, 28 days, 30 days, 45 days, 2 months, 75 days, 3 months, or at least 6 months.
  • administration of the same NDV (e.g., a NDV) or a composition thereof, oncolysate vaccine, or whole cell vaccine may be repeated and the administrations may be separated by 1 to 14 days, 1 to 7 days, 7 to 14 days, 1 to 30 days, 15 to 30 days, 15 to 45 days, 15 to 75 days, 15 to 90 days, 1 to 3 months, 3 to 6 months, 3 to 12 months, or 6 to 12 months.
  • a first NDV e.g., a first chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof is administered to a subject followed by the administration of a second NDV (e.g., a second chimeric NDV) or a composition thereof.
  • the first and second NDVs (e.g., the first and second chimeric NDVs) or compositions thereof may be separated by at least 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days, 10 days, 14 days, 15 days, 21 days, 28 days, 30 days, 45 days, 2 months, 75 days, 3 months, or at least 6 months.
  • the first and second NDVs (e.g., the first and second chimeric NDVs) or compositions thereof may be separated by 1 to 14 days, 1 to 7 days, 7 to 14 days, 1 to 30 days, 15 to 30 days, 15 to 45 days, 15 to 75 days, 15 to 90 days, 1 to 3 months, 3 to 6 months, 3 to 12 months, or 6 to 12 months.
  • an NDV or composition thereof, or oncolysate vaccine or whole cell vaccine is administered to a subject in combination with one or more additional therapies, such as a therapy described in Section 5.6.4, infra.
  • the dosage of the other one or more additional therapies will depend upon various factors including, e.g., the therapy, the nature of the cancer, the route of administration, the general health of the subject, etc. and should be decided according to the judgment of a medical practitioner.
  • the dose of the other therapy is the dose and/or frequency of administration of the therapy recommended for the therapy for use as a single agent is used in accordance with the methods disclosed herein.
  • the dose of the other therapy is a lower dose and/or less frequent administration of the therapy than recommended for the therapy for use as a single agent is used in accordance with the methods disclosed herein.
  • Recommended doses for approved therapies can be found in the Physician's Desk Reference.
  • an NDV or composition thereof, or oncolysate vaccine or whole cell vaccine is administered to a subject concurrently with the administration of one or more additional therapies.
  • an NDV or composition thereof, or oncolysate vaccine or whole cell vaccine is administered to a subject every 3 to 7 days, 1 to 6 weeks, 1 to 5 weeks, 1 to 4 weeks, 2 to 4 weeks, 1 to 3 weeks, or 1 to 2 weeks and one or more additional therapies (such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra) is administered every 3 to 7 days, 1 to 6 weeks, 1 to 5 weeks, 1 to 4 weeks, 1 to 3 weeks, or 1 to 2 weeks.
  • an NDV or composition thereof, or oncolysate vaccine or whole cell vaccine is administered to a subject every 1 to 2 weeks and one or more additional therapies (such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra) is administered every 2 to 4 weeks.
  • an NDV or composition thereof, or oncolysate vaccine or whole cell vaccine is administered to a subject every week and one or more additional therapies (such as described in Section 5.6.4, infra) is administered every 2 weeks.
  • cancers that can be treated in accordance with the methods described herein include, but are not limited to: leukemias, such as but not limited to, acute leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute myelocytic leukemias, such as, myeloblastic, promyelocytic, myelomonocytic, monocytic, and erythroleukemia leukemias and myelodysplastic syndrome; chronic leukemias, such as but not limited to, chronic myelocytic (granulocytic) leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, hairy cell leukemia; polycythemia vera; lymphomas such as but not limited to Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's disease; multiple myelomas such as but not limited to smoldering multiple myeloma, nonsecretory myeloma, osteosclerotic myeloma, placancer cell leukemia, s
  • cancers include myxosarcoma, osteogenic sarcoma, endotheliosarcoma, lymphangioendotheliosarcoma, mesothelioma, synovioma, hemangioblastoma, epithelial carcinoma, cystadenocarcinoma, bronchogenic carcinoma, sweat gland carcinoma, sebaceous gland carcinoma, papillary carcinoma and papillary adenocarcinomas (for a review of such disorders, see Fishman et al., 1985, Medicine, 2d Ed., J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia and Murphy et al., 1997, Informed Decisions: The Complete Book of Cancer Diagnosis, Treatment, and Recovery, Viking Penguin, Penguin Books U.S.A., Inc., United States of America).
  • the chimeric NDVs described herein or compositions thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, a whole cell vaccine herein, or a combination therapy described herein are useful in the treatment of a variety of cancers and abnormal proliferative diseases, including (but not limited to) the following: carcinoma, including that of the bladder, breast, colon, kidney, liver, lung, ovary, pancreas, stomach, cervix, thyroid and skin; including squamous cell carcinoma; hematopoietic tumors of lymphoid lineage, including leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, B-cell lymphoma, T cell lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma; hematopoietic tumors of myeloid lineage, including acute and chronic myelogenous leukemias and promyelocytic leukemia; tumors of mesenchymal origin, including fibrosarcoma and rhabdomyo
  • cancers associated with aberrations in apoptosis are treated in accordance with the methods described herein.
  • Such cancers may include, but are not limited to, follicular lymphomas, carcinomas with p53 mutations, hormone dependent tumors of the breast, prostate and ovary, and precancerous lesions such as familial adenomatous polyposis, and myelodysplastic syndromes.
  • malignancy or dysproliferative changes such as metaplasias and dysplasias
  • hyperproliferative disorders of the skin, lung, liver, bone, brain, stomach, colon, breast, prostate, bladder, kidney, pancreas, ovary, and/or uterus are treated in accordance with the methods described herein.
  • a sarcoma or melanoma is treated in accordance with the methods described herein.
  • the cancer being treated in accordance with the methods described herein is leukemia, lymphoma or myeloma (e.g., multiple myeloma).
  • leukemias and other blood-borne cancers that can be treated in accordance with the methods described herein include, but are not limited to, acute lymphoblastic leukemia “ALL”, acute lymphoblastic B-cell leukemia, acute lymphoblastic T-cell leukemia, acute myeloblastic leukemia “AML”, acute promyelocytic leukemia “APL”, acute monoblastic leukemia, acute erythroleukemic leukemia, acute megakaryoblastic leukemia, acute myelomonocytic leukemia, acute nonlymphocyctic leukemia, acute undifferentiated leukemia, chronic myelocytic leukemia “CML”, chronic lymphocytic leukemia “CLL”, and hairy cell leukemia.
  • ALL acute lymphoblastic leukemia
  • ALL acute
  • lymphomas that can be treated in accordance with the methods described herein include, but are not limited to, Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma, Multiple myeloma, Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, Heavy chain disease, and Polycythemia vera.
  • the cancer being treated in accordance with the methods described herein is a solid tumor.
  • solid tumors that can be treated in accordance with the methods described herein include, but are not limited to fibrosarcoma, myxosarcoma, liposarcoma, chondrosarcoma, osteogenic sarcoma, chordoma, angiosarcoma, endotheliosarcoma, lymphangiosarcoma, lymphangioendotheliosarcoma, synovioma, mesothelioma, Ewing's tumor, leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, colon cancer, colorectal cancer, kidney cancer, pancreatic cancer, bone cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, esophageal cancer, stomach cancer, oral cancer, nasal cancer, throat cancer, squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, sweat gland carcinoma, sebaceous gland carcinoma, pa
  • the cancer being treated in accordance with the methods described herein is a cancer that has a poor prognosis and/or has a poor response to conventional therapies, such as chemotherapy and radiation.
  • the cancer being treated in accordance with the methods described herein is malignant melanoma, malignant glioma, renal cell carcinoma, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, malignant pleural mesothelioma, lung adenocarcinoma, lung small cell carcinoma, lung squamous cell carcinoma, anaplastic thyroid cancer, and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
  • the cancer being treated in accordance with the methods described herein is a type of cancer described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra.
