Classifications

• • G—PHYSICS
  • G05—CONTROLLING; REGULATING
  • G05F—SYSTEMS FOR REGULATING ELECTRIC OR MAGNETIC VARIABLES
  • G05F1/00—Automatic systems in which deviations of an electric quantity from one or more predetermined values are detected at the output of the system and fed back to a device within the system to restore the detected quantity to its predetermined value or values, i.e. retroactive systems
  • G05F1/10—Regulating voltage or current 
  • G05F1/46—Regulating voltage or current  wherein the variable actually regulated by the final control device is DC
  • G05F1/56—Regulating voltage or current  wherein the variable actually regulated by the final control device is DC using semiconductor devices in series with the load as final control devices
• • G—PHYSICS
  • G05—CONTROLLING; REGULATING
  • G05F—SYSTEMS FOR REGULATING ELECTRIC OR MAGNETIC VARIABLES
  • G05F1/00—Automatic systems in which deviations of an electric quantity from one or more predetermined values are detected at the output of the system and fed back to a device within the system to restore the detected quantity to its predetermined value or values, i.e. retroactive systems
  • G05F1/10—Regulating voltage or current 
  • G05F1/46—Regulating voltage or current  wherein the variable actually regulated by the final control device is DC
  • G05F1/56—Regulating voltage or current  wherein the variable actually regulated by the final control device is DC using semiconductor devices in series with the load as final control devices
  • G05F1/575—Regulating voltage or current  wherein the variable actually regulated by the final control device is DC using semiconductor devices in series with the load as final control devices characterised by the feedback circuit

