EP2611891A1 - Catalytic processes for preparing estolide base oils - Google Patents

Catalytic processes for preparing estolide base oils

Info

Publication number
EP2611891A1
EP2611891A1 EP11764889.9A EP11764889A EP2611891A1 EP 2611891 A1 EP2611891 A1 EP 2611891A1 EP 11764889 A EP11764889 A EP 11764889A EP 2611891 A1 EP2611891 A1 EP 2611891A1
Authority
EP
European Patent Office
Prior art keywords
process according
acid
otf
catalyst
estolide
Prior art date
Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
Withdrawn
Application number
EP11764889.9A
Other languages
German (de)
English (en)
French (fr)
Inventor
Jakob Bredsguard
Jeremy Forest
Travis Thompson
Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.)
Biosynthetic Technologies LLC
Original Assignee
Biosynthetic Technologies LLC
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
Filing date
Publication date
Application filed by Biosynthetic Technologies LLC filed Critical Biosynthetic Technologies LLC
Publication of EP2611891A1 publication Critical patent/EP2611891A1/en
Withdrawn legal-status Critical Current

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    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B05—SPRAYING OR ATOMISING IN GENERAL; APPLYING FLUENT MATERIALS TO SURFACES, IN GENERAL
    • B05B—SPRAYING APPARATUS; ATOMISING APPARATUS; NOZZLES
    • B05B1/00—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means
    • B05B1/30—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means designed to control volume of flow, e.g. with adjustable passages
    • B05B1/32—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means designed to control volume of flow, e.g. with adjustable passages in which a valve member forms part of the outlet opening
    • B05B1/326—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means designed to control volume of flow, e.g. with adjustable passages in which a valve member forms part of the outlet opening the valve being a gate valve, a sliding valve or a cock
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B05—SPRAYING OR ATOMISING IN GENERAL; APPLYING FLUENT MATERIALS TO SURFACES, IN GENERAL
    • B05B—SPRAYING APPARATUS; ATOMISING APPARATUS; NOZZLES
    • B05B1/00—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means
    • B05B1/14—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means with multiple outlet openings; with strainers in or outside the outlet opening
    • B05B1/16—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means with multiple outlet openings; with strainers in or outside the outlet opening having selectively- effective outlets
    • B05B1/1627—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means with multiple outlet openings; with strainers in or outside the outlet opening having selectively- effective outlets with a selecting mechanism comprising a gate valve, a sliding valve or a cock
    • B05B1/1636—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means with multiple outlet openings; with strainers in or outside the outlet opening having selectively- effective outlets with a selecting mechanism comprising a gate valve, a sliding valve or a cock by relative rotative movement of the valve elements
    • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
    • B05—SPRAYING OR ATOMISING IN GENERAL; APPLYING FLUENT MATERIALS TO SURFACES, IN GENERAL
    • B05B—SPRAYING APPARATUS; ATOMISING APPARATUS; NOZZLES
    • B05B1/00—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means
    • B05B1/30—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means designed to control volume of flow, e.g. with adjustable passages
    • B05B1/3026—Nozzles, spray heads or other outlets, with or without auxiliary devices such as valves, heating means designed to control volume of flow, e.g. with adjustable passages the controlling element being a gate valve, a sliding valve or a cock
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07C57/00—Unsaturated compounds having carboxyl groups bound to acyclic carbon atoms
    • C07C57/02—Unsaturated compounds having carboxyl groups bound to acyclic carbon atoms with only carbon-to-carbon double bonds as unsaturation
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07C67/00—Preparation of carboxylic acid esters
    • C07C67/465—Preparation of carboxylic acid esters by oligomerisation
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07C67/00—Preparation of carboxylic acid esters
    • C07C67/48—Separation; Purification; Stabilisation; Use of additives
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07C67/00—Preparation of carboxylic acid esters
    • C07C67/48—Separation; Purification; Stabilisation; Use of additives
    • C07C67/52—Separation; Purification; Stabilisation; Use of additives by change in the physical state, e.g. crystallisation
    • C07C67/54—Separation; Purification; Stabilisation; Use of additives by change in the physical state, e.g. crystallisation by distillation
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07C69/00—Esters of carboxylic acids; Esters of carbonic or haloformic acids
    • C07C69/34—Esters of acyclic saturated polycarboxylic acids having an esterified carboxyl group bound to an acyclic carbon atom
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07C69/00—Esters of carboxylic acids; Esters of carbonic or haloformic acids
    • C07C69/52—Esters of acyclic unsaturated carboxylic acids having the esterified carboxyl group bound to an acyclic carbon atom
    • C07C69/604—Polycarboxylic acid esters, the acid moiety containing more than two carboxyl groups
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07C—ACYCLIC OR CARBOCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
    • C07C69/00—Esters of carboxylic acids; Esters of carbonic or haloformic acids
    • C07C69/66—Esters of carboxylic acids having esterified carboxylic groups bound to acyclic carbon atoms and having any of the groups OH, O—metal, —CHO, keto, ether, acyloxy, groups, groups, or in the acid moiety
    • C07C69/67—Esters of carboxylic acids having esterified carboxylic groups bound to acyclic carbon atoms and having any of the groups OH, O—metal, —CHO, keto, ether, acyloxy, groups, groups, or in the acid moiety of saturated acids
    • C07C69/675—Esters of carboxylic acids having esterified carboxylic groups bound to acyclic carbon atoms and having any of the groups OH, O—metal, —CHO, keto, ether, acyloxy, groups, groups, or in the acid moiety of saturated acids of saturated hydroxy-carboxylic acids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10M—LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS; USE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES EITHER ALONE OR AS LUBRICATING INGREDIENTS IN A LUBRICATING COMPOSITION
    • C10M105/00—Lubricating compositions characterised by the base-material being a non-macromolecular organic compound
    • C10M105/08—Lubricating compositions characterised by the base-material being a non-macromolecular organic compound containing oxygen
    • C10M105/32—Esters
    • C10M105/34—Esters of monocarboxylic acids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10M—LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS; USE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES EITHER ALONE OR AS LUBRICATING INGREDIENTS IN A LUBRICATING COMPOSITION
    • C10M105/00—Lubricating compositions characterised by the base-material being a non-macromolecular organic compound
    • C10M105/08—Lubricating compositions characterised by the base-material being a non-macromolecular organic compound containing oxygen
    • C10M105/32—Esters
    • C10M105/36—Esters of polycarboxylic acids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10M—LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS; USE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES EITHER ALONE OR AS LUBRICATING INGREDIENTS IN A LUBRICATING COMPOSITION
    • C10M107/00—Lubricating compositions characterised by the base-material being a macromolecular compound
    • C10M107/20—Lubricating compositions characterised by the base-material being a macromolecular compound containing oxygen
    • C10M107/30—Macromolecular compounds obtained otherwise than by reactions only involving carbon-to-carbon unsaturated bonds
    • C10M107/32—Condensation polymers of aldehydes or ketones; Polyesters; Polyethers
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C11—ANIMAL OR VEGETABLE OILS, FATS, FATTY SUBSTANCES OR WAXES; FATTY ACIDS THEREFROM; DETERGENTS; CANDLES
    • C11C—FATTY ACIDS FROM FATS, OILS OR WAXES; CANDLES; FATS, OILS OR FATTY ACIDS BY CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF FATS, OILS, OR FATTY ACIDS OBTAINED THEREFROM
    • C11C3/00—Fats, oils, or fatty acids by chemical modification of fats, oils, or fatty acids obtained therefrom
    • C11C3/003—Fats, oils, or fatty acids by chemical modification of fats, oils, or fatty acids obtained therefrom by esterification of fatty acids with alcohols
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10M—LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS; USE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES EITHER ALONE OR AS LUBRICATING INGREDIENTS IN A LUBRICATING COMPOSITION
    • C10M2207/00—Organic non-macromolecular hydrocarbon compounds containing hydrogen, carbon and oxygen as ingredients in lubricant compositions
    • C10M2207/28—Esters
    • C10M2207/282—Esters of (cyclo)aliphatic oolycarboxylic acids
    • C10M2207/2825—Esters of (cyclo)aliphatic oolycarboxylic acids used as base material
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10M—LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS; USE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES EITHER ALONE OR AS LUBRICATING INGREDIENTS IN A LUBRICATING COMPOSITION
    • C10M2207/00—Organic non-macromolecular hydrocarbon compounds containing hydrogen, carbon and oxygen as ingredients in lubricant compositions
    • C10M2207/28—Esters
    • C10M2207/286—Esters of polymerised unsaturated acids
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10M—LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS; USE OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES EITHER ALONE OR AS LUBRICATING INGREDIENTS IN A LUBRICATING COMPOSITION
    • C10M2209/00—Organic macromolecular compounds containing oxygen as ingredients in lubricant compositions
    • C10M2209/10—Macromolecular compoundss obtained otherwise than by reactions only involving carbon-to-carbon unsaturated bonds
    • C10M2209/102—Polyesters
    • C10M2209/1023—Polyesters used as base material
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2020/00—Specified physical or chemical properties or characteristics, i.e. function, of component of lubricating compositions
    • C10N2020/01—Physico-chemical properties
    • C10N2020/011—Cloud point
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2020/00—Specified physical or chemical properties or characteristics, i.e. function, of component of lubricating compositions
    • C10N2020/01—Physico-chemical properties
    • C10N2020/013—Iodine value
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2020/00—Specified physical or chemical properties or characteristics, i.e. function, of component of lubricating compositions
    • C10N2020/01—Physico-chemical properties
    • C10N2020/02—Viscosity; Viscosity index
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2020/00—Specified physical or chemical properties or characteristics, i.e. function, of component of lubricating compositions
    • C10N2020/01—Physico-chemical properties
    • C10N2020/069—Linear chain compounds
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2020/00—Specified physical or chemical properties or characteristics, i.e. function, of component of lubricating compositions
    • C10N2020/01—Physico-chemical properties
    • C10N2020/071—Branched chain compounds
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2020/00—Specified physical or chemical properties or characteristics, i.e. function, of component of lubricating compositions
    • C10N2020/01—Physico-chemical properties
    • C10N2020/081—Biodegradable compounds
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2030/00—Specified physical or chemical properties which is improved by the additive characterising the lubricating composition, e.g. multifunctional additives
    • C10N2030/02—Pour-point; Viscosity index
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2030/00—Specified physical or chemical properties which is improved by the additive characterising the lubricating composition, e.g. multifunctional additives
    • C10N2030/64—Environmental friendly compositions
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C10—PETROLEUM, GAS OR COKE INDUSTRIES; TECHNICAL GASES CONTAINING CARBON MONOXIDE; FUELS; LUBRICANTS; PEAT
    • C10N—INDEXING SCHEME ASSOCIATED WITH SUBCLASS C10M RELATING TO LUBRICATING COMPOSITIONS
    • C10N2040/00—Specified use or application for which the lubricating composition is intended
    • C10N2040/04—Oil-bath; Gear-boxes; Automatic transmissions; Traction drives
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C11—ANIMAL OR VEGETABLE OILS, FATS, FATTY SUBSTANCES OR WAXES; FATTY ACIDS THEREFROM; DETERGENTS; CANDLES
    • C11C—FATTY ACIDS FROM FATS, OILS OR WAXES; CANDLES; FATS, OILS OR FATTY ACIDS BY CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF FATS, OILS, OR FATTY ACIDS OBTAINED THEREFROM
    • C11C3/00—Fats, oils, or fatty acids by chemical modification of fats, oils, or fatty acids obtained therefrom
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C11—ANIMAL OR VEGETABLE OILS, FATS, FATTY SUBSTANCES OR WAXES; FATTY ACIDS THEREFROM; DETERGENTS; CANDLES
    • C11C—FATTY ACIDS FROM FATS, OILS OR WAXES; CANDLES; FATS, OILS OR FATTY ACIDS BY CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF FATS, OILS, OR FATTY ACIDS OBTAINED THEREFROM
    • C11C3/00—Fats, oils, or fatty acids by chemical modification of fats, oils, or fatty acids obtained therefrom
    • C11C3/04—Fats, oils, or fatty acids by chemical modification of fats, oils, or fatty acids obtained therefrom by esterification of fats or fatty oils
    • C11C3/08—Fats, oils, or fatty acids by chemical modification of fats, oils, or fatty acids obtained therefrom by esterification of fats or fatty oils with fatty acids
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
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    • Y10T137/8593—Systems
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    • Y10T137/86549—Selective reciprocation or rotation
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
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    • Y10T137/8593—Systems
    • Y10T137/86493—Multi-way valve unit
    • Y10T137/86863—Rotary valve unit

Definitions

  • the present disclosure relates to catalytic processes for producing estolide compounds and compositions.
  • the estolides described herein may be suitable for use as biodegradable base oil stocks and lubricants.
  • Synthetic esters such as polyol esters and adipates, low viscosity poly alpha olefins (PAO) such as PAO 2, and vegetable oils such as canola oil and oleates have been described for use industrially as biodegradable base stocks to formulate lubricants.
  • base stocks may be used in the production of lubricating oils for automotives, industrial lubricants, and lubricating greases.
