US20150243991A1 - Small organic molecule based flow battery - Google Patents

Small organic molecule based flow battery Download PDF

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US20150243991A1
US20150243991A1 US14/431,175 US201314431175A US2015243991A1 US 20150243991 A1 US20150243991 A1 US 20150243991A1 US 201314431175 A US201314431175 A US 201314431175A US 2015243991 A1 US2015243991 A1 US 2015243991A1
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anthraquinone
quinone
rechargeable battery
hydroquinone
electrode
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Brian Huskinson
Michael Marshak
Michael J. Aziz
Roy G. Gordon
Theodore A. Betley
Alan Aspuru-Guzik
Suleyman Er
Changwon Suh
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Harvard College
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Publication of US20150243991A1 publication Critical patent/US20150243991A1/en
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M8/00—Fuel cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M8/08—Fuel cells with aqueous electrolytes
    • H01M8/083—Alkaline fuel cells
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/60—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of organic compounds
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/86—Inert electrodes with catalytic activity, e.g. for fuel cells
    • H01M4/90—Selection of catalytic material
    • H01M4/9008—Organic or organo-metallic compounds
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M8/00—Fuel cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M8/04—Auxiliary arrangements, e.g. for control of pressure or for circulation of fluids
    • H01M8/04082—Arrangements for control of reactant parameters, e.g. pressure or concentration
    • H01M8/04186—Arrangements for control of reactant parameters, e.g. pressure or concentration of liquid-charged or electrolyte-charged reactants
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M8/00—Fuel cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M8/18—Regenerative fuel cells, e.g. redox flow batteries or secondary fuel cells
    • H01M8/184—Regeneration by electrochemical means
    • H01M8/188—Regeneration by electrochemical means by recharging of redox couples containing fluids; Redox flow type batteries
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M8/00—Fuel cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M8/20—Indirect fuel cells, e.g. fuel cells with redox couple being irreversible
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M2300/00—Electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0002—Aqueous electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0005—Acid electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0011—Sulfuric acid-based
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M2300/00—Electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0002—Aqueous electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0014—Alkaline electrolytes
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M8/00—Fuel cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M8/04—Auxiliary arrangements, e.g. for control of pressure or for circulation of fluids
    • H01M8/04082—Arrangements for control of reactant parameters, e.g. pressure or concentration
    • H01M8/04201—Reactant storage and supply, e.g. means for feeding, pipes
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/30—Hydrogen technology
    • Y02E60/50—Fuel cells

Definitions

  • the invention provides an electrochemical cell based on a new chemistry for a flow battery for large scale, e.g., gridscale, electrical energy storage. Electrical energy is stored chemically at an electrochemical electrode by the protonation of small organic molecules called quinones to hydroquinones. The proton is provided by a complementary electrochemical reaction at the other electrode. These reactions are reversed to deliver electrical energy.
  • a flow battery based on this concept can operate as a closed system.
  • the flow battery architecture has scaling advantages over solid electrode batteries for large scale energy storage. Because quinone-to-hydroquinone cycling occurs rapidly and reversibly in photosynthesis, we expect to be able to employ it to obtain high current density, high efficiency, and long lifetime in a flow battery. High current density drives down power-related costs.
  • the other advantages this particular technology would have over other flow batteries include inexpensive chemicals, energy storage in the form of safer liquids, an inexpensive separator, little or no precious metals usage in the electrodes, and other components made of plastic or inexpensive metals with coatings proven to afford corrosion protection
  • a quinone-based cell Variations of a quinone-based cell are described.
  • One is a quinone/hydroquinone couple as the negative electrode against a positive electrode with a redox active species.
  • the positive electrode and the negative electrode are quinone/hydroquinone couples.
  • the invention provides a rechargeable battery having first and second electrodes, wherein in its charged state, the battery includes a redox active species in contact with the first electrode and a hydroquinone dissolved or suspended in aqueous solution in contact with the second electrode, wherein during discharge the redox active species is reduced and the hydroquinone is oxidized to a quinone.
  • the redox active species is dissolved or suspended in aqueous solution.
  • Redox active species may include chlorine, bromine, iodine, oxygen, vanadium, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, or lead, in particular, bromine or a manganese oxide, a cobalt oxide or a lead oxide.