  • Additional therapies that can be used in a combination with an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine for the treatment of cancer include, but are not limited to, small molecules, synthetic drugs, peptides (including cyclic peptides), polypeptides, proteins, nucleic acids (e.g., DNA and RNA nucleotides including, but not limited to, antisense nucleotide sequences, triple helices, RNAi, and nucleotide sequences encoding biologically active proteins, polypeptides or peptides), antibodies, synthetic or natural inorganic molecules, mimetic agents, and synthetic or natural organic molecules.
  • the additional therapy is a chemotherapeutic agent.
  • an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine is used in combination with radiation therapy comprising the use of x-rays, gamma rays and other sources of radiation to destroy cancer cells.
  • the radiation therapy is administered as external beam radiation or teletherapy, wherein the radiation is directed from a remote source.
  • the radiation therapy is administered as internal therapy or brachytherapy wherein a radioactive source is placed inside the body close to cancer cells and/or a tumor mass.
  • an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell cancer vaccine is used in combination with adoptive T cell therapy.
  • the T cells utilized in the adoptive T cell therapy are tumor infiltrating lymphocytes that have been isolated from a subject and a particular T cell or clone has been expanded for use thereof.
  • the T cells utilized in the adoptive T cell therapy are T cells taken from a patient's blood after they have received a cancer vaccine and expanded in vitro before use.
  • the T cells utilized in the adoptive T cell therapy are T cells that have been influenced to potently recognize and attack tumors.
  • the T cells utilized in the adoptive T cell therapy have been genetically modified to express tumor-antigen specific T cell receptor or a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR).
  • the adoptive T cell therapy utilized is analogous to that described in Section 7, infra.
  • an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell cancer vaccine is used in combination with a cytokine.
  • an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell cancer vaccine is used in combination with interferon (e.g., IFN- ⁇ ).
  • anti-cancer agents that may be used in combination with an NDV described herein or a composition thereof include: hormonal agents (e.g., aromatase inhibitor, selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), and estrogen receptor antagonist), chemotherapeutic agents (e.g., microtubule disassembly blocker, antimetabolite, topoisomerase inhibitor, and DNA crosslinker or damaging agent), anti-angiogenic agents (e.g., VEGF antagonist, receptor antagonist, integrin antagonist, vascular targeting agent (VTA)/vascular disrupting agent (VDA)), radiation therapy, and conventional surgery.
  • hormonal agents e.g., aromatase inhibitor, selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), and estrogen receptor antagonist
  • chemotherapeutic agents e.g., microtubule disassembly blocker, antimetabolite, topoisomerase inhibitor, and DNA crosslinker or damaging agent
  • anti-angiogenic agents e.g., VEGF antagonist, receptor antagonist, integrin antagonist,
  • Non-limiting examples of hormonal agents that may be used in combination with an NDV described herein or a composition thereof include aromatase inhibitors, SERMs, and estrogen receptor antagonists.
  • Hormonal agents that are aromatase inhibitors may be steroidal or nonsteroidal.
  • Non-limiting examples of nonsteroidal hormonal agents include letrozole, anastrozole, aminoglutethimide, fadrozole, and vorozole.
  • Non-limiting examples of steroidal hormonal agents include aromasin (exemestane), formestane, and testolactone.
  • Non-limiting examples of hormonal agents that are SERMs include tamoxifen (branded/marketed as Nolvadex®), afimoxifene, arzoxifene, avalycoxifene, clomifene, femarelle, lasofoxifene, ormeloxifene, raloxifene, and toremifene.
  • Non-limiting examples of hormonal agents that are estrogen receptor antagonists include fulvestrant.
  • Other hormonal agents include but are not limited to abiraterone and lonaprisan.
  • Non-limiting examples of chemotherapeutic agents that may be used in combination with an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine include microtubule disasssembly blocker, antimetabolite, topoisomerase inhibitor, and DNA crosslinker or damaging agent.
  • Chemotherapeutic agents that are microtubule disassembly blockers include, but are not limited to, taxenes (e.g., paclitaxel (branded/marketed as TAXOL®), docetaxel, abraxane, larotaxel, ortataxel, and tesetaxel); epothilones (e.g., ixabepilone); and vinca alkaloids (e.g., vinorelbine, vinblastine, vindesine, and vincristine (branded/marketed as)) ONCOVIN®.
  • taxenes e.g., paclitaxel (branded/marketed as TAXOL®), docetaxel, abraxane, larotaxel, ortataxel, and tesetaxel
  • epothilones e.g., ixabepilone
  • vinca alkaloids e.g., vinorelbine, vinblastine, vindesine, and
  • Chemotherapeutic agents that are antimetabolites include, but are not limited to, folate antimetabolites (e.g., methotrexate, aminopterin, pemetrexed, raltitrexed); purine antimetabolites (e.g., cladribine, clofarabine, fludarabine, mercaptopurine, pentostatin, thioguanine); pyrimidine antimetabolites (e.g., 5-fluorouracil, capecitabine, gemcitabine (GEMZAR®), cytarabine, decitabine, floxuridine, tegafur); and deoxyribonucleotide antimetabolites (e.g., hydroxyurea).
  • folate antimetabolites e.g., methotrexate, aminopterin, pemetrexed, raltitrexed
  • purine antimetabolites e.g., cladribine, clofarabine, fludarabine, mercaptopur
  • Chemotherapeutic agents that are topoisomerase inhibitors include, but are not limited to, class I (camptotheca) topoisomerase inhibitors (e.g., topotecan (branded/marketed as HYCAMTIN®) irinotecan, rubitecan, and belotecan); class II (podophyllum) topoisomerase inhibitors (e.g., etoposide or VP-16, and teniposide); anthracyclines (e.g., doxorubicin, epirubicin, Doxil, aclarubicin, amrubicin, daunorubicin, idarubicin, pirarubicin, valrubicin, and zorubicin); and anthracenediones (e.g., mitoxantrone, and pixantrone).
  • class I camptotheca
  • topotecan branded/marketed as HYCAMTIN®
  • irinotecan ir
  • Chemotherapeutic agents that are DNA crosslinkers include, but are not limited to, alkylating agents (e.g., cyclophosphamide, mechlorethamine, ifosfamide (branded/marketed as IFEX®), trofosfamide, chlorambucil, melphalan, prednimustine, bendamustine, uramustine, estramustine, carmustine (branded/marketed as BiCNU®), lomustine, semustine, fotemustine, nimustine, ranimustine, streptozocin, busulfan, mannosulfan, treosulfan, carboquone, N,N′N′-triethylenethiophosphoramide, triaziquone, triethylenemelamine); alkylating-like agents (e.g., carboplatin (branded/marketed as PARAPLATIN®), cisplatin, oxaliplatin, nedaplatin, triplatin tetranit
  • an NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine are administered to a subject in combination with one or more of the following: any agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell (such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte, NK cell or antigen-presenting cell (e.g., a dendritic cell or macrophage) and/or any antagonist of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell (such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte, NK cell or antigen-presenting cell (e.g., a dendritic cell or macrophage), known to one of skill in the art.
  • any agonist of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell such as, e.g., a T-lymphocyte, NK cell or antigen-presenting cell (e.g., a dendritic cell or macrophage)
  • an NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine are administered to a subject in combination with one or more of the agonists of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell described in Section 5.2.1, supra.
  • an NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine are administered to a subject in combination with one or more of the antagonists of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell described in Section 5.2.1, supra.
  • an NDV described herein e.g., a chimeric NDV
  • a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine, or a whole cell vaccine are administered to a subject in combination with one or more of the agonists of a co-stimulatory signal of an immune cell and/or one or more of the antagonists of an inhibitory signal of an immune cell described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra (e.g., an anti-CTLA-4 antibody, an ICOS-L, an anti-PD-1 antibody, or an anti-PD-L1 antibody)
  • infra e.g., an anti-CTLA-4 antibody, an ICOS-L, an anti-PD-1 antibody, or an anti-PD-L1 antibody
  • Viral assays include those that measure altered viral replication (as determined, e.g., by plaque formation) or the production of viral proteins (as determined, e.g., by western blot analysis) or viral RNAs (as determined, e.g., by RT-PCR or northern blot analysis) in cultured cells in vitro using methods which are well known in the art.
