Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
  • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
  • H01M10/0525—Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
  • H01M10/056—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes
  • H01M10/0564—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes the electrolyte being constituted of organic materials only
  • H01M10/0566—Liquid materials
  • H01M10/0567—Liquid materials characterised by the additives
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/42—Methods or arrangements for servicing or maintenance of secondary cells or secondary half-cells
  • H01M10/4235—Safety or regulating additives or arrangements in electrodes, separators or electrolyte
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/42—Methods or arrangements for servicing or maintenance of secondary cells or secondary half-cells
  • H01M10/44—Methods for charging or discharging
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M2300/00—Electrolytes
  • H01M2300/0017—Non-aqueous electrolytes
  • H01M2300/0025—Organic electrolyte
  • H01M2300/0028—Organic electrolyte characterised by the solvent
  • H01M2300/0037—Mixture of solvents
  • H01M2300/0042—Four or more solvents
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
  • H01M4/131—Electrodes based on mixed oxides or hydroxides, or on mixtures of oxides or hydroxides, e.g. LiCoOx
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
  • H01M4/133—Electrodes based on carbonaceous material, e.g. graphite-intercalation compounds or CFx
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/13—Electrodes for accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte, e.g. for lithium-accumulators; Processes of manufacture thereof
  • H01M4/136—Electrodes based on inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
  • H01M4/485—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of mixed oxides or hydroxides for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiTi2O4 or LiTi2OxFy
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
  • H01M4/5825—Oxygenated metallic salts or polyanionic structures, e.g. borates, phosphates, silicates, olivines
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
  • Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
  • Y10T29/00—Metal working
  • Y10T29/49—Method of mechanical manufacture
  • Y10T29/49002—Electrical device making
  • Y10T29/49108—Electric battery cell making
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
  • Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
  • Y10T29/00—Metal working
  • Y10T29/49—Method of mechanical manufacture
  • Y10T29/49002—Electrical device making
  • Y10T29/49108—Electric battery cell making
  • Y10T29/4911—Electric battery cell making including sealing

Definitions

• This invention relates to overcharge protection in rechargeable lithium-ion cells.
• lithium-ion cells When properly designed and constructed, rechargeable lithium-ion cells can exhibit excellent charge-discharge cycle life, little or no memory effect, and high specific and volumetric energy.
• lithium-ion cells do have some shortcomings, including an inability to tolerate recharging to potentials above the manufacturer's recommended end of charge potential without degradation in cycle life; the danger of overheating, fire or explosion for cells recharged to potentials above the recommended end of charge potential; and difficulties in making large cells having sufficient tolerance to electrical and mechanical abuse for consumer applications.
• Single and connected (for example, series- connected) lithium-ion cells typically incorporate charge control electronics to prevent individual cells from exceeding the recommended end of charge potential.
• This circuitry adds cost and complexity and has discouraged the use of lithium ion cells and batteries in low-cost mass market electrical and electronic devices such as flashlights, radios, CD players and the like. Instead, these low-cost devices typically are powered by non- rechargeable batteries such as alkaline cells.
• the invention provides in one aspect a rechargeable lithium-ion cell comprising:
• a cyclable redox chemical shuttle comprising an N-substituted or C-substituted phenothiazine compound dissolved in or dissolvable in the electrolyte and having an oxidation potential above the recharged potential of the positive electrode.
• the invention provides in another aspect a method for manufacturing a rechargeable lithium-ion sealed cell comprising the steps of assembling in any order and enclosing in a suitable case:
• a cyclable redox chemical shuttle comprising an N-substituted or C-substituted phenothiazine compound dissolved in or dissolvable in the electrolyte and having an oxidation potential above the recharged potential of the positive electrode.
• the invention provides in yet another aspect a method for recharging a lithium- ion cell while chemically limiting cell damage due to overcharging comprising supplying charging current across a positive electrode and a negative electrode of a lithium-ion rechargeable cell containing a charge-carrying electrolyte.
• the charge-carrying electrolyte comprises a charge carrying medium, a lithium salt and a cyclable redox chemical shuttle comprising an N-substituted or C-substituted phenothiazine compound dissolved in the electrolyte and having an oxidation potential above the recharged potential of the positive electrode.
