US20210167373A9 - Cation-disordered oxides for rechargeable lithium batteries and other applications - Google Patents

Cation-disordered oxides for rechargeable lithium batteries and other applications Download PDF

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US20210167373A9
US20210167373A9 US15/748,704 US201615748704A US2021167373A9 US 20210167373 A9 US20210167373 A9 US 20210167373A9 US 201615748704 A US201615748704 A US 201615748704A US 2021167373 A9 US2021167373 A9 US 2021167373A9
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metal oxide
lithium metal
cation
disordered
lithium
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US20190088940A1 (en
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Gerbrand Ceder
JinHyuk Lee
Dong-Hwa Seo
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/485—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of mixed oxides or hydroxides for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiTi2O4 or LiTi2OxFy
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01G—COMPOUNDS CONTAINING METALS NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASSES C01D OR C01F
    • C01G53/00—Compounds of nickel
    • C01G53/40—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element
    • C01G53/42—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiNiO2
    • C01G53/44—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiNiO2 containing manganese
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
    • H01M10/0525—Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
    • H01M4/52—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron
    • H01M4/525—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing iron, cobalt or nickel for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiNiO2, LiCoO2 or LiCoOxFy
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01P—INDEXING SCHEME RELATING TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF SOLID INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
    • C01P2002/00—Crystal-structural characteristics
    • C01P2002/70—Crystal-structural characteristics defined by measured X-ray, neutron or electron diffraction data
    • C01P2002/72—Crystal-structural characteristics defined by measured X-ray, neutron or electron diffraction data by d-values or two theta-values, e.g. as X-ray diagram
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01P—INDEXING SCHEME RELATING TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF SOLID INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
    • C01P2006/00—Physical properties of inorganic compounds
    • C01P2006/40—Electric properties
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries

Definitions

  • Disclosed embodiments are generally related to lithium metal oxides, e.g., for rechargeable lithium batteries or other applications.
  • Certain aspects of the invention relate to a lithium metal oxide characterized by a general formula: Li a M b M′ c O 2 , said lithium metal oxide comprising a disordered rocksalt LiMO 2 structure enriched with Li x M′ y O 2 units.
  • Li-TM oxides lithium transition metal oxides
  • a lithium metal oxide has a general formula Li a M b M′ c O 2 .
  • the lithium metal oxide comprises LiMO 2 and Li a M′ e O 2 , and the lithium metal oxide has a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • M includes one or more of a metallic species chosen from a group consisting of Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Zr, Sb, and Mo, and M is chosen such that LiMO 2 forms a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • M has a first average oxidation degree n.
  • a lithium metal oxide has a general formula, Li a M b M′ c O 2 .
  • the lithium metal oxide comprises a disordered LiMO 2 rocksalt structure enriched or doped with Li d M′ c O 2 , and the lithium metal oxide has a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • M comprises one or more of a metallic species chosen from a group consisting of Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Zr, Sb, and Mo, and M is chosen such that LiMO 2 forms a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • M has a first average oxidation degree n.
  • M′ comprises one or more of a metallic species chosen from a group consisting of Ti, Cr, Mn, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb, and W, and M′ has a second average oxidation degree y greater than or equal to n.
  • a metallic species chosen from a group consisting of Ti, Cr, Mn, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb, and W
  • M′ has a second average oxidation degree y greater than or equal to n.
  • a lithium metal oxide includes Li a M b M′ c O 2 having a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • M includes at least one redox-active metallic species having a first oxidation state n and a second oxidation state n′ greater than (>) n
  • M′ includes at least one charge-compensating metallic species having an oxidation state y.
  • y may be greater than or equal to n.
  • the value a is greater than 1, and b and c are greater than or equal to 0.
  • M is chosen in some cases such that a lithium-M oxide having a formula LiMO 2 forms a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • a lithium metal oxide includes Li 1+x/100 (NiTi) 1/2 ⁇ x/120 Mo x/150 O 2 in which 0 ⁇ x ⁇ 30.
  • FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a cation-disordered rocksalt-type crystal structure
  • FIG. 3 is an SEM micrograph of LNTO
  • FIG. 4 is an SEM micrograph of LNTMO5
  • FIG. 5 is an SEM micrograph of LNTMO10
  • FIG. 6 is an SEM micrograph of LNTMO:15;
  • FIG. 7 is an SEM micrograph of LNTMO20
  • FIG. 8 is an SEM micrograph of LNTMO20 after high-energy ball milling
  • FIG. 9 is a graph of the first cycle voltage profiles of LNTO, LNTMO5, LNTMO10, LNTMO15, and LNTMO20;
  • FIG. 10 is a graph of the capacity change of LNTO, LNTMO5, LNTMO10, LNTMO15, and LNTMO20 over 20 cycles;
  • FIG. 11 is a graph of the voltage profiles of LNTO for 10 cycles
  • FIG. 12 is a graph of the voltage profiles of LNTMO20 for 10 cycles
  • FIG. 13 is a graph of the voltage profiles of LNTO when charged and discharged at 20, 40, 100, 200, and 400 mA/g;
  • FIG. 14 is a graph of the voltage profiles of LNTMO20 when charged and discharged at 20, 40, 100, 200, and 400 mA/g;
  • FIG. 15 is a graph of the first-discharge voltage profile of LNTMO20 from a galvanostatic intermittent titration test
  • FIG. 16 is a graph of voltage profiles of LNTMO20
  • FIG. 17 is a graph of in situ XRD patterns of LNTMO20.
  • FIG. 18 is a graph of the voltage profile corresponding to the XRD patterns of FIG. 17 ;
  • FIG. 19 is a graph of the lattice parameter corresponding to the XRD patterns of FIG. 17 ;
  • FIGS. 20-22 are graphs of the X-ray absorption near edge spectra of Ni K-edge, Ti K-edge, and Mo K-edge, respectively, in LNTMO20;
  • FIG. 23 is a graph of the electron energy loss spectra of Ti L-edge and O K-edge in LNTMO20;
  • FIG. 24 is a graph of the first cycle CV profiles of LNTMO20.
  • FIG. 25 is a graph of the voltage profile and lattice parameter during charge versus the capacity for LNTMO20.
  • Cation-disordered Li-TM oxides such as those described herein may provide high capacities and high energy densities when the disordered Li-TM oxide includes a suitable lithium excess.
  • a lithium excess may result in the formation of a percolating network of lithium diffusion pathways which allow for improved electrochemical performance.
  • adding excess lithium to a Li-TM oxide results in a relative decrease in the amount of the transition metal ions, and therefore the transition metal ions are required to transition to a higher oxidation state in order to compensate the charge, thereby reducing the capacity of the transition metal ions to be further oxidized during charge. This in turn may lead to a reduction in the redox capacity of the transition metal ions and therefore limit the overall electrochemical performance of the Li-TM oxide material.
  • certain embodiments are generally directed to a cation-disordered Li-TM oxide that includes a high-valent charge compensating species.
  • a charge compensating species may allow a redox-active species in the Li-TM oxide to remain at a lower oxidation state, even with a high lithium excess. In this manner, the redox capacity of the redox active species may be increased, and therefore the overall electrochemical performance of the Li-TM oxide material may be improved.
  • a cation-disordered Li-TM oxide has a general formula of Li a M b M′ c O 2 in which a has a value greater than 1 to provide a lithium excess, M includes at least one redox-active transition metal species, and M′ includes at least one charge-compensating transition metal species.
  • the redox-active species has a first oxidation state n and a second oxidation state n′, where n′ is greater than n, and the charge compensating species has an oxidation state y that is greater than or equal to n.
  • M is chosen such that it forms a cation-disordered Li-TM oxide without the addition of M′.
  • M may include one or more transition elements in any suitable proportion, chosen such that a lithium-M oxide having a formula LiMO 2 forms a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • Li(NiTi) 1/2 O 2 forms a cation-disordered rocksalt structure. Therefore, in some embodiments, M includes equal portions of Ni and Ti (i.e., M is (NiTi) 1/2 ).
  • M may include one or more of Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Zr, Sb, and Mo, one or more of Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, and Zr, one or more of Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Zr, and Sb, one or more of Ti, V, Cr, Ni, Co, Fe, Mn, Zr, and Mo, etc.
  • a Li-TM oxide material may include any suitable lithium excess.
  • a higher lithium excess may improve performance by providing a more extensive network of diffusion channels for lithium ions, which may allow a relatively higher fraction of the lithium ions to move through the material.