  • NDVs described herein can be assessed by any method known in the art or described herein (e.g., in cell culture (e.g., cultures of chicken embryonic kidney cells or cultures of chicken embryonic fibroblasts (CEF)).
  • Viral titer may be determined by inoculating serial dilutions of a NDV described herein into cell cultures (e.g., CEF, MDCK, EFK-2 cells, Vero cells, primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), H292 human epithelial cell line or HeLa cells), chick embryos, or live animals (e.g., avians). After incubation of the virus for a specified time, the virus is isolated using standard methods.
  • Physical quantitation of the virus titer can be performed using PCR applied to viral supernatants (Quinn & Trevor, 1997; Morgan et al., 1990), hemagglutination assays, tissue culture infectious doses (TCID50) or egg infectious doses (EID50).
  • TCID50 tissue culture infectious doses
  • EID50 egg infectious doses
  • incorporación of nucleotide sequences encoding a heterologous peptide or protein e.g., a cytokine, a mutated F protein, a mutated V protein, or miRNA target site into the genome of a chimeric NDV described herein can be assessed by any method known in the art or described herein (e.g., in cell culture, an animal model or viral culture in embryonated eggs).
  • a heterologous peptide or protein e.g., a cytokine, a mutated F protein, a mutated V protein, or miRNA target site into the genome of a chimeric NDV described herein
  • a heterologous peptide or protein e.g., a cytokine, a mutated F protein, a mutated V protein, or miRNA target site into the genome of a chimeric NDV described herein
  • viral particles from cell culture of the allantoic fluid of embryonated eggs can be purified by centri
  • Immunofluorescence-based approaches may also be used to detect virus and assess viral growth. Such approaches are well known to those of skill in the art, e.g., fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry (see Section 6 and Section 7, infra).
  • Antibodies generated by the NDVs described herein may be characterized in a variety of ways well-known to one of skill in the art (e.g., ELISA, Surface Plasmon resonance display (BIAcore), Western blot, immunofluorescence, immunostaining and/or microneutralization assays).
  • antibodies generated by the chimeric NDVs described herein may be assayed for the ability to specifically bind to an antigen of the virus or a heterologous peptide or protein.
  • Such an assay may be performed in solution (e.g., Houghten, 1992, Bio/Techniques 13:412 421), on beads (Lam, 1991, Nature 354:82 84), on chips (Fodor, 1993, Nature 364:555 556), on bacteria (U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409), on spores (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,571,698; 5,403,484; and 5,223,409), on plasmids (Cull et al., 1992, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:1865 1869) or on phage (Scott and Smith, 1990, Science 249:386 390; Cwirla et al., 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:6378 6382; and Felici, 1991, J. Mol. Biol. 222:301 310) (each of these references is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference).
  • Antibodies generated by the chimeric NDVs described herein that have been identified to specifically bind to an antigen of the virus or a heterologous peptide or protein can be assayed for their specificity to said antigen of the virus or heterologous peptide or protein.
  • the antibodies may be assayed for specific binding to an antigen of the virus or a heterologous peptide or protein and for their cross-reactivity with other antigens by any method known in the art.
  • Immunoassays which can be used to analyze specific binding and cross-reactivity include, but are not limited to, competitive and non-competitive assay systems using techniques such as western blots, radioimmunoassays, ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay), “sandwich” immunoassays, immunoprecipitation assays, precipitin reactions, gel diffusion precipitin reactions, immunodiffusion assays, agglutination assays, complement-fixation assays, immunoradiometric assays, fluorescent immunoassays, protein A immunoassays, to name but a few.
  • competitive and non-competitive assay systems using techniques such as western blots, radioimmunoassays, ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay), “sandwich” immunoassays, immunoprecipitation assays, precipitin reactions, gel diffusion precipitin reactions, immunodiffusion assays, agglutination assays, complement
  • the binding affinity of an antibody to an antigen and the off-rate of an antibody-antigen interaction can be determined by competitive binding assays.
  • a surface plasmon resonance assay e.g., BIAcore kinetic analysis
  • KinExA assay Blake, et al., Analytical Biochem., 1999, 272:123-134 may be used to determine the binding on and off rates of antibodies to an antigen of the chimeric NDVs described herein.
  • IFN induction and release by an NDV described herein may be determined using techniques known to one of skill in the art or described herein.
  • the amount of IFN induced in cells following infection with an NDV described herein may be determined using an immunoassay (e.g., an ELISA or Western blot assay) to measure IFN expression or to measure the expression of a protein whose expression is induced by IFN.
  • the amount of IFN induced may be measured at the RNA level by assays, such as Northern blots and quantitative RT-PCR, known to one of skill in the art.
  • the amount of IFN released may be measured using an ELISPOT assay. (See, e.g., the methods described in Section 6 and Section 7, below).
  • the induction and release of cytokines may be determined by, e.g., an immunoassay or ELISPOT assay at the protein level and/or quantitative RT-PCR or northern blots at the RNA level. See Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra, regarding assays to measure cytokine induction and release.
  • an activation marker, co-stimulatory molecule, ligand, or inhibitory molecule by immune cells are known to one of skill in the art.
  • the expression of an activation marker, co-stimulatory molecule, ligand, or inhibitory molecule by an immune cell can be assessed by flow cytometry.
  • techniques described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra are used to assess the expression of an activation marker, co-stimulatory molecule, ligand, or inhibitory molecule by an immune cell.
  • the NDVs described herein or compositions thereof, oncolysate vaccines described herein, whole cell vaccines described herein, or combination therapies described herein are tested for cytotoxicity in mammalian, preferably human, cell lines (see, e.g., the cytotoxicity assay described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra).
  • cytotoxicity is assessed in one or more of the following non-limiting examples of cell lines: U937, a human monocyte cell line; primary peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC); Huh7, a human hepatoblastoma cell line; HL60 cells, HT1080, HEK 293T and 293H, MLPC cells, human embryonic kidney cell lines; human melanoma cell lines, such as SkMel2, SkMel-119 and SkMel-197; THP-1, monocytic cells; a HeLa cell line; and neuroblastoma cells lines, such as MC-IXC, SK-N-MC, SK-N-MC, SK-N-DZ, SH-SY5Y, and BE(2)-C.
  • cytotoxicity is assessed in various cancer cells.
  • the ToxLite assay is used to assess cytotoxicity.
  • cell proliferation can be assayed by measuring Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation, ( 3 H) thymidine incorporation, by direct cell count, or by detecting changes in transcription, translation or activity of known genes such as proto-oncogenes (e.g., fos, myc) or cell cycle markers (Rb, cdc2, cyclin A, D1, D2, D3, E, etc).
  • PrdU Bromodeoxyuridine
  • 3 H thymidine incorporation
  • thymidine incorporation by direct cell count, or by detecting changes in transcription, translation or activity of known genes such as proto-oncogenes (e.g., fos, myc) or cell cycle markers (Rb, cdc2, cyclin A, D1, D2, D3, E, etc).
  • the levels of such protein and mRNA and activity can be determined by any method well known in the art.
  • protein can be quantitated by known immunodiagnostic methods such as ELISA, Western blotting or immuno
  • mRNA can be quantitated using methods that are well known and routine in the art, for example, using northern analysis, RNase protection, or polymerase chain reaction in connection with reverse transcription.
  • Cell viability can be assessed by using trypan-blue staining or other cell death or viability markers known in the art.
  • the level of cellular ATP is measured to determined cell viability.
  • an NDV described herein or composition thereof, oncolysate vaccine, whole cell vaccine, or combination therapy kills cancer cells but does not kill healthy (i.e., non-cancerous) cells.
  • an NDV described herein or composition thereof, oncolysate vaccine, whole cell vaccine, or combination therapy preferentially kills cancer cells but does not kill healthy (i.e., non-cancerous) cells.
  • cell viability is measured in three-day and seven-day periods using an assay standard in the art, such as the CellTiter-Glo Assay Kit (Promega) which measures levels of intracellular ATP. A reduction in cellular ATP is indicative of a cytotoxic effect.
  • cell viability can be measured in the neutral red uptake assay.
  • visual observation for morphological changes may include enlargement, granularity, cells with ragged edges, a filmy appearance, rounding, detachment from the surface of the well, or other changes.