• Fig. 1 is an exploded perspective schematic view of an electrochemical cell.
• Fig. 2a, Fig. 2b, Fig. 3a, Fig. 3b, Fig. 4a, Fig. 4b, Fig. 5a, Fig. 5b and Fig. 6 respectively are plots showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for four time spans in the Example 1, Run Nos. 1-1 through 1-9 cell charge-discharge tests.
• Fig. 7a, Fig. 7b, Fig. 8a, Fig. 8b, Fig. 9a, Fig. 9b and Fig. 10 respectively are plots showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for four time spans in the Example 2, Run Nos. 2-1 through 2-7 cell charge-discharge tests.
• Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 respectively are plots showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for the Example 2, Run Nos. 2-8 and 2-9 cell charge- discharge tests.
• Fig. 13 is a plot showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for three time spans in the Example 2, Run No. 2-10 cell charge-discharge test.
• Fig. 14a and Fig. 14b respectively are plots showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for four time spans in the Example 3, Run Nos. 3-1 and 3-2 cell charge-discharge tests.
• Fig. 15a, Fig. 15b, Fig. 16, Fig. 17a, Fig. 17b, Fig. 18, Fig. 19 and Fig. 20a respectively are plots showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for four time spans in the Example 4, Run Nos. 4-1 through 4-8 cell charge-discharge tests.
• Fig. 20b, Fig. 21a, Fig. 21b, Fig. 22 and Fig. 23 respectively are plots showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for the Example 4, Run Nos. 4-9 through 4-13 cell charge-discharge tests.
• Fig. 24, Fig. 25a, Fig. 25b, Fig. 26a, Fig. 26b and Fig. 27a respectively are plots showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for four time spans in the Example 5, Run Nos. 5-1 through 5-6 cell charge-discharge tests.
• Fig. 27b is a plot showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for the Example 5, Run No. 5-7 cell charge-discharge test.
• Fig. 28 is a plot showing cell potential during successive charge-discharge cycles for the Comparative Example 1 cell charge-discharge test.
• Fig. 29 is a plot showing cell potential for the Comparative Example 2 cell charge test.
• positive electrode refers to one of a pair of rechargeable lithium- ion cell electrodes that under normal circumstances and when the cell is fully charged will have the highest potential. We retain this terminology to refer to the same physical electrode under all cell operating conditions even if such electrode temporarily (e.g, due to cell overdischarge) is driven to or exhibits a potential below that of the other (the negative) electrode.
• negative electrode refers to one of a pair of rechargeable lithium- ion cell electrodes that under normal circumstances and when the cell is fully charged will have the lowest potential. We retain this terminology to refer to the same physical electrode under all cell operating conditions even if such electrode is temporarily (e.g, due to cell overdischarge) driven to or exhibits a potential above that of the other (the positive) electrode.
• redox chemical shuttle refers to an electrochemically reversible moiety that during charging of a lithium-ion cell can become oxidized at the positive electrode, migrate to the negative electrode, become reduced at the negative electrode to reform the unoxidized (or less-oxidized) shuttle species, and migrate back to the positive electrode.
• the phrase "recharged potential” refers to a value E C p measured relative to Li/Li + by constructing a cell containing the positive electrode, a lithium metal negative electrode and an electrolyte but no redox chemical shuttle, carrying out a charge/discharge cycling test and observing the potential at which the positive electrode becomes delithiated during the first charge cycle to a lithium level corresponding to at least 90% of the available recharged cell capacity.
• this lithium level may correspond to approximately complete delithiation (for example, to LigFePO ⁇ .
• this lithium level may correspond to partial delithiation.
• cyclable when used in connection with a redox chemical shuttle refers to a material that when exposed to a charging voltage sufficient to oxidize the material (for example, from a neutral to a cationic form, or from a less-oxidized state to a more oxidized state) and at an overcharge charge flow equivalent to 100% of the cell capacity will provide at least two cycles of overcharge protection for a cell containing the chosen positive electrode.
• phase refers to a homogeneous liquid portion that is present or that can form in a liquid system.
