Classifications

• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K31/00—Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
  • A61K31/185—Acids; Anhydrides, halides or salts thereof, e.g. sulfur acids, imidic, hydrazonic or hydroximic acids
  • A61K31/19—Carboxylic acids, e.g. valproic acid
  • A61K31/192—Carboxylic acids, e.g. valproic acid having aromatic groups, e.g. sulindac, 2-aryl-propionic acids, ethacrynic acid 
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K31/00—Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
  • A61K31/12—Ketones
  • A61K31/122—Ketones having the oxygen directly attached to a ring, e.g. quinones, vitamin K1, anthralin
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K31/00—Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
  • A61K31/21—Esters, e.g. nitroglycerine, selenocyanates
  • A61K31/215—Esters, e.g. nitroglycerine, selenocyanates of carboxylic acids
  • A61K31/216—Esters, e.g. nitroglycerine, selenocyanates of carboxylic acids of acids having aromatic rings, e.g. benactizyne, clofibrate
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
  • A61K31/00—Medicinal preparations containing organic active ingredients
  • A61K31/21—Esters, e.g. nitroglycerine, selenocyanates
  • A61K31/215—Esters, e.g. nitroglycerine, selenocyanates of carboxylic acids
  • A61K31/22—Esters, e.g. nitroglycerine, selenocyanates of carboxylic acids of acyclic acids, e.g. pravastatin
  • A61K31/222—Esters, e.g. nitroglycerine, selenocyanates of carboxylic acids of acyclic acids, e.g. pravastatin with compounds having aromatic groups, e.g. dipivefrine, ibopamine
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P11/00—Drugs for disorders of the respiratory system
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P17/00—Drugs for dermatological disorders
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P19/00—Drugs for skeletal disorders
  • A61P19/06—Antigout agents, e.g. antihyperuricemic or uricosuric agents
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P27/00—Drugs for disorders of the senses
  • A61P27/02—Ophthalmic agents
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P29/00—Non-central analgesic, antipyretic or antiinflammatory agents, e.g. antirheumatic agents; Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs [NSAID]
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P3/00—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P3/00—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism
  • A61P3/04—Anorexiants; Antiobesity agents
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P3/00—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism
  • A61P3/08—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism for glucose homeostasis
  • A61P3/10—Drugs for disorders of the metabolism for glucose homeostasis for hyperglycaemia, e.g. antidiabetics
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P37/00—Drugs for immunological or allergic disorders
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02A—TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02A50/00—TECHNOLOGIES FOR ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE in human health protection, e.g. against extreme weather
  • Y02A50/30—Against vector-borne diseases, e.g. mosquito-borne, fly-borne, tick-borne or waterborne diseases whose impact is exacerbated by climate change

Definitions

• the present invention relates to methods for inhibiting expression of ASC
• the invention relates to methods for the treatment and/or prevention of a disorder mediated by ASC and/or NLRP3, and/or by formation of NLRP3 infiammasome complex by using diacerein or its analogs.
• Pharmaceutical compositions comprising diacerein or its analogs are also provided. Description of the Related Art
• Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors are an evolutionarily conserved family of cytosolic receptors with a tripartite structure that share a common central nucleotide-binding and oligomerization (NACHT) domain that is usually flanked by a C-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain and a N-terminal effector pyrin domain (PYD) or a caspase recruitment domain (CARD).
• NACHT central nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain that is usually flanked by a C-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain and a N-terminal effector pyrin domain (PYD) or a caspase recruitment domain (CARD).
• LRR C-terminal leucine-rich repeat
• PYD N-terminal effector pyrin domain
• CARD caspase recruitment domain
• NLRs Once activated by pathogen-associated molecules or damage-associated molecules, NLRs oligomerize and recruit the adaptor protein ASC and the cysteine protease procaspase-1 and form an inflammasome complex, leading to the autocatalysis and activation of caspase-1. Active caspase-1 ultimately cleaves the precursor proinflammatory cytokines pro-IL- ⁇ and pro-IL-18 into their mature secreted forms.