  • the redox active species is a second quinone dissolved or suspended in aqueous solution, as described herein.
  • the hydroquinone and quinone e.g., a water-soluble anthraquinone optionally including one or more sulfonate groups, have a standard electrochemical potential below 0.4 volts with respect to a standard hydrogen electrode.
  • the first electrode is separated from the second electrode by a barrier that inhibits the passage of the redox-active species and the hydroquinone, e.g., an ion conducting membrane or a size exclusion membrane.
  • the first and second electrodes are separated by an ion conducting barrier, and the redox active species includes bromine.
  • the invention features a rechargeable battery including first and second electrodes separated by an ion conducting hydrocarbon barrier or size-exclusion barrier, wherein in its charged state, the battery includes a quinone at the first electrode and a hydroquinone at the second electrode, wherein during discharge, the quinone is reduced, and the hydroquinone is oxidized.
  • the invention features a rechargeable battery including first and second electrodes separated by an ion conducting barrier, wherein in its charged state, the battery includes a quinone in aqueous solution at the first electrode and a hydroquinone in aqueous solution at the second electrode, wherein during discharge, the quinone is reduced, and the hydroquinone is oxidized.
  • the invention features a rechargeable battery including first and second electrodes separated by an ion conducting barrier, wherein in its charged state, the battery includes bromine at the first electrode and a hydroquinone at the second electrode, wherein during discharge, bromine is reduced, and the hydroquinone is oxidized.
  • the invention features a rechargeable battery including first and second electrodes separated by an ion conducting hydrocarbon barrier, wherein in its charged state, the battery includes a quinone at the first electrode and a hydroquinone at the second electrode, wherein during discharge, the quinone is reduced, and the hydroquinone is oxidized.
  • the quinone or hydroquinone in oxidized form is, for example, of formula (I) or (II):
  • each of R 1 -R 4 is independently selected from H, C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkoxy, and SO 3 H, or an ion thereof, e.g., H, C 1-6 alkyl, halo, C 1-6 alkoxy, and SO 3 H, or an ion thereof or H, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, and SO 3 H, or an ion thereof.
  • the quinone or hydroquinone in oxidized form is, for example, of formula (III):
  • each of R 1 -R 8 is independently selected from H, C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, and SO 3 H, or an ion thereof, e.g., H, C 1-6 alkyl, halo, C 1-6 alkoxy, and SO 3 H, or an ion thereof, or H, C 1-6 alkyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, and SO 3 H, or an ion thereof.
  • a rechargeable battery of the invention may further include a reservoir for quinone and/or hydroquinone dissolved or suspended in aqueous solution and a mechanism to circulate quinone and/or hydroquinone.
  • the rechargeable battery is a flow battery.
  • Exemplary quinones or hydroquinones in oxidized form are of formula (A)-(D):
  • each of R 1 -R 10 is independently selected from H, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, phosphonyl, and oxo, or an ion thereof, provided that two of R 1 -R 6 for formula (A) are oxo, two or four of R 1 -R 8 for formula (B) are oxo, and two, four, or six of R 1 -R 10 for formulas (C) and (D) are oxo, wherein the dashed lines indicate that the monocylic ring of formula (A), the bicyclic ring of formula (B), and the tricyclic rings of formulas (C) and (D) are fully conjugated.
  • R 1 -R 10 is independently selected from H, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl, hydroxy, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, phosphonyl, and oxo, or an ion thereof.
  • Exemplary quinones or hydroquinones in oxidized form may also be of formula (I)-(IX):
  • each of R 1 -R 8 is independently selected from H, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, phosphonyl, and oxo, or an ion thereof.
  • each of R 1 -R 8 is independently selected from H, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl, hydroxy, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, phosphonyl, and oxo, or an ion thereof.
  • quinones or hydroquinones in oxidized form include 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonic acid, 9,10-anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonic acid, 9,10-anthraquinone-1,8-disulfonic acid, 9,10-anthraquinone-1,5-disulfonic acid, 9,10-anthraquinone-2-sulfonic acid, or a mixture thereof.
  • An exemplary quinone for use with any aspect of the invention is 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonate.