  • a may be between or equal to 1.0 and 1.40, 1.05 and 1.30, or any other appropriate range.
  • a minimum lithium excess may be needed to achieve a percolating network of lithium diffusion pathways, which may be required to achieve a suitable level of electrochemical performance.
  • the minimum lithium excess may correspond to an a value of about 1.09.
  • the minimum lithium content to achieve a percolating network of lithium diffusion pathways may correspond to an a value of less than 1.09, or greater than 1.09, as the disclosure is not so limited.
  • b in the above formula may be less than 1.
  • b may be less than 0.9, less than 0.8, less than 0.7, less than 0.6, or less than 0.5.
  • b may be greater than or equal to 0.2.
  • h may be greater than or equal to 0.3, greater than or equal to 0.4, or greater than or equal to 0.5. Combinations of any of these are also possible, e.g., b may be between 0.2 and 1.
  • c in the above formula may be less than 1.
  • c may be less than 0.9, less than 0.8, less than 0.7, less than 0.6, or less than 0.5.
  • c may be greater than or equal to 02.
  • c may be greater than or equal to 0.3, greater than or equal to 0.4, or greater than or equal to 0.5. Combinations of any of these are also possible, e.g., c may be between 0.2 and 1.
  • the values for h and c may be related to the a value.
  • other relationships between a, b, and c may be possible, as the present disclosure is not so limited.
  • the compound may be substantially neutrally changed (i.e., electrically neutral), such that the presence of positive species (e.g., Li or transition metals) and negative species (e.g., oxygen) within the compound are balanced.
  • positive species e.g., Li or transition metals
  • negative species e.g., oxygen
  • a+b+c may be about 2
  • a+(b ⁇ n)+(c ⁇ y) may be about 4 (based on compensating the charge of the oxygen ions).
  • a compound having a general formula Li a M b M′ c O 2 may be described as a disordered LiMO 2 , structure (e.g., a cation-disordered rocksalt structure) enriched with an appropriate portion of Li d M′ e O 2 to form a single phase, cation-disordered structure.
  • d+e may be about 2
  • d+(e ⁇ y) may be about 4.
  • d may be between about 1.3 and 1.7, and the proportions of LiMO 2 and Li x M′ y O 2 may be chosen appropriately to provide a Li a M b M′ c O 2 compound with suitable values for a, b, and c, such as those described above.
  • M includes at least one redox-active species having at least a first oxidation state n and a second oxidation n′, where n′ is greater than n.
  • M is a transition metal.
  • M may include Ni in which n is 2+ and n′ is 4+.
  • M may include at least one of Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zr, Sb, and Mo as the redox-active species.
  • M may include two or more species in any appropriate proportion, with at least one of the species being a redox-active species.
  • M includes equal portions of Ni and Ti (i.e., M is (NiTi) 1/2 ), with Ni being the redox active species.
  • n may have a value of 2+ and n′ may have a value of 3+, 4+, 5+, or 6+, n may have a value of 3+ and n′ may have a value of 4+, 5+, or 6+, or n may have a value of 4+ and n′ may have a value of 5+ or 6+.
  • M may have an average oxidation state between about 2.7 and about 3.3 (e.g., about 3).
  • M has an average oxidation state of about 3 (i.e., the equal portions of Ni 2+ and Ti 4+ ions provides an average degree of oxidation of about 3+).
  • the oxidation state may be at least about 1.8 or at least about 2.7.
  • M′ includes at least one high-valent charge-compensating species having an oxidation state y that is greater than or equal to n.
  • the charge compensating species may be a transition metal or other atom that can have a relatively high oxidation state.
  • M′ may include Mo in which y is 6+.
  • M′ may include at least one of Ti, Cr, Mn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, and W.
  • M′ may include at least one of Ti, Cr, Mn, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb, and W.
  • y (representing the oxidation state of the charge compensation species) may have a value of, e.g., 4+, 5+, or 6+ or more.
  • a cation-disordered lithium metal oxide may have a suitable crystal structure, for example, a rocksalt-type structure as is known by those of ordinary skill in the art.
  • FIG. 1 depicts a schematic representation of a cation-disordered rocksalt-type structure 100 in accordance with some embodiments.
  • This structure includes oxygen ions 110 arranged in a cubic-close-packed sub-lattice, and cations 120 positioned at the octahedral sites of the oxygen sub-lattice.