• phases refers to the presence of more than one phase in a heterogeneous liquid system.
• the terms “dissolved” and “dissolvable” refer to a shuttle that when present in or added to the electrolyte forms or will form a single phase solution containing a mobile charge-carrying moiety in an amount sufficient to provide overcharge protection at a charging current rate sufficient to charge fully in 10 hours or less a lithium- ion cell containing the chosen positive electrode, negative electrode and electrolyte.
• the phrase “oxidation potential” refers to a value E cv . E cv may be measured by dissolving the shuttle in the chosen electrolyte, measuring current flow vs.
• E cv will be the average of V U p and V ( j own .
• Shuttle oxidation potentials may be closely estimated (to provide a value "E 0 J j8 ") by constructing a cell containing the shuttle, carrying out a charge/discharge cycling test, and observing during a charging sequence the potential at which a voltage plateau indicative of shuttle oxidation and reduction occurs. The observed result may be corrected by the amount of the negative electrode potential vs. LiZLi + to provide an E 0 J j8 value relative to Li/Li + .
• Shuttle oxidation potentials may be approximated (to provide a value "E ca i c ”) using modeling software such as GAUSSIAN 03TM from Gaussian Inc. to predict oxidation potentials (for example, for compounds whose E cv is not known) by correlating model ionization potentials to the oxidation potentials and lithium-ion cell behavior of measured compounds.
• a variety of positive electrodes may be employed in the disclosed lithium-ion cells. Some positive electrodes may be used with a wide range of phenothiazine compounds, whereas other positive electrode materials having relatively high recharged potentials may be usable only with a smaller range of phenothiazine compounds having suitably higher oxidation potentials.
• Representative positive electrodes and their approximate recharged potentials include FeS2 (3.0 V vs. Li/Li + ), LiCoPO 4 (4.8 V vs. Li/Li+), LiFeP ⁇ 4 (3.45 V vs. Li/Li+) s Li 2 FeS 2 (3.0 V vs. Li/Li+), Li 2 FeSiO 4 (2.9 V vs. Li/Li + ), LiMn 2 O 4 (4.1 V vs. Li/Li + ), LiMnPO 4 (4.1 V vs. UfLi + ), LiNiPO 4 (5.1 V vs. Li/Li+), LiV 3 Og (3.7 V vs.
• LiVoO 13 (3.0 V vs. Li/Li + ), LiVOPO 4 (4.15 V vs. Li/Li+), LiVOPO 4 F (4.3 V vs. Li/Li+), Li 3 V 2 (PO 4 ) 3 (4.1 V (2 Li) or 4.6 V (3 Li) vs. Li/Li + ), MnO 2 (3.4 V vs. Li/Li + ), MoS 3 (2.5 V vs. LiZLi + ), sulfur (2.4 V vs. Li/Li + ), TiS 2 (2.5 V vs. Li/Li+), TiS 3 (2.5 V vs.
• Powdered lithium for example, LECTROTM MAX stabilized lithium metal powder, from FMC Corp., Gastonia, NC
• Lithium may also be incorporated into the negative electrode so that extractible lithium will be available for incorporation into the positive electrode during initial discharging.
• Some positive electrode materials may depending upon their structure or composition be charged at a number of voltages, and thus may be used as a positive electrode if an appropriate form and appropriate cell operating conditions are chosen.
• Electrodes made from LiFePO 4 , Li 2 FeSiO 4 , Li x MnO 2 (where x is about 0.3 to about 0.4, and made for example by heating a stoichiometric mixture of electrolytic manganese dioxide and LiOH to about 300 to about 400° C) or MnO 2 (made for example by heat treatment of electrolytic manganese dioxide to about 350° C) can provide cells having especially desirable performance characteristics when used with phenothiazine compounds having oxidation potentials of about 3.6 to about 4.0 V.
• the positive electrode may contain additives as will be familiar to those skilled in the art, for example, carbon black, flake graphite and the like.
• the positive electrode may be in any convenient form including foils, plates, rods, pastes or as a composite made by forming a coating of the positive electrode material on a conductive current collector or other suitable support.
• a variety of negative electrodes may be employed in the disclosed lithium-ion cells.