  • Additional quinones or hydroquinones in oxidized form include 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone-3-sulfonic acid, 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene-3-sulfonic acid, 2,4,5-trihydroxybenzene-1,3-disulfonic acid 2,3,5-trihydroxybenzene-1,4-disulfonic acid, 2,4,5,6-tetrahydroxybenzene-1,3-disulfonic acid, 2,3,5-trihydroxybenzene-1,4-disulfonic acid, 2,3,5,6-tetrahydroxybenzene-1,4-disulfonic acid, or a mixture thereof.
  • the invention also provides methods for storing electrical energy by applying a voltage across the first and second electrodes and charging any battery of the invention.
  • the invention also provides methods for providing electrical energy by connecting a load to the first and second electrodes and allowing any battery of the invention to discharge.
  • 4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-benzenedisulfonate and/or 2,5-dihydroxy-benzenedisulfonate are specifically excluded as the hydroquinone or quinone in reduced form for any aspect of the invention.
  • quinone includes a compound having one or more conjugated, C 3-10 carbocyclic, fused rings, substituted, in oxidized form, with two or more oxo groups, which are in conjugation with the one or more conjugated rings.
  • the number of rings is from one to ten, e.g., one, two, or three, and each ring has 6 members.
  • alkyl straight chain or branched saturated groups from 1 to 6 carbons.
  • Alkyl groups are exemplified by methyl, ethyl, n- and iso-propyl, n-, sec-, iso- and tert-butyl, neopentyl, and the like, and may be optionally substituted with one, two, three, or, in the case of alkyl groups of two carbons or more, four substituents independently selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, phosphonyl, and oxo, or an ion thereof.
  • alkoxy is meant a group of formula —OR, wherein R is an alkyl group, as defined herein.
  • halo is meant, fluoro, chloro, bromo, or iodo.
  • hydroxyl is meant —OH.
  • amino is meant —NH 2 .
  • An exemplary ion of amino is —NH 3 + .
  • nitro is meant —NO 2 .
  • carboxyl is meant —COOH.
  • sulfonyl is meant —SO 3 H.
  • An exemplary ion of sulfonyl is —SO 3 ⁇ .
  • phosphoryl is meant —PO 3 H 2 .
  • exemplary ions of phosphoryl are —PO 3 11 and —PO 3 2 ⁇ .
  • phosphonyl is meant —PO 3 R 2 , wherein each R is independent H or alkyl, as defined herein.
  • An exemplary ion of phosphoryl is —PO 3 R ⁇ .
  • oxo is meant ⁇ O.
  • FIG. 1 is a scheme of redox potentials of interest.
  • FIG. 2 is scheme of a battery having a hydroquinone at the negative electrode and bromine at the positive electrode.
  • FIG. 3 is a set of cyclic voltammograms ( a ) 1 m catechol in 1 N H 2 SO 4 .
  • the plot shows the oxidative current density vs. voltage of a 0.149 cm 2 working electrode of flat Pt.
  • FIG. 4 is a half-cell cyclic voltammogram for hydroquinone sulfonic acid.
  • FIG. 6 is a Levich plot (current vs. rotation rate) of 1 mM AQDS in 1 M H 2 SO 4 . Best fit line has a slope of 0.453(2) ⁇ A s 1/2 rad ⁇ 1/2 .
  • FIG. 7 is a Koutec ⁇ -Levich plot (current ⁇ 1 vs. rotation rate ⁇ 1/2 ).
  • FIG. 9 is a cyclic voltammogram plot of 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonic acid (AQDS) 1 mM in 1 M H 2 SO 4 on a glassy carbon working electrode (black) and of anthraquinone sulfonic acid mixture solution.
  • AQDS 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonic acid
  • FIG. 10 is a cyclic voltammograms of 9,10-anthraquione-2,7-disulfonic acid (AQDS) and 1,8-dihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonic acid (1,8-(OH) 2 -AQDS), showing that the latter has a 95 mV lower reduction potential.
  • AQDS 9,10-anthraquione-2,7-disulfonic acid
  • 1,8-(OH) 2 -AQDS 1,8-dihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonic acid
  • FIG. 11 a is a scheme of p-benzoquinone as the positive material and H 2 gas as the negative material for fuel cell tests.
  • FIG. 11 b is an image of the cell used.
