EP1117901B1 - Procede de commande d'un appareil de forage horizontal - Google Patents

Procede de commande d'un appareil de forage horizontal Download PDF

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Publication number
EP1117901B1
EP1117901B1 EP99953710A EP99953710A EP1117901B1 EP 1117901 B1 EP1117901 B1 EP 1117901B1 EP 99953710 A EP99953710 A EP 99953710A EP 99953710 A EP99953710 A EP 99953710A EP 1117901 B1 EP1117901 B1 EP 1117901B1
Authority
EP
European Patent Office
Prior art keywords
boring
control
lance
drilling
horizontal
Prior art date
Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
Expired - Lifetime
Application number
EP99953710A
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German (de)
English (en)
Other versions
EP1117901A1 (fr
Inventor
Andreas Jacubasch
Helge-Björn KUNTZE
Hans-Joachim Bayer
Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.)
Fraunhofer Gesellschaft zur Forderung der Angewandten Forschung eV
Original Assignee
Fraunhofer Gesellschaft zur Forderung der Angewandten Forschung eV
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Filing date
Publication date
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Publication of EP1117901A1 publication Critical patent/EP1117901A1/fr
Application granted granted Critical
Publication of EP1117901B1 publication Critical patent/EP1117901B1/fr
Anticipated expiration legal-status Critical
Expired - Lifetime legal-status Critical Current

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Classifications

    • EFIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21EARTH OR ROCK DRILLING; MINING
    • E21BEARTH OR ROCK DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B7/00Special methods or apparatus for drilling
    • E21B7/04Directional drilling
    • EFIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21EARTH OR ROCK DRILLING; MINING
    • E21BEARTH OR ROCK DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B44/00Automatic control systems specially adapted for drilling operations, i.e. self-operating systems which function to carry out or modify a drilling operation without intervention of a human operator, e.g. computer-controlled drilling systems; Systems specially adapted for monitoring a plurality of drilling variables or conditions
    • EFIXED CONSTRUCTIONS
    • E21EARTH OR ROCK DRILLING; MINING
    • E21BEARTH OR ROCK DRILLING; OBTAINING OIL, GAS, WATER, SOLUBLE OR MELTABLE MATERIALS OR A SLURRY OF MINERALS FROM WELLS
    • E21B2200/00Special features related to earth drilling for obtaining oil, gas or water
    • E21B2200/22Fuzzy logic, artificial intelligence, neural networks or the like
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10STECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10S706/00Data processing: artificial intelligence
    • Y10S706/90Fuzzy logic
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10STECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10S706/00Data processing: artificial intelligence
    • Y10S706/902Application using ai with detail of the ai system
    • Y10S706/903Control
    • Y10S706/904Manufacturing or machine, e.g. agricultural machinery, machine tool
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10STECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10S706/00Data processing: artificial intelligence
    • Y10S706/902Application using ai with detail of the ai system
    • Y10S706/911Nonmedical diagnostics
    • Y10S706/912Manufacturing or machine, e.g. agricultural machinery, machine tool
    • YGENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
    • Y10STECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y10S706/00Data processing: artificial intelligence
    • Y10S706/902Application using ai with detail of the ai system
    • Y10S706/928Earth science