• Representative negative electrodes include graphitic carbons for example, those having a spacing between (002) crystallographic planes, do ⁇ 2 > of 3.45 A > ⁇ .QQ2 > 3.354 A and existing in forms such as powders, flakes, fibers or spheres (for example, mesocarbon microbeads); lithium metal; 1 ⁇ 4/3115/304; the lithium alloy compositions described in
• the negative electrode may contain additives as will be familiar to those skilled in the art, for example, carbon black.
• the negative electrode may be in any convenient form including foils, plates, rods, pastes or as a composite made by forming a coating of the negative electrode material on a conductive current collector or other suitable support.
• the electrolyte provides a charge-carrying pathway between the positive and negative electrodes, and initially contains at least the charge carrying media and the lithium salt.
• the electrolyte may include other additives that will be familiar to those skilled in the art.
• the electrolyte may be in any convenient form including liquids and gels.
• charge carrying media may be employed in the electrolyte.
• Exemplary media are liquids or gels capable of solubilizing sufficient quantities of lithium salt and redox chemical shuttle so that a suitable quantity of charge can be transported from the positive electrode to negative electrode.
• Exemplary charge carrying media can be used over a wide temperature range, for example, from about -30° C to about 70° C without freezing or boiling, and are stable in the electrochemical window within which the cell electrodes and shuttle operate.
• Representative charge carrying media include ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl-methyl carbonate, butylene carbonate, vinylene carbonate, fluoroethylene carbonate, fluoropropylene carbonate, ⁇ -butyrolactone, methyl difluoroacetate, ethyl difluoroacetate, dimethoxyethane, diglyme (bis(2-methoxyethyl) ether) and combinations thereof.
• a variety of lithium salts may be employed in the electrolyte.
• Exemplary lithium salts are stable and soluble in the chosen charge-carrying media and perform well in the chosen lithium-ion cell, and include LiPFg, LiBF ⁇ LiCl ⁇ 4, lithium bis(oxalato)borate (“LiBOB”), LiAsF 65 LiC(CF 3 SC>2)3 and combinations thereof.
• LiPFg LiBF ⁇ LiCl ⁇ 4
• LiBOB lithium bis(oxalato)borate
• LiAsF 65 LiC(CF 3 SC>2)3 lithium bis(oxalato)borate
• the electrolyte also conveniently contains the dissolved redox chemical shuttle.
• the electrolyte may however if desired be formulated without dissolved redox chemical shuttle, and incorporated into a cell whose positive or negative electrode contains dissolvable redox chemical shuttle that can dissolve into the electrolyte after cell assembly or during the first charge-discharge cycle, so that the electrolyte will contain dissolved redox chemical shuttle once the cell has been put into use.
• N-substituted and C-substituted phenothiazine redox shuttle compounds may be employed in the disclosed lithium-ion cells.
• the oxidized shuttle molecules carry a charge quantity corresponding to the applied charging current to the negative electrode, thus preventing cell overcharge.
• Especially preferred shuttle materials are sufficiently cyclable to provide at least 10, at least 15, at least 30, at least 50, at least 80 or at least 100 cycles of overcharge protection at a charging voltage sufficient to oxidize the material and at an overcharge charge flow equivalent to 100% of the cell capacity during each cycle.
• the substituted phenothiazine compounds are different from the positive electrode and have an oxidation potential different from and higher (viz., more positive) than the positive electrode recharged potential.
• the substituted phenothiazine compound oxidation potential desirably is just slightly higher than the positive electrode recharged potential, below the potential at which irreversible cell damage might occur, and desirably below the potential at which excessive cell heating or outgassing might occur.
• the substituted phenothiazine compound may for example have an oxidation potential from about 0.3 V to about 5 V above the positive electrode recharged potential; from about 0.3 to about 1 V above the positive electrode recharged potential; or from about 0.3 to about 0.6 V above the positive electrode recharged potential.
• LiFeP ⁇ 4 positive electrodes have a recharged potential of about 3.45 V vs. Li/ Li +
• exemplary substituted phenothiazine compounds for use with such electrodes desirably have an oxidation potential of about 3.7 to about 4.5 V vs. Li/ Li + . Li 2FeSiCv ) .
