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  • H10F77/10—Semiconductor bodies
  • H10F77/14—Shape of semiconductor bodies; Shapes, relative sizes or dispositions of semiconductor regions within semiconductor bodies
  • H10F77/146—Superlattices; Multiple quantum well structures
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
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  • H10D62/81—Semiconductor bodies, or regions thereof, of devices having potential barriers characterised by the materials of structures exhibiting quantum-confinement effects, e.g. single quantum wells; of structures having periodic or quasi-periodic potential variation
  • H10D62/812—Single quantum well structures
  • H10D62/814—Quantum box structures
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  • H10F10/00—Individual photovoltaic cells, e.g. solar cells
  • H10F10/10—Individual photovoltaic cells, e.g. solar cells having potential barriers
  • H10F10/14—Photovoltaic cells having only PN homojunction potential barriers
  • H10F10/142—Photovoltaic cells having only PN homojunction potential barriers comprising multiple PN homojunctions, e.g. tandem cells
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  • H10F71/00—Manufacture or treatment of devices covered by this subclass
  • H10F71/121—The active layers comprising only Group IV materials
  • H10F71/1215—The active layers comprising only Group IV materials comprising at least two Group IV elements, e.g. SiGe
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
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  • H10F77/00—Constructional details of devices covered by this subclass
  • H10F77/10—Semiconductor bodies
  • H10F77/16—Material structures, e.g. crystalline structures, film structures or crystal plane orientations
  • H10F77/162—Non-monocrystalline materials, e.g. semiconductor particles embedded in insulating materials
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  • H10F77/00—Constructional details of devices covered by this subclass
  • H10F77/20—Electrodes
  • H10F77/206—Electrodes for devices having potential barriers
  • H10F77/211—Electrodes for devices having potential barriers for photovoltaic cells
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
  • Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy
  • Y02E10/544—Solar cells from Group III-V materials
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
  • Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy
  • Y02E10/547—Monocrystalline silicon PV cells
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02P—CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE PRODUCTION OR PROCESSING OF GOODS
  • Y02P70/00—Climate change mitigation technologies in the production process for final industrial or consumer products
  • Y02P70/50—Manufacturing or production processes characterised by the final manufactured product

Definitions

• the present invention relates generally to the field of photovoltaics and in particular the invention provides a new class of materials and methods for forming thin- film solar cells using those materials.
• the energy available to a carrier in a quantum dot or well spreads into a band of available energies 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 as the extent of the barrier region between wells decreases. Electron conduction within these "mini-bands" then becomes possible.
• the effective bandgap of the resulting material is controlled primarily by the size of the quantum dot or quantum well and the width of the mini-bands and the carrier mobility within these are controlled by the distance between wells.
• Silicon Quantum Dots Several techniques have been demonstrated for the fabrication of silicon quantum dots. Perhaps the most popular is ion implantation of silicon into thermally grown silicon oxides. Subsequent heating causes the excess silicon introduced into the oxide to precipitate out as quantum dots of various sizes. Another technique is the direct preparation of non-stoichiometric silicon dioxide by sputtering or reactive evaporation. Layers containing silicon nanocrystals in an amo ⁇ hous matrix separated by layers of insulating SiO 2 have been prepared by reactive magnetron sputtering using hydrogen reduction to prepare the silicon-rich regions.
• the present invention consists in a an artificial amorphous semiconductor material having a controlled bandgap and mobility comprising a plurality of crystalline semiconductor material quantum dots substantially uniformly distributed and regularly spaced in three dimensions through a matrix of dielectric material or thin layers of dielectric materials wherein the bandgap and mobility of the material are determined by selecting the material parameters including the size of the quantum dots, the composition of the matrix and the semiconductor material of the quantum dots.
• a method of forming an artificial amorphous semiconductor material having a controlled bandgap and mobility comprises; forming a plurality of layers of dielecfric material comprising a compound of a semiconducting material, wherein alternating layers are layers of stoichiometric dielectric material and layers of semiconductor rich dielectric material respectively, and heating the layers of dielectric material to cause quantum dots to form in the semiconductor rich layers of dielectric material whereby they are uniformly distributed and regularly spaced in three dimensions through the dielectric material, wherein the bandgap and mobility are determined by selecting the material parameters including the size of the quantum dots, the composition of the matrix and the semiconductor material of the quantum dots to achieve the desired parameters.