  • Finished lubricants typically comprise the base oil and additives to help achieve the desired viscometric properties, low temperature behavior, oxidative stability, corrosion protection, demulsibility and water rejection, friction coefficients, lubricities, wear protection, air release, color and other properties.
  • biodegradability cannot be improved by using common additives that are available in today's marketplace.
  • biodegradable lubricating oils other biodegradable lubricants, and compositions including lubricating oils and/or lubricants, from renewable sources of biological origin.
  • Estolides present a potential source of biobased, biodegradable oils that may be useful as lubricants and base stocks.
  • estolide synthetic processes have been previously described, such as the homopolymerization of castor oil fatty acids or 12-hydroxystearic acid under thermal or acid catalyzed conditions, as well as the production of estolides from
  • the catalytic processes include a process of producing an estolide base oil comprising: providing at least one first fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant, and a Lewis acid catalyst; and oligomerizing the at least one first fatty acid reactant with the at least one second fatty acid reactant in the presence of the Lewis acid catalyst to produce an estolide base oil.
  • the catalytic processes include a process of producing an estolide base oil comprising: providing at least one first fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant, and an oligomerization catalyst; and continuously oligomerizing the at least one first fatty acid reactant with the at least one second fatty acid reactant in the presence of the oligomerization catalyst to produce an estolide base oil.
  • the catalytic processes include a process of producing a carboxylic acid ester, comprising: providing at least one carboxylic acid reactant, at least one olefin, and a Bismuth catalyst; and reacting the at least one carboxylic acid reactant with the at least one olefin in the presence of the Bismuth catalyst to produce a carboxylic acid ester.
  • FIG. 1 schematically illustrates an exemplary process system with continuous stirred tank reactor and separation unit according to certain embodiments.
  • FIG. 2. schematically illustrates a column reactor useful for the processes for synthesis of estolides according to certain embodiments.
  • a dash (“-") that is not between two letters or symbols is used to indicate a point of attachment for a substituent.
  • -C(0)N3 ⁇ 4 is attached through the carbon atom.
  • alkoxy by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a radical -OR 31 where R 31 is alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, aryl, or arylalkyl, which can be substituted, as defined herein.
  • alkoxy groups have from 1 to 8 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, alkoxy groups have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 carbon atoms. Examples of alkoxy groups include, but are not limited to, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, butoxy, cyclohexyloxy, and the like.
  • Alkyl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a saturated or unsaturated, branched, or straight-chain monovalent hydrocarbon radical derived by the removal of one hydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of a parent alkane, alkene, or alkyne.
  • alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl; ethyls such as ethanyl, ethenyl, and ethynyl; propyls such as propan-l-yl, propan-2-yl, prop-l-en-l-yl, prop-l-en-2-yl, prop-2-en-l-yl (allyl), prop-l-yn- l-yl, prop-2-yn-l-yl, etc.; butyls such as butan-l-yl, butan-2-yl, 2-methyl-propan-l-yl, 2-methyl-propan-2-yl, but-l-en- l-yl, but- l-en-2-yl, 2-methyl-prop-l -en- l-yl, but-2-en-yl, buta-l ,3-dien-l-yl, buta-l ,3-dien-l-yl, buta-l ,
  • alkyl is specifically intended to include groups having any degree or level of saturation, i.e., groups having exclusively single carbon-carbon bonds, groups having one or more double carbon-carbon bonds, groups having one or more triple carbon-carbon bonds, and groups having mixtures of single, double, and triple carbon-carbon bonds. Where a specific level of saturation is intended, the terms “alkanyl,” “alkenyl,” and “alkynyl” are used.
  • an alkyl group comprises from 1 to 40 carbon atoms, in certain embodiments, from 1 to 22 or 1 to 18 carbon atoms, in certain embodiments, from 1 to 16 or 1 to 8 carbon atoms, and in certain embodiments from 1 to 6 or 1 to 3 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, an alkyl group comprises from 8 to 22 carbon atoms, in certain
  • the alkyl group comprises from 3 to 20 or 7 to 17 carbons. In some embodiments, the alkyl group comprises 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 , or 22 carbon atoms.
  • Aryl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a monovalent aromatic hydrocarbon radical derived by the removal of one hydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of a parent aromatic ring system.
  • Aryl encompasses 5- and 6-membered carbocyclic aromatic rings, for example, benzene; bicyclic ring systems wherein at least one ring is carbocyclic and aromatic, for example, naphthalene, indane, and tetralin; and tricyclic ring systems wherein at least one ring is carbocyclic and aromatic, for example, fluorene.
  • Aryl encompasses multiple ring systems having at least one carbocyclic aromatic ring fused to at least one carbocyclic aromatic ring, cycloalkyl ring, or heterocycloalkyl ring.
  • aryl includes 5- and 6-membered carbocyclic aromatic rings fused to a 5- to 7-membered non-aromatic heterocycloalkyl ring containing one or more heteroatoms chosen from N, O, and S.
  • bicyclic ring systems wherein only one of the rings is a carbocyclic aromatic ring, the point of attachment may be at the carbocyclic aromatic ring or the heterocycloalkyl ring.
  • aryl groups include, but are not limited to, groups derived from aceanthrylene, acenaphthylene, acephenanthrylene, anthracene, azulene, benzene, chrysene, coronene, fluoranthene, fluorene, hexacene, hexaphene, hexalene, as-indacene, s-indacene, indane, indene, naphthalene, octacene, octaphene, octalene, ovalene, penta-2,4-diene, pentacene, pentalene, pentaphene, perylene, phenalene, phenanthrene, picene, pleiadene, pyrene, pyranthrene, rubicene, triphenylene, trinaphthalene, and the like.
  • an aryl group can comprise from 5 to 20 carbon atoms, and in certain embodiments, from 5 to 12 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, an aryl group can comprise 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 carbon atoms. Aryl, however, does not encompass or overlap in any way with heteroaryl, separately defined herein. Hence, a multiple ring system in which one or more carbocyclic aromatic rings is fused to a heterocycloalkyl aromatic ring, is heteroaryl, not aryl, as defined herein.
  • Arylalkyl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to an acyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom, typically a terminal or sp 3 carbon atom, is replaced with an aryl group.
  • arylalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, benzyl, 2-phenylethan-l-yl, 2-phenylethen-l-yl, naphthylmethyl, 2-naphthylethan-l -yl, 2-naphthylethen-l-yl, naphthobenzyl, 2-naphthophenylethan-l-yl, and the like.
  • an arylalkyl group is C 7 . 3 o arylalkyl, e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the arylalkyl group is C MO and the aryl moiety is C 6 -2o, and in certain embodiments, an arylalkyl group is C 7-2 o arylalkyl, e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the arylalkyl group is Ci- 8 and the aryl moiety is C 6 -i 2 .
  • catalyst refers to single chemical species; physical combinations of chemical species, such as mixtures, alloys, and the like; and combinations of one or more catalyst within the same region or location of a reactor or reaction vessel.
  • catalyst include, e.g., Lewis acids, Bronsted acids, and Bismuth catalysts, wherein Lewis acids, Bronsted acids, and Bismuth catalysts may be single chemical species; physical combinations of chemical species, such as mixtures, alloys, and the like; and combinations of one or more catalyst within the same region or location of a reactor or reaction vessel.
  • continuous means a process wherein reactants are introduced and products withdrawn over a period of time during which the reaction continues without significant interruption. "Continuous” is not meant in any way to prohibit normal interruptions in the continuity of the process due to, for example, start-up, reactor maintenance, or scheduled shut down periods.
  • continuous may include processes, wherein some of the reactants are charged at the beginning of the process and the remaining reactants are fed into the reactor such that the levels of reactants support continuing reaction processes. "Continuous” further includes processes where one or more reactants are
  • Compounds refers to compounds encompassed by structural Formula I, ⁇ , and HI herein and includes any specific compounds within the formula whose structure is disclosed herein. Compounds may be identified either by their chemical structure and/or chemical name. When the chemical structure and chemical name conflict, the chemical structure is determinative of the identity of the compound.
  • the compounds described herein may contain one or more chiral centers and/or double bonds and therefore may exist as stereoisomers such as double-bond isomers (i.e., geometric isomers), enantiomers, or diastereomers.
  • any chemical structures within the scope of the specification depicted, in whole or in part, with a relative configuration encompass all possible enantiomers and stereoisomers of the illustrated compounds including the stereoisomerically pure form (e.g., geometrically pure, enantiomerically pure, or diastereomerically pure) and enantiomeric and stereoisomeric mixtures.
  • Enantiomeric and stereoisomeric mixtures may be resolved into their component enantiomers or stereoisomers using separation techniques or chiral synthesis techniques well known to the skilled artisan.
  • chiral compounds are compounds having at ' least one center of chirality (i.e. at least one asymmetric atom, in particular at least one asymmetric C atom), having an axis of chirality, a plane of chirality or a screw structure.
  • Achiral compounds are compounds which are not chiral.
  • Compounds of Formulas I, ⁇ , and ⁇ include, but are not limited to, optical isomers of compounds of Formulas I, ⁇ , and EQ, racemates thereof, and other mixtures thereof.
  • the single enantiomers or diastereomers, i.e., optically active forms can be obtained by asymmetric synthesis or by resolution of the racemates. Resolution of the racemates may be accomplished by, for example, chromatography, using, for example a chiral high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) column.
  • HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatography
  • Formula I, ⁇ , and ⁇ covers all asymmetric variants of the compounds described herein, including isomers, racemates, enantiomers, diastereomers, and other mixtures thereof.
  • compounds of Formula I, ⁇ , and ⁇ include Z- and E-forms (e.g. , cis- and trans-forms) of compounds with double bonds.
  • the compounds of Formula I, ⁇ , and ⁇ may also exist in several tautomeric forms including the enol form, the keto form, and mixtures thereof.
  • Cycloalkyl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a saturated or unsaturated cyclic alkyl radical. Where a specific level of saturation is intended, the
  • cycloalkanyl or “cycloalkenyl” is used.
  • examples of cycloalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, groups derived from cyclopropane, cyclobutane, cyclopentane, cyclohexane, and the like.
  • a cycloalkyl group is C3_i 5 cycloalkyl, and in certain embodiments, C3_i 2 cycloalkyl or C5_i 2 cycloalkyl.
  • a cycloalkyl group is a C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , C 6 , C 7 , C 8 , C 9 , Qo, Cn, Q 2 , d 3 , Ci , or C15 cycloalkyl.
  • Cycloalkylalkyl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to an acyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom, typically a terminal or sp 3 carbon atom, is replaced with a cycloalkyl group. Where specific alkyl moieties are intended, the nomenclature cycloalkylalkanyl, cycloalkylalkenyl, or cycloalkylalkynyl is used. In certain embodiments, a cycloalkylalkyl group is C7.30 cycloalkylalkyl, e.g.
  • the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the cycloalkylalkyl group is C ⁇ . ⁇ o and the cycloalkyl moiety is C6-20, and in certain embodiments, a cycloalkylalkyl group is C7-20 cycloalkylalkyl, e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the cycloalkylalkyl group is Q.s and the cycloalkyl moiety is C 4 . 2 o or C6-12.
  • Halogen refers to a fluoro, chloro, bromo, or iodo group.
  • Heteroaryl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a monovalent heteroaromatic radical derived by the removal of one hydrogen atom from a single atom of a parent heteroaromatic ring system. Heteroaryl encompasses multiple ring systems having at least one aromatic ring fused to at least one other ring, which can be aromatic or non-aromatic in which at least one ring atom is a heteroatom.
  • Heteroaryl encompasses 5- to 12-membered aromatic, such as 5- to 7-membered, monocyclic rings containing one or more, for example, from 1 to 4, or in certain embodiments, from 1 to 3, heteroatoms chosen from N, O, and S, with the remaining ring atoms being carbon; and bicyclic heterocycloalkyl rings containing one or more, for example, from 1 to 4, or in certain embodiments, from 1 to 3, heteroatoms chosen from N, O, and S, with the remaining ring atoms being carbon and wherein at least one heteroatom is present in an aromatic ring.
  • heteroaryl includes a 5- to 7-membered heterocycloalkyl, aromatic ring fused to a 5- to 7-membered cycloalkyl ring.
  • bicyclic heteroaryl ring systems wherein only one of the rings contains one or more heteroatoms, the point of attachment may be at the heteroaromatic ring or the cycloalkyl ring.
  • the heteroatoms when the total number of N, S, and O atoms in the heteroaryl group exceeds one, the heteroatoms are not adjacent to one another.
  • the total number of N, S, and O atoms in the heteroaryl group is not more than two.
  • the total number of N, S, and O atoms in the aromatic heterocycle is not more than one.
  • Heteroaryl does not encompass or overlap with aryl as defined herein.
  • heteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, groups derived from acridine, arsindole, carbazole, ⁇ -carboline, chromane, chromene, cinnoline, furan, imidazole, indazole, indole, indoline, indolizine, isobenzofuran, isochromene, isoindole, isoindoline, isoquinoline, isothiazole, isoxazole, naphthyridine, oxadiazole, oxazole, perimidine,
  • a heteroaryl group is from 5- to 20-membered heteroaryl, and in certain embodiments from 5- to 12-membered heteroaryl or from 5- to 10-membered heteroaryl.