  • the NDVs described herein or compositions thereof, oncolysate vaccines, whole cell vaccines or combination therapies can be tested for in vivo toxicity in animal models (see, e.g., the animal models described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, below).
  • animal models, described herein and/or others known in the art, used to test the effects of compounds on cancer can also be used to determine the in vivo toxicity of the NDVs described herein or compositions thereof, oncolysate vaccines, whole cell vaccines, or combination therapies.
  • animals are administered a range of pfu of an NDV described herein (e.g., a chimeric NDV described in Section 5.2, infra).
  • the animals are monitored over time for lethality, weight loss or failure to gain weight, and/or levels of serum markers that may be indicative of tissue damage (e.g., creatine phosphokinase level as an indicator of general tissue damage, level of glutamic oxalic acid transaminase or pyruvic acid transaminase as indicators for possible liver damage).
  • tissue damage e.g., creatine phosphokinase level as an indicator of general tissue damage, level of glutamic oxalic acid transaminase or pyruvic acid transaminase as indicators for possible liver damage.
  • serum markers e.g., creatine phosphokinase level as an indicator of general tissue damage, level of glutamic oxalic acid transaminase or pyruvic acid transaminase as indicators for possible liver damage.
  • the toxicity and/or efficacy of an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, an oncolysate vaccine described herein, a whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population).
  • the dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50.
  • Therapies that exhibits large therapeutic indices are preferred. While therapies that exhibits toxic side effects may be used, care should be taken to design a delivery system that targets such therapies to the site of affected tissue in order to minimize potential damage to noncancerous cells and, thereby, reduce side effects.
  • the data obtained from the cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosage of the therapies for use in subjects.
  • the dosage of such agents lies preferably within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED50 with little or no toxicity.
  • the dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized.
  • the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays.
  • a dose may be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating plasma concentration range that includes the IC50 (i.e., the concentration of the chimeric NDV that achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms) as determined in cell culture.
  • IC50 i.e., the concentration of the chimeric NDV that achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms
  • levels in plasma may be measured, for example, by high performance liquid chromatography.
  • the NDVs described herein or compositions thereof, oncolysate vaccines described herein, whole cell vaccines described herein, or combination therapies described herein can be tested for biological activity using animal models for cancer.
  • animal model systems include, but are not limited to, rats, mice, chicken, cows, monkeys, pigs, dogs, rabbits, etc.
  • the anti-cancer activity of an NDV described herein or combination therapy is tested in a mouse model system.
  • Such model systems are widely used and well-known to the skilled artisan such as the SCID mouse model or transgenic mice.
  • the anti-cancer activity of an NDV described herein or a composition thereof, oncolysate vaccine described herein, whole cell vaccine described herein, or a combination therapy described herein can be determined by administering the NDV or composition thereof, oncolysate vaccine, whole cell vaccine, or combination therapy to an animal model and verifying that the NDV or composition thereof, oncolysate vaccine, whole cell vaccine, or combination therapy is effective in reducing the severity of cancer, reducing the symptoms of cancer, reducing cancer metastasis, and/or reducing the size of a tumor in said animal model (see, e.g., Section 6 and/or Section 7, below).
  • animal models for cancer in general include, include, but are not limited to, spontaneously occurring tumors of companion animals (see, e.g., Vail & MacEwen, 2000, Cancer Invest 18(8):781-92).
  • animal models for lung cancer include, but are not limited to, lung cancer animal models described by Zhang & Roth (1994, In-vivo 8(5):755-69) and a transgenic mouse model with disrupted p53 function (see, e.g. Morris et al., 1998, J La State Med Soc 150(4): 179-85).
  • An example of an animal model for breast cancer includes, but is not limited to, a transgenic mouse that over expresses cyclin D1 (see, e.g., Hosokawa et al., 2001, Transgenic Res 10(5):471-8).
  • An example of an animal model for colon cancer includes, but is not limited to, a TCR b and p53 double knockout mouse (see, e.g., Kado et al., 2001, Cancer Res. 61(6):2395-8).
  • Examples of animal models for pancreatic cancer include, but are not limited to, a metastatic model of PancO2 murine pancreatic adenocarcinoma (see, e.g., Wang et al., 2001, Int. J.
  • Pancreatol. 29(1):37-46) and nu-nu mice generated in subcutaneous pancreatic tumors see, e.g., Ghaneh et al., 2001, Gene Ther. 8(3):199-208.
  • animal models for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma include, but are not limited to, a severe combined immunodeficiency (“SCID”) mouse (see, e.g., Bryant et al., 2000, Lab Invest 80(4):553-73) and an IgHmu-HOX11 transgenic mouse (see, e.g., Hough et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95(23):13853-8).
  • SCID severe combined immunodeficiency
  • an animal model for esophageal cancer includes, but is not limited to, a mouse transgenic for the human papillomavirus type 16 E7 oncogene (see, e.g., Herber et al., 1996, J. Virol. 70(3):1873-81).
  • animal models for colorectal carcinomas include, but are not limited to, Apc mouse models (see, e.g., Fodde & Smits, 2001, Trends Mol Med 7(8):369 73 and Kuraguchi et al., 2000).
  • the animal models for cancer described in Section 6 and/or Section 7, infra are used to assess efficacy of an NDV or composition thereof, an oncolysate, a whole cell vaccine, or a combination therapy.
  • This example demonstrates the therapeutic efficacy of NDV therapy in combination with immune checkpoint modulators that are immunostimulatory in the treatment of cancer.
  • mice BALB/c mice (6-8 weeks old), and WT C57BL/6 mice were purchased from Jackson Laboratory. All mice were maintained in microisolator cages and treated in accordance with the NIH and American Association of Laboratory Animal Care regulations. All mouse procedures and experiments for this study were approved by the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
  • the murine cancer cell lines for melanoma (B16-F10), and colon carcinoma (CT26 and MC38) were maintained in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum and penicillin with streptomycin.
  • the murine prostate cancer cell line TRAMP-C2 was maintained in DMEM medium supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum (FCS; Mediatech, Inc.), 5% Nu Serum IV (BD Biosciences) HEPES, 2-ME, pen/strep, L-glut, 5 ⁇ g/mL insulin (Sigma), and 10 nmol/L DHT (Sigma).
  • Therapeutic anti-CTLA-4 (clone 9H10), anti-PD-1 (clone RMP1-14), and anti-PD-L1 monoclonal antibodies were produced by BioXcell. Antibodies used for flow cytometry were purchased from eBioscience, Biolegend, Invitrogen, and BD Pharmingen.
  • NDV LaSota strain Recombinant lentogenic NDV LaSota strain was used for all experiments.
  • a DNA fragment encoding the murine ICOSL flanked by the appropriate NDV-specific RNA transcriptional signals was inserted into the SacII site created between the P and M genes of pT7NDV/LS.
  • Viruses were rescued from cDNA using methods described previously and sequenced by reverse transcription PCR for insert fidelity.
  • Virus titers were determined by serial dilution and immunofluorescence in Vero cells.
  • Recombinant ICOSL-F fusion construct was generated by PCR amplification of the ICOSL DNA encoding the extracellular domain (amino acids 1-277) with flanking EcoRI and MluI restriction sites, and the NDV F DNA encoding the F transmembrane and intracellular domains (amino acids 501-554) with flanking MluI and XhoI restriction sites.
  • the resultant DNA fragments were assembled in pCAGGS vector utilizing 3-part ligation.
  • B16-F10 cells were infected in 6-well dishes at MOI 2 in triplicate. Twenty-four hours later, the cells were harvested by mechanical scraping and processed for surface labeling and quantification by flow cytometry. For virus growth curve experiments, B16-F10 cells were incubated at room temperature with the virus in 6-well culture dishes at the indicated MOIs in a total volume of 100 ⁇ l. One hour after the incubation, the infection media was aspirated and the cells were incubated at 37° C. in 1 ml of DMEM with 10% chick allantoic fluid.
  • Bilateral flank tumor models were established to monitor for therapeutic efficacy in both injected and systemic tumors. Treatment schedules and cell doses were established for each tumor model to achieve 10-20% tumor clearance by NDV or anti-CTLA-4/anti-PD-1 as single agents.