• inflammasome complex from NLRs has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a wide variety of diseases, including genetically inherited autoinflammatory conditions as well as chronic diseases. In particular, it has been linked to diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, and age-related macular degeneration.
• US Publication No. 2014/0199320 discloses a method for the treatment of acne through inhibition of IL- ⁇ , NLRP3, ASC, IL-1 receptor type 1, caspase-1 or cathepsin B by numerous inhibitors including IL- ⁇ inhibitors.
• IL- ⁇ inhibitors include IL- ⁇ inhibitors.
• it focuses on suppression of IL-1 ⁇ , rather than NLRP3 and ASC, and thus gives little clue on which inhibitors would have direct inhibitory effect on NLRP3 and ASC.
• reagents that target IL- ⁇ and IL-18 have been developed to treat inflammatory diseases, including anakinra (a recombinant IL-1 receptor antagonist), canakinumab (an IL-1 ⁇ antibody), rilonacept (a soluble decoy IL-1 receptor), IL-18 binding protein, soluble IL-18 receptors and anti-IL-18 receptor monoclonal antibodies, but these reagents suppress IL- ⁇ or IL-18, not NLRP3 and ASC.
• diacerein and its analogs are excellent inhibitors of the expression of ASC and NLRs (especially NLRP3), and accordingly are able to decrease the formation of inflammasome complex. Therefore, diacerein and its analogs can be used for treating and/or preventing disorders mediated by ASC and/or NLRs.
• the primary objective of this invention is to provide a method of inhibiting
• ASC expression, NLRP3 expression, and/or formation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex in a cell comprising contacting the cell with a compound selected from the group consisting of diacerein, rhein, monoacetylrhein, salts, esters and prodrugs thereof (hereinafter referred to as "diacerein or its analogs");
• Another objective of this invention is to provide a method of inhibiting ASC expression, NLRP3 expression, and/or formation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering diacerein or its analogs to said subject.
• Yet a further objective of this invention is to provide a method for treatment and/or prevention of a disorder mediated by ASC and/or NLRP3, and/or by formation of NLRP3 infiammasome complex in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering dsacerein or its analogs to said subject.
• FIG. 1 shows images of ASC and NLRP3 from a fluorescence confocal microscopy after THP-1 cells were stimulated by monosodium urate (MSU) and treated with various doses of rhein;
• MSU monosodium urate
• FIG. 2 is a statistical bar graph showing the ASC stain area after THP-1 ceils were stimulated by MSU and treated with various dose of rhein;
• FIG. 3 is a statistical bar graph showing the NLRP3 stain area after THP-1 cells were stimulated by MSU and treated with various dose of rhein.
• terapéuticaally effective amount refers to an amount that alleviates or reduces one or more symptoms of a disease.
• diacerein or its analogs refers to dsacerein, rhein, monoacetySrhein, or a salt or ester or a prodrug thereof.
• prodrug refers to any compound that can be converted into rhein and exerts its physiologicai function in form of rhein within the body.
• prodrug refers to any compound that can be converted into rhein and exerts its physiologicai function in form of rhein within the body.
• rhein is 9, 10-dihydro-4, 5-dihydroxy-9, lO-dioxo-2-anthracene carboxylic acid which has a structure of Formula (I).
• One of its prodrugs, diacerein, is 4, S-bis (acetyloxy) 9, 10-dihydro-4, 5-dihydroxy-9, lO-dioxo-2-anthracenecarboxylic acid which has a structure of Formula (II).
• Diacerein is entirely converted into rhein before reaching the systemic circulation, and exerts its physiological function in form of rhein within the body.
• Diacerein is an anti-inflammatory agent widely used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, which has been demonstrated to inhibit interleukin-1 (IL-1) signaling.
• IL-1 interleukin-1
• diacerein capsules are available in SO mg strength and are marketed under various trade names in different countries, including Art SO ® , Artrodar ® , etc.