Definitions

  • the present invention relates to a method to control a horizontal drilling machine, the one Drilling lance drives over a drill pipe, the Drilling lance an asymmetrically beveled hollow drill head having nozzles for a rinsing liquid, and at which the boring head during the feed movement smooth rotation almost straight and without Rotation on a cam track moves, their orientation by the set roll angle of the drilling lance given is.
  • the present invention relates to Horizontal drilling processes, such as those from H.-J. Bayer, "Principles of Controllable Horizontal Rinse Drilling", 3R international, vol. 30 (1991), No. 9, pp. 511-517.
  • a rinsing liquid such as, for example, is sprayed through nozzles Bentonite is pumped with the help of a piece screwed drill pipe at an angle into the ground pressed.
  • Bentonite is pumped with the help of a piece screwed drill pipe at an angle into the ground pressed.
  • the drill guide receives his Information about the current position and location of the Drilling head from corresponding measuring sensors on the drilling head.
  • Horizontal drilling rigs have a robust one for this high-resolution sensors that constantly provide orientation the drill head with respect to a fixed coordinate system by measuring roll angle, azimuth and Inclination of the drill head measures. From the current The length of the drill string can be linked with the previous changes in the angle of the drill head also the current Cartesian position of the Determine the drill head.
  • the drilling head can also the load moment of the Drill pipe as well as the pressure of a flushed Drilling fluid can be detected by sensors.
  • the movement behavior of the drill head is very complex and strongly depends on the current environment of the drill head, in particular the consistency, the structure and the degree of compaction of the soil material. Because of this complexity, a high drilling quality requires a high degree of skill from the drill operator. In this case, drilling quality is to be understood as the most exact adherence to the specified drilling course while avoiding collisions. If necessary, the drill operator must derive a correction of the feed rate, the rotation or the angle of rotation from the respective current orientation and position values transmitted by the sensors, and must take into account the current behavior of the drill head in his corrections. The correct operation of such a horizontal drilling machine therefore requires long training and a lot of experience with regard to the different underground behavior of the drilling machine.
  • a horizontal drilling machine is known from EP 0 598 139 A1 known that after a completely different Principle under completely different tax conditions is working. Unlike the horizontal drilling rigs, to which the present invention relates the drill head of the drilling rig of this publication Cut up that according to a conventional one Drilling process is rotated. The entire linkage of this Drilling device is constructed in a straight line, with a target drilling direction is specified via a laser beam. The drilling process can essentially be done with this drill done only in a straight line in one direction. A slight deviation from that caused by the laser beam given direction is using a fuzzy controller corrected. A tax opportunity for the There is no drilling on a cam track. The simpler form of movement as well as the completely different Movement dynamics of the drill with the document the associated much easier controllability compared to one type of horizontal drilling rig, to which the present invention relates rule it out that this document to the solution contributes to the above problem.
  • WO 97/31175 A relates to a pile driver for a Mole that was driven into the ground via a hammer mill becomes.
  • the drive head of the device is neither bevelled on one side and still rotating. The procedure to control this device can therefore not Contribute to solving the above problem.
  • the object of the present invention is therein, a method for controlling a horizontal drilling machine to indicate with a bevelled drill head that without the intervention of an experienced drill operator Drilling head automatically as precisely as possible on a preprogrammed Holds course and the target point independently of fluctuations in soil consistency as accurately as possible reached.
  • the drilling process should continue as possible take little time.
  • the drilling lance having an asymmetrically chamfered hollow drilling head with nozzles for a flushing liquid, in which the drilling head moves approximately linearly and without rotation on a curved path during the feed movement with uniform rotation moved, the orientation of which is given by the set rolling angle ⁇ xL of the drilling lance, actual values of control variables of the horizontal drilling machine are first measured, which include at least the rolling angle ⁇ xL , the inclination ⁇ yL and the azimuth ⁇ zL of the drilling lance.
  • Control signals for controlling at least the feed rate of the drill string and the angular position ⁇ x1 of a rotary motor for the drill string are determined from the actual values of the controlled variables and setpoints for the controlled variables, taking into account heuristic process values, using fuzzy logic, and the horizontal drilling machine is controlled with the control signals.
  • the controller for the horizontal drilling machine has an input interface for receiving actual values of controlled variables of the horizontal drilling machine.
  • control variables can be the roll angle, inclination and azimuth of the drill head as well as the current position of the drill head determined from these variables and the propulsion.
  • an output unit is provided which outputs the control signals for controlling the horizontal drilling machine.
  • the fuzzy controller is located between the input interface and the output unit. It determines the control signals from the actual values and the target values for the controlled variables by means of fuzzy logic, taking heuristic process values into account.
  • the heuristic process values are based, for example, on the experience of a long-time drill operator and contain an engineering description of the movement behavior of the drill head through blurred "if - then" relations to link the actual and target values with the corresponding control signals. This makes it possible to convert know-how gained over many years in the manual control of boring heads into an automatic control. This is particularly advantageous in the case of the control of the present horizontal drilling rigs, because the behavior of the drilling head largely eludes a physical - analytical description by means of dynamic models due to the various influence options.
  • the actual values of the controlled variables are measured by sensors that are attached to the drill head or the drill lance. Additional sensors can be provided, for example, on the drill pipe for determining the propulsion and the angle of rotation or the rotational speed of the pipe.
  • the process for controlling the horizontal drilling machine enables the drilling process to be carried out automatically with a high degree of accuracy.