  • the cations 120 may be any of Li, M, and M′ ions positioned randomly in the octahedral sites of the oxygen sub-lattice. Further, it should be understood that in embodiments in which M and/or M′ include more than one element, the cations may be any of the elements included in M and/or M′, as discussed herein. Ordered or disordered structures may be identified, for example, using X-ray diffraction (XRD) or other techniques as discussed herein.
  • XRD X-ray diffraction
  • one or more species may be included in M and/or M′ to promote the formation of a desired crystal structure.
  • a compound may include two or more species known to form a disordered lithium oxide structure.
  • Li(NiTi) 1/2 O 2 is known to form a disordered rocksalt-type structure, and therefore it may be desirable to include NiTi as M in the formula Li a M b M′ e O 2 to make a cation-disordered structure energetically favorable.
  • a cation-disordered structure may not be energetically favorable in some embodiments, as the disclosure is not so limited.
  • the disordered structure may be a metastable structure that may be formed via suitable processing.
  • a cation-disordered Li-TM oxide material as described herein may be used as an electrode material in an electrical device, e.g., as a cathode material in a rechargeable lithium ion battery.
  • Such cathode materials operate by reversibly releasing (de-intercalation) and reinserting (intercalation) lithium ions during charge and discharge, respectively.
  • the presence of a percolating network of lithium diffusion pathways, resulting from a lithium excess in the structure may allow the lithium ions to move easily into and out of the material.
  • the redox-active species oxidizes from a first oxidation state n, towards a higher oxidation state n′.
  • the addition of the charge-compensating species M′ to maintain the redox-active species in its lower oxidation state n allows a higher fraction of the redox-active species to be oxidized during charging, and therefore increases the charge capacity of the Li-TM oxide.
  • this process reverses; specifically, lithium ions intercalate the Li-TM oxide, and the redox-active species is reduced to its first, lower oxidation state n.
  • the charge-compensating species may not substantially change its oxidation state (i.e., the oxidation state remains substantially equal to y during, charge and/or discharge), at least in certain embodiments.
  • a redox-active species may not be fully oxidized to a second oxidation state n′ during charge, and instead be may only partially oxidized to an intermediate oxidation state between n and n′. Further, in certain embodiments, additional capacity beyond what is provided by the redox-active species may be provided by other mechanisms during charge and/or discharge, including, but not limited to, oxygen loss and oxygen oxidation.
  • a Li-TM oxide material according to the present disclosure may exhibit a first discharge capacity of greater than 50 mAh/g, greater than 75 mAh/g, greater than 100 mAh/g, greater than 125 mAh/g, greater than 150 mAh/g, greater than 175 mAh/g, greater than 200 mAh/g, or higher when charged and discharged between 1.50 V and 4.00 V at 20 mA/g at room temperature.
  • the Li-TM oxide may exhibit a specific energy density, e.g., of up to approximately 680 Wh/kg.
  • other discharge capacities and/or specific energy densities may also be possible, as the disclosure is not so limited.
  • the crystal structure of a cation-disordered Li-TM oxide may be determined and/or confirmed via X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements.
  • An XRD pattern may include one or more characteristic peaks that correspond to a cation-disordered rocksalt-type structure, such as that described above with regard to FIG. 1 .
  • I′ z 1
  • z refers to a (022) peak
  • Li-TM oxide materials Having generally described the cation-disordered Li-TM oxide materials and their properties, one possible method for synthesizing these materials is described below. However, it is believed that these materials may be formed in any of a number of ways, as the current disclosure is not limited to any one formation method for these compounds.
  • a cation-disordered Li-TM oxide compound may be prepared by combining one or more suitable precursors together, dispersing the precursors in a suitable solvent, milling (e.g., ball milling) the mixture of precursor and solvent, and drying the mixture in an oven.
  • the mixture of precursors may be subsequently pelletized and/or sintered, and then ground, e.g., into a fine powder.
  • Suitable precursor materials may include, but are not limited to, lithium and transition metal salts, and transition metal oxides.
  • Li 2 CO 3 , Li 2 O, NiCO 3 , NiO, TiO 2 ,MoO 2 , and MoO 3 may be used as precursors, and acetone or acetonitrile (C 2 H 3 N) may be used as the solvent.