• the present invention consists in a photovoltaic junction comprising an n-type region of artificial amorphous material adjacent a p-type region of artificial amorphous material forming a junction there between, the n-type and p-type artificial amorphous materials being integrally formed as a matrix of dielectric material in which is substantially regularly disbursed a plurality of crystalline semiconductor material quantum dots and wherein the n-type and p-type regions are respectively doped with n-type and p-type dopant atoms.
• a method of forming an artificial amorphous semiconductor material photo voltaic cell comprises; forming a plurality of layers of dielectric material comprising a compound of a semiconducting material, wherein alternating layers are layers of stoichiometric dielectric material and layers of semiconductor rich dielectric material respectively, doping regions of the plurality of layers of dielectric material with p-type and n- type dopants either simultaneously with their formation or subsequently, and heating the layers of dielectric material to cause quantum dots to form in the semiconductor rich layers, wherein the bandgap and mobility are determined by selecting the material parameters including the size of the quantum dots, the composition of the matrix and the semiconductor material of the quantum dots to achieve the desired parameters.
• a region in the vicinity of the junction between the n-type and p-type regions of the artificial amorphous material may be undoped or have a balance of n-type and p- type dopants whereby the region behaves as intrinsic material.
• the quantum dots are distributed in layers throughout the artificial amorphous material and each of the n-type and p-type regions will typically include 20-50 layers of quantum dots and preferably about 25 layers formed by providing that number of each of the alternating stoichiometric and semiconductor rich layers.
• the n-type and p-type regions are typically each in the range of 75 - 200 nm thick and preferably about lOOnm thick.
• each layer of dielectric material with a thickness in the range of 1.5 to 2.5 nm and preferably about 1.9 to 2.1 nm and providing 25 of each of the stoichiometric and semiconductor rich layers (i.e. 50 layers in all) in each of the doped regions to give a cell having a thickness of 150 to 250 and preferably 200 mn thick.
• the dielectric material is preferably silicon oxide, silicon nitride or silicon carbide or a structure including layers of one or more of these materials possibly with layers of other materials included.
• the semiconductor material of the quantum dots is preferably silicon or a silicon alloy such as silicon alloyed with germanium.
• Artificial amorphous material photovoltaic cells may be stacked in tandem with other artificial amorphous material photovoltaic cells and/or cells of more conventional material such as poly crystalline silicon cells.
• the bandgaps of the artificial amorphous material cells are preferably varied from cell to cell (and with respect to any base line silicon cell) whereby each cell is optimised for a different wavelength of incident light on the tandem structure.
• Conventional material may also be used adjacent to an artificial amorphous material layer to assist in connecting to the artificial amorphous material.
• Fig. 1 shows an energy diagram for a Superlattice showing minibands
• Fig. 2 diagrammatically illustrates a superlattice structure formed by deposition of alternating stoichiometric and silicon-rich layers
• Fig. 3 shows the layers of Fig. 2 after high temperature treatment showing crystalline silicon quantum dots
• Figs. 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) illustrate bulk band alignments between crystalline silicon and its carbide, nitride and oxide (estimated) respectively
• Fig. 5 diagrammatically illustrates Quantum dot parameters
• Fig. 1 shows an energy diagram for a Superlattice showing minibands
• Fig. 2 diagrammatically illustrates a superlattice structure formed by deposition of alternating stoichiometric and silicon-rich layers
• Fig. 3 shows the layers of Fig. 2 after high temperature treatment showing crystalline silicon quantum dots
• Figs. 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) illustrate bulk band alignments between crystalline silicon and its
• FIG. 6 diagrammatically illustrates a Quantum dot array formed on a textured surface (not to scale);
• Fig. 7 diagrammatically illustrates a generic tandem cell design based on superlattices of quantum dot material;
• Fig. 8 is an energy diagram of a tunnelling junction connection in a III-N crystalline device;
• Fig. 9 is an energy diagram of a tunnelling junction based on lower bandgap baseline material; and
• Fig. 10 diagrammatically illustrates a device comprising a tandem cell structure fabricated according to the present invention including a base line cell and an artificial amorphous material cell using crystalline silicon on glass (CSG) technology.