  • the drill head can be kept very tight on the pre-programmed course regardless of fluctuations in soil properties.
  • the control thus enables the drilling process to be carried out independently of the use of an experienced drill guide. This eliminates fatigue-related fluctuations in the drilling speed and drilling accuracy, so that the drilling process can be completed in a shorter time.
  • the performance of the control system has already been demonstrated in test drilling.
  • the actual value itself is not subjected to the fuzzy control, but rather the difference between the actual value and the target value.
  • an optimization tool is used which is based on a neural network (NN).
  • NN neural network
  • the optimizing fuzzy controller is provided with an NN learning component. This consists of an adaptable NN model of the fuzzy controller and an NN model of the controlled system.
  • the NN controller model is now trained with representative training trajectories, for example with the target trajectory, until the model-actual trajectory can no longer be improved with respect to a selectable quality index.
  • the optimized fuzzy parameters are now loaded into the controller hardware. Then the automatic mode, i.e. the automatic control of the horizontal drilling machine, can begin.
  • the control for the horizontal drilling rig is preferably by a digital signal processor (DSP) implemented in which the fuzzy controller is implemented is.
  • DSP digital signal processor
  • This DSP is preferably coupled to a PC, via which any parameters can be entered.
  • the horizontal drilling system consists of a drilling lance 1 with a navigation sensor and a drill pipe 2 to which the drilling lance is attached.
  • the drill pipe is driven by a so-called Rig 3.
  • Reference numeral 4 indicates the floor area in which the drilling is to be carried out.
  • the horizontal drilling system is controlled via the fuzzy course control 7 with the support of an additional servo control 6.
  • the horizontal drilling rig used in this example is equipped with a rig that exerts a tensile force of 120 kN on the driving axis 5.
  • the drill pipe 2 is controlled with the drilling lance 1 at the tip using the rig.
  • the drill pipe 2 can be rotated about its longitudinal axis and, on the other hand, can be advanced in a translatory manner. These two degrees of freedom can be controlled independently of each other and allow targeted control of the drilling operation along a specified target route.
  • the drilling lance 1 has an asymmetrically shaped drilling tip, which is constructed like an asymmetrical wedge. In this way, the drilling process can be influenced in a targeted manner.
  • the outlet nozzles for the drilling fluid for example bentonite, can be arranged asymmetrically on the drilling lance, so that an asymmetrical solution of the soil is made possible directly in front of the drilling lance.
  • the horizontal drilling rig with this equipment if there are no other serious interferences ground control, two control modes.
  • the The current circular path of the drilling process depends on the first Approximation only from the set fixed Roll angle of the drilling lance 1, which is a very important one Represents process variable.
  • the control room of the drilling lance is in Figure 2 spatially for all possible roll angles shown. Mathematically this results in a torus with an inner radius of approximately 0 and one Outside radius of the order of 10 to 160 m lies. This outer radius depends on the soil physical parameters, the material of the Drill pipe, the mechanical form of the drilling lance and the set drilling process parameters on Horizontal drilling machine.
  • the Oil flow for the hydraulics is centralized Pressure pump generated.
  • the oil flow for the individual Hydraulic circuits is also using proportional valves electrical control electronics by means of mechanical Electrically operated lever.
  • the proportional valves have the property that they are independent of the oil flow of attacking disturbing forces and thus for the corresponding hydraulic circuit the speed set proportional to the valve position.
  • the drilling fluid is provided via a supply truck.
  • the system's actuators are three independent of each other adjustable hydraulic proportional valves, which are both manual and electrical (via electromagnetic Components) can be provided.
  • the valves are actuated in the present case Example of an analog interface card in the Control.
  • the hydraulic valves can also be operate manually.
  • a navigation sensor with a length of approx. 3 m and a weight of approx. 50 - 100 kg is mounted on the drilling lance, which has the three angle values ⁇ xL (roll angle of the lance), ⁇ yL (azimuth angle of the lance) and ⁇ xL ( Inclination angle of the lance) in a fixed world coordinate system (x L , y L , z L ). From these three angle values, the three-dimensional course of the drilling lance can be calculated in x, y, z world coordinates using the also measured propulsion.
  • two angle encoders are provided to record the position of the propulsion (x 1 ) and the roll angle ( ⁇ x1 ) on the rig.
  • the hydraulic pressures for propulsion and rotation as well as the bentonite pressure for drilling fluid are recorded using three pressure sensors.
  • a tachometer (frequency measurement) is used to measure the speed of rotation of the bentonite hydraulic motor. From Figure 1 further physical measured variables can be seen, which can optionally be recorded and included in the control. This applies in particular to the adjustment of the bentonite flow rate Q B and the pressure of the bentonite / water suspension P B.
  • the torque M x1 of the drill string can be detected.
  • Preferred control variables are the translatory path of the push cylinder (x1), the angular position of the rotary motor for the drill pipe ( ⁇ x1 ) and the volume flow of the bentonite / water suspension (Q B ).
  • FIG. 3 An example of the structure of the control of the presented horizontal drilling machine for automatic Course control of the drilling process is in Figure 3 shown.
  • the fuzzy control concept is based on one PC 8 in connection with a fast signal processor 10 implemented, the sensor and control side with the horizontal drilling machine is coupled. For coupling becomes a hardware and software interface adaptation created.
  • the control thus includes one Standard PC 8 with the appropriate software for operation and observing the drilling process.
  • Core of control is a digital signal processor system (DSP) 10, which is connected to the PC 8 by a PC bus 9 is.
  • DSP 10 controls the drilling process.
  • a hardware interface 11 with connection cable and distribution box between PC 8 and the Horizontal drilling system 12 is used for bidirectional Data exchange between the digital control and the Boring.
  • the control also includes a D / A converter 13, an A / D converter 14 and one Counter card 15. Be via the hardware interface 11 the actuators shown at the beginning, that is hydraulic proportional valves to control the Lance feed speed, the lance roll angle and the bentonite flow. Here is a servo control is also provided.