  • NDV-WT wild-type NDV
  • B16F10 tumors were implanted by injection of 2 ⁇ 10 5 B16F10 cells in the right flank i.d. on day 0 and 5 ⁇ 10 4 cells in the left flank on day 4. On days 7, 10, 13, and 16 the mice were treated with 4 intratumoral injections of 2 ⁇ 10 7 pfu of NDV in PBS in a total volume of 100 ⁇ l.
  • mice received 4 i.p. injections of anti-CTLA-4 antibody (100 ⁇ g) or anti-PD-1 antibody (250 ⁇ g).
  • Control groups received a corresponding dose of isotype antibody i.p. and intratumoral injection of PBS. Tumor size and incidence were monitored over time by measurement with a caliper.
  • TRAMP-C2 For the TRAMP-C2 model, 5 ⁇ 10 5 cells were implanted in right flank on day 0 and 5 ⁇ 10 5 cells were implanted in the left flank on day 8. Treatment was performed on days 11, 14, 17, and 20 in the similar fashion to above.
  • B16F10 tumors were implanted by injection of 2 ⁇ 10 5 B16F10 cells in the right flank i.d. on day 0 and 1 ⁇ 10 5 cells in the left flank on day 4. Treatment was carried out as above.
  • tumors were implanted by injection of 1 ⁇ 10 6 CT26 cells in the right flank i.d. on day 0 and 1 ⁇ 10 6 cells in the left flank on day 2. Treatment was carried out as above on days 6, 9, and 12.
  • B16F10 tumors were implanted by injection of 2 ⁇ 10 5 B16F10 cells in the right flank i.d. on day 0 and 2 ⁇ 10 5 cells in the left flank on day 4.
  • the mice were treated with 3 intratumoral injections of 2 ⁇ 10 7 pfu of NDV, and 100 ⁇ g of i.p. anti-CTLA-4 antibody or 250 ⁇ g of i.p. anti-PD-1 antibody, where specified.
  • mice were sacrificed by CO 2 inhalation. Tumors and tumor-draining lymph nodes were removed using forceps and surgical scissors and weighed.
  • Tumors from each group were minced with scissors prior to incubation with 1.67 Wünsch U/mL Liberase and 0.2 mg/mL DNase for 30 minutes at 37° C. Tumors were homogenized by repeated pipetting and filtered through a 70- ⁇ m nylon filter. Cell suspensions were washed once with complete RPMI and purified on a Ficoll gradient to eliminate dead cells. Cells from tumor draining lymph nodes were isolated by grinding the lymph nodes through a 70- ⁇ m nylon filter.
  • Cells isolated from tumors or tumor-draining lymph nodes were processed for surface labeling with several antibody panels staining CD45, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD44, PD-1, ICOS, CD11c, CD19, NK1.1, CD11b, F4/80, Ly6C and Ly6G.
  • Fixable viability dye eFluor780 (eBioscience) was used to distinguish the live cells.
  • Cells were further permeabilized using FoxP3 fixation and permeabilization kit (eBioscience) and stained for Ki-67, FoxP3, Granzyme B, CTLA-4, and IFN gamma. Data was acquired using the LSRII Flow cytometer (BD Biosciences) and analyzed using FlowJo software (Treestar).
  • Spleens from na ⁇ ve mice were isolated and digested with 1.67 Wünsch U/mL Liberase and 0.2 mg/mL DNase for 30 minutes at 37° C. The resulting cell suspensions were filtered through 70 um nylon filter and washed once with complete RPMI. CD11c+ dendritic cells were purified by positive selection using Miltenyi magnetic beads. Isolated dendritic cells were cultured overnight with recombinant GM-CSF and B16-F10 tumor lysates and were purified on Ficoll gradient.
  • T cells Cell suspensions from tumors or tumor-draining lymph nodes were pooled and enriched for T cells using a Miltenyi T-cell purification kit. Isolated T cells were counted and co-cultured for 8 hours with dendritic cells loaded with B16-F10 tumor cell lysates in the presence of 20 U/ml IL-2 (R and D) plus Brefeldin A (BD Bioscience). After restimulation, lymphocytes were processed for flow cytometry as above.
  • IL-2 R and D
  • Brefeldin A BD Bioscience
  • NDV infection In order to characterize the anti-tumor immune response induced by Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection, the expression of MHC I and MHC II molecules as well as ICAM-1 on the surface of in vitro infected cells was assessed. As shown in FIG. 1 , NDV infection in B16 melanoma cells induces upregulation of MHC class I and II molecules as well as adhesion molecule ICAM-1, all of which are thought to be important for recruitment of tumor-specific lymphocytes and activation of anti-tumor immune response.
  • NDV infection in B16 melanoma cells induces upregulation of MHC class I and II molecules as well as adhesion molecule ICAM-1, all of which are thought to be important for recruitment of tumor-specific lymphocytes and activation of anti-tumor immune response.
  • the anti-tumor immune response induced by NDV infection in vivo was assessed in a murine melanoma model and an established 2-flank model that allowed for monitoring of responses both in the virus-injected tumors as well as distant tumors which do not receive the virus.
  • the virus-infected tumors show dramatic infiltration with immune cells such as NK cells, macrophages, and CD8 and CD4 cells, but not regulatory T cells. Since part of this immune response could be a response to virus, rather than tumor, the immune response with respect to contralateral tumors was assessed ( FIG. 3 ). Interestingly, these tumors demonstrated a similar degree of increased CD8 and CD4 effector, but not T reg infiltrate.
  • NDV monotherapy was effective in controlling the treated tumors ( FIG. 5A ), but only marginally slowed down the growth of the contralateral tumors ( FIG. 5B ). Mice that cleared the tumors, however, demonstrated some degree of protection against further tumor challenge ( FIG. 5D ), suggesting that NDV therapy can induce a lasting immunity.
  • NDV infected tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo had upregulated the expression of the inhibitory PD-L1 ligand on the surface of the cells. This effect was not just a result of a direct virus infection, but was also seen when non-infected cells were treated with UV-inactivated supernatants from the virus infected cells ( FIG. 9B ) and in contralateral, noninfected, tumors ( FIG. 9C ). This prompted testing combination therapy with NDV and anti-PD-1 antibody.
  • NDV therapy in combination with anti-PD-1 in the aggressive B16 melanoma model resulted in cures in the majority of animals, an effect that was associated with increased tumor infiltration with activated effector lymphocytes ( FIG. 10 ).
  • NDV-ICOSL NDV expressing murine ICOSL
  • FIG. 12 In vitro characterization of the virus revealed that it had similar replicative and lytic properties to the parental NDV strain ( FIG. 12 ).
  • NDV-ICOSL demonstrated significant advantage over the parental NDV virus when used in combination with CTLA-4 blockade, with long-term survival in the majority of treated animals ( FIG. 13 ). This effect was not limited to B16 melanoma and was demonstrated for CT26 colon carcinoma in the Balb/C mouse strain, suggesting that this therapeutic strategy could be translatable to different tumor types ( FIG. 14 ).
  • FIGS. 15 and 16 Analysis of B16 tumors from the treated animals demonstrated significant infiltration with different immune cell subtypes with upregulation of the activation markers. These lymphocytes were tumor-specific and demonstrated secretion of IFN gamma in response to stimulation with dendritic cells loaded with tumor lysates ( FIG. 17 ). Finally, animals that were cured of their B16 or CT26 tumors were re-challenged with tumor cells and demonstrated complete protection against tumor re-challenge ( FIG. 18 ).
  • FIG. 19A a chimeric protein consisting of the extracellular domain of the ICOSL (amino acids 1-277) and the transmembrane and intracellular domains of the NDV F protein (amino acids 501-554) was generated ( FIG. 19A ).
  • Transfection of the resultant construct into B16-F10 cells resulted in increased expression of the chimeric ICOSL-F ligand on the surface of the transfected cells, when compared to the transfected native ICOSL, suggesting that the regulatory mechanisms governing the transport of NDV F protein to the surface can be utilized to increase the surface expression of immune stimulatory ligands ( FIG. 19B ).