  • FIG. 11 c is a graph of cell potential versus current density for tests in Example 8 using a 0.1 M solution.
  • FIG. 11 d is a graph of the cell power density as a function of galvanic current density for Example 8.
  • FIG. 12 is a Cell Schematic. Electrolytic/charge mode is shown; the arrows are reversed for galvanic/discharge mode.
  • FIG. 13 is ( a ) Cell potential vs. current density at five different states-of-charge. The inset shows a linear increase in cell potential as the state of charge is increased.
  • FIG. 14 is ( a ) Cell potential vs. current density at six different states-of-charge for the cell in Example 9. ( b ) Plot of power density vs. current density at the same six states of charge as ( a ).
  • FIG. 15 is a plot of cell potential vs. state of charge for Example 9; inset shows stable current cycling over 100 shallow cycles.
  • FIG. 16 is a plot of cell potential vs. time from Example 11, measured upon cycling (charge and discharge) ten times at 500 mA cm ⁇ 2 .
  • ( b ) The same sample, 20 h after addition of Br 2 .
  • ( c ) 1 H NMR of AQDS treated with 2 M HBr and Br 2 and heated to 100° C. for 48 h. The peaks are shifted due to presence of trace HBr which shifted the residual solvent peak due to increased acidity. Coupling constants for each peak are identical to ( a ).
  • ( b ) The same sample, 24 h after addition of Br 2 .
  • the separator can be a cheap hydrocarbon instead of a fluorocarbon, and reactant crossover will be negligible.
  • the electrodes can be inexpensive conductors, conformally coated with a layer of active material so thin as to be negligible in cost [9].
  • Many of the structural components can be made of cheap plastic, and components that need to be conducting can be protected with conformally coated ultrathin films.
  • Chemical storage can be in the form of cheap, flowing liquids held in cheap plastic tanks and require neither compression nor heating above the liquid's boiling point.
  • the electrochemical cells are based on small organic molecules (SOMs) called quinones ( FIG. 1 ). Because quinone-to-hydroquinone cycling occurs rapidly and reversibly in photosynthesis, we are able to employ it to obtain high current density (high current density is very important because the cost per kW of the system is typically dominated by the electrochemical stack's cost per kW, which is inversely proportional to the power density—the product of current density and voltage), high efficiency, and long lifetime in a flow battery. There are hundreds of different quinones spanning a wide range in properties [10-13] such as reduction potential ( FIG. 1 ), solubility and stability in water and other solvents. In addition, there are many structures that can be readily screened computationally and synthesized.
  • SOMs small organic molecules
  • a full cell includes a low redox potential quinone/hydroquinone couple and a bromine/bromide counterelectrode.
  • the full cell includes a high redox potential quinone/hydroquinone couple vs. a low redox potential quinone/hydroquinone couple.
  • a performance target is 80% round-trip efficiency in each cell at 0.25 W/cm 2 .
  • the organic quinone species e.g., anthraquinones
  • the invention is employs a knowledge base in oxygen-free fuel cells [14-16]. There is also a growing knowledge base on SOM electrochemistry for hydrogen storage [17,18].
  • Organic-based fuel cells have been the subject of numerous studies, many focusing on alcohols (methanol and ethanol) and formic acid (H + COOH ⁇ ). Cells utilizing these fuels typically rely on high precious metal content catalysts (Pt, Pd, or Ru) [19-21]. Current densities approaching 1 A/cm 2 and power densities exceeding 250 mW/cm 2 have been obtained in direct formic acid fuel cells [19]. Reactant crossover is more important with methanol than formic acid [21].
  • quinone-based compounds present a highly promising class of SOMs.
  • Quinones are abundant in nature, they play a vital role in oxygen-evolving photosynthesis, and we eat them in green vegetables.
  • plastoquinone is reversibly and rapidly reduced to plastoquinol as part of the electron transport chain that ultimately leads to the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH, which is then used in the synthesis of useful organic molecules from CO 2 [25].
  • a 2009 publication exploring quinones for flow batteries makes the potential clear for flow batteries based on quinone/hydroquinone couples [26].
  • the quinone to hydroquinone reduction reaction consists of converting an oxygen that is doubly bonded (“ ⁇ O”) to an sp 2 C 6 ring into a singly-bonded hydroxyl (“—OH”), as shown in FIG. 2( a ).