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  • Geology (AREA)
  • Life Sciences & Earth Sciences (AREA)
  • Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • Mining & Mineral Resources (AREA)
  • Environmental & Geological Engineering (AREA)
  • Fluid Mechanics (AREA)
  • Physics & Mathematics (AREA)
  • General Life Sciences & Earth Sciences (AREA)
  • Geochemistry & Mineralogy (AREA)
  • Earth Drilling (AREA)
  • Feedback Control In General (AREA)
  • Excavating Of Shafts Or Tunnels (AREA)
  • Drilling And Boring (AREA)

Claims (8)

  1. Procédé à commander un outillage de sondage horizontal entraínant une lance de sondage (1) via un train de tiges (2), à ladite lance de sondage (1) comprenant une tête de forage creuse à chanfreinage asymétrique, munie de tuyères pour un fluide de lavage, dans lequel
    ladite tête de forage réalise un mouvement approximativement linéaire au cours du mouvement d'avancement, à rotation régulière, et sans rotation le long d'un chemin incurvé dont l'orientation est donnée par l'angle de roulis XL de ladite lance de sondage,
    des valeurs réelles des grandeurs réglées de l'outillage de sondage horizontal sont mesurées, qui comprennent au moins l'angle de roulis XL, l'inclination YL et l'azimut ZL de ladite lance de sondage (1),
    des signaux de commande à commander au moins la vitesse d'avancement dudit train de tiges (2) et la position angulaire X1 d'un moteur tournant ledit train de tiges (2) sont établis en les dérivant des valeurs réelles des grandeurs réglées et des valeurs prescrites pour les grandeurs réglées, en considération des valeurs opératoires heuristiques moyennant une logique floue, et
    l'outillage de sondage horizontal est commandé moyennant lesdits signaux de commande.
  2. Procédé selon la revendication 1,
    caractérisé en ce que la différence entre lesdits valeurs réelles et prescrites est soumise à une opération à logique floue, et en ce que lesdits signaux de commande en sont dérivés.
  3. Procédé selon la revendication 1 ou 2,
    caractérisé en ce que lesdites grandeurs réglées comprennent l'orientation et/ou la position de ladite lance de sondage (1).
  4. Procédé selon une quelconque des revendications 1 à 3,
    caractérisé en ce que lesdites grandeurs réglées comprennent la vitesse d'avancement et/ou le couple dudit train de tiges (2).
  5. Procédé selon une quelconque des revendications 1 à 4,
    caractérisé en ce que lesdites grandeurs réglées comprennent le débit en volume et/ou la pression d'un fluide de lavage alimenté à ladite lance de sondage (1).
  6. Procédé selon une quelconque des revendications 1 à 5,
    caractérisé en ce que le système de réglage à logique floue est optimisé avant la première commande de l'outillage de sondage horizontal, en employant un modèle d'un réseau neuronal.
  7. Procédé selon une quelconque des revendications 1 à 6,
    caractérisé en ce que des valeurs prescrites dynamiques sont prédéterminées en tant que valeurs de consigne pour la loi de l'opération de sondage en fonction du temps.
  8. Procédé selon une quelconque des revendications 1 à 7,
    caractérisé en ce que lesdits signaux de commande servent à commander l'avancement et/ou la rotation dudit train de tiges (2) et/ou le débit d'un liquide de lavage y jeté.
EP99953710A 1998-09-23 1999-08-31 Procede de commande d'un appareil de forage horizontal Expired - Lifetime EP1117901B1 (fr)