• positive electrodes have a recharged potential of around 2.8 V vs. Li/Li +
• exemplary phenothiazine compounds for use with such electrodes desirably have an oxidation potential of about 3.1 to about 3.8 V vs. Li/ Li +
• Li x Mn ⁇ 2 (where x is about 0.3 to 0.4) and MnC>2 positive electrodes have a recharged potential of about 3.4V vs. Li/Li +
• exemplary phenothiazine compounds for use with such electrodes desirably have an oxidation potential of about 3.7 to about 4.4 V vs. Li/ Li + .
• the substituted phenothiazine compounds may be described using the ring numbering system (I) shown below:
• the substituted phenothiazine compounds are N-substituted (viz., they have a substituent on the nitrogen atom) or C-substituted (viz., they have a substituent on a ring carbon atom) and thus may be substituted at the 1 to 4 or 6 to 10 ring positions.
• substituents include alkyl groups (containing, for example, 1 to about 4 carbon atoms, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, sec-butyl or tert-butyl groups), haloalkyl groups (containing, for example, 1 to about 4 carbon atoms) such as perhaloalkyl groups (containing, for example, 1 to about 4 carbon atoms).
• exemplary substituents include acyl (for example, acetyl), acyloxy, alkaryl, alkoxy, acetamido, amido, amino, aryl, aralkyl, alkyl carboxyl, aryl carboxyl, alkylsulfonyl, benzoyl, carbamoyl, carbamido, carboxy, cyano, formyl, halo, haloacetamido, haloacyl (for example, perfluoroacyl), haloalkylsulfonyl (for example, perfluoroalkylsulfonyl), haloaryl (for example, perfluoroaryl), hydroxyl, isothiocyanato, methylsulfonyloxyl, nitro, oxo, oxybenzoyl or phosphenoxy groups, and combinations thereof.
• acyl for example, acetyl
• acyloxy alkaryl, alk
• the substituted phenothiazine compound may be substituted with one or with more than one group. Through appropriate ligand substitution, the substituted phenothiazine compound oxidation potential may be raised or lowered to provide better recharge protection for a desired positive electrode material.
• the substituted phenothiazine compound may be a salt, for example, salts containing metal cation complexes, quaternary ammonium salts or phosphonium salts.
• the substituted phenothiazine compound may contain additional substituents so long as such additional substituents do not unduly interfere with the phenothiazine compound's charge- carrying capability, oxidation potential, solubility in the electrolyte or stability.
• Especially preferred substituted phenothiazine compounds include N-substituted compounds.
• exemplary phenothiazine compounds include, but are not limited to, 2- chloro- 10-methyl-phenothiazine, 2-ethyl- 10-methyl-phenothiazine, 3 -bromo- 1 O-ethyl- phenothiazine, 3 -chloro-10-methyl-phenothiazine, 3 -iodo-10-methyl-phenothiazine, 10- methyl-phenothiazin-3-ol, 10-methyl-phenothiazin-3ylamine, 2,10-dimethyl- phenothiazine, 3,10-dimethyl-phenothiazine, 3 -methyl- 10-ethyl-phenothiazine, 4,10- dimethyl-phenothiazine, 3,7, 10-trimethyl-phenothiazine, 10-(2-chloroethyl)- phenothiazine, 10-formyl-phenothiazine, 10-methoxy-phenothiazine
• a first shuttle material operative at 3.7V and a second shuttle material operative at 3.9V may both be employed in a single cell. If after many charge/discharge cycles the first shuttle material degrades and loses its effectiveness, the second shuttle material (which would not meanwhile have been oxidized while the first shuttle material was operative) could take over and provide a further (albeit higher E cv ) margin of safety against overcharge damage.
• the shuttle material can also provide overdischarge protection to a cell or to a battery of series-connected cells, as described further in copending U. S. Patent Application Serial No. 11/095,185, entitled “REDOX SHUTTLE FOR OVERDISCHARGE PROTECTION IN RECHARGEABLE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES", filed March 31, 2005.
• the substituted phenothiazine compound is dissolved or dissolvable in the electrolyte in an amount sufficient to provide overcharge protection at the intended charging rate.