  • This example demonstrates the anti-tumor immune responses induced by oncolytic NDV and the anti-tumor responses induced by NDV in combination with CTLA-4 blockade.
  • mice C57BL/6J and Balb/C mice were purchased from Jackson Laboratory. IFNAR ⁇ / ⁇ mice on C57BL/6J background were a kind gift of Dr. Eric Pamer. Pmel-1 and Tip-1 TCR transgenic mice have been reported (Overwijk et al., 2003, J. Exp. Med, 198:568, Muransky et al., 2008, Blood 112:362) and were provided by N. Restifo (National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Md.). Trp1 mice were crossed to CD2:luciferase mice provided by Patrick Hwu at MD Anderson Cancer Center (Houston, Tex.) to create Trp1 Luciferase + (Trp1-Fluc) mice. All mice were maintained in microisolator cages and treated in accordance with the NIH and American Association of Laboratory Animal Care regulations. All mouse procedures and experiments for this study were approved by the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
  • the murine cancer cell lines for melanoma (B16-F10), and colon carcinoma (CT26 and MC38) were maintained in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum and penicillin with streptomycin.
  • the murine prostate cancer cell line TRAMP-C2 was maintained in DMEM medium supplemented with 5% fetal calf serum (FCS; Mediatech, Inc.), 5% Nu Serum IV (BD Biosciences) HEPES, 2-ME, pen/strep, L-glut, 5 ⁇ g/mL insulin (Sigma), and 10 nmol/L DHT (Sigma).
  • Therapeutic anti-CTLA-4 (clone 9H10), anti-PD-1 (clone RMP1-14), anti-PD-L1 (clone 9G2), anti-CD8 (clone 2.43), anti-CD4 (clone GK1.5), anti-IFN-gamma (clone XMG1.2), and anti-NK1.1 (clone PK136) monoclonal antibodies were produced by BioXcell. Antibodies used for flow cytometry were purchased from eBioscience, Biolegend, Invitrogen, and BD Pharmingen.
  • NDV LaSota strain Recombinant lentogenic NDV LaSota strain was used for all experiments.
  • a DNA fragment encoding the murine ICOSL flanked by the appropriate NDV-specific RNA transcriptional signals was inserted into the SacII site created between the P and M genes of pT7NDV/LS.
  • Viruses were rescued from cDNA using methods described previously and sequenced by reverse transcription PCR for insert fidelity.
  • Virus titers were determined by serial dilution and immunofluorescence in Vero cells.
  • Recombinant ICOSL-F fusion construct was generated by PCR amplification of the ICOSL DNA encoding the extracellular domain (amino acids 1-277) with flanking EcoRI and MluI restriction sites, and the NDV F DNA encoding the F transmembrane and intracellular domains (amino acids 501-554) with flanking MluI and XhoI restriction sites.
  • the resultant DNA fragments were assembled in pCAGGS vector utilizing 3-part ligation.
  • Recombinant anti-mouse CD28scfv-F fusion construct was generated by PCR amplification of the cDNA encoding hamster anti-CD28scfv with flanking EcoRI and MluI restriction sites, and the NDV F DNA encoding the F transmembrane and intracellular domains (amino acids 501-554) with flanking MluI and XhoI restriction sites.
  • the resultant DNA fragments were assembled in pCAGGS vector utilizing 3-part ligation and then subcloned into pNDV vector between the P and M genes.
  • cDNA encoding extracellular domain of each gene was amplified with gene-specific primers with flanking EcoRI and MluI restriction sites, and the transmembrane and intracellular domain of HN protein was amplified with specific primers with flanking MluI and XhoI restriction sites.
  • the full chimeric genes were assembled in pCAGGS vector using 3-part ligation and then subcloned into NDV vector between the P and M genes. The details of each chimeric construct are demonstrated in FIG. 44 .
  • the cDNA for each gene was amplified with gene-specific primers with flanking SacII restriction sites and then cloned into pNDV between the P and M genes.
  • Viruses were rescued from cDNA using methods described previously and sequenced by reverse transcription PCR for insert fidelity. Virus titers were determined by serial dilution and immunofluorescence in Vero cells.
  • cells were infected in 6-well dishes at MOI 2 (B16-F10) or MOI 5 (TRAMP C2) in triplicate. Twenty-four hours later, the cells were harvested by scraping and processed for surface labeling and quantification by flow cytometry.
  • MOI 2 B16-F10
  • MOI 5 TRAMP C2
  • cells were infected at the indicated MOI's and incubated at 37° C. in serum-free media in presence of 250 ng/ml TPCK trypsin.
  • the cells were washed and incubated with 1% Triton X-100 at 37° C. for 30 minutes. LDH activity in the lysates was determined using the Promega CytoTox 96 assay kit, according to the manufacturer's instructions.
  • Bilateral flank tumor models were established to monitor for therapeutic efficacy in both injected and systemic tumors. Treatment schedules and cell doses were established for each tumor model to achieve 10-20% tumor clearance by NDV or anti-CTLA-4 as single agents.
  • B16-F10 tumors were implanted by injection of 2 ⁇ 10 5 B16-F10F10 cells in the right flank intradermally (i.d.) on day 0 and 5 ⁇ 10 4 cells in the left flank on day 4. On days 7, 9, 11, and 13 the mice were treated with intratumoral injections of 2 ⁇ 10 7 pfu of NDV in PBS in a total volume of 100 ⁇ l.
  • mice received intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of anti-CTLA-4 antibody (100 ⁇ g), anti-PD-1 antibody (250 ⁇ g), or anti-PD-L1 antibody (250 ⁇ g).
  • Control groups received a corresponding dose of isotype antibody i.p. and intratumoral injection of PBS.
  • the animals were euthanized for signs of distress or when the total tumor volume reached 1000 mm 3 .
  • mice were injected i.p. with 500 ⁇ g of monoclonal antibodies to CD8+, CD4+, NK1.1 or IFN ⁇ one day before and two days after tumor challenge, followed by injection of 250 ⁇ g every 5 days throughout the experiment.
  • B16F10 tumors are implanted by injection of 2 ⁇ 10 5 B16F10 cells in the right flank i.d. on day 0 and 1 ⁇ 10 5 cells in the left flank on day 4.
  • the mice are treated with intratumoral injections of 2 ⁇ 10 7 pfu of NDV in PBS in a total volume of 100 ⁇ l.
  • mice receive intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of anti-CTLA-4 antibody (100 ⁇ g), anti-PD-1 antibody (250 ⁇ g), or anti-PD-L1 antibody (250 ⁇ g).
  • anti-CTLA-4 antibody 100 ⁇ g
  • anti-PD-1 antibody 250 ⁇ g
  • anti-PD-L1 antibody 250 ⁇ g
  • Trp1 and Pmel Lymphocytes Isolation of Trp1 and Pmel Lymphocytes and Adoptive Transfer
  • Spleens and lymph nodes from transgenic mice were isolated and grinded through 70-um nylon filters.
  • CD4+ and CD8+ cells were purified by positive selection using Miltenyi magnetic beads.
  • Trp1 or Pmel cells were injected into recipient animals via the tail vein at the indicated schedule at 2.5 ⁇ 10 4 cells per mouse and 1 ⁇ 10 6 cells per mouse, respectively.
  • mice were treated intratumorally with single injection of NDV or PBS. On day 4, blood was collected by terminal bleeding and serum was isolated by centrifugation. Sera were pooled from each group and UV-treated in Stratalinker 1800 with six pulses of 300 mJ/cm 2 UV light to inactivate any virus that could be potentially present. Undiluted 100 ⁇ l of serum was injected intratumorally into na ⁇ ve B16-F10 tumor-bearing mice for a total of 3 injections given every other day. Tumors were removed 3 days after the last injection and processed for isolation of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes as described below.
  • Mice were imaged every 2-3 days starting on day 6. Mice were injected retro-orbitally with 50 ⁇ l of 40 mg/ml D-luciferin (Caliper Life Sciences) in PBS and imaged immediately using the IVIS Imaging System (Caliper Life Sciences). Gray-scale photographic images and bioluminescence color images were superimposed using The Living Image, version 4.0 (Caliper Life Sciences) software overlay. A region of interest (ROI) was manually selected over the tumor and the area of the ROI was kept constant.