  • a heteroaryl group is a 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, 9-, 10-, 1 1-, 12-, 13-, 14-, 15-, 16-, 17-, 18-, 19-, or 20-membered heteroaryl.
  • heteroaryl groups are those derived from thiophene, pyrrole, benzothiophene, benzofuran, indole, pyridine, quinoline, imidazole, oxazole, and pyrazine.
  • Heteroarylalkyl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to an acyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom, typically a terminal or sp 3 carbon atom, is replaced with a heteroaryl group. Where specific alkyl moieties are intended, the nomenclature heteroarylalkanyl, heteroarylalkenyl, or heteroarylalkynyl is used.
  • a heteroarylalkyl group is a 6- to 30-membered heteroarylalkyl, e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the heteroarylalkyl is 1 - to 10-membered and the heteroaryl moiety is a 5- to 20-membered heteroaryl, and in certain embodiments, 6- to 20-membered
  • heteroarylalkyl e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the heteroarylalkyl is 1- to 8- membered and the heteroaryl moiety is a 5- to 12-membered heteroaryl.
  • Heterocycloalkyl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a partially saturated or unsaturated cyclic alkyl radical in which one or more carbon atoms (and any associated hydrogen atoms) are independently replaced with the same or different heteroatom.
  • heteroatoms to replace the carbon atom(s) include, but are not limited to, N, P, O, S, Si, etc. Where a specific level of saturation is intended, the nomenclature “heterocycloalkanyl” or “heterocycloalkenyl” is used.
  • heterocycloalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, groups derived from epoxides, azirines, thiiranes, imidazolidine, morpholine, piperazine, piperidine, pyrazolidine, pyrrolidine, quinuclidine, and the like.
  • Heterocycloalkylalkyl by itself or as part of another substituent refers to an acyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to a carbon atom, typically a terminal or sp 3 carbon atom, is replaced with a heterocycloalkyl group. Where specific alkyl moieties are intended, the nomenclature heterocycloalkylalkanyl, heterocycloalkylalkenyl, or
  • heterocycloalkylalkynyl is used.
  • a heterocycloalkylalkyl group is a 6- to 30-membered heterocycloalkylalkyl, e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the heterocycloalkylalkyl is 1- to 10-membered and the heterocycloalkyl moiety is a 5- to
  • heterocycloalkylalkyl e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl, or alkynyl moiety of the heterocycloalkylalkyl is 1- to 8-membered and the heterocycloalkyl moiety is a 5- to 12-membered heterocycloalkyl.
  • Matture refers to a collection of molecules or chemical substances. Each component in a mixture can be independently varied. A mixture may contain, or consist essentially of, two or more substances intermingled with or without a constant percentage composition, wherein each component may or may not retain its essential original properties, and where molecular phase mixing may or may not occur. In mixtures, the components making up the mixture may or may not remain distinguishable from each other by virtue of their chemical structure.
  • Parent aromatic ring system refers to an unsaturated cyclic or polycyclic ring system having a conjugated ⁇ (pi) electron system.
  • parent aromatic ring system fused ring systems in which one or more of the rings are aromatic and one or more of the rings are saturated or unsaturated, such as, for example, fluorene, indane, indene, phenalene, etc.
  • parent aromatic ring systems include, but are not limited to, aceanthrylene, acenaphthylene, acephenanthrylene, anthracene, azulene, benzene, chrysene, coronene, fluoranthene, fluorene, hexacene, hexaphene, hexalene, as-indacene, s-indacene, indane, indene, naphthalene, octacene, octaphene, octalene, ovalene, penta-2,4-diene, pentacene, pentalene, pentaphene, perylene, phenalene, phenanthrene, picene, pleiadene, pyrene,
  • Parent heteroaromatic ring system refers to a parent aromatic ring system in which one or more carbon atoms (and any associated hydrogen atoms) are independently replaced with the same or different heteroatom.
  • heteroatoms to replace the carbon atoms include, but are not limited to, N, P, O, S, Si, etc.
  • fused ring systems in which one or more of the rings are aromatic and one or more of the rings are saturated or unsaturated, such as, for example, arsindole, benzodioxan, benzofuran, chromane, chromene, indole, indoline, xanthene, etc.
  • parent heteroaromatic ring systems include, but are not limited to, arsindole, carbazole, ⁇ -carboline, chromane, chromene, cinnoline, furan, imidazole, indazole, indole, indoline, indolizine, isobenzofuran, isochromene, isoindole, isoindoline, isoquinoline, isothiazole, isoxazole, naphthyridine, oxadiazole, oxazole, perimidine, phenanthridine, phenanthroline, phenazine, phthalazine, pteridine, purine, pyran, pyrazine, pyrazole, pyridazine, pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrrole, pyrrolizine, quinazoline, quinoline, quinolizine, quinoxaline, tetrazole, thiadia
  • Solid-supported acid refers to an acidic compound or material that is supported by or attached to another compound or material comprising a solid or semi-solid structure.
  • Such materials include smooth supports (e.g., metal, glass, plastic, silicon, carbon (e.g., diamond, graphite, nanotubes, fullerenes (e.g., C-60)) and ceramic surfaces) as well as textured and porous materials such as clays and clay-like materials.
  • Such materials also include, but are not limited to, gels, rubbers, polymers, and other non-rigid materials.
  • Solid supports need not be composed of a single material.
  • a solid support may comprise a surface material (e.g.
  • solid-supported acids comprise two or more different materials, e.g., in layers.
  • Surface layers and coatings may be of any configuration and may partially or completely cover a supporting material. It is contemplated that solid supports may comprise any combination of layers, coatings, or other configurations of multiple materials. In some embodiments, a single material provides essentially all of the surface to which other material can be attached, while in other embodiments, multiple materials of the solid support are exposed for attachment of another material.
  • Solid supports need not be flat. Supports include any type of shape including spherical shapes (e.g., beads).
  • Acidic moieties attached to solid support may be attached to any portion of the solid support (e.g., may be attached to an interior portion of a porous solid support material).
  • Exemplary solid-supported acids include, but are not limited to, cation exchange resins (e.g., Amberlyst®, Dowex®); acid- activated clays (e.g., montmorillonites); polymer-supported sulfonic acids (e.g., Nafion®); and silica-support catalysts (e.g., SPA-2).
  • cation exchange resins e.g., Amberlyst®, Dowex®
  • acid- activated clays e.g., montmorillonites
  • polymer-supported sulfonic acids e.g., Nafion®
  • silica-support catalysts e.g., SPA-2
  • fatty acid refers to any natural or synthetic carboxylic acid comprising an alkyl chain that may be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated, and may have straight or branched chains. The fatty acid may also be substituted.
  • “Fatty acid,” as used herein, includes short chain alkyl carboxylic acid including, for example, acetic acid, propionic acid, etc.
  • fatty acid reactant refers to any compound or composition comprising a fatty acid residue that is capable of undergoing oligomerization with another fatty acid or fatty acid reactant.
  • the fatty acid reactant may comprise a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid or fatty acid oligomer.
  • a fatty acid oligomer may comprise a first fatty acid that has previously undergone oligomerization with one or more second fatty acids to form an estolide, such as an estolide having a low EN (e.g., dimer).
  • a "first" fatty acid reactant can comprise the same structure as a "second" fatty acid reactant.
  • a reaction mixture may only comprise oleic acid, wherein the first fatty acid reactant and second fatty acid reactant are both oleic acid.
  • acid-activated clay refers to clays that are derived from the naturally occurring ore bentonite or the mineral montmorillonite and includes materials prepared by calcination, washing or leaching with mineral acid, ion exchange or any combination thereof, including materials which are often called montmorillonites, acid-activated montmorillonites and activated montmorillonites. In certain embodiments, these clays may contain Bronsted as well as Lewis acid active sites with many of the acidic sites located within the clay lattice.
  • Such clays include, but are not limited to the materials denoted as montmorillonite K10, montmorillonite clay, clayzic, clayfen, the Engelhardt series of catalysts related to and including X-9107, X9105, Girdler KSF, Tonsil and K-catalysts derived from montmorillonite, including but not limited to - K5, K10, K20 and K30, KSF, KSF/O, and KP10.
  • Other acid-activated clays may include X-9105 and X-9107 acid washed clay catalysts marketed by Engelhard.
  • zeolite refers to mesoporous aluminosilicates of the group IA or group ⁇ elements and are related to montmorillonite clays that are or have been acid activated. Zeolites may comprise what is considered an "infinitely" extending framework of A104 and Si04 tetrahedra linked to each other by the sharing of oxygens.
  • the framework structure may contain channels or interconnecting voids that are occupied by cations and water molecules. Acidic character may be imparted or enhanced by ion exchange of the cations, such as with ammonium ions and subsequent thermal deamination or calcination. The acidic sites may primarily be located within the lattice pores and channels.
  • zeolites include, but are not limited to, the beta-type zeolites as typified by CP814E manufactured by Zeolyst International, the mordenite form of zeolites as typified by CBV21A manufactured by Zeolyst International, the Y-type zeolites as typified by CBV-720 manufactured by Zeolyst International, and the ZSM family of zeolites as typified by ZSM-5, and ZSM-1 1.
  • the present disclosure relates to estolide compounds, compositions and methods of making the same.
  • the estolide compounds and compositions are useful as estolide base oil or estolide base oil feedstock.
  • the present disclosure relates to processes for preparing estolides that utilize catalysts that can be recovered and reused.
  • the present disclosure relates to efficient continuous and semi- continuous flow processes for preparing estolide base oils, base stocks, and lubricants.
  • the present disclosure relates to catalysts that can be recovered and reused and/or used in efficient continuous and semi-continuous flow processes.
  • the catalysts and methods disclosed herein may be useful in preparing an estolide compound of Formula I:
  • Ri is an optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched;
  • R 2 is selected from hydrogen and optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched; wherein each fatty acid chain residue of said at least one compound is independently optionally substituted.
  • the catalysts and methods disclosed herein may be useful in preparing an estolide compound of Formula ⁇ :
  • n is an integer greater than or equal to 1 ;
  • R 2 is selected from hydrogen and optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched;
  • Ri, R 3, and R4 independently for each occurrence, are selected from optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched.
  • the catalysts and methods disclosed herein may be useful in preparing an estolide compound of Formula HI:
  • Ri is an optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched;
  • R 2 is selected from hydrogen and optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched; wherein each fatty acid chain residue of said at least one compound is independently optionally substituted.
  • chain or “fatty acid chain,” or “fatty acid chain residue,” as used with respect to the estolide compounds of Formula I, ⁇ , and HI refer to one or more of the fatty acid residues incorporated in estolide compounds, e.g., R 3 or R 4 of Formula ⁇ , or the structures represented by CH 3 (CH 2 ) y CH(CH 2 ) x C(0)0- in Formula I or ⁇ .
  • the Ri in Formula I, ⁇ , and HI at the top of each Formula shown is an example of what may be referred to as a "cap” or “capping material,” as it “caps” the top of the estolide.
  • the capping group may be an organic acid residue of general formula -OC(0)-alkyl, i.e., a carboxylic acid with a substituted or unsubstituted, saturated or unsaturated, and/or branched or unbranched alkyl as defined herein, or a formic acid residue.
  • the "cap” or “capping group” is a fatty acid.
  • the capping group regardless of size, is substituted or unsubstituted, saturated or unsaturated, and/or branched or unbranched.
  • the cap or capping material may also be referred to as the primary or alpha (a) chain.
  • the cap or capping group alkyl may be the only alkyl from an organic acid residue in the resulting estolide that is unsaturated.
  • hydrogenating the estolide may help to improve the overall stability of the molecule.
  • a fully-hydrogenated estolide such as an estolide with a larger fatty acid cap, may exhibit increased pour point temperatures.
  • the R 4 C(0)0- of Formula ⁇ or the CH 3 (CH 2 ) y CH(CH 2 ) x C(0)0- of Formula I and ⁇ serve as the "base” or "base chain residue" of the estolide.
  • the base organic acid or fatty acid residue may be the only residue that remains in its free-acid form after the initial synthesis of the estolide.
  • the free acid may be reacted with any number of substituents.
  • the free acid estolide may be desirable to react with alcohols, glycols, amines, or other suitable reactants to provide the corresponding ester, amide, or other reaction products.
  • the base or base chain residue may also be referred to as tertiary or gamma ( ⁇ ) chains.
  • the R 3 C(0)0- of Formula ⁇ or structure CH 3 (CH 2 ) y CH(CH 2 ) x C(0)0- of Formula I and ⁇ are linking residues that link the capping material and the base fatty-acid residue together.
  • There may be any number of linking residues in the estolide, including when n 0 and the estolide is in its dimer form.
  • a linking residue may be a fatty acid and may initially be in an unsaturated form during synthesis.
  • the estolide will be formed when a catalyst is used to produce a carbocation at the fatty acid's site of unsaturation, which is followed by nucleophilic attack on the carbocation by the carboxylic group of another fatty acid.