Definitions

• a low dropout regulator is a direct-current (DC) linear voltage regulator that regulates an output voltage (VOUT) based on an input voltage (VIN). If VIN is greater in value than a reference voltage (VREF) that indicates a programmed regulation point for VOUT, then the LDO regulates VTN down to provide VOUT.
• An LDO can be used as a filtering device following a switching regulator to condition a signal before provision of that signal to a load.
• VIN can include signal noise or other variation in value, and a power supply rejection (PSR) ratio of the LDO may define an ability of the LDO to suppress passage of this noise or other variation in value to VOUT.
• PSR power supply rejection
• an apparatus includes an error amplifier, a buffer, a transistor, and a current mode feedforward ripple canceller (CFFRC).
• the error amplifier has an amplifier output, a first input, and a second input, the second input configured to receive a reference voltage (Vref).
• the buffer has a buffer input and a buffer output, the buffer input coupled to the amplifier output.
• the transistor has a gate, a source, and a drain, the gate coupled to the buffer output, the drain coupled to the first input.
• the transistor is configured to receive an input voltage (VIN) at the source and provide an output voltage (VOUT) at the drain.
• an apparatus includes a transistor, an error amplifier, a buffer, and a CFFRC.
• the transistor has a gate, a source, and a drain, the source configured to receive VTN.
• the error amplifier is configured to compare VOUT at the drain to Vref and provide an error signal responsive to the comparison.
• the buffer is configured to provide the error signal to the gate.
• the CFFRC is configured to, sense a voltage ripple in VIN, convert the sensed voltage ripple to a current representation of the voltage ripple, and provide the current representation of the voltage ripple to the gate.
• a system includes a load and a low dropout regulator (LDO).
• the LDO is adapted to be coupled to the load and is configured to provide a regulated VOUT to the load based on VTN.
• the LDO includes a transistor, an error amplifier, a buffer, and a CFFRC.
• the transistor has a gate, a source, and a drain, the source configured to receive VIN.
• the error amplifier is configured to compare VOUT at the drain to Vref and provide an error signal responsive to the comparison.
• the buffer is configured to provide the error signal to the gate.
• the CFFRC is configured to sense a voltage ripple in VIN, convert the sensed voltage ripple to a current representation of the voltage ripple, provide the current representation of the voltage ripple to the gate.
• FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an example system.
• FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example implementation of the low dropout regulator (LDO).
• LDO low dropout regulator
• FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an example implementation of a portion of an LDO.
• FIG. 4 is a diagram of example signal waveforms.
• FIG. 5 is a diagram of example signal waveforms.
• FIG. 6 is a diagram of example signal waveforms.
• FIG. 7 is a diagram of example signal waveforms.
• FIG. 8A is a diagram of example signal waveforms.
• FIG. 8B is a diagram of example signal waveforms.
• a low dropout regulator LDO
• PSR power supply rejection
• a high PSR across a wide range of frequencies may enable the LDO to be suitable for implementation in multiple applications, such as following a switching regulator that may provide an input voltage (VIN) having high or low frequency noise and to provide an output voltage (VOUT) to components that may be noise sensitive, such as system-on-chip (SOC), sensor modules, low solution size power systems, and other noise sensitive circuits (such as radio frequency (RF) circuits, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), phase locked loops (PLLs), etc.).
• SOC system-on-chip
• RF radio frequency
• ADCs analog-to-digital converters
• PLLs phase locked loops
• Some LDO topologies may provide PSR within their loop-bandwidth. However, their PSR performance degrades with reduced loop gain outside their loop-bandwidth.
• LDOs with external filtering capacitors may have spectral peaking in their PSR response, causing increased system level supply noise. Also, large capacitors for improving PSR response may increase quiescent power consumption of an LDO, and increase a silicon surface area consumed by an LDO, which may increase cost of the LDO.
• aspects of this description relate to an LDO having a wide frequency, high PSR rate.
• at least one implementation of an LDO according to this description achieves a PSR of greater than 68 dB for frequencies up to 2 MHz, and over a range of load current from about 100 microamps (mA) up to about 250 milliamps (mA). For at least some frequencies, this is an improvement or increase in PSR of up to about 25 dB over other techniques.
• the above performance is achieved via a current-mode approach that does not use a summing amplifier in providing the PSR.
• At least one example of an LDO includes a current mode feedforward ripple canceller (CFFRC).
• a feedforward path of the LDO that includes the CFFRC may be gain matched to a forward gain of the LDO. Accordingly, for at least some implementations, the CFFRC may be implemented without specific calibration to the LDO.
• an LDO that includes a p-type pass device such as a p-type transistor, p-type field effect transistor (PFET), or p-type metal oxide semiconductor (PMOS) FET, may be implemented without including a charge pump to provide a drive signal to a gate of the p-type pass device.
• PFET p-type field effect transistor
• PMOS p-type metal oxide semiconductor
• an LDO that includes a n-type pass device e.g., NFET
• a charge pump may increase quiescent current consumption of the LDO.
• an LDO with a p-type pass device rather than an n-type pass device, such as in LDO applications in which a low quiescent current may be advantageous.
• semiconductor physics may dictate that an n-type pass device may use a constant voltage on a gate of the pass device, and a p-type pass device may use a supply voltage ripple replicated on a gate of the pass device, such as resulting from its operation in a common source configuration.
• the CFFRC of the LDO in this description is configured to replicate a supply ripple of a VTN received by the LDO to a gate of a p-type pass device of the LDO.
• the CFFRC may replicate the ripple to the gate of the pass device in a manner independent of frequency of the ripple, and without using a summing amplifier, as described above.
• FIG. 1 is a diagram of an example system 100. At least some implementations of the system 100 are representative of an application environment for an LDO including CFFRC, as described above.
• the system 100 includes a power source 102, an LDO 104 that includes a CFFRC 106, and a load 108.
• the LDO 104 may be coupled between the power source 102 and the load 108 and configured to provide a regulated VOUT to the load 108, based on a VTN received from the power source 102.
• VTN includes noise or other variation in value.
• the power source 102 may be any suitable source of power for the LDO 104, such as a battery, a switching power converter (such as a switched mode power supply), a transformer, etc. that may provide VIN to the LDO 104 having some amount of noise or other variation in value.
• a switching power converter such as a switched mode power supply
• a transformer etc. that may provide VIN to the LDO 104 having some amount of noise or other variation in value.
• the load 108 is noise sensitive, or includes one or more components that are noise sensitive.
• the LDO 104 may have a high PSR ratio for suppressing the noise or other variation in VIN to mitigate appearance of the noise or other variation in VOUT.
• the CFFRC 106 may detect and replicate the noise onto a gate of a pass device (not shown) of the LDO 104, increasing PSR of the LDO 104, and thereby increasing an amount of VTN noise that is suppressed against being in VOUT.
• FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example implementation of the LDO 104.
• the LDO 104 includes the CFFRC 106, an error amplifier 202, a compensation circuit 204, a buffer 206, a pass FET 208, a current sense FET 210, an adaptive bias generation circuit 212, and a dynamic bias generation circuit 214.
• the LDO 104 is adapted to be coupled to one or more components at an output of the LDO 104, such as a resistor 216 and/or a capacitor 218.
• the error amplifier 202 may be any suitable operational transconductance amplifier (OTA), the scope of which is not limited herein.
• OTA operational transconductance amplifier
• the error amplifier 202 has a first input (e.g., a positive or non-inverting input