  • a cation-disordered Li-TM oxide having the general formula Li 1+x/100 (NiTi) 1/2 ⁇ x/120 Mo x/150 O 2 was investigated for x having a value of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20.
  • (NiTi) 1/2 corresponds to M
  • Li 2 CO 3 Alfa Aesar, ACS, 99% min
  • NiCO 3 Alfa Aesar, 99%
  • TiO 2 Alfa Aesar, 99.9%
  • MoO 2 Alfa Aesar, 99%
  • LiNi 0.5 Ti 0.5 O 2 5% excess Li precursor and 4% excess Ni precursor were used, because it resulted in the purest disordered rocksalt phase with a composition close to the desired composition.
  • the precursors were dispersed into acetone and ball-milled for 15 hours, and then dried overnight in an oven. The mixture of the precursors was pelletized and then sintered at 750 degrees C. for two hours in air, followed by furnace cooling to room temperature. After the sintering, the pellets were manually ground into fine powder.
  • XRD X-ray diffraction
  • Cu source PANalytical multipurpose diffractometer
  • Rietveld refinement was completed using PANalytical X′pert HighScore Plus software.
  • Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were collected on a Zeiss Merlin High-resolution SEM. Elemental analysis of the compounds was performed with direct current plasma emission spectroscopy (ASTM E 1097-12).
  • Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) spectra were obtained from thin specimens on a JEOL 2010F equipped with a Gatan spectrometer, using parallel incident electron beam and semi-collection angle of 8 mrad in TEM diffraction mode.
  • EELS quantification was performed by using a signal integration window of 50 eV, Hartree-Slater model of partial ionization cross section, and power law background subtraction.
  • an in situ cell was designed with a Be window for X-ray penetration.
  • the cell was configured with a Li 1.2 Ni 1/3 Ti 1/3 Mo 2/15 O 2 electrode film as the working electrode, Li metal foil as the counter electrode, 1M of LiPF 6 in EC:DMC (1:1) solution as the electrolyte, and glass fiber as the separator.
  • Galvanostatic charge-discharge of the in situ cell was performed on a Solartron electrochemical potentiostat (SI12287) between 1.5-4.8 V at 10 mA/g.
  • the in situ XRD patterns were obtained in one hour intervals from a Bruker D8 Advanced Da Vinci Mo-source diffractometer (Mo source) in the 2 ⁇ (two theta) range of 7-36 degrees.
  • Rietveld refinement on the in situ XRD patterns was performed using PANalytical X′pert HighScore Plus software for every other scan.
  • Ni, Ti, and Mo K-edge ex-situ X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) measurements were performed in transmission made using beamline 20 BM at the Advanced Photon Source.
  • the incident energy was selected using a Si (111) monochromator.
  • the energy calibration was performed by simultaneously measuring the spectra of the appropriate metal foil. Harmonic rejection was accomplished using a Rh-coated mirror.
  • the samples for the measurements were prepared with the Li 1.2 Ni 1/3 Ti 1/3 Mo 2/15 O 2 electrode films (a) before cycling, (b) after the first charge to 4.8 V at 20 mA/g, and (c) after the first charge to 4.8 V then discharge to 1.5 V at 20 mA/g.
  • the loading density of the films was ⁇ 5 mg/cm 2 .
  • spectra of some reference standards were measured in transmission mode, to facilitate interpretation of the XANES data. Data reduction was carried out using the Athena software.
  • the powder of the Li—Ni—Ti—Mo oxides and carbon black (Timcal, Super P) were first mixed by a planetary ball mill (Retsch PM200) in a weight ratio of 70:20 for two hours at 300 rpm. Then, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, DuPont, Teflon 8C) was added to the mixture as a binder, such that the cathode film consisted of the Li—Ni—Ti—Mo oxide powder, carbon black, and PTFE in a weight ratio of 70:20:10. The components were manually mixed for 30 minutes and rolled into a thin film inside an argon-filled glove box.
  • PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene
  • FIGS. 3-7 show SEM micrographs for LNTO, LNTMO5, LNTMO10, LNTMO15, and LNTMO20, respectively. These SEM results show that small primary particles, less than 200 nm in diameter (d), are highly agglomerated in secondary particles for all of the compounds. The average primary particle size is the smallest for LNTO (d ⁇ 80 nm) and the largest for LNTMO20 (d ⁇ 150 nm).