• the inventors of the present invention found that diacerein or its analogs may inhibit the expression of ASC.
• the invention provides a method of inhibiting ASC expression in a cell, comprising contacting the cell with a compound selected from the group consisting of diacerein, rhein, monoacetylrhein, salts, esters and prodrugs thereof.
• the cell in this method is a human cell.
• the present invention also provides a method of inhibiting ASC expression in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering diacerein or its analogs to subject.
• the subject is a human.
• the ASC expression is inhibited by at least 30%, and more preferably, by at least 50% by diacerein or its analogs.
• diacerein or its analogs can suppress the formation of these inflammasome complexes through decreasing the ASC expression, and can be used to treat disorders mediated by these complexes accordingly.
• the present invention also relates to a method of inhibiting NLRP3 expression and/or the formation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex in a cell, comprising contacting the cell with diacerein or its analogs.
• the cell in this method is a human cell.
• the present invention also relates to a method of inhibiting NLRP3 expression and/or the formation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering diacerein or its analogs to said subject.
• the subject is a human.
• the NLRP3 expression is inhibited by at least 30%, and more preferably, by at least 50% by diacerein or its analogs.
• the present invention further provides a method for the treatment and/or prevention of a disorder mediated by ASC and/or NLRP3 and/or the formation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex in a subject, comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment and/or prevention a therapeutically effective amount of diacerein or its analogs.
• the administration causes a decrease in ASC expression and/or NLRP3 expression in the subject.
• the subject is a human
• diacerein or its analogs are administered at a dose of about 5 to 500 mg per day.
• the disorder in this method is selected from the group consisting of gout, pseudogout, gout flare prophylaxis, obesity-induced insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer's Disease (AD), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), atherosclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), cancer, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), asthma, allergic asthma, contact hypersensitivity, sunburn, UVB-induced skin damage, essential hypertension, cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes (CAPS), Muckle-Wells syndrome (MWS), familial cold autoinflammatory syndromes (FCAS), neonatal onset multi-systemic inflammatory disease/chronic infantile neurological cutaneous and articular syndrome (NOMD/CINCA), B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, acute myocardial infarction, myocardial infarction, allergic rhinitis, nasal polyposis, autoimmune encephalomye
• AD Alzheimer's Disease
• the disorder in this method is selected from the group consisting of allergic asthma, contact hypersensitivity, sunburn, UVB-induced skin damage, essential hypertension, cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes (CAPS), Muckle-Wells syndrome (MWS), familial cold autoinfiammatory syndromes (FCAS), neonatal onset multi-systemic inflammatory disease/chronic infantile neurological cutaneous and articular syndrome (NOMD/CINCA), B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, acute myocardial infarction, myocardial infarction, allergic rhinitis, nasal polyposis, autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), multiple sclerosis (MS), skin fibrosis in human systemic sclerosis (SSc), hyperhomocysteinemia (hHcys)-associated glomerular sclerosis, end-stage renal disease (ESRD), atherosclerosis, hepatic fibrosis, renal fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, chronic
• the invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions for the treatment of the disorders modulated by the described mechanisms.
• the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention comprise therapeutically effective amounts of diacerein or its analogs that are sufficient to achieve the purpose of the administration of these compositions.
• the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention can be in any suitable dosage form, including but not limited to tablets, oral solutions, injections, and other commonly used dosage forms.
• diacerein or its analogs can be prepared as a pharmaceutical composition.
• Pharmaceutical compositions contemplated for use for the purposes of the present invention can be in the form of a solid, solution, emulsion, dispersion, micelle, liposome and the like.
• the compositions may be administered using any means known in the art, such as intravenously, topically, intradermally, intramuscularly, transdermally, subcutaneously, intranasally, parenterally, intrathecally, vaginally, rectal ly, colorectally, orally, intracranial ly, retroorbitally, or intrasternally.