  • the linking residue(s) may also be referred to as secondary or beta ( ⁇ ) chains.
  • the cap is an acetyl group
  • the linking residue(s) is one or more fatty acid residues
  • the base chain residue is a fatty acid residue.
  • the linking residues present in an estolide differ from one another. In certain embodiments, one or more of the linking residues differs from the base chain residue.
  • the estolide comprises fatty-acid chains of varying lengths.
  • x is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 0 to 20, 0 to 18, 0 to 16, 0 to 14, 1 to 12, 1 to 10, 2 to 8, 6 to 8, or 4 to 6.
  • x is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 7 and 8.
  • x is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from O, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20.
  • estolides according to Formula I and EQ independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 0 to 20, 0 to 18, 0 to 16, 0 to 14, 1 to 12, 1 to 10, 2 to 8, 6 to 8, or 4 to 6.
  • y is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 7 and 8.
  • y is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20.
  • x+y is, independently for each chain, an integer selected from 0 to 40, 0 to 20, 10 to 20, or 12 to 18.
  • x+y is, independently for each chain, an integer selected from 13 to 15. In some embodiments with estolides according to Formula I and HI, x+y is 15. In some embodiments with estolides according to Formula I, x+y is, independently for each chain, an integer selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 , 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, or 40.
  • the estolide of Formula I, ⁇ , or HI may comprise any number of fatty acid residues to form an "n-mer" estolide.
  • n is an integer selected from 0 to 20, 0 to 18, 0 to 16, 0 to 14, 0 to 12, 0 to 10, 0 to 8, or 0 to 6.
  • n is an integer selected from 0 to 4. In some embodiments, n is 1 , wherein said at least one compound of Formula I, ⁇ , and ⁇ comprises the trimer. In some embodiments, n is an integer selected from 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 , 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20.
  • Ri of Formula I, ⁇ , or ⁇ is an optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched.
  • the alkyl group is a Ci to C o alkyl, Ci to C 22 alkyl or C] to Ci 8 alkyl.
  • the alkyl group is selected from C 7 to Cn alkyl.
  • Ri is selected from C 7 alkyl, C alkyl, Ci 1 alkyl, C ] 3 alkyl, Ci 5 alkyl, and Cn alkyl.
  • Ri is selected from Cn to C n alkyl, such as from C13 alkyl, Q5 alkyl, and Cn alkyl. In some embodiments, Riis a Q, C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , C 6 , C 7 , C 8 , Cg, Cio, Ci 1 , Ci 2 , Cn, CM, C15, Ci6, Cn, C 18, Ci9, C 2 o, C21 , or C 22 alkyl.
  • R 2 of Formula I, ⁇ , or HI is an optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched.
  • the alkyl group is a Ci to C 4 o alkyl, Q to C 22 alkyl or d to Ci 8 alkyl.
  • the alkyl group is selected from C 7 to Cn alkyl.
  • R 2 is selected from C 7 alkyl, C9 alkyl, Cn alkyl, Cn alkyl, C15 alkyl, and Cn alkyl.
  • R 2 is selected from C )3 to Cn alkyl, such as from Cn alkyl, C15 alkyl, and C alkyl.
  • R 2 is a Cj, C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , C 6 , C , C 8 , C9, Cio, Cn , Ci 2 , Cn, Ci4, C15, Ci 6 , Cn, C) 8 , C19, C 2 Q, C21 , or C 22 alkyl.
  • R 3 is an optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched.
  • the alkyl group is a Ci to C40 alkyl, Q to C 22 alkyl or Ci to Cig alkyl.
  • the alkyl group is selected from C 7 to Ci7 alkyl.
  • R3 is selected from C 7 alkyl, C9 alkyl, Cn alkyl, Q 3 alkyl, Ci5 alkyl, and Cn alkyl.
  • R 3 is selected from Cn to Cn alkyl, such as from Cn alkyl, C15 alkyl, and Cn alkyl.
  • R 3 is a C ⁇ , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C5, C 6 , C 7 , C 8 , C9, Cio, Cn, C 1 2, Ci 3 , Ci4, Ci 5 , Ci6, Ci 7 , Ci 8 , C19, C 2 o, C21, or C 22 alkyl.
  • R4 is an optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched.
  • the alkyl group is a Q to C 4 o alkyl, Q to C 22 alkyl or Q to Ci 8 alkyl.
  • the alkyl group is selected from C 7 to Cn alkyl.
  • R 4 is selected from C 7 alkyl, C alkyl, Cn alkyl, Ci 3 alkyl, Ci5 alkyl, and Cn alkyl.
  • R4 is selected from Cj 3 to Cn alkyl, such as from Cn alkyl, C15 alkyl, and Cn alkyl.
  • R4 IS a Ci, C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , C6, C 7 , C 8 , C 9 , Cio, Cn, C12, C )3 , CM, C15, Ci6, Cn, Ci 8 , C19, C 2 o, C21, or C 22 alkyl.
  • one or more of the estolides' properties is manipulated by altering the length of Ri and/or its degree of saturation. In certain embodiments , the level of substitution on Ri may also be altered to change or even improve the estolides' properties.
  • Ri including polar substituents on Ri, such as one or more hydroxy groups, may increase the viscosity of the estolide, while increasing pour point. Accordingly, in some embodiments, Ri will be unsubstituted or optionally substituted with a group that is not hydroxyl.
  • the estolide is in its free-acid form, wherein R 2 of Formulas I, ⁇ , and IH is hydrogen.
  • R 2 is selected from optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched.
  • the R 2 residue may comprise any desired alkyl group, such as those derived from esterification of the estolide with the alcohols identified in the examples herein.
  • the alkyl group is selected from Q to C 0 , Q to C 22 , C 3 to C 20 , Q to C i 8 , or C 6 to C ) 2 alkyl.
  • R 2 may be selected from C 3 alkyl, C 4 alkyl, C 8 alkyl, C ) 2 alkyl, Ci 6 alkyl, C ) 8 alkyl, and C 20 alkyl.
  • R 2 may be branched, such as isopropyl, isobutyl, or 2- ethylhexyl.
  • R 2 may be a larger alkyl group, branched or unbranched, comprising C ]2 alkyl, Ci 6 alkyl, Cig alkyl, or C 20 alkyl.
  • R 2 is a Q , C 2 , C 3 , C 4 , C 5 , C 6 , C 7 , C 8 , C9, Cio, Cj 1 , C] 2 , Cn, Ci 4 , Ci5, Ci 6 , C , Cj 8 , C19, C 2 o, C 2 i, or C 22 alkyl.
  • groups at the R 2 position may be derived from esterification of the free-acid estolide using the JarcolTM line of alcohols marketed by Jarchem Industries, Inc. of Newark, New Jersey, including Jarcol 1-18CG, I-20, 1-12, 1-16, 1-18T, and 85BJ.
  • R 2 may be sourced from certain alcohols to provide branched alkyls such as isostearyl and isopalmityl. It should be understood that such isopalmityl and isostearyl akyl groups may cover any branched variation of Ci 6 and Cis, respectively.
  • the estolides described herein may comprise highly- branched isopalmityl or isostearyl groups at the R 2 position, derived from the Fineoxocol® line of isopalmityl and isostearyl alcohols marketed by Nissan Chemical America Corporation of Houston, Texas, including Fineoxocol® 180, 180N, and 1600.
  • large, highly-branched alkyl groups e.g., isopalmityl and isostearyl
  • isopalmityl and isostearyl at the R 2 position of the estolides can provide at least one way to increase the lubricant's viscosity, while substantially retaining or even reducing its pour point.
  • the compounds described herein may comprise a mixture of two or more estolide compounds of Formula I, ⁇ , or DDL It is possible to characterize the chemical makeup of an estolide, a mixture of estolides, or a composition comprising estolides, by using the compound's, mixture's, or composition's measured estolide number (EN).
  • EN represents the average number of fatty acids added to the base fatty acid.
  • the EN also represents the average number of estolide linkages per molecule:
  • a composition comprising two or more estolide compounds may have an EN that is a whole number or a fraction of a whole number.
  • a compositionhaving a 1 : 1 molar ratio of dimer and trimer would have an EN of 1.5
  • a composition having a 1 : 1 molar ratio of tetramer and trimer would have an EN of 2.5.
  • the compositions described herein may comprise a mixture of two or more estolides having an EN that is an integer or fraction of an integer that is greater than 4.5, or even 5.0.
  • the EN may be an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 1.0 to about 5.0.
  • the EN is an integer or fraction of an integer selected from 1.2 to about 4.5.
  • the EN is selected from a value greater than 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 5.4, 5.6, and 5.8.
  • the EN is selected from a value less than 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 5.4, 5.6, 5.8, and 6.0.
  • the EN is selected from 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, 5.0, 5.2, 5.4, 5.6, 5.8, and 6.0.
  • the chains of the estolide compounds may be independently optionally substituted, wherein one or more hydrogens are removed and replaced with one or more of the substituents identified herein. Similarly, two or more of the hydrogen residues may be removed to provide one or more sites of unsaturation, such as a cis or trans double bond. Further, the chains may optionally comprise branched hydrocarbon residues.
  • the estolides described herein may comprise at least one compound of Formula ⁇ :
  • R 2 is selected from hydrogen and optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched; and Ri, R 3 and R4, independently for each occurrence, are selected from optionally substituted alkyl that is saturated or unsaturated, and branched or unbranched.
  • n is an integer selected from 1 to 20. In some embodiments, n is an integer selected from 1 to 12. In some embodiments, n is an integer selected from 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20. In some embodiments, one or more R3 differs from one or more other R3 in a compound of Formula ⁇ . In some embodiments, one or more R3 differs from R4 in a compound of Formula ⁇ . In some embodiments, if the compounds of Formula ⁇ are prepared from one or more polyunsaturated fatty acids, it is possible that one or more of Rl , R3 and R4 will have one or more sites of unsaturation. In some embodiments, if the compounds of Formula ⁇ are prepared from one or more branched fatty acids, it is possible than one or more of Rl , R3, and R4 will be branched.
  • R3 and R4 can be CH3(CH2)yCH(CH2)x-, where x is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, and y is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20.
  • x is, independently for each occurrence, an integer selected from 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20.
  • the compounds may be compounds according to Formula I and m.
  • altering the EN to produce estolides having desired viscometric properties while substantially retaining or even reducing pour point For example, in some embodiments, exhibit a decreased pour point upon increasing the EN value. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, a method is provided for retaining or decreasing the pour point of an estolide base oil, or a method is provided for retaining or decreasinig the pour point of a composition comprising an estolide base oil by increasing the EN of the base oil.
  • the method comprises: selecting an estolide base oil having an initial EN and an initial pour point; and removing at least a portion of the base oil, said portion exhibiting an EN that is less than the initial EN of the base oil, wherein the resulting estolide base oil exhibits an EN that is greater than the initial EN of the base oil, and a pour point that is equal to or lower than the initial pour point of the base oil.
  • the selected estolide base oil is prepared by oligomerizing at least one first unsaturated fatty acid with at least one second unsaturated fatty acid and/or saturated fatty acid.
  • the removing at least a portion of the base oil is accomplished by distillation, chromatography, membrane separation, phase separation, affinity separation, solvent extraction, or combinations thereof.
  • the distillation takes place at a temperature and/or pressure that is suitable to separate the estolide base oil into different "cuts" that individually exhibit different EN values. In some embodiments, this may be accomplished by subjecting the base oil temperature of at least about 250°C and an absolute pressure of no greater than about 25 microns. In some embodiments, the distillation takes place at a temperature range of about 250°C to about 310°C and an absolute pressure range of about 10 microns to about 25 microns.
  • estolide compounds and compositions exhibit an EN that is greater than or equal to 1, such as an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 1.0 to about 2.0.
  • the EN is an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 1.0 to about 1.6.
  • the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 1.1 to about 1.5.
  • the EN is selected from a value greater than 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9.
  • the EN is selected from a value less than 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2.0.
  • the EN is greater than or equal to 1.5, such as an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 1.8 to about 2.8. In some embodiments, the EN is an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 2.0 to about 2.6. In some embodiments, the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 2.1 to about 2.5. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value greater than 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value less than 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8. In some embodiments, the EN is about 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, or 2.8.
  • the EN is greater than or equal to about 3, such as an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 3.0 to about 4.0. In some embodiments, the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 3.2 to about 3.8. In some embodiments, the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 3.3 to about 3.7. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value greater than 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value less than 3.1 , 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, and 4.0. In some embodiments, the EN is about 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, or 4.0.In some embodiments,
  • the EN is greater than or equal to about 4, such as an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 4.0 to about 5.0. In some embodiments, the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 4.2 to about 4.8. In some embodiments, the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 4.3 to about 4.7. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value greater than 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, and 4.9. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value less than 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, and 5.0. In some embodiments, the EN is about 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, or 5.0.
  • the EN is greater than or equal to about 5, such as an integer or fraction of an integer selected from about 5.0 to about 6.0. In some embodiments, the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 5.2 to about 5.8. In some embodiments, the EN is a fraction of an integer selected from about 5.3 to about 5.7. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value greater than 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, and 5.9. In some embodiments, the EN is selected from a value less than 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, and 6.0.