  • ROI region of interest
  • B16-F10 tumors were implanted by injection of 2 ⁇ 10 5 B16-F10 cells in the right flank i.d. on day 0 and 2 ⁇ 10 5 cells in the left flank on day 4.
  • the mice were treated with intratumoral injections of 2 ⁇ 10 7 pfu of NDV, and i.p. anti-CTLA-4 or anti-PD-1 antibody where specified.
  • Rare animals that died from tumor burden (always in untreated control groups) or animals that completely cleared the tumors (always in treatment groups) were not used for the analysis.
  • mice were sacrificed and tumors and tumor-draining lymph nodes were removed using forceps and surgical scissors and weighed.
  • Tumors from each group were minced with scissors prior to incubation with 1.67 Wünsch U/mL Liberase and 0.2 mg/mL DNase for 30 minutes at 37° C. Tumors were homogenized by repeated pipetting and filtered through a 70- ⁇ m nylon filter. Cell suspensions were washed once with complete RPMI and purified on a Ficoll gradient to eliminate dead cells. Cells from tumor draining lymph nodes were isolated by grinding the lymph nodes through a 70- ⁇ m nylon filter.
  • Cells isolated from tumors or tumor-draining lymph nodes were processed for surface labeling with several antibody panels staining for CD45, CD3, CD4, CD8, CD44, ICOS, CD11c, CD19, NK1.1, CD11b, F4/80, Ly6C and Ly6G.
  • Fixable viability dye eFluor506 (eBioscience) was used to distinguish the live cells.
  • Cells were further permeabilized using FoxP3 fixation and permeabilization kit (eBioscience) and stained for Ki-67, FoxP3, Granzyme B, CTLA-4, and IFN ⁇ . Data was acquired using the LSRII Flow cytometer (BD Biosciences) and analyzed using FlowJo software (Treestar).
  • Spleens from na ⁇ ve mice were isolated and digested with 1.67 Wünsch U/mL Liberase and 0.2 mg/mL DNase for 30 minutes at 37° C.
  • the resulting cell suspensions were filtered through 70 um nylon filter and washed once with complete RPMI.
  • CD11c+DC's were purified by positive selection using Miltenyi magnetic beads. Isolated DC's were cultured overnight with recombinant GM-CSF and B16-F10 tumor lysates and were purified on Ficoll gradient.
  • T cells Cell suspensions from tumors or tumor-draining lymph nodes were pooled and enriched for T cells using a Miltenyi T-cell purification kit. Isolated T cells were counted and co-cultured for 8 hours with DC's loaded with B16-F10 tumor cell lysates in the presence of 20 U/ml IL-2 (R and D) plus Brefeldin A (BD Bioscience). After restimulation, lymphocytes were processed for flow cytometry as above.
  • IL-2 R and D
  • Brefeldin A BD Bioscience
  • Tumors were dissected from the mice, washed in PBS, fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, and processed for paraffin embedding according to protocols described previously. Sections were cut using a microtome, mounted on slides, and processed for staining with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) or with anti-CD3 and anti-FoxP3 antibody. Slides were analyzed on Zeiss Axio 2 wide-field microscope using 10 ⁇ and 20 ⁇ objectives.
  • NDV-Fluc firefly luciferase reporter
  • NDV-Fluc administration into the right flank tumor resulted in viral replication within the injected tumor, with the luciferase signal detectable for up to 96 hours ( FIG. 20B-D ).
  • NDV Therapy Increases Local and Distant Tumor Lymphocyte Infiltration and Delays Tumor Growth
  • FIGS. 21A-B Analysis of the virus-injected tumors revealed an inflammatory response as evidenced by increased infiltration with cells expressing leukocyte common antigen CD45 ( FIGS. 21A-B ).
  • analysis of the contralateral tumors revealed a similar increase in the inflammatory infiltrates (FIG.
  • FIG. 22 B,C characterized by increased numbers of both innate immune cells ( FIG. 22D ) and effector T cells (FIG. 22 E,G).
  • FIG. 22D characterized by increased numbers of both innate immune cells
  • FIG. 22 E,G effector T cells
  • Effector T cells isolated from the distal tumors expressed increased activation, proliferation, and lytic markers ICOS, Ki-67, and Granzyme B, respectively (FIG. 1 J,K).
  • tumors were implanted at other distant sites, such as bilateral posterior footpads, which generated similar findings ( FIG. 23 ).
  • the experiment was performed with heterologous tumors (MC38 colon carcinoma and B16-F10 melanoma) implanted at the opposite flanks ( FIG. 24A ).
  • T cell receptor-transgenic congenitally-marked CD8+ (Pmel) cells or luciferase-marked CD4+ (Trp1) cells recognizing the melanoma differentiation antigens gp100 (Pmel) and Trp1 (Trp1) were adoptively transferred (Muranski et al., 2008, Blood, 112: 362; Overwijk et al., 2003, J Exp Med, 198: 569). Bioluminescent imaging was used to measure the distribution and expansion kinetics of the adoptively transferred Trp1 cells.
  • AUC area under the curve
  • NDV injection into MC38 tumors failed to induce substantial Trp1 infiltration into the injected MC38 tumors or distant B16-F10 tumors ( FIG. 24B-D ), suggesting that the distant tumor-specific lymphocyte infiltration is likely dependent on the antigen identity of the injected tumor.
  • intratumoral injection of NDV resulted in increased infiltration of Pmel cells in distant tumors, which was more pronounced when the injected tumor was B16-F10 rather than MC38 ( FIG. 24E ).
  • Combination Therapy with NDV and CTLA-4 Blockade is Effective against Virus Non-Permissive Tumors
  • NDV infection in vitro resulted in surface upregulation of MHC and co-stimulatory molecules ( FIG. 27I-K ).
  • MHC class I was upregulated uniformly in all cells, even though not all cells get infected with NDV at the MOI of 1.
  • Previous studies demonstrated that NDV induces type I IFN expression in B16-F10 cells (Zamarin et al., 2009, Mol Ther 17:697). Both type I IFN (Dezfouli et al., 2003, Immunol. Cell.
  • FIG. 28A To determine whether the observed anti-tumor effect in the distant tumor was specific to the injected tumor type, the combination therapy in animals bearing a unilateral distant B16-F10 tumor and in animals with heterologous tumor types (MC38 colon carcinoma and B16-F10 melanoma) implanted at the opposite flanks was evaluated ( FIG. 28A ). Although administration of the virus intradermally into the non-tumor-bearing right flank resulted in delayed left flank tumor outgrowth, it failed to result in long-term protection and tumor rejection seen in the animals bearing bilateral B16-F10 tumors (FIG. 28 B,C). Similarly, injection of NDV into the right flank MC38 tumors of the animals bearing left flank B16-F10 tumors failed to induce B16-F10 tumor rejection (FIG. 28 D,E), suggesting that the NDV-induced anti-tumor immune response is likely antigen-restricted to the injected tumor.
  • MC38 colon carcinoma and B16-F10 melanoma heterologous tumor types
  • Phenotypic characterization of CD4+ and CD8+ TILs from animals receiving the combination treatment demonstrated upregulation of ICOS, Granzyme B, and Ki-67 over the untreated and anti-CTLA-4 treated animals ( FIG. 30G-I ) and a larger percentage of IFNgamma-expressing CD8+ cells in response to re-stimulation with dendritic cells (DCs) pulsed with B16-F10 tumor lysates ( FIG. 30J ).
  • Type I IFN has been previously demonstrated to play an important role in priming of CD8+ cells for anti-tumor immune response (Fuertes et al., 2011, J Exp Med, 208: 2005; Diamond et al, 2011, J Exp Med, 208: 1989).
  • type I IFN receptor knockout mice The IFNAR ⁇ / ⁇ mice demonstrated rapid progression of both injected and contralateral tumors and were completely resistant to the combination therapy ( FIG. 32D-F ).
  • NDV Therapy Leads to Upregulation of PD-L1 on Tumor Cells and on Tumor Infiltrating Leukocytes
  • NDV infected tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo had upregulated the expression of the inhibitory PD-L1 ligand on the surface of the cells ( FIG. 33A ), which was also seen in the distant, noninfected, tumors.