• CSG crystalline silicon on glass
• a method for forming an artificial amorphous semiconductor material and fabricating a thin-film tandem solar cell using artificial amorphous semiconductor material will now be described in detail.
• the advantage is that a variable bandgap can be obtained within the same materials system and this materials system is consistent with the exceptional stability and durability of silicon wafer-based product as well as that based on crystalline silicon films on glass.
• the following examples use silicon as the base semiconductor material however the invention ⁇ is applicable to other semiconductor materials such as germanium, gallium arsenide or Indium phosphide.
• alternating layers of stoichiometric silicon oxide, nitride or carbide 21 are interspersed with layers of silicon-rich material 22 of the same type. These layers are formed on a substrate 24 which may be glass, ceramic or other suitable material depending on the particular application.
• a substrate 24 which may be glass, ceramic or other suitable material depending on the particular application.
• crystallisation of the excess silicon occurs in the silicon-rich layers.
• the crystallised regions 23 are approximately spherical of a radius determined by the width of the silicon-rich layer, and approximately uniformly dispersed within this layer.
• Suitable deposition approaches for the layers 21, 22 include physical deposition such as sputtering or evaporation, including these in a reactive ambient, chemical vapour deposition including plasma enhanced processes, or any other suitable processes for depositing the materials involved.
• Suitable heating processes include heating in a suitable furnace, including belt or stepper furnaces, or heating by rapid thermal processes including lamp or laser illumination amongst others.
• Doping of the quantum dots 23 is achieved by incorporating standard silicon dopants during deposition of either type of layer 21, 22. Some of these are incorporated into nearby quantum dots 23, donating or accepting electrons from neighbouring atoms and imparting donor or acceptor properties. Alternatively, regarding dots 23 as artificial atoms, dots that differ chemically from neighbours, such as by the incorporation of Ge, also can give similar donor or acceptor properties. Dopants can also be incorporated into the matrix or diffused into the dots through the matrix after the dots have been formed.
• amorphous silicon carbide, nitride or oxide are ideal matrices to embed the quantum dots 23.
• Bulk band alignments for silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ) and silicon oxide (SiO 2 ) are shown in Figs. 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) respectively. If all dots 23 were the same size, they would act like identical atoms. If close enough to interact, atomic-like levels would broaden out into bands. Those due to confinement within the valence band of the quantum dots would be nearly full, while those due to confinement in the conduction band would be nearly empty.
• the important parameter in determining the degree of interaction between quantum dots is m ⁇ Ed 2 , where m is the bulk effective mass in the respective band of the matrix, ⁇ E is the energy difference between this bulk band and the band formed by quantum dot interaction and d is the spacing between dots. Due to the different values of ⁇ E apparent in Figs. 4(a), (b) and 4(c), the spacing of dots has to be closest in the oxide, followed by the nitride and carbide, in that order.
• m ** is the effective mass in the barrier region.
• an electronic state can be described by the product of a plane wave and a function periodic in the lattice potential.
• a state in the nth mini-band can be described by linear combinations of wavefunctions periodic in the quantum dot spacing multiplied by a plane wave.
• S m measures the penetration of the wavefunction of one well into that of neighbouring wells :
• T Tin measures the overlap of the wavefunction of the central well with that of a neighbouring well:
• T n ft H (z)V 0 (zy ⁇ n (z -d)dz (10)
• Carrier mobility equals ⁇ r j / ⁇ and therefore depends largely on the scattering time, ⁇ , and the transfer integral, T, or equivalently the bandwidth, ⁇ .
• T transfer integral
• a quantum dot structure 21, 22, 23 similar to that seen in Fig. 3 is shown formed on a textured surface of a glass substrate 124.
• the local ordered arrangement of the dots 23 will determine the superlattice properties regardless of the roughness of the surface at optical wavelengths. It has been determined experimentally that the strength of the optical emission processes in related quantum well structures increases as the quantum wells become thinner. This is not unexpected since the quantum-mechanical rules that make these processes weak in bulk materials are relaxed in quantum confined geometries. For silicon-on-glass technology, crystalline layers of 1.6 micron thickness are reported to give good results. The increase in optical strength by confinement depends on experimental details but is of the order of a factor of 10.