  • An electrode contributes an electron as the acidic electrolyte provides the proton. This typically occurs with pairs of oxygens in the ortho or para configurations; in aqueous solutions the two oxygen sites undergo the reaction at potentials that are virtually indistinguishable.
  • the transition from the hydroquinone to the quinone involves simply removing protons without disrupting the rest of the bonding ( FIG. 2( b )), and so these molecules are exceedingly stable.
  • solubility In addition to redox potential, important molecular characteristics include solubility, stability, toxicity, and potential or current market price.
  • High solubility is important because the mass transport limitation at high current density in a full cell is directly proportional to the solubility.
  • Solubility can be enhanced by attaching polar groups such as the sulfonate groups, as in 1,2-Dihydroxybenzene-3,5-disulfonic acid ( FIG. 1( b )). Stability is important not only to prevent chemical loss for long cycle life, but also because polymerization on the electrode can compromise the electrode's effectiveness.
  • Stability against water and polymerization can be enhanced by replacing vulnerable C—H groups adjacent to C+O groups with more stable groups such as C—R, where R is optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl, hydroxy, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, or phosphonyl.
  • R is optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl, hydroxy, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, or phosphonyl.
  • quinones or hydroquinones are available commercially on a small scale, and their current market price sets an upper limit on what the price might be at large scale.
  • the very common 1,4-parabenzoquinone (“BQ”) for example, currently costs only about $10.53/kWh, assuming a 1-V cell, as shown in Table 2.
  • BQ 1,4-parabenzoquinone
  • Other quinones can be synthesized.
  • each of R 1 -R 10 is independently selected from H, optionally substituted C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkoxy, SO 3 H, amino, nitro, carboxyl, phosphoryl, phosphonyl, and oxo, or an ion thereof, provided that two of R 1 -R 6 for formula (A) are oxo, two or four of R 1 -R 8 for formula (B) are oxo, and two, four, or six of R 1 -R 10 for formulas (C) and (D) are oxo, wherein the dashed lines indicate that the monocylic ring of formula (A), the bicyclic ring of formula (B), and the tricyclic rings of formulas (C) and (D) are fully conjugated.
  • R groups that is not oxo for each of formulas (A)-(D) is not H. In certain embodiments, none of the R groups for formulas (A)-(D) are H.
  • Other formulas are (I), (II), and (III):
  • each of R 1 -R 8 is independently selected from H, C 1-6 alkyl (e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, or isopropyl), halo (e.g., F, Cl, or Br), hydroxy, C 1-6 alkoxy (e.g., methoxy), and SO 3 H, or an ion thereof.
  • C 1-6 alkyl e.g., methyl, ethyl, propyl, or isopropyl
  • halo e.g., F, Cl, or Br
  • hydroxy e.g., methoxy
  • SO 3 H or an ion thereof.
  • at least one of R 1 —R 8 (R 1 —R 4 for (I) and (II)) is not H. In other embodiments, none of R 1 —R 8 (R 1 —R 4 for (I) and (II)) is H.
  • Additional quinones are of any of the following formulas.
  • Quinones may be dissolved or suspended in aqueous solution in the batteries.
  • concentration of the quinone ranges, for example, from 3 M to liquid quinone, e.g., 3-15 M.
  • solutions may include alcohols (e.g., methyl, ethyl, or propyl) and other co-solvents to increase the solubility of a particular quinone.
  • the solution of quinone is at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, or 80% water, by mass.
  • Alcohol or other co-solvents may be present in an amount required to result in a particular concentration of quinone.
  • the pH of the aqueous solution for a quinone may also be adjusted by addition of acid or base, e.g., to aid in solubilizing a quinone.
  • This cell is based on a quinone/hydroquinone couple with low redox potential (an example of which is shown in FIG. 2 ) vs. redox active species, e.g., the bromide/bromine couple.
  • redox active species include chlorine, iodine, oxygen, vanadium, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, or lead, e.g., a manganese oxide, a cobalt oxide or a lead oxide. If the quinone redox potential is ⁇ 0.02 V, then the equilibrium potential will be about 1.1 V, varying with concentration according to the Nernst Equation.