  • the EN is selected from a value less than 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, and 6.0. In some embodiments, the EN is about 5.0, 5.2, 5.4, 5.4, 5.6, 5.8, or 6.0.
  • estolide base oil exhibit certain lubricity, viscosity, and/or pour point characteristics.
  • suitable viscosity characteristics of the base oil may range from about 10 cSt to about 250 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 3 cSt to about 30 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 50 cSt to about 150 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 10 cSt to about 20 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities less than about 55 cSt at 40 °C or less than about 45 cSt at 40 °C, and/or less than about 12 cSt at 100 °C or less than about 10 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 25 cSt to about 55 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 5 cSt to about 1 1 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 35 cSt to about 45 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 6 cSt to about 10 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 38 cSt to about 43 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 7 cSt to about 9 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities less than about 120 cSt at 40 °C or less than about 100 cSt at 40 °C, and/or less than about 18 cSt at 100 °C or less than about 17 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit a viscosity within a range from about 70 cSt to about 120 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 12 cSt to about 18 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 80 cSt to about 100 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 13 cSt to about 17 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 85 cSt to about 95 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 14 cSt to about 16 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities greater than about 180 cSt at 40 °C or greater than about 200 cSt at 40 °C, and/or greater than about 20 cSt at 100 °C or greater than about 25 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit a viscosity within a range from about 180 cSt to about 230 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 25 cSt to about 31 cSt at 100 °C.
  • estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 200 cSt to about 250 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 25 cSt to about 35 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 210 cSt to about 230 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 28 cSt to about 33 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 200 cSt to about 220 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 26 cSt to about 30 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 205 cSt to about 215 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 27 cSt to about 29 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities less than about 45 cSt at 40 °C or less than about 38 cSt at 40 °C, and/or less than about 10 cSt at 100 °C or less than about 9 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit a viscosity within a range from about 20 cSt to about 45 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 4 cSt to about 10 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 28 cSt to about 38 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 5 cSt to about 9 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 30 cSt to about 35 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 6 cSt to about 8 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities less than about 80 cSt at 40 °C or less than about 70 cSt at 40 °C, and/or less than about 14 cSt at 100 °C or less than about 13 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit a viscosity within a range from about 50 cSt to about 80 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 8 cSt to about 14 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 60 cSt to about 70 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 9 cSt to about 13 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 63 cSt to about 68 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 10 cSt to about 12 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities greater than about 120 cSt at 40 °C or greater than about 130 cSt at 40 °C, and/or greater than about 15 cSt at 100 °C or greater than about 18 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit a viscosity within a range from about 120 cSt to about 150 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 16 cSt to about 24 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 130 cSt to about 160 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 17 cSt to about 28 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 130 cSt to about 145 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 17 cSt to about 23 cSt at 100 °C. In some embodiments, the estolide base oil may exhibit viscosities within a range from about 135 cSt to about 140 cSt at 40 °C, and/or about 19 cSt to about 21 cSt at 100 °C.
  • the estolides may exhibit desirable low-temperature pour point properties.
  • the estolide base oil may exhibit a pour point lower than about -25 °C, about -35 °C, -40 °C, or even about -50 °C.
  • the estolides have a pour point of about -25 °C to about -45 °C.
  • the pour point falls within a range of about -30 °C to about -40 °C, about -34 °C to about -38 °C, about -30 °C to about -45 °C, -35 °C to about -45 °C, 34 °C to about -42 °C, about -38 °C to about -42 °C, or about 36 °C to about -40 °C. In some embodiments, the pour point falls within the range of about -27 °C to about -37 °C, or about -30 °C to about -34 °C.
  • the pour point falls within the range of about -25 °C to about -35 °C, or about -28 °C to about -32 °C. In some embodiments, the pour point falls within the range of about -28 °C to about -38 °C, or about -31 °C to about -35 °C. In some embodiments, the pour point falls within the range of about -31 °C to about -41 °C, or about -34 °C to about -38 °C. In some embodiments, the pour point falls within the range of about -40 °C to about -50 °C, or about -42 °C to about -48 °C.
  • the pour point falls within the range of about -50 °C to about -60 °C, or about -52 °C to about -58 °C.
  • the upper bound of the pour point is less than about - 35 °C, about -36 °C about - 37 °C, about -38 °C, about -39 °C, about -40 °C, about -41 °C, about -42 °C, about -43 °C, about -44 °C, and about -45 °C.
  • the lower bound of the pour point is greater than about -55 °C, about -54 °C, about -53 °C, about -52 °C, -51, about -50 °C, about -49 °C, about -48 °C, about -47 °C, about -46 °C, or about -45 °C.
  • estolides may exhibit decreased Iodine Values (IV) when compared to estolides prepared by other methods.
  • IV is a measure of the degree of total unsaturation of an oil, and is determined by measuring the amount of iodine per gram of estolide (cg/g).
  • oils having a higher degree of unsaturation may be more susceptible to creating corrosiveness and deposits, and may exhibit lower levels of oxidative stability. Compounds having a higher degree of unsaturation will have more points of unsaturation for iodine to react with, resulting in a higher IV.
  • estolide compounds and compositions have an IV of less than about 40 cg/g or less than about 35 cg/g.
  • estolides have an FV of less than about 30 cg/g, less than about 25 cg/g, less than about 20 cg/g, less than about 15 cg/g, less than about 10 cg/g, or less than about 5 cg/g.
  • the IV of a composition may be reduced by decreasing the estolide's degree of unsaturation. In certain embodiments, this may be accomplished by, for example, by increasing the amount of saturated capping materials relative to unsaturated capping materials when synthesizing the estolides.
  • IV may be reduced by hydrogenating estolides having unsaturated caps.
  • a process for preparing an estolide base oil comprising providing at least one first fatty acid reactant and at least one second fatty acid reactant and a Lewis acid can be conducted with feedstock comprising myristoleic, palmitoleic, oleic acids, or combinations thereof.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf) 3 , and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf) 3
  • the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf) 3 , and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf) 3 , at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf) 3
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf)3, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf)3, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf)3, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf)3, at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf)3
  • the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C, about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Bi(OTf>3, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , an at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C. about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2
  • at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2
  • at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Cu(OTf) 2 , at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C. about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf 3, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, and about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf)3, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf)3, at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf)3, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf)3, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf)3, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf)3, at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a batch, semi- continuous, or continuous process, wherein the Lewis acid catalyst is Fe(OTf)3, at least no portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the present disclosure also provides an improved process for esterification to provide esters.
  • the process is a batch, semi-continuous, or continuous process.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf) 3 , or a combinations thereof, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf) 3 , or a combinations thereof, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf)3, or a combinations thereof, at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf) 3 , or a combinations thereof, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf) 3 , or a combinations thereof, and at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and at a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C. about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf)3, or a combinations thereof at a pressure of between 5 and 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf) 3 , or a combinations thereof, at least a portion of the oligomerizing step takes place in the presence of applied microwave radiation, at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C, about 55°C to about 65°C, about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • the esterifying is catalyzed by Bi(OTf) 3 , at a pressure of less than 5 torr or greater than 15 torr abs, and a temperature of about 50°C to about 60°C. about 55°C to about 65°C. about 60°C to about 70°C. about 65°C to about 75°C, or about 70°C to about 80°C.
  • estolide base oil is esterified with at least one alcohol in the presence of an esterification catalyst, optionally in the presence of applied microwave radiation.
  • a process for preparing an estolide base oil comprises providing at least one fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant and a Lewis acid catalysts, wherein the at least one first fatty acid reactant is an unsaturated fatty acid or an oligomer of unsaturated fatty acids and/or the at least one second fatty acid reactant is an unsaturated fatty acid or an oligomer of unsaturated fatty acids, and the Lewis acid catalyst is a triflate.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is selected from from AgOTf, Cu(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf)2, Fe(OTf)3, NaOTf, LiOTf, Yb(OTf) 3 , Y(OTf) 3 , Zn(OTf) 2 , Ni(OTf) 2 , Bi(OTf) 3 , La(OTf)3, Sc(OTf) 3 , and combinations thereof.
  • a process for preparing an estolide base oil comprises providing at least one fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant and a Lewis acid catalysts, wherein the at least one first fatty acid reactant is an unsaturated fatty acid or an oligomer of unsaturated fatty acids and/or the at least one second fatty acid reactant is an unsaturated fatty acid or an oligomer of unsaturated fatty acids, and the Lewis acid catalyst is an iron compound.
  • the catalyst is a Lewis acid selected from Fe(acac) 3 , FeCl 3 , Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 , Fe 2 0 3 , FeS0 4 , and combinations thereof.
  • the process further includes use of a Bronsted acid as a catalyst wherein the Bronsted acid is sulfamic acid, methylsulfamic acid or combinations thereof.
  • the process for preparing an estolide base oil is a continuous process, wherein the catalyst is a Lewis acid selected from Fe(acac) 3 , FeCl 3 , Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 , Fe 2 0 3 , FeS0 4 , and combinations thereof, and the process optionally further includes use of a Bronsted acid as a catalyst wherein the Bronsted acid is sulfamic acid, methylsulfamic acid or
  • estolide compounds and compositions are produced by a process comprising providing at least one first fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant, and a Lewis acid catalyst; and oligomerizing the at least one first fatty acid reactant with the at least one second fatty acid reactant in the presence of the Lewis acid catalyst to produce an estolide compound and/or estolide composition.
  • the at least one first fatty acid reactant is selected from one or more unsaturated fatty acids, one or more unsaturated fatty acid oligomers, and combinations thereof.
  • the at least one second fatty acid reactant is selected from saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, saturated and unsaturated fatty acid oligomers, and combinations thereof.
  • an estolide is formed when a Lewis acid catalyst is used to produce a carbocation at a site of unsaturation on either a first or second fatty acid reactant, which is followed by nucleophilic attack on the carbocation by the carboxylic group of the other fatty acid.
  • suitable unsaturated fatty acids for preparing the estolides may include any mono- or polyunsaturated fatty acid.
  • monounsaturated fatty acids along with a suitable catalyst, will form a single carbocation for the addition of a second fatty acid (saturated or unsaturated), whereby a covalent bond between two fatty acid is formed.
  • Suitable monounsaturated fatty acids may include, but are not limited to, palmitoleic (16: 1), vaccenic (18: 1), oleic acid (18: 1), eicosenoic acid (20: 1), erucic acid (22: 1), and nervonic acid (24:1).
  • polyunsaturated fatty acids may be used to create estolides.
  • Suitable polyunsaturated fatty acids may include, but are not limited to, hexadecatrienoic acid (16:3), alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3), stearidonic acid ( 18:4), eicosatrienoic acid (20:3), eicosatetraenoic acid (20:4), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5), heneicosapentaenoic acid (21 :5), docosapentaenoic acid (22:5), docosahexaenoic acid (22:6), tetracosapentaenoic acid (24:5), tetracosahexaenoic acid (24:6), linoleic acid (18:2), gamma-linoleic acid (18:3), eicosadienoic acid (20:2), dihomo- gamma-linolenic acid (20:3), arachidonic acid (20
  • the process for preparing the estolide compounds may include the use of any natural or synthetic fatty acid source.
  • suitable starting materials of biological origin may include plant fats, plant oils, plant waxes, animal fats, animal oils, animal waxes, fish fats, fish oils, fish waxes, algal oils and mixtures thereof.
  • Other potential fatty acid sources may include waste and recycled food-grade fats and oils, fats, oils, and waxes obtained by genetic engineering, fossil fuel based materials and other sources of the materials desired.
  • Lewis acid catalysts for preparing the estolides may include triflates (trifluormethanesulfonates) such as transition metal triflates and lanthanide triflates.
  • Suitable triflates may include AgOTf (silver triflate), Cu(OTf) 2 (copper triflate), NaOTf (sodium triflate), Fe(OTf) 2 (iron ( ⁇ ) triflate), Fe(OTf) 3 (iron (HI) triflate), LiOTf (lithium triflate), Yb(OTf)3 (ytterbium triflate), Y(OTf) 3 (yttrium triflate), Zn(OTf) 2 (zinc triflate), Ni(OTf) 2 (nickel triflate), Bi(OTf) 3 (bismuth triflate), La(OTf) 3 (lanthanum triflate), Sc(OTf) 3 (scandium triflate), and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid may include AgOTf (silver
  • Lewis acid catalysts may include metal compounds, such as iron compounds, cobalt compounds, nickel compounds, and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid is an iron compound. In some embodiments, the Lewis acid is an iron compound selected from Fe(acac) 3 , FeCl 3 , Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 , Fe 2 0 3 , FeS0 4 , and combinations thereof. [0123] In some embodiments, the oligomerization process comprises use of one or more of protic or aprotic catalysts.
  • the oligomerization processes are aided by the application of electromagnetic energy.
  • the electromagnetic energy used to aid the oligomerization is microwave electromagnetic energy.
  • application of electromagnetic radiation may be applied to reduce the overall reaction time and improve the yield of estolide by conducting the reaction in a microwave reactor in the presence of an oligomerization catalyst.
  • oligomerizing the at least one first fatty acid reactant with the at least one second fatty acid reactant is conducted in the presence of an oligomerization catalyst (e.g., a Lewis acid) and microwave radiation.
  • the oligomerization is conducted in a microwave reactor with Bi(OTf)3.
  • the processes may further comprise the use of one or more Bronsted acids.
  • the oligomerizing step may further comprise the presence of a Bronsted acid.
  • Exemplary Bronsted acids include, but are not limited to, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfamic acid, methylsulfamic acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, perchloric acid, triflic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid (p-TsOH), and combinations thereof.
  • the Bronsted acid is selected from sulfamic acid, methylsulfamic acid, and combinations thereof.
  • the Bronsted acid may comprise cation exchange resins, acid exchange resins and/or solid-supported acids.
  • Such materials may include styrene- divinylbenzene copolymer-based strong cation exchange resins such as Amberlyst ® (Rohm & Haas; Philadelphia, Pa.), Dowex ® (Dow; Midland, Mich.), CG resins from Resintech, Inc. (West Berlin, N.J.), and Lewatit resins such as MonoPlusTM S 100H from Sybron Chemicals Inc.
  • Exemplary solid acid catalysts include cation exchange resins, such as Amberlyst ® 15, Amberlyst ® 35, Amberlite ® 120, Dowex ® Monosphere M-31, Dowex®
  • Monosphere DR-2030 and acidic and acid-activated mesoporous materials and natural clays such a kaolinites, bentonites, attapulgites, montmorillonites, and zeolites.
  • Examplery catalysts are also included organic acids supported on mesoporous materials derived from polysaccharides and activated carobon, such as Starbon®-supported sulphonic acid catalysts (University of York) like Starbon ® 300, Starbon ® 400, and Starbon ® 800.
  • Phosphoric acids on solid supports may also be suitable, such as phosphoric acid supported on silica (e.g., SPA-2 catalysts sold by Sigma- Aldrich).
  • fluorinated sulfonic acid polymers may be used as solid-acid catalysts for the processes described herein. These acids are partially or totally fluorinated hydrocarbon polymers containing pendant sulfonic acid groups, which may be partially or totally converted to the salt form.
  • exemplary sulfonic acid polymers include Nafion perfluorinated sulfonic acid polymers such as Nafion SAC- 13 (E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, Del.).
  • the catalyst includes Nafion ® Super Acid Catalyst, a bead-form strongly acidic resin which is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and perfluoro-3,6- dioxa-4-methyl-7-octene sulfonyl fluoride, converted to either the proton (H + ), or the metal salt form.
  • suitable temperatures for effecting oligomerization may include temperatures greater than about 50°C, such as a range of about 50°C to about 100°C. In some embodiments, the oligomerization is carried out at about 60°C to about 80°C.
  • the oligomerization is carried out, for at least a portion of the time, at about 50°C, about 52°C, about 54°C, about 56°C, about 58°C, about 60°C, about 62°C, about 64°C, about 66°C, about 68°C, about 70°C, about 72°C, about 74°C, about 76°C, about 78°C, about 80°C, about 82°C, about 84°C, about 86°C, about 88°C, about 90°C, about 92°C, about 94°C, about 96°C, about 98°C, and about 100°C.
  • the oligomerization is carried out, • for at least a period of time, at a temperature of no greater than about 52°C, about 54°C, about 56°C, about 58°C, about 60°C, about 62°C, about 64°C, about 66°C, about 68°C, about 70°C, about 72°C, about 74°C, about 76°C, about 78°C, about 80°C, about 82°C, about 84°C, about 86°C, about 88°C, about 90°C, about 92°C, about 94°C, about 96°C, about 98°C, or about 100°C.
  • suitable oligomerization conditions may include reactions that are carried out at a pressure of less than 1 atm abs (absolute), such at less than about 250 torr abs, less than about 100 torr abs, less than about 50 torr abs, or less than about 25 torr abs. In some embodiments, oligomerization is carried out at a pressure of about 1 torr abs to about 20 torr abs, or about 5 torr abs to about 15 torr abs.
  • oligomerization for at least a period of time, is carried out at a pressure of greater than about 5, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 100, about 105, about 1 10, about 1 15, about 120, about 125, about 130, about 135, about 140, about 145, about 150, about 155, about 160, about 165, about 170, about 175, about 180, about 185, about 190, about 195, about 200, about 205, about 210, about 215, about 220, about 225, about 230, about 235, about 240, about 245, and about 250 torrs abs.
  • oligomerization for at least a period of time, is carried out at a pressure of less than about 5, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 100, about 105, about 1 10, about 115, about 120, about 125, about 130, about 135, about 140, about 145, about 150, about 155, about 160, about 165, about 170, about 175, about 180, about 185, about 190, about 195, about 200, about 205, about 210, about 215, about 220, about 225, about 230, about 235, about 240, about 245, or about 250 torrs abs.
  • the processes described herein further comprise the step of esterifying the resulting free acid estolide in the presence of at least one esterification catalyst.
  • Suitable esterification catalysts may include one or more Lewis acids and or Bronsted acids, including, for Aexample, AgOTf, Cu(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf)3, NaOTf, LiOTf, Yb(OTf) 3 , Y(OTf) 3 , Zn(OTf) 2 , Ni(OTf) 2 , Bi(OTf) 3 , La(OTf) 3 , Sc(OTf) 3 , hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, perchloric acid, triflic acid, p-TsOH, and combinations thereof.
  • the esterification catalyst may comprise a strong Lewis acid such as BF 3 etherate.
  • the Lewis acid of the oligomerizing step and the esterification catalyst will be the same, such as Bi(OTf) 3 .
  • esterification is conducted in the presence of microwave radiation.
  • the esterification catalyst may comprise a Lewis acid catalyst, example, at least one metal compound selected from titanium compounds, tin compounds, zirconium compounds, hafnium compounds, and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one titanium compound selected from TiCl 4 , Ti(OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 ) 4 (titanium (IV) butoxide), and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one tin compound selected from Sn(0 2 CC0 2 ) (tin ( ⁇ ) oxalate), SnO, SnCl 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one zirconium compound selected from ZrC , ZrOCl 2 , ZrO(N0 3 ) 2 , ZrO(S0 4 ), ZrO(CH 3 COO) 2 , and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one hafnium compound selected from HfCl 2 , HfOCl , and combinations thereof. Unless stated otherwise, all metal compounds and catalysts discussed herein should be understood to include their hydrate and solvate forms.
  • the Lewis acid esterification catalyst may be selected from ZrOCl 2 - 8H 2 0 and ZrOCl 2 -2THF, or HfOCl 2 -2THF and HfOCl 2 - 8H 2 0.
  • Also described herein is a process of producing a carboxylic acid ester, comprising: providing at least one carboxylic acid reactant, at least one olefin, and a Bismuth catalyst; and reacting the at least one carboxylic acid reactant with the at least one olefin in the presence of the Bismuth catalyst to produce a carboxylic acid ester.
  • the carboxylic acid reactant(s) may comprise an aliphatic carboxylic acid, such as an optionally substituted fatty acid that is branched or unbranched and saturated or unsaturated. It should be understood that aliphatic carboxylic acids may include cyclic and acyclic carboxylic acids. Other examples of aliphatic carboxylic acids may include acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, isobutyric acid, acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, and the like.
  • the carboxylic acid reactant may comprise any of the fatty acid reactants previously described herein, such as fatty acid oligomers and free fatty acid estolides.
  • the carboxylic acid reactant may comprise aromatic carboxylic acids such as benzoic acid, anisic acid, phenylacetic acid, salicylic acid, o-toluic acid, phthalic acid, isophthalic acid, terephthalic acid, and the like.
  • the at least one olefin may be optionally substituted and branched or unbranched. Suitable olefins may include aliphatic olefins and aromatic olefins.
  • Aliphatic olefins include cyclic and acyclic olefins.
  • aliphatic olefins may include ethylene, propylene, isopropylene, butene, pentene, hexene, heptene, octane, and the like.
  • aromatic olefins include styrene, divinylbenzene, 1-vinylnaphthalene, 2-vinylnaphthalene, vinylpyridine, and the like.
  • cyclic olefins include a monocyclic olefin, and a bridged cyclic hydrocarbon represented by a bicyclo compound such as norbornenes which have distortion in the cyclic structure.
  • the monocyclic olefin include a cyclic olefin with 3-6 carbon atoms such as cyclopropene, cyclobutene, cyclopentene, methylcyclopentene, and cyclohexene.
  • Substituents for the carboxylic acid reactants and olefins may include any substituent that are appropriate as substituents for estolide compounds.
  • the processes described herein may comprise a continuous flow process.
  • the continuous flow processes may comprise the use of an oligomerization catalyst.
  • the continuous flow processes comprise use of a Lewis acid catalyst.
  • oil comprises providing at least one first fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant, and an oligomerization catalyst; and continuously oligomerizing the at least one first fatty acid reactant with the at least one second fatty acid reactant in the presence of the oligomerization catalyst to produce an estolide base oil.
  • suitable materials, conditions, and compounds for practicing the continuous process may include the materials, conditions, and compounds, discussed herein for producing estolides, estolide base oils, and compositions comprising estolides.
  • oligomerization catalyst are continuously provided to a region or location where the at least one fatty acid reactant reacts to form estolides and/or esters.
  • the at least one oligomerization catalyst catalyzes the oligomerization and/or esterification.
  • a first fatty acid reactant and at least one oligomerization catalyst are continuously provided at intervals, for example, at intervals of time including 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, and 60 minutes, and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 hours, or, for example, intervals measured by degree of reaction completion including 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, and 95% completion.
  • At least one first fatty acid reactant and at least one second fatty acid reactant are continuously oligomerized in a reactor.
  • exemplary reactors include single vessels with a substantial degree of back-mixing, with or without mechanical agitation, such that the dwell time within the vessel of an identified portion of entering material is more or less random (e.g., "continuous stir tank reactor").
  • reactors or reaction vessels may optionally include a heater or heat source.
  • the reactors or reaction vessels may include, upon operation, a quantity of liquid and a quantity of vapor.
  • the quantity of liquid will contain a greater fraction of estolide(s) relative to fatty acid reactant than the fraction of estolide(s) relative to fatty acid reactant in the quantity of vapor.
  • a point of exit for vapor and/or a point of exit for liquid reactants and/or products will be provided.
  • reactor(s) may be a sequence(s) of back-mixed vessels, wherein the reaction mixture from one vessel constitutes the feed for a further vessel. In some embodiments, there is a combination of vessels and material is exchanged between them.
  • the exchange of material between vessels in a combination is sufficiently rapid that a main flow of material into and/or out of the combination of vessels does not prevent the combination from acting as a single fully-back-mixed or partially-back-mixed vessel.
  • Other embodiments may include horizontal or vertical vessels of large ratio of length to cross-sectional linear dimension (i.e., pipes and columns) through which the reacting material flows and in which identified portions of the material pass any point along the length in approximately the same order as at any other point (commonly known as "plug flow").
  • the temperature of the reactor(s) and/or reaction vessels may be controlled. In some embodiments, the temperature of the reactor(s) and/or reaction vessels can be controlled to provide zones or regions of differing temperature. In some embodiments, heat energy may be supplied along the length of the vessel(s) to conduct the oligomerization and/or to improve flow of material within the vessel(s) by decreasing the viscosity of reactants and/or products.
  • the reactor and/or reaction vessels may have the character that material introduced in the reactor and/or reaction vessels will pass from a first region where introduced in the reactor to increasing distal regions by flow and/or transport in a liquid and/or vapor state.
  • the reactor and/or reaction vessel is a pipe or column optionally provided with one or more partial barriers which allow passage of fluid in the desired directions.
  • the passage of fluid in directions other than the desired direction can be prevented or lessened by one or more partial barriers which allow passage of fluid in a desired direction, but which largely prevent back-flow of fluid.
  • the reactor may comprise vessels incorporating large vertical surfaces, down which the reaction mixture flows and reacts. Vessels may, for example, in certain embodiments be designed to increase the available surface area relative to that available on flat or simple curved surfaces.
  • hybrid batch-continuous systems may be used, where at least a part of the process is carried out in each mode.
  • the feed material is prepared in batches and fed continuously to a continuous reactor, and/or the product of the continuous reactor is further processed as individual batches.
  • the process is conducted in a semi-continuous reactor wherein both periodical and continuous charging of the reactor with reactants is combined with only periodic discharge of resulting product.
  • a semi-continuous reactor wherein both periodical and continuous charging of the reactor with reactants is combined with only periodic discharge of resulting product.
  • one or more initial reactants is charged in full, while a second or further reactant is only supplied gradually until the one or more initial reactants is exhausted.
  • semi-continuous reactors can comprise periodic discharge of the product or a mixture of product and reactants when a particular degree of completion has been attained.
  • the degree of completion for a semi-continuous reactor may be 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100%.
  • FIG. 1 illustrates exemplary process system 100, which includes continuous stirred tank reactor 102 and separation unit 104.
  • Reactor 102 may be equipped with paddle stirrer 108 and, optionally, a heat source, which may or may not be located within the reaction medium.
  • the heat source may be an internal replaceable heat source that comprises a non-fluid heating media. By replaceable, it is meant that the heat source can be replaced without the need to shut down the equipment to remove if a heater burns out. In some embodiments, for example, there can be an internal heater located centrally to the reactor.
  • the heat source for reactor 102 may be in the form of an external jacket through which hot oil, warm water, or steam which may or may not be saturated, may be used to heat the reactor vessel.
  • continuous processes may be performed by introducing one or more fatty acid reactants and an oligomerization catalyst into reactor 102 via inlet 106.
  • Preparation of the desired estolide oligomer may be controlled by, for example, catalyst content, residence time of the reactants, stir rate, temperature, pressure, or a combination thereof.
  • catalyst content By continuously providing reactants and catalyst to reactor 102, it may be possible to control the size of the oligomer product recovered from the reactor(s) .
  • the oligomer products obtained will be smaller oligomers (e.g., estolides having a lower EN). Resulting oligomers can then be removed from reactor 102 via outlet 132.
  • Opening valve 116 and closing valve 122 will allow for the transport of the oligomer product along conduit 1 10 to a secondary site for storage or, optionally, further processing (e.g., esterification, catalyst removal or recovery, or continued oligomerization). If desired, opening valve 1 14 and closing valve 1 16 will allow for the return of the oligomers and/or fatty acids to reactor 102 via conduit 1 12 for further oligomerization. Accordingly, in certain embodiments the continuous process comprises oligomerizing the reactants to form one or more first estolides. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the one or more first estolides is removed from the reactor.
  • At least a portion of the one or more first estolides is transferred back to the reactor, or to a secondary reactor, for continued oligomerization to provide one or more second estolides.
  • the one or more second estolides have an EN that is greater than the EN of the one or more first estolides.
  • the size of the estolides may be increased by increasing the residence time of the reactants in reactor 102, or by removing and subsequently returning a portion of the oligomers to the reactor for further processing.
  • opening valve 122 and closing valve 1 16 allows for the transfer of the estolides to separation unit 104 via inlet 124.
  • Separation unit 104 may be used to separate the estolides into two or more groups of varying size. Separation unit 104 may implement any suitable separation technique, including distillation, phase separation,
  • separation unit 104 may comprise a structure that is substantially similar to that of column reactor 200. Smaller oligomers (lower EN) may be transferred out of separation unit 104 via outlet 120, while larger oligomers (larger EN) can be removed via outlet 128.
  • the processes described herein comprise transferring estolides from the reactor to a separation unit for separation into one or more estolide products.
  • the one or more estolide products can be transferred from separation unit 104 to one or more secondary reactors for further processing (e.g., esterification, oligomerization) or may be transferred to storage.
  • the reactor(s) or reaction vessels relate to column reactors.
  • Exemplary reactors for the processes described herein may also include column reactors (e.g., vertical column reactors), and plug flow reactors. While a number of column reactors
  • FIG. 2 illustrates a column reactor useful for the processes for synthesis of estolides according to certain embodiments.
  • Column reactors can either be in a single stage or multiple stage configuration.
  • the column reactor has multiple stages, such as reactor 200, which has five stages (206, 212, 220, 232, and 236). If the reactor is co-current, the reaction mixture (reactants, oligomers, estolides) flow in one direction.
  • the stages are designed to allow smaller materials (fatty acid reactants, smaller oligomers) to flow in a direction opposite to that of larger materials (larger oligomers/estolides). While the process of this reaction can be performed in a single stage reactor, processes comprise the use of at least two stages, and in some embodiments the process described herein comprise the use of at least 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 stages. In certain embodiments, the reactor has 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70 ,80, or 100 stages.
  • the results of the processes described herein may be improved by creating more efficient heat transfer from the column to the reactant(s).
  • this may be accomplished by designing the column wall configuration or by placing good heat transfer materials such as glass beads of optimum surface to volume ratio in each stage of the column. Alternatively, in certain embodiments, it may be accomplished by providing a heat source located within the reaction medium.
  • stages 206, 212, 220, 232, and 236 may represent either a packed bed or a fractioning tray.
  • a stage that is in the form of a packed bed may or may not be composed of a catalyst.
  • separation unit 104 may comprise a structure that is substantially similar to that of reactor 200.
  • a separation unit 104 comprising a structure that is substantially similar to that of reactor 200 may allow for more efficient separation of the estolides prepared in reactor 102.
  • the stages may comprise a packed bed containing a structured or random packing of rings and saddles, or a combination of packed beds and fractioning trays.
  • the process comprises the use of both a continuous stirred tank reactor and a separation column.
  • use of a configuration with both a continuous stirred tank reactor and a separation column may be desirable in circumstances where the oligomerization catalyst is more easily handled in a tank reactor.
  • oligomerization may take place in the column reactor itself.
  • catalyst will be fed into the reactor simultaneously with the fatty acid or oligomer feed stream.
  • the one or more catalysts present in the reactor will be present in the form of one or more packed beds.
  • one or morecatalysts will be fed into a reactor before the fatty acid or oligomer feed enters the reactor.
  • the one or more catalysts will be fed into a reactor after the fatty acid or oligomer feed enters the reactor.
  • the fatty acid and/or oligomer feed streams may be introduced into a reactor and/or into reaction vessels at or near the top, at or near the bottom, or at any other stage within the reactor and/or reaction vessels.
  • the one or more catalysts may be introduced into a reactor and/or into reaction vessels at or near the top, at or near the bottom, or at any other stage within the reactor and/or reaction vessels.
  • an oligomerization catalyst such as a solid support catalyst, may be positioned in reaction stage 212, and optionally in one or more of stages 206, 220, 232, and 236.
  • stage 212 may represent a packed bed structure with one or more theoretical trays that comprises the catalyst.
  • One or more fatty acid reactants are then introduced to reaction stage 212 via conduit 210.
  • the process stream of reactants and/or oligomerized products passes down through the stages.
  • the stages are designed such that the reaction mixture flows downwardly while reactants and smaller oligomers are allowed to flow upwardly back to stage 212 or up to 206. While temperature may be uniform throughout the column, varying the temperature at different stages may allow the operator to control the oligomerization process and isolate estolides of a specific size at each stage. For example, by defining a temperature and pressure at stage 232, all reactants or oligomers that would be a vapor at that condition will vaporize and flow upward through stage 220 thereby leaving only compounds that are liquid at the defined conditions. Reactants and initial oligomerization products within the reactor may flow down into one or more stages, such as stages 220 and 232.
  • stages 220 and 232 By operating stages 220 and 232 at temperatures that are greater than stage 212, it may be possible to isolate estolide oligomers of a specific size, while forcing unreacted reactants and smaller oligomers back up into stage 212 for continued oligomerization.
  • a tray design for stages 220 and 232 allows for the collection of larger estolide products. Perforations in the tray design of barrier 220 (e.g., bubble cap design) would allow for the passage of reactants and smaller oligomers back up into stage 220 from stage 232 and, depending on the temperature of that stage, further passage into the packed bed of stage 212 for continued oligomerization.
  • the process described herein comprises oligomerizing at least one fatty acid reactant in a first reaction stage to provide an initial oligomerized product.
  • at least a portion of the initial oligomerized product is transferred to at least one second reaction stage, wherein the initial oligomerized product is separated into one or more first estolides and one or more second estolides.
  • the one or more second estolides will be larger than the one or more first estolides, wherein the one or more second estolides have an EN that is greater than the one or more first estolides.
  • at least a portion of the one or more first estolides are returned to the first reaction stage for continued oligomerization.
  • the overall conversion to oligomers and extent of oligomerization within the reactor may be controlled by adjusting the number of actual or theoretical trays within the reactor, the temperature and pressure at each stage, the amount of catalyst either fed at each stage or already present in the reactor in the form of a packed bed, and/or the amount of reactants fed at each stage.
  • estolide sizes are increased, it may be possible to separate the products by controlling the temperature and/or pressure of each stage, as larger estolides typically exhibit higher boiling points.
  • larger estolide oligomers by controlling an increase in temperature at each successive stage (e.g., the temperature increases in going from 206 to 212, from 212 to 230, from 230 to 232, and from 232 to 236), larger estolide oligomers (higher EN) may be allowed to pass through further successive stages than smaller oligomers, which may be retained at certain stages and/or returned to earlier stages (e.g., stage 212).
  • the reactor may be designed to produce oligomers of a specific oligomer length which are collected at various stages.
  • stage 220 may be designed to collect medium size oligomers while stage 232 may be designed to collect larger size oligomers (higher EN).
  • one or more conduits may be provided to transfer larger size oligomers from a reactor and/or reaction vessel.
  • a conduit tied into stage 232 may be used to transfer larger size oligomers from the reactor illustrated in Fig. 2.
  • products and/or reactants transferred from a reactor and/or reaction vessel can be subjected to further processing or can be stored for a period of time.
  • the average estolide size can be increased by increasing the average EN of the estolide product.
  • the average EN at a given stage may be controlled by increasing the number of theoretical trays , including where the stage comprises or is in the form of a packed bed catalyst.
  • it may be possible to increase oligomer size in one or more of the subsequent stages by also providing oligomerization catalyst in one or more of stages 212, 220, 232, and 236. In certain embodiments, providing
  • oligomerization catalyst in earlier stages may be accomplished by either adding more catalyst as a feed to one or more of these stages or by providing catalyst in a packed bed design for one or more stages.
  • the process may be operated at less than one atmosphere pressure.
  • application of sub-atmospheric pressure may facilitate removal of smaller oligomers and reactants from lower reaction stages, as well as the removal of any volatile impurities that may be present.
  • Suitable temperatures and pressures may include those previously discussed herein.
  • the conversion from reactants to oligomers may take place in a "plug flow" reactor.
  • a plug flow reactor may be packed with one or more catalyst or the one or more catalyst may enter the reactor with reactants introduced into the reactor.
  • the feed to the reactor may be continuous.
  • conversion of reactants to oligomer product depends on residence time within the reactor. In certain embodiments, residence time within the reactor is a function of reactor length.
  • the extent of oligomerization and/or EN of products can be affected by selection of the one or more catalyst, the amount of catalyst (catalyst loading), the volumetric flow rate of the feed, the length of the reactor, the pressure , the temperature(s) within the reactor, or combinations thereof.
  • suitable oligomerization catalysts may include Lewis acids, Bronsted acids, or combinations thereof, such as those previously described herein.
  • certain catalysts such as Lewis acids and/or solid-supported Bronsted acids, may be desirable for the continuous processes described herein.
  • catalysts such as Fe(OTf) 3 and Bi(OTf)3 may be recovered and reused, including, for example, in subsequent oligomerization processes.
  • montmorillonite and/or zeolite catalysts may be recovered for reuse.
  • oligomerization catalysts such as Amberlyst and Dowex may used by positioning the solid support in one or more stages of a reactor and/or reaction vessel.
  • the present disclosure further relates to methods of making estolides according to Formula I, ⁇ , and HI.
  • the reaction of an unsaturated fatty acid with an organic acid and the esterification of the resulting free acid estolide are illustrated and discussed in the following Schemes I and ⁇ .
  • the present disclosure further relates to catalysts used in methods of making estolides according to Formula I, ⁇ , and HI.
  • the particular structural formulas used to illustrate the reactions correspond to those for synthesis of compounds according to Formula I and ⁇ ; however, the methods apply equally to the synthesis of compounds according to Formula ⁇ , with use of compounds having structure corresponding to R 3 and R4 with a reactive site of unsaturation.
  • compound 100 represents an unsaturated fatty acid that may serve as the basis for preparing the estolide compounds and compositions comprising estolide compounds.
  • unsaturated fatty acid 100 may be combined with compound 102 and a Lewis acid to form free acid estolide 104.
  • unsaturated fatty acid 100 may be exposed alone to Lewis acid conditions to form free acid estolide 104, wherein Ri would represent an unsaturated alkyl group. If compound 102 is included in the reaction, Ri may represent one or more optionally substituted alkyl residues that are saturated or unsaturated and branched or unbranched.
  • any suitable Lewis acid may be implemented to catalyze the formation of free acid estolide 104, including but not limited to triflates, iron compounds, cobalt compounds, nickel compounds, or combinations thereof.
  • other catalysts may be used to catalyze the formation of free acid estolide 102.
  • Bronsted acids in addition to the Lewis acid, or in the alternative to the Lewis acid may be a catalyst.
  • Bronsted acid catalysts include homogenous acids and/or strong acids like hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, perchloric acid, nitric acid, triflic acid, and the like may be used in estolide synthesis.
  • solid-supported acid catalysts such as Amberlyst ® , Dowex ® , and Nafion ® may also be used.
  • free acid estolide 104 may be esterified by any suitable procedure known to those of skilled in the art, such as Lewis acid-catalyzed reduction with alcohol 202, to yield esterified estolide 204.
  • Exemplary methods may include the use of strong Lewis acid catalysts such as BF 3 .
  • Other methods may include the use of triflates, titanium compounds, tin compounds, zirconium compounds, hafnium compounds, or combinations thereof.
  • the estolides described herein may have improved properties which render them useful as base stocks for biodegradable lubricant applications.
  • Such applications may include, without limitation, crankcase oils, gearbox oils, hydraulic fluids, drilling fluids, dielectric fluids, greases two-cycle engine oils, greases, dielectric fluids, and the like.
  • Other suitable uses may include marine applications, where biodegradability and toxicity are of concern.
  • the nontoxic nature certain estolides described herein may also make them suitable for use as lubricants in the cosmetic and food industries.
  • estolide compounds may meet or exceed one or more of the specifications for certain end-use applications, without the need for conventional additives.
  • high-viscosity lubricants such as those exhibiting a kinematic viscosity of greater than about 120 cSt at 40 °C, or even greater than about 200 cSt at 40 °C, may be desirable for particular applications such as gearbox or wind turbine lubricants.
  • Prior-known lubricants with such properties typically also demonstrate an increase in pour point as viscosity increases, such that prior lubricants may not be suitable for such applications in colder environments.
  • the counterintuitive properties of certain compounds described herein may make higher- viscosity estolides particularly suitable for such specialized applications.
  • low-viscosity oils may include those exhibiting a viscosity of lower than about 50 cSt at 40 °C, or even about 40 cSt at 40 °C. Accordingly, in certain embodiments, the low-viscosity estolides described herein may provide end users with a suitable alternative to high-viscosity lubricants for operation at lower temperatures.
  • estolides described herein may be blended with one or more additives selected from polyalphaolefins, synthetic esters, polyalkylene glycols, mineral oils (Groups I, ⁇ , and ⁇ ), pour point depressants, viscosity modifiers, anti-corrosives, antiwear agents, detergents, dispersants, colorants, antifoaming agents, and demulsifiers.
  • the estolides described herein may be co-blended with one or more synthetic or petroleum-based oils to achieve the desired viscosity and/or pour point profiles.
  • certain estolides described herein also mix well with gasoline, so that they may be useful as fuel components or additives.
  • the compounds described may be useful alone, as mixtures, or in combination with other compounds, compositions, and/or materials.
  • NMR spectra were collected using a Bruker Avance 500 spectrometer with an absolute frequency of 500.113 MHz at 300 K using CDC1 3 as the solvent. Chemical shifts were reported as parts per million from tetramethylsilane. The formation of a secondary ester link between fatty acids, indicating the formation of estolide, was verified with ⁇ NMR by a peak at about 4.84 ppm.
  • Estolide Number The EN was measured by GC analysis. It should be understood that the EN of a composition specifically refers to EN characteristics of any estolide compounds present in the composition. Accordingly, an estolide composition having a particular EN may also comprise other components, such as natural or synthetic additives,other non-estolide base oils, fatty acid esters, e.g., triglycerides, and/or fatty acids, but the EN as used herein, unless otherwise indicated, refers to the value for the estolide fraction of the estolide composition.
  • Iodine Value is a measure of the degree of total unsaturation of an oil. IV is expressed in terms of centigrams of iodine absorbed per gram of oil sample. Therefore, the higher the iodine value of an oil the higher the level of unsaturation is of that oil.
  • the rv may be measured and/or estimated by GC analysis.
  • a composition includes unsaturated compounds other than estolides as set forth in Formula I, ⁇ , and ⁇
  • the estolides can be separated from other unsaturated compounds present in the composition prior to measuring the iodine value of the constituent estolides. For example, if a composition includes unsaturated fatty acids or triglycerides comprising unsaturated fatty acids, these can be separated from the estolides present in the composition prior to measuring the iodine value for the one or more estolides.
  • Acid Value is a measure of the total acid present in an oil. Acid value may be determined by any suitable titration method known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, acid values may be determined by the amount of KOH that is required to neutralize a given sample of oil, and thus may be expressed in terms of mg KOH/g of oil.
  • GC analysis was performed to evaluate the estolide number (EN) and iodine value (IV) of the estolides. This analysis was performed using an Agilent 6890N series gas chromatograph equipped with a flame-ionization detector and an autosampler/injector along with an SP-2380 30 m x 0.25 mm i.d. column.
  • Measuring EN and IV by GC To perform these analyses, the fatty acid components of an estolide sample were reacted with MeOH to form fatty acid methyl esters by a method that left behind a hydroxy group at sites where estolide links were once present. Standards of fatty acid methyl esters were first analyzed to establish elution times.
  • EN Calculation The EN is measured as the percent hydroxy fatty acids divided by the percent non-hydroxy fatty acids. As an example, a dimer estolide would result in half of the fatty acids containing a hydroxy functional group, with the other half lacking a hydroxyl functional group. Therefore, the EN would be 50% hydroxy fatty acids divided by 50% non- hydroxy fatty acids, resulting in an EN value of 1 that corresponds to the single estolide link between the capping fatty acid and base fatty acid of the dimer.
  • MW f molecular weight of the fatty compound
  • pour point is measured by ASTM Method D97-96a
  • cloud point is measured by ASTM Method D2500
  • viscosity/kinematic viscosity is measured by ASTM Method D445-97
  • viscosity index is measured by ASTM Method D2270-93 (Reapprovd 1998)
  • specific gravity is measured by ASTM Method D4052
  • flash point is measured by ASTM Method D92
  • evaporative loss is measured by ASTM Method D5800
  • vapor pressure is measured by ASTM Method D5191
  • acute aqueous toxicity is measured by Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 203.
  • HPLC Analysis of Estolide Products To analyze the % formation of estolides from the processes described herein, HPLC may be used to determine the AUC (area under curve) for the estolide products.
  • Sample Preparation Take a few drops of estolide sample and mix it with about 2-3 mL of hexane along with some pH 5 buffer (sodium phosphate, 500g per 4L) and thoroughly mix it. Remove the pH 5 buffer. Dry the sample with sodium sulfate. Take a few drops of the dried sample (amount depends on response of detector) and add it to a vial along with 1.75 mL of hexane. Sample is then ready for HPLC analysis.
  • pH 5 buffer sodium phosphate, 500g per 4L
  • the acid catalyst reaction was conducted in a 50 gallon Pfaudler RT-Series glass-lined reactor. Oleic acid (65Kg, OL 700, Twin Rivers) was added to the reactor with 70% perchloric acid (992.3 mL, Aldrich Cat# 244252) and heated to 60°C in vacuo (10 torr abs) for 24 hrs while continuously being agitated. After 24 hours the vacuum was released. 2-Ethylhexanol (29.97 Kg) was then added to the reactor and the vacuum was restored. The reaction was allowed to continue under the same conditions (60°C, 10 torr abs) for 4 more hours.
  • KOH (645.58 g) was dissolved in 90% ethanol/water (5000 mL, 90% EtOH by volume) and added to the reactor to quench the acid. The solution was then allowed to cool for approximately 30 minutes. The contents of the reactor were then pumped through a 1 micron ( ⁇ ) filter into an accumulator to filter out the salts. Water was then added to the accumulator to wash the oil. The two liquid phases were thoroughly mixed together for approximately 1 hour. The solution was then allowed to phase separate for approximately 30 minutes. The water layer was drained and disposed of. The organic layer was again pumped through a 1 ⁇ filter back into the reactor. The reactor was heated to 60°C in vacuo ( 10 torr abs) until all ethanol and water ceased to distill from solution.
  • the reactor was then heated to 100°C in vacuo (10 torr abs) and that temperature was maintained until the 2-ethylhexanol ceased to distill from solution.
  • the remaining material was then distilled using a Myers 15 Centrifugal Distillation still at 200°C under an absolute pressure of approximately 12 microns (0.012 torr) to remove all monoester material leaving behind estolides.
  • Example 3 Catalysts recovered in Example 3 are recycled and tested for their ability to again convert fatty acid reactants into estolide products. Reaction conditions are substantially similar to those set forth in Example 2. The crude reaction products are then filtered and subjected to NMR analysis to confirm the formation of the estolide product. HPLC analysis is then used to determine the overall yield of the estolide product.
  • Example 7 Catalyst recovery for the Sn(0 2 CC0 2 ) reactions set forth in Example 5 is tested. Upon removal of the excess alcohol, the Sn(0 2 CC0 2 ) precipitates from solution. The precipitated catalysts is then filtered and dried. The activity of the recovered catalyst is then tested by subjecting it to a synthetic procedure substantially similar to that set forth in Example 5.
  • Example 7
  • Estolides will be prepared according to the method set forth in Examples 1 and 5, except the 2-ethylhexanol esterifying alcohol is replaced with various other alcohols, including those identified below in Table7:
  • Cio alkanol n-decanyl and other structural
  • Ci3 alkanol n-tridecanyl and other structural features
  • Ci5 alkanol n-pentadecanyl Ci5 alkanol n-pentadecanyl
  • Ci7 alkanol n-heptadecanyl Ci7 alkanol n-heptadecanyl
  • Ci8 alkanol n-octadecanyl and other structural
  • a process of producing an estolide base oil comprising: providing at least one first fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant, and a Lewis acid catalyst; and oligomerizing the at least one first fatty acid reactant with the at least one second fatty acid reactant in the presence of the Lewis acid catalyst to produce an estolide base oil.
  • the at least one first fatty acid reactant is selected from one or more unsaturated fatty acids, one or more unsaturated fatty acid oligomers, and combinations thereof.
  • second fatty acid reactant is selected from saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, saturated and unsaturated fatty acid oligomers, and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is selected from AgOTf, Cu(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf)3, NaOTf, LiOTf, Yb(OTf) 3 , Y(OTf) 3 , Zn(OTf) 2 , Ni(OTf) 2 , Bi(OTf) 3 , La(OTf) 3) Sc(OTf) 3 , and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is selected from Fe(OTf)3, Bi(OTf) 3 , Cu(OTf) 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • Lewis acid catalyst is selected from Co(acac) 3 , CoCl 3 , NiCl 2 , Ni(acac) 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • the Bronsted acid is selected from hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, perchloric acid, triflic acid, p-TsOH, and combinations thereof.
  • the Bronsted acid is a solid-supported acid.
  • esterification catalyst is selected from a Bronsted acid esterification catalyst, a Lewis acid esterification catalyst, and combinations thereof.
  • catalyst is selected from hydrochloric acid, sulfamic acid, methylsulfamic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, perchloric acid, triflic acid, p-TsOH, and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid esterification catalyst is selected from AgOTf, Cu(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf) 3 , NaOTf, LiOTf, Yb(OTf) 3 , Y(OTf) 3 , Zn(OTf) 2 , Ni(OTf) 2 , Bi(OTf) 3 , La(OTf) 3 , Sc(OTf) 3 , and combinations thereof.
  • esterification catalyst is Bi(OTf) 3 .
  • esterification catalyst is at least one metal compound selected from titanium compounds, tin compounds, zirconium compounds, and hafnium compounds, and combinations thereof.
  • Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one titanium compound selected from TiCl 4 , Ti(OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH3)4, and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one titanium compound selected from TiCl 4 , Ti(OCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH3)4, and combinations thereof.
  • Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one tin compound selected from Sn(0 2 CC0 2 ), SnO, SnCl 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • the Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one zirconium compound selected from ZrCl 4 , ZrOCl 2 , ZrO(N0 3 ) 2 , ZrO(S0 4 ), ZrO(CH 3 COO) 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • Lewis acid esterification catalyst is selected from ZrOCl 2 -8H 2 0 and ZrOCl 2 -2THF.
  • Lewis acid esterification catalyst is at least one hafnium compound selected from HfCl 2 , HfOCl 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • a continuous process of producing an estolide base oil comprising: providing at least one first fatty acid reactant, at least one second fatty acid reactant, and an oligomerization catalyst; and continuously oligomerizing the at least one first fatty acid reactant with the at least one second fatty acid reactant in the presence of the oligomerization catalyst to produce an estolide base oil.
  • the process according to claim 63 further comprising transferring at least a portion of the one or more first estolides that have been removed back to the reactor or to a secondary reactor for continued oligomerization, wherein said continued oligomerization provides one or more second estolides.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is a inflate.
  • the Lewis acid catalyst is selected from AgOTf, Cu(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf) 2 , Fe(OTf) 3 , NaOTf, LiOTf, Yb(OTf) 3 , Y(OTf) 3 , Zn(OTf) 2 , Ni(OTf)2, Bi(OTf) 3 , La(OTf) 3 , Sc(OTf 3 , and combinations thereof.
  • Lewis acid catalyst is selected from Fe(OTf) 3 , Bi(OTf) 3 , Cu(OTf) 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • Lewis acid catalyst is selected from Co(acac) 3 , CoCl 3 , NiCl 2 , Ni(acac) 2 , and combinations thereof.
  • Bronsted acid is selected from hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, perchloric acid, triflic acid, p-TsOH, and combinations thereof.
  • a process of producing a carboxylic acid ester comprising: providing at least one carboxylic acid reactant, at least one olefin, and a Bismuth catalyst; and reacting the at least one carboxylic acid reactant with the at least one olefin in the presence of the Bismuth catalyst to produce a carboxylic acid ester.

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