• Fig. 7 shows a band structure for a generic tandem solar cell configuration where two artificial amorphous semiconductor cells 111, 112 are illustrated stacked on top of a third artificial amorphous cell 113.
• the artificial amorphus semiconductor cells 111, 112, 113 are quantum dot superlattices fabricated as described herein.
• the dot width is represented by the width of the lows 131 in the upper square wave
• the matrix width (dot spacing) is represented by the high edges 132 in the upper square wave.
• the effective bandgap is represented as the gap between the minibands in the valance bands 114, 116, 118 and the respective conduction bands 115, 117, 119 and increases with increasing quantum confinement (decreasing dot width).
• Interconnection regions 128, 129, 130 between adjacent cells are formed using either a heavily doped tunnelling junction or a highly defected junction.
• a layer of one polarity of the artificial quantum dot material 26 is deposited using the approach described with reference to Fig.
• Each of these quantum dot layers will preferably comprise in the order of 25 layer pairs (i.e. a pair of one stoichiometric layer and one semiconductor rich layer) with each layer pair being in the order of 4nm thick (i.e. 2 nm per individual dielectric layer).
• Each of the artificial quantum dot material layers 26, 27 and 28 are deposited as amorphous stoichiometric or silicon rich dielectric layers by a process such as Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECND) or an other suitable deposition process.
• PECND Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition
• the heating step to form quantum dots may occur immediately or after subsequent processing.
• the cell interconnection layer 28 discussed below, and then either another artificial amorphous material cell or the baseline silicon device.
• the cell behind the first artificial amo ⁇ hous material cell is a base line silicon cell.
• an n + -type silicon layer 29 is deposited over the p + -type interconnection layer 28.
• a p-type silicon layer 31 is then deposited over the n + -type silicon layer 29 and a p + -type silicon layer 32 is deposited over p-type silicon layer 31.
• Each of the silicon layers 29, 31 and 32 are deposited as amo ⁇ hous silicon layers by a process such as Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECVD) or another suitable deposition process.
• PECVD Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition
• the silicon layers can then be crystallised by solid phase crystallisation, possibly during a thermal anneal step.
• the step of crystallising the amo ⁇ hous silicon may also be used to crystallise the quantum dots in the artificial amo ⁇ hous material if the temperature of the preceding process steps has not already caused this to happen.
• the step of crystallising the quantum dots in the artificial amo ⁇ hous material may be completed as part of a further Rapid Thermal Anneal step towards the end of the processing sequence.
• isolation grooves 39 to separate the individual cells, and a dielectric layer 33 is added (such as a layer of organic resin).
• Craters 34 and dimples 35 are then created to expose the front layer 26 and the back layer 32 respectively and a metal layer is formed over the dielectric and extending into the craters and dimples to contact the front layer 26 and rear layer 32. Finally the metal is scribed to form isolation grooves 41, 42 between n-type and p-type contacts while links 43 are left in place to provide series connections between adjacent cells. If a single artificial quantum dot cell is used on top of a silicon baseline device of 1.1 eV bandgap, the optimum bandgap of the quantum dot material is 1.7 eV. If this cell is of the same material quality as the baseline device, a 25-30% increase in performance over that of the baseline device can be obtained.
• Inverse Tandem cells Due to the excellent light-trapping demonstrated by silicon-on-glass and related baseline technologies, novel tandem cell configurations become possible. For example, if sufficiently thin, it is possible to place the low bandgap cell on top of the high- bandgap cell, while still retaining a reasonable fraction of the performance gain. For example, a circa-1.6 eV cell placed behind a baseline cell of 1.0 - 1.5 micron thickness could still boost performance by 20%. Particularly advantageous, in terms of contacting, could be cells where baseline materials are used both at the top and bottom of a stack.
• the simplest 3 -cell stack of this type would have the 1.1 eV baseline top cell of sub-micron thickness, followed by a circa- 1.8 eV bandgap device, followed by a second 1.1 eV sub-micron device and again give a 20% boost, assuming all cells are of a similar quality.
• the required cell thicknesses and bandgaps are a sensitive function of the quality of the light-trapping scheme and are determined by detailed experimentation. It will be appreciated by persons skilled in the art that numerous variations and/or modifications may be made to the invention as shown in the specific embodiments without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention as broadly described. The present embodiments are, therefore, to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive.

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