• the compositions are adapted for oral administration.
• the drug can be mixed with suitable excipients for the preparation of tablets, capsules, pellets, troches, lozenges, solutions, powders or granules, suspensions, hard or soft capsules and any other forms suitable for use.
• the subject is co-administered with one or more additional therapeutic agents suitable for the treatment of the relevant disorders selected from the group consisting of coagulation factor VIII, coagulation factor IX, acetaminophen, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including COX-2 inhibitors.
• additional therapeutic agents suitable for the treatment of the relevant disorders selected from the group consisting of coagulation factor VIII, coagulation factor IX, acetaminophen, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including COX-2 inhibitors.
• NSAIDs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
• NSAIDs include, but are not limited to, 2-arylproplonic acids such as ibuprofen, ketorolac and naproxen; n-arylanthranilic acids such as mefenamic acid and meclofenamic acid; oxicams such as piroxicam and meloxicam; and arylalkanoic acids such as diclofenac, etodolac, indomethacin, and sulindac.
• COX-2 inhibitors include, but are not limited to, celecoxib, etoricoxib, rofecoxib, and valdecoxib.
• coagulation factor VIII and factor IX include, but are not limited to, Helixate, MonocJate-P, Beriate, BeneFix, Alprolix, Idelvion, and Rixubis.
• diacerein or its analogue can be the only active agent in the compositions of the invention.
• the compositions of the invention may contain pharmaceutical excipients (i.e., inactive compounds) commonly used in the art.
• excipients include antioxidants, gelling agents, pH adjusting agents/buffers, penetration enhancers, preservatives, chelating agents, humectants, surfactants, emulsifiers, thickeners, solvents and stabilizers.
• excipients/ingredients in the present invention may have multiple functions, e.g., one excipient can be used as surfactant and/or stabilizer and/or emulsifier, etc.
• antioxidants include, but not limited to, one or more of vitamin C, vitamin A and alpha-lipoic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, sodium pyrosulfite, butyl hydroxy anisole (BHA), butyl hydroxy toluene (BHT), and the like.
• Suitable gelling agents may include, but not limited to, one or more of guar, xanthan, and carregeenan gums, anionic, nonionic, cationic and lipophilically modified guar gums, polyacrylic acids, polymethacrylic acids, cellulose resins, polyethylene glycols, hydroxy alkyl celluloses, carboxy alkyl celluloses, polyalkylene amines, and the like.
• pH adjusting agents/buffers include, but not limited to, one or more of sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium lactate, magnesium gluconate, aluminum hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide/sodium bicarbonate co precipitate, amino acids, aluminum glycinate, sodium citrate, sodium tartrate, sodium acetate, sodium carbonate, sodium polyphosphate, potassium polyphosphate, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium pyrophosphate, disodium hydrogen phosphate, dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, trisodium phosphate, tripotassium phosphate, sodium phosphate, sodium acetate, potassium metaphosphate, magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate, magnesium silicate, calcium acetate, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium chloride, calcium hydroxide,, calcium lactate, calcium carbonate, calcium bicarbonate, and the like.
• Examples of penetration enhancers includes, but not limited to, one or more of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, dimethyl sulfoxide, propylene glycol, isopropyl myristate (IPM), cal- cipotriene, detergents, emollients, Ethoxy diglyco), Triacetin, Propylene Glycol, Benzyl Alcohol, Sodium Laureth Sulfate, Dimethyl Isosorbide, Isopropyl Myristate, Medium Chain Triglyceride Oil (MCT Oil), Menthol, Isopropyl Palmitate, Isopropyl Isostearate, Propylene Glycol Monostearate, Lecithin, Diisopropyi Adipate, Diethyl Sebacate, Oleic Acid, Ethyl Oleate, Urea, Glyceryl Oleate, Caprylic/Capric Triglyceride, Propylene Glycol Dicaprylate/Di
• Preservatives can be, for instance, one or more of sodium benzoate, butylated hydroxy toluene, butylated hydroxyanisole, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid, paraoxybenzoic acid esters, chlorobutanol, benzyl alcohol, phenylethyl alcohol, dehydroacetic acid, sorbic acid, benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, phenol, phenylmercuric nitrate, thimerosal, methyl-, ethyl-, and/or propyl-paraben.