  • FIG. 8 shows an SEM micrograph of the LNTMO20 compound after high-energy ball milling with the carbon black (for the electrode fabrication, as described above). As shown in FIG. 8 , after high-energy ball milling, the primary particle size becomes slightly less than d ⁇ 100 nm on average and the size distribution becomes wider.
  • FIG. 9 shows the first cycle voltage profiles of LNTO, LNTMO5, LNTMO10, LNTMO15, and LNTMO20 when cycled between 1.5-4.5 V at 20 mA/g.
  • the charge-discharge capacity increases with Li excess from ⁇ 110 mAh/g to ⁇ 225 mAh/g.
  • the shape of the voltage curves also evolves with Li excess, with the beginning of the first charge starting at lower voltage and the 4.3 V plateau becoming longer with higher Li excess, all of which lead to higher charge capacity. A substantial increase in the discharge capacity is achieved with higher Li excess.
  • LNTMO20 Since LNTMO20 was found to deliver the best performance among the Li—Ni—Ti—Mo oxides, it was chosen as a representative Li-excess material and its performance was further compared to that of LNTO.
  • FIGS. 11 and 12 show the 10-cycle voltage profiles of LNTO and LNTMO20, respectively, when cycled between 1.5-4.5 V at 20 mA/g. LNTMO20 delivers much higher capacity ( ⁇ 230 mAh/g) and energy density ( ⁇ 680 Wh/kg, ⁇ 2800 Wh/l) than LNTO ( ⁇ 110 mAh/g, ⁇ 350 Wh/kg, ⁇ 1540 Wh/l).
  • FIGS. 13-14 depict voltage profiles at various rates for LNTO and LNTMO20, respectively.
  • Cells made of each compound were charged and discharged once at 10 mA/g, and then at 20, 40, 100, 200, and 400 mA/g for the subsequent cycles. From the resulting voltage profiles, it is found that LNTMO20 delivers higher capacity than LNTO at all rates.
  • the discharge capacity decreases from 250 mAh/g (750 Wh/kg) to 120 mAh/g (365 Wh/kg) for LNTMO20, and from 120 mAh/g (366 Wh/kg) to 50 mAh/g (145 Wh/kg) for LNTO.
  • the capacity of LNTMO20 at 400 mA/g is comparable to that of LNTO at 10 mA/g.
  • FIG. 15 shows the first-discharge voltage profile of LNTMO20 from the GITT.
  • GITT galvanostatic intermittent titration test
  • the polarization comes mainly from the mass-transfer (Li diffusion) resistance, although other types of resistances such as by solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layers can further contribute to the polarization.
  • SEI solid-electrolyte interphase
  • the polarization may depend on the charge cutoff voltage. When the cutoff voltage is 4.1 V (solid line), the galvanostatic charge-discharge profiles are symmetric with only minor polarization. When the material is charged to 4.5 V (dashed line), discharge comes with substantial polarization, which may indicate that Li diffusion in LNTMO20 depends on structural changes that may occur at high voltage.
  • FIG. 17 shows the in situ XRD patterns of LNTMO20 upon two galvanostatic charge-discharge cycles between 1.5-4.8 V at 10 mA/g.
  • the corresponding voltage profile and the lattice parameters from single-phase XRD refinements are shown in FIG. 18 and FIG. 19 , respectively.
  • the lattice parameter decreases with three distinct regimes as evidenced by the (002) peak shifting to a higher angle.
  • the peak continuously shifts to a higher angle.
  • FIGS. 20-22 show the Ni K-edge, Ti K-edge, and Mo K-edge XANES spectra of LNTMO20, respectively. Each figure shows spectra before cycling (black), after the first charge to 4.8 V (blue: ⁇ 300 mAh/g charged), and after the first discharge to 1.5 V (red: ⁇ 250 mAh/g discharged). From FIG. 20 , it is seen that the Ni edge shifts from an energy close to LiNi 2/3 Sb 1/3 O 2 used as a standard for Ni 2+ to a higher energy similar to Ni 3+ in NaNiO 2 upon first charge to 4.8 V.