  • the upregulation of PD-L1 was not just restricted to tumor cells, but was also seen on tumor infiltrating leukocytes of both innate and adaptive immune lineages ( FIG. 33B ).
  • NDV therapy in combination with either anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1 antibody led to improved animal survival ( FIGS. 34 and 35 ).
  • Distant tumors from animals treated with combination of NDV and anti-PD-1 antibody were characterized.
  • combination of intratumoral NDV with systemic PD-1 blockade led to marked distant tumor infiltration with immune cells, with the increase in tumor-infiltrating CD8 cells being the most pronounced finding.
  • the infiltrating cells upregulated proliferation and lytic markers Ki67 and granzyme B, respectively ( FIG. 37 ).
  • TDLN Tumor Draining Lymph Nodes
  • ICOS is a CD28 homologue upregulated on the surface of activated T cells that has been shown to be critical for T cell-dependent B lymphocyte responses and development of all T helper subsets (Simpson et al., 2010 Curr Opin Immunol. 22:326).
  • the role of ICOS in anti-tumor tumor efficacy of CTLA-4 blockade was recently confirmed by mouse studies, where ICOS-deficient mice were severely compromised in development of anti-tumor response with CTLA-4 blockade (Fu et al., 2011, Cancer Res., 71:5445).
  • ICOS co-stimulatory molecule ICOS
  • FIG. 38A The expression of ICOS in bilateral flank tumor models treated with NDV were characterized to determine whether the receptor could serve as a target in this therapeutic approach.
  • bilateral flank B16-F10 melanoma models were utilized, with the virus administered to a unilateral tumor ( FIG. 38A ).
  • Activation markers that could predict a better response and could be targeted for further improvement in therapeutic efficacy were assessed.
  • the example focused on ICOS as sustained ICOS upregulation has been previously been shown to be associated with more durable therapeutic responses and increased survival in patients treated with anti-CTLA-4 therapy for malignant melanoma.
  • Analysis of lymphocytes isolated from the tumors and tumor-draining lymph nodes identified upregulation of the co-stimulatory molecule ICOS as one of the activation markers in the treated animals ( FIG. 38B , C).
  • NDV-ICOSL murine ICOSL
  • FIG. 39A NDV expressing murine ICOSL
  • FIG. 39B The expression of ICOSL on the surface of infected B16-F10 cells was confirmed by flow cytometry after 24 hour infection ( FIG. 39B ).
  • FIG. 39D In vitro characterization of the virus revealed that it had similar replicative ( FIG. 39D ) and lytic ( FIG. 39C ) properties to the parental NDV strain.
  • NDV-ICOSL for therapeutic efficacy in the virus-injected and distant tumors
  • animals bearing bilateral B16-F10 tumors were treated with 4 intratumoral injections of the virus given to a unilateral flank tumor.
  • Both NDV-ICOSL and wild-type NDV were comparable in their ability to cause tumor regressions within the tumors directly injected with the virus ( FIG. 40A ).
  • NDV-ICOSL resulted in significant tumor growth delay of the distant tumors with several animals remaining tumor-free long-term ( FIG. 40B-C ).
  • Combination Therapy Leads to Enhanced Tumor Infiltration with Innate and Adaptive Immune Cells
  • FIG. 43 A,B Analysis of distant B16 tumors from the animals treated with combination of NDV and anti-CTLA-4 therapy demonstrated significant tumor infiltration with different immune cell subtypes.
  • the increased infiltration was evident in both the innate (FIG. 43 C,D) and the adaptive ( FIG. 43E ) immune compartments, with the highest increase seen in the group treated with combination of NDV-ICOSL and anti-CTLA-4.
  • this group demonstrated the highest number of infiltrating CD8+ lymphocytes, there was also a statistically-significant increase in regulatory T cells seen in this group ( FIG. 43E ), though the overall percentage of Tregs was significantly decreased, when compared to the untreated animals or animals treated with single-agent anti-CTLA-4 ( FIG.
  • FIG. 43F A detailed analysis of the TILs demonstrated that the TILs isolated from the animals treated with NDV-ICOSL and anti-CTLA-4 combination expressed the highest levels of activation, lytic, and proliferation makers ICOS, granzyme B, and Ki67 respectively ( FIG. 43H-J ).
  • NDV-4-1BBL Induces Increased Tumor Infiltration with Lymphocytes in the Distant Tumors
  • NDV-4-1BBL The ability of the engineered viruses to demonstrate any evidence of enhanced immune response was evaluated, using NDV-4-1BBL as an example. Mice bearing bilateral flank B16-F10 melanomas were treated with intratumoral injection to right tumor of control NDV or NDV-4-1BBL, as described previously and distant tumors were collected on day 15. As can be seen in FIG. 47 , therapy with NDV-4-1BBL demonstrated enhanced infiltration of both innate and adaptive immune cells into the contralateral tumors, consistent with previous findings demonstrating similar results with NDV expressing ICOSL ( FIG. 40 ). Overall, these findings suggest that expression of immunostimulatory molecules by NDV within the context of tumor microenvironment can lead to enhanced anti-tumor immunity.
  • the generated viruses NDV-4-1BBL, NDV-GITRL, NDV-OX40L, NDV-CD40L, NDV-IL-2, NDV-IL-15, NDV-IL-21 are evaluated for the ability to induce tumor immune infiltration using similar assays as described in this Section 7.
  • each of the viruses is evaluated in bilateral flank tumor models with the virus being administered to a single-flank tumor in combination with systemic antibodies targeting the inhibitory checkpoints PD-1, PD-L1, and/or CTLA-4.
  • nonpathogenic NDV was employed, which, despite its relatively weak lytic activity, has been demonstrated to be a potent inducer of type I IFN and DC maturation (Wilden et al., 2009, Int J Oncol 34: 971; Kato et al., 2005, Immunity 23: 19).
  • a bilateral flank melanoma model with staggered implantation of tumors at a schedule that was previously demonstrated not to be affected by concomitant immunity was utilized (Turk et al., 2004, J Exp Med 200: 771). This example demonstrates that intratumoral injection of NDV results in distant tumor immune infiltration in the absence of distant virus spread.
  • NDV enhances tumor infiltration with tumor-specific lymphocytes, an effect that was dependent on the identity of the virus-injected tumor.
  • the enhanced tumor infiltration and expansion of adoptively-transferred lymphocytes further suggest the synergy between oncolytic virus therapy and therapeutic approaches utilizing adoptive T cell transfer. It is plausible that the tumor-specific lymphocytes undergo activation and expansion at the site of the initial viral infection, followed by their migration to other tumor sites, which is likely dependent on chemokines and lymphocyte homing receptors (Franciszkiewicz et al., 2012, Cancer Res 72: 6325).
  • the data in this example also demonstrates that distant tumor immune infiltration was in part non-specific and could be induced by NDV infection of a heterologous tumor or by transfer of serum from treated animals to na ⁇ ve tumor-bearing mice.
  • Increased vascular permeability induced by inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 may strongly contribute to activation of tumor vasculature and lymphocyte recruitment into the tumors (Fisher et al., 2011, The Journal of clinical investigation 121: 3846).
  • this example demonstrates localized intratumoral therapy of B16 melanoma with NDV induces inflammatory responses leading to lymphocytic infiltrates and anti-tumor effect in distant (non-virally injected) tumors without distant virus spread.
  • the inflammatory effect coincided with distant tumor infiltration with tumor-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, which was dependent on the identity of the virus-injected tumor.
  • Combination therapy with localized NDV and systemic CTLA-4 blockade led to rejection of pre-established distant tumors and protection from tumor re-challenge in poorly-immunogenic tumor models, irrespective of tumor cell line sensitivity to NDV-mediated lysis.
  • Therapeutic effect was associated with marked distant tumor infiltration with activated CD8+ and CD4+ effector but not regulatory T cells, and was dependent on CD8+ cells, NK cells and type I interferon.
  • This example demonstrates that localized therapy with oncolytic NDV induces inflammatory immune infiltrates in distant tumors, making them susceptible to systemic therapy with immunomodulatory antibodies.

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