• suitable solvents include, but not limited to, one or more of alcohol, castor oil, diisopropyl adipate, ethoxylated alcohol, ethyl alcohol, fatty alcohol citrate, glycerin, 1,2,6-hexanetriol, hexylene glycol, isopropyl alcohol, isopropyl myristate, isopropyl palmitate, mineral oil, phosphoric acid, polyethylene glycol 300, polyethylene glycol 400, polyethylene glycol 1450, polyethylene glycol 8000, polyethylene glycol 1000 monocetyl ether, polyethylene glycol monostearate, polyethylene glycol 400 monostearate, polyethylene glycols, polyoxyl 20 cetostearyl ether, polyoxypropylene 15-stearyl ether, polysorbate 20, polysorbate 40, polysorbate 60, polysorbate 80, polysorbates, propylene carbonate, propylene glycol, purified water, SD alcohol 40, triglycerides of saturated
• Suitable stabilizers or surfactants can be, for example, one or more of ionic
• nonylphenol polyethylene glycol ether mixtures i.e., Tergitol* NP-70 (70% AQ) Surfactant
• phenoxypolyethoxyethanols and polymers thereof such as Triton* Poloxamer* Spans*, Tyloxapol*, different grades of Brij, sodium dodecyl sulfate, cetyl alcohol, stearic acid, polyoxyl stearate, and the like.
• an ingredient of the provided compositions may be an active agent in prior art formulations for purposes other than treatment of the relevant disorders mentioned above, it is still considered a pharmaceutical excipient for the purposes of the provided compositions as long as this ingredient is not present at an amount sufficient to effectively treat a relevant disorder.
• Diacerein or its analogs and the additional therapeutic agents may be contained in a single formulation or may be co-administered as separate formulations.
• rhein powder was dissolved in 1 mL 100% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), sterilized by 0.22 ⁇ pore filter membranes, and stored at -20°C before use.
• DMSO dimethyl sulfoxide
• MSU monosodium urate
• PBS sterilized phosphate buffered saline
• ATP adenosine 5 '-triphosphate disodium salt
• THP-1 human acute monocytic leukemia cell line (ATCC® TIB-202), were suspended in RPMI-1640 medium (GIBCO, Life Technologies, Grand Island, USA) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% of antibiotics (peniciliin-streptomycin-amphotericin B) conditioned media.
• RPMI-1640 medium GIBCO, Life Technologies, Grand Island, USA
• antibiotics peniciliin-streptomycin-amphotericin B
• THP-1 cells were primed by 0.1 uM phorbol myristyl acetate (PMA) for 24 hours.
• PMA phorbol myristyl acetate
• Differentiated THP-1 cells were cultured with various dose of rhein treatment (0, 5 or 10 ⁇ / ⁇ .) upon 100 ug/mL MSU stimulation for 6 hours. Culture supematants and cell lysates were collected.
• PMA-primed THP-1 cells (lxlO 6 cells/mL) were cultured with 0, 5 or 10 ⁇ g/mL rhein overnight, and then stimulated by 100 ug/mL MSU crystals for 6 hours. Fluorescence confocal assay was performed to detect the human ASC and NLRP3 expression in paraformaldehyde-fixed THP-1 cells after treatment. Images were acquired with an Olympus FV1000 confocal microscope. The stained areas of ASC (green) and NLRP3 (red) staining distributions were quantified and analyzed by Metamorph analyzer.
• NLRP3 and ASC domains aggregate in the cell.
• Fluorescence confocal assay was used to measure NLRP3 and ASC protein levels in the MSU-stimulated THP-1 cells with rhein treatment, and the staining area was quantified.

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