• the maximum shuttle current for a singly ionized shuttle is given by
• the electrolyte should impart a large diffusion constant D to the shuttle and support a high shuttle concentration C.
• the electrolyte desirably initially or eventually contains an ample dissolved quantity of suitably mobile substituted phenothiazine compound.
• the shuttle diffusion constant D usually will increase as the electrolyte solution viscosity decreases.
• concentrations of the substituted phenothiazine compound in the electrolyte are about 0.05 M up to the limit of solubility, more than 0.1 M up to the limit of solubility, about 0.2 M up to the limit of solubility or about 0.3 M up to the limit of solubility.
• the phenothiazine compound concentration may in some instances be increased by incorporating a suitable cosolvent in the electrolyte.
• cosolvents include acetonitrile, benzene, ethers (for example, dimethyl ether), esters (for example, ethyl acetate or methyl acetate), lactones (for example, gamma-butyrolactone), pyridine, tetrahydrofuran, toluene and combinations thereof.
• the disclosed lithium-ion cells may include a porous cell separator located between the positive and negative electrodes and through which charge-carrying species (including the oxidized or reduced shuttle compound) may pass. Suitable separators will be familiar to those skilled in the art.
• the disclosed cells may be sealed in a suitable case, for example, in mating cylindrical metal shells such as in a coin-type cell, in an elongated cylindrical AAA, AA, C or D cell casing or in a replaceable battery pack as will be familiar to those skilled in the art.
• the disclosed cells may be used in a variety of devices, including portable computers, tablet displays, personal digital assistants, mobile telephones, motorized devices (e.g, personal or household appliances and vehicles), instruments, illumination devices (for example, flashlights) and heating devices.
• the disclosed cells may have particular utility in low-cost mass market electrical and electronic devices such as flashlights, radios, CD players and the like, which heretofore have usually been powered by non-rechargeable batteries such as alkaline cells. Further details regarding the construction and use of rechargeable lithium-ion cells will be familiar to those skilled in the art. [0041]
• the invention is further illustrated in the following illustrative examples, in which all parts and percentages are by weight unless otherwise indicated.
• Negative electrodes were made from Li4/3Ti5/3U4 (synthesized according to the procedure shown in K.M. Colbow, R.R. Haering and J.R. Dahn, "Structure and Electrochemistry of the Spinel Oxides J Power Sources, 26,
• Electrolytes were prepared by dissolving 0.1 M 10-methyl-phenothiazine ("MPT") and 0.5 M of the indicated lithium salts in the charge carrying media propylene carbonate (“PC”), dimethyl carbonate (“DMC”), ethylene carbonate (“EC”) and diethyl carbonate (“DEC”) in a 1 :2:1 :2 PC/DMC/EC/DEC volume ratio to form single phase electrolyte solutions.
• MPT was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (Milwaukee, WI).
• Lithium bisoxalatoborate (“LiBOB”) was obtained from Chemetall Group of Dynamit Nobel AG, Troisdorf, Germany, and LiPFg (manufactured by Stella Chemifa Corp., Japan) was obtained from E-One/Moli Energy Canada. The charge carrying media were obtained from E-One/Moli Energy Canada.
• FIG. 1 An exploded perspective schematic view of a 2325 coin cell 10 is shown in Fig. 1.
• Stainless steel cap 24 and oxidation resistant case 26 enclosed the cell and served as the negative and positive terminals respectively.
• the negative electrode 14 was formed from Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 coated on copper foil current collector 18 as described above.
• the positive electrode 12 was formed from LiFeP ⁇ 4 coated on aluminum foil current collector 16 as described above.
• Separator 20 was formed from CELGARDTM No. 2500 microporous material having a 25 micrometer thickness, and wetted with electrolyte. For some cells (noted below), the cell was prepared using two separators placed back-to-back. Gasket 27 provided a seal and separated the two terminals. A tightly squeezed stack was formed when the cell was crimped closed. The cells were assembled in an approximately "balanced" configuration, that is, with the negative electrode capacity equaling the positive electrode capacity.