  • Examples of quinone/hydroquinone couples with a low redox potential include 2-Methyl-5-iso-propyl-1,4-benzoquinone or 2,6-Methoxyl-1,4-benzoquinone ( FIG. 1( b )).
  • This cell is based on the quinone/hydroquinone couple with high redox potential vs. quinone/hydroquinone with low redox potential.
  • An all-quinone cell brings many advantages. Many of the structural components could be made of cheap plastic. The molecules are big enough that the separator is expected to be much cheaper than Nafion [32-34], and reactant crossover will still be negligible.
  • the electrodes can be inexpensive conductors such as titanium [35] or glassy carbon, conformally coated with layer of active material so thin as to be negligible in cost. Engineering for two-phase flow will be unnecessary. Chemical storage can be in the form of flowing liquids requiring neither compression nor heating above the boiling point of water.
  • Electrode materials can be screened for good molecule-specific electrode kinetics. Although evidence indicates that quinone/hydroquinone catalysis is not a significant barrier, some electrode materials are expected to become deactivated due to the chemisorption of molecules or fragments, or the polymerization of reactants. Electrodes for use with a quinone or hydroquinone include any carbon electrode, e.g., carbon paper electrodes, carbon felt electrodes, or carbon nanotube electrodes. Electrodes suitable for other redox active species are known in the art.
  • Bromine and quinone electrodes can be made of a high specific surface area conducting material, such as nanoporous metal sponge [35], which has synthesized previously by electrochemical dealloying [36], or conducting metal oxide, which has been synthesized by wet chemical methods and shown to be good for bromine [9,30].
  • Chemical vapor deposition can be used for conformal coatings of complex 3D electrode geometries by ultra-thin electrocatalyst films.
  • the balance of system around the cell will include fluid handling and storage, and voltage and round-trip energy efficiency measurements can be made.
  • Systems instrumented for measurement of catholyte and anolyte flows and pH, pressure, temperature, current density and cell voltage may be included and used to evaluate cells. Testing can be performed as reactant and acid concentrations and the cell temperature are varied. In one series of tests, the current density is measured at which the voltage efficiency drops to 90%. In another, the round-trip efficiency is evaluated by charging and discharging the same number of amp-minutes while tracking the voltage in order to determine the energy conversion efficiency. This is done initially at low current density, and the current density is then systematically increased until the round-trip efficiency drops below 80%.
  • Fluids sample ports can be provided to permit sampling of both electrolytes, which will allow for the evaluation of parasitic losses due to reactant crossover or side reactions. Electrolytes can be sampled and analyzed with Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, and other standard techniques.
  • the ion conducting barrier allows the passage of protons but not a significant amount of the quinone, hydroquinone, or other redox active species.
  • Example ion conducting barriers are Nafion, i.e., sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer, hydrocarbons, e.g., polyethylene, and size exclusion barriers, e.g., ultrafiltration or dialysis membranes with a molecular weight cut off of 100, 250, 500, or 1,000 Da. For size exclusion membranes, the molecular weight cut off will be determined based on the molecular weight of the quinone, hydroquinone, or other redox active species employed.
  • a battery of the invention may include additional components as is known in the art. Quinones, hydroquinones, and other redox active species dissolved or suspended in aqueous solution will be housed in a suitable reservoir.
  • a battery may further include pumps to pump aqueous solutions or suspensions past one or both electrodes. Alternatively, the electrodes may be placed in a reservoir that is stirred or in which the solution or suspension is recirculated by any other method, e.g., convection, sonication, etc. Batteries may also include graphite flow plates and aluminum current collectors.
  • HQSA hydroquinone-2-sulfonic acid
  • AQDS was subjected to half-cell electrochemical measurements. Cyclic voltammetry of a 1 mM solution of AQDS in 1 M sulfuric acid on a glassy carbon disc working electrode showed current peaks corresponding to reduction and oxidation of the anthraquinone species ( FIG. 5 a ).
  • FIG. 5 c a Pourbaix diagram of the equilibrium potential of the AQDS redox couple vs. pH.