  • Ni edge After the first discharge to 1.5 V, the Ni edge returns to its starting position. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this may indicate that Ni 2+ is oxidized up to Ni ⁇ 3+ upon first charge to 4.8 V, then reduces back to Ni 2+ after the first discharge. As the Ni 2+ /Ni 3+ capacity corresponds to ⁇ 100 mAh/g, this finding may suggest that the remaining charge capacity comes from either oxygen loss and/or oxygen oxidation, both of which are known to occur in Li-excess materials.
  • the pre-edge peak observed in MoO 3 (dot-dashed line) originates from highly distorted Mo-O octahedra. Therefore, the intensity increase of Mo pre-edge peak of LNTMO20 shows that the Mo environment deviates from the regular octahedral coordination upon cycling, which may originate from a distortion of the Mo-O octahedra, or from some degree of Mo 6+ migration from octahedral to tetrahedral sites.
  • FIG. 23 shows the Ti L-edge and O K-edge from the EELS spectra of LNTMO20 before cycling (black) and after 20 cycles (red) between 1.5-4.5 V at 20 mA/g. Comparing the EELS quantifications of the atomic ratio of O to Ti, a considerable decrease in the ratio by ⁇ 39% is found after cycling. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this may indicate that oxygen loss has occurred from the surface of LNTMO20 upon cycling, which may contribute to additional charge capacity beyond the Ni 2+ /Ni ⁇ 3+ capacity. In addition, it is observed that the Ti L-edge is chemically shifted towards lower energy by ⁇ 1.5 eV relative to the O K-edge after cycling as shown in the inset in FIG. 23 ), which may indicate Ti reduction below 4+ at the surface region.
  • Oxygen loss from LNTMO20 may also be inferred from the cyclic voltammetry (CV) tests.
  • FIG. 24 shows the first cycle CV profiles of LNTMO20.
  • the oxidation cutoff voltage is 4.1 V (red)
  • a main reduction peak is observed at ⁇ 3.7 V and a minor reduction peak is observed at ⁇ 2.7 V.
  • the cutoff is increased to 4.5 V (black)
  • an additional reduction peak at ⁇ 2.2 V is observed in the CV profile. Without wishing to be bound by theory, this is likely associated with reduction of a second transition metal species and responsible for the discharge plateau at ⁇ 2.2 V upon galvanostatic cycling between 1.5-4.5 V ( FIG. 12 ).
  • the limit for the oxygen loss capacity of LNTMO20 during the first cycle is approximated.
  • the Ni XANES shows that Ni 2+ is oxidized to Ni ⁇ 3+ upon first charge to 4.8 V, which gives ⁇ 100 mAh/g in capacity ( FIG. 20 ).
  • the remaining first charge capacity ( ⁇ 200 mAh/g) may originate from oxygen loss and/or oxygen oxidation.
  • this proposed mechanism is consistent with the change in the lattice parameter of LNTMO20 during the first charge as shown in FIG. 25 . Upon first charge to ⁇ 110 mAh/g, the lattice parameter decreases continuously.
  • Ni 2+ /Ni ⁇ 3+ oxidation ⁇ 100 mAh/g
  • the lattice parameter barely decreases.
  • This can be related to oxygen loss because charging with oxygen loss may slow down the increase in the oxidation states of the remaining ions in the crystal structure. It is noted that the capacity in this region is ⁇ 105 mAh/g, which roughly agrees with the maximum estimated oxygen loss capacity ( ⁇ 90 mAh/g) from the XANES results discussed above.
  • a reference to “A and/or B”, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.
  • the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements.
  • This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified.
  • “at least one of A and B” can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.
  • An electrical device comprising an electrode comprising the Lithium metal oxide of any one of embodiments 1-12.
  • a lithium metal oxide comprising: LiaMbM′cO2 having a cation-disordered rocksalt structure, wherein M comprises at least one redox-active metallic species having a first oxidation state n and a second oxidation state n′ greater than n, M′ comprises at least one charge-compensating metallic species having an oxidation state y greater than or equal to n, a is greater than 1, and b and c are greater than or equal to 0, and wherein M is chosen such that a lithium-M oxide having a formula LiMO2 has a cation-disordered rocksalt structure.
  • An electrical device comprising an electrode comprising the lithium metal oxide of any one of embodiments 14-27.
  • An electrical device comprising an electrode comprising the lithium metal oxide of any one of embodiments 29-32.
  • An electrical device comprising an electrode comprising the lithium metal oxide of any one of embodiments 34-45.

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