• the assembled cells were cycled at 30° C using "C/l 0" (10 hour charge and 10 hour discharge), “C/5" (5 hour charge and 5 hour discharge), “C/2" (2 hour charge and 2 hour discharge) or “C” (1 hour charge and 1 hour discharge) rates using a computer- controlled charge-discharge testing unit produced by E-One/Moli Energy Canada.
• the negative (Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4) electrodes had a specific capacity of about 140 mAh/g.
• the negative electrode capacity was selected to be about 130% of the positive electrode capacity to ensure that during charging followed by overcharging, the positive electrode would be depleted of lithium (and hence reach and pass E cv ) while the negative electrode remains at its plateau potential of 1.55 V vs Li/Li + .
• a 140 niA/g specific current could discharge a fully charged cell containing such electrodes in one hour, and would represent a "1C" rate for such cells.
• These cells were discharged to 1.0 or 1.3 V and were charged to a fixed capacity or until an upper cutoff of 3.40 V was reached. Since 1 ⁇ 4/3115/304 has a recharged potential near 1.55 V vs. Li/ Li + , the 1.0, 1.3 and 2.65 V cell potentials correspond to potentials of about 2.55, 2.85 and 4.95 V vs. Li/ Li + .
• the shuttle test cell cycling results are shown below in Table 1.
• a designation such as “142+” in the "Cycles” column indicates that the substituted phenothiazine compound continues to function as a cyclable redox shuttle after 142 cycles and that the charge/discharge test is ongoing.
• the designation “OC” indicates that charging was carried out for 100% of the elapsed cycle time beyond which the positive electrode was completely depleted of available lithium.
• the designation “OD” indicates that discharging was carried out for 100% of the elapsed cycle time beyond which the positive electrode was completely filled with available lithium.
• Example 3 [0050] Using the general method of Example 1 , coin-type test cells were prepared using 100 parts of mesocarbon microbeads ("MCMB", a graphitic carbon with 3.45 > d ⁇ 02 > 3.354 A, obtained from E-One/Moli Energy Canada, Maple Ridge, B.C., Canada) in the negative electrode slurry in place of the Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 negative electrode material employed in Example 1.
• the MCMB slurry was coated onto a copper foil current collector to prepare negative electrodes having a specific capacity of about 300 mAh/g. Thus a 300 mA/g specific current could discharge a folly charged cell containing such electrodes in one hour.
• Example 4 Using the general methods of Example 1 and Example 3, coin-type test cells were prepared using Li4/3Ti5/3U4 or MCMB negative electrodes, and 10-acetyl- phenothiazine (APT) in place of MPT. The shuttle test cell cycling results are shown below in Table 4. Table 4
• Second cycle included a 100 hour overcharge period.
• Example 2 Using the general methods of Example 1 and Example 3, coin-type test cells were prepared using 1 ⁇ 4/3 ⁇ 5/304 or MCMB negative electrodes, 0.7 M LiBOB, a single separator and a variety of substituted phenothiazine compounds in place of MPT. The shuttle test cells were cycled at a C/ 10 rate to overcharge. The cycling results are shown below in Table 5.
• Comparative Example 1 [0056] Using the method of Example 1 , a coin-type test cell was prepared using a Li4/3Ti5/3 ⁇ 4 negative electrode, LiFeP ⁇ 4 positive electrode, 0.7 M LiBOB, a single separator and phenothiazine in place of MPT. The cell was cycled at a C/10 rate to overcharge. The cycling results are shown in Fig. 28. As shown in Fig. 28, phenothiazine did not provide overcharge protection for the LiCo ⁇ 2 positive electrode, and prevented the cell from becoming fully charged.
• a coin-type test cell was constructed using an LiCo ⁇ 2 positive electrode and containing 0.1 M MPT dissolved in the electrolyte.
• LiCo ⁇ 2 has a recharged potential of about 4.1 V vs. Li/Li + , a value greater than the MPT oxidation potential (E 0 J 38 3.47 V vs. Li/Li + ).
• the cell was charged at a C/10 rate.
• Fig. 29 MPT did not provide overcharge protection for the LiCoC>2 positive electrode, and prevented the cell from becoming fully charged by shuttling below the recharged potential of the positive electrode.

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