  • Aqueous 1 mM solutions of AQDS disodium salt were prepared and pH buffered using the following chemicals: sulfuric acid (1 M, pH 0), HSO 4 ⁇ /SO 4 2 ⁇ (0.1 M, pH 1-2), AcOH/AcO ⁇ (0.1 M, pH 2.65-5), H 2 PO 4 ⁇ /HPO 4 2 ⁇ (0.1 M, pH 5.3-8), HPO 4 2 ⁇ /PO 4 3 ⁇ (0.1 M, pH 9.28-11.52), and KOH (0.1 M, pH 13).
  • a quinone-hydrogen fuel cell is illustrated by schematic in FIG. 11 a .
  • 1,4-benzoquinone was used as the positive electrode material and H 2 gas as the negative material for fuel cell tests.
  • H 2 gas was used as the negative material for fuel cell tests.
  • the Nafion membrane conducted H + ions towards the cathode.
  • the cell reached current densities of about 150 mA/cm 2 and power densities of about 35 mW/cm 2 , which were higher than values previously reported using soluble quinones for the positive electrode in a full cell configuration [26].
  • FIG. 11 b shows an image of the cell used.
  • the cell featured aluminum endplates, pyrolytic graphite current collectors with serpentine flow channels, a 50 ⁇ m thick Nafion 212 proton exchange membrane (which prior to use was pretreated using methods previously described [9]), and PTFE/Viton tubing and gasketing throughout.
  • a commercial Pt—Ru/C carbon paper commercial electrode was used on both sides of the cell.
  • the cell was operated in galvanic mode using previously described methods [9], with high-purity hydrogen gas flowed through the negative side of the cell at 5 psig and quinone solution flowed through the positive side using a Cole Parmer Masterflex pump.
  • the solution consisted of para-benzoquinone in 1 N H 2 SO 4 .
  • an N 2 purge was performed to remove any remaining O 2 and to ensure there were no leaks in the assembly.
  • the voltage was allowed to stabilize for a few minutes, after which a DC electronic load was used to draw incrementally higher currents from the cell. In general, in order to allow the voltage to stabilize, we waited about 15 seconds after each change in current.
  • FIG. 11 c we show the cell potential versus current density for tests done using a 0.1 M solution. In general, we observed a nearly linear drop in potential with increasing current density indicating robust electrode kinetics for the redox reaction, i.e. relatively low activation overpotentials.
  • FIG. 11 d we show the cell power density as a function of galvanic current density. The power density fell off rapidly near the limiting current density.
  • the cell was kept on a hot plate and wrapped in a PID-controlled heating element for temperature control, and the liquid electrolyte reservoirs were heated to improve thermal management.
  • 35 mL of 1.75 M HBr and 0.9375 M NaHSO 4 were used as the electrolyte solution.
  • 0.75 M 2,7-AQDS disodium salt in 1 M H 2 SO 4 were used. These concentrations were used so that, at a 50% state of charge, no pH or total ion concentration gradients exist across the membrane. Measurements shown here were done at 50° C.
  • a Masterflex® peristaltic pump was used to circulate the fluids.
  • a CHInstruments 1100C potentiostat was used to measure electrochemical properties of the battery.
  • FIG. 14 a A potential of 1.5 volts was applied to charge the cell.
  • the potential-current response ( FIG. 14 a ), potential-power ( FIG. 14 b ), and open circuit potential ( FIG. 15 ) for various states of charge (SOCs) were measured.
  • SOCs states of charge
  • the open circuit potential increased linearly from 0.76 V at 0.98 V.
  • peak power densities were 77 mW cm ⁇ 2 and 168 mW cm ⁇ 2 at these same SOCs, respectively ( FIG. 14 b ).
  • Performance characteristics of a quinone-bromine flow battery were measured under identical conditions to Example 10, except for the following: 120 mL of 2 M HBr and 0.5 M Br 2 were used as the positive electrolyte solution; 1 M 2,7-AQDS in 2 M H 2 SO 4 was used as the negative electrolyte solution.
  • the open circuit potential increased linearly from 0.69 V to 0.92 V ( FIG. 13 a , inset).
  • peak power densities were 0.246 W cm ⁇ 2 and 0.600 W cm ⁇ 2 at these same SOCs, respectively ( FIG. 13 b ).
  • 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulfonic acid demonstrated no reaction with 2 M HBr and bromine when heated to 100° C. for two days ( FIGS. 17 and 18 ), meaning that bromine crossover will not lead to irreversible destruction of AQDS.

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