Applications Claiming Priority (3)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title
DE19843639 1998-09-23
DE19843639 1998-09-23
PCT/DE1999/002797 WO2000017487A1 (fr) 1998-09-23 1999-08-31 Commande pour appareil de forage horizontal

Publications (2)

Publication Number Publication Date
EP1117901A1 EP1117901A1 (fr) 2001-07-25
EP1117901B1 true EP1117901B1 (fr) 2003-12-03

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EP99953710A Expired - Lifetime EP1117901B1 (fr) 1998-09-23 1999-08-31 Procede de commande d'un appareil de forage horizontal

Country Status (5)

Country Link
US (1) US6772134B1 (fr)
EP (1) EP1117901B1 (fr)
AT (1) ATE255676T1 (fr)
DE (2) DE19941197C2 (fr)
WO (1) WO2000017487A1 (fr)

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US6315062B1 (en) 1999-09-24 2001-11-13 Vermeer Manufacturing Company Horizontal directional drilling machine employing inertial navigation control system and method
US6424919B1 (en) 2000-06-26 2002-07-23 Smith International, Inc. Method for determining preferred drill bit design parameters and drilling parameters using a trained artificial neural network, and methods for training the artificial neural network
CA2357921C (fr) * 2000-09-29 2007-02-06 Baker Hughes Incorporated Methode et appareil utilisant les reseaux neuronaux pour la commande predictive en dynamique de forage
AU2001249000A1 (en) * 2000-10-27 2002-05-06 Vermeer Manufacturing Company Solid-state inertial navigation control system for a horizontal drilling machine
NL1017128C2 (nl) * 2001-01-16 2002-07-17 Brownline B V Boring-opmeetsysteem
EP1608843A1 (fr) * 2003-03-31 2005-12-28 Baker Hughes Incorporated Optimisation de forage en temps reel basee sur des mesures dynamiques mwd
US7730967B2 (en) 2004-06-22 2010-06-08 Baker Hughes Incorporated Drilling wellbores with optimal physical drill string conditions
US20070240599A1 (en) * 2006-04-17 2007-10-18 Owen Oil Tools Lp High density perforating gun system producing reduced debris
WO2010151242A1 (fr) * 2009-06-26 2010-12-29 Atlas Copco Rock Drills Ab Système de commande et appareil de forage de roche
CN102226400B (zh) * 2011-05-31 2012-09-12 中铁隧道装备制造有限公司 预防土压平衡盾构机因摩阻力过大而卡滞的方法及系统
CN102852510B (zh) * 2012-09-07 2016-02-24 三一重型装备有限公司 辅助司钻系统及钻机
US20170130569A1 (en) * 2015-11-10 2017-05-11 Michael Sequino System for forming a horizontal well for environmental remediation and method of operation
CN106986142B (zh) * 2017-01-23 2018-10-19 中国矿业大学 基于拉压力传感器综采面刮板输送机自动调直装置及方法
US10202261B2 (en) 2017-04-18 2019-02-12 Kuwait University Heuristic fuzzy controller for gantry cranes
US11085295B2 (en) * 2019-01-24 2021-08-10 Huaneng Tibet Yarlungzangbo River Hydropower Development Investment Co., Ltd. Tunnel boring robot and remote mobile terminal command system
AU2021364834B2 (en) 2020-10-22 2023-06-15 Terra Sonic International, LLC Sonic-powered methods for horizontal directional drilling
AT525280B1 (de) * 2021-09-07 2023-02-15 Putscher Daniel Verfahren zur Steuerung einer Horizontalbohranlage

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JPH07103781B2 (ja) * 1990-04-19 1995-11-08 株式会社小松製作所 小口径管地中掘進機の操作方法
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DE19707286C1 (de) * 1997-02-24 1998-11-19 Flowtex Technologie Gmbh Vorrichtung und Verfahren zum grabenlosen Verlegen von Steinzeugrohren

Also Published As

Publication number Publication date
DE19941197A1 (de) 2000-04-06
DE59907960D1 (de) 2004-01-15
WO2000017487A1 (fr) 2000-03-30
DE19941197C2 (de) 2003-12-04
EP1117901A1 (fr) 2001-07-25
US6772134B1 (en) 2004-08-03
ATE255676T1 (de) 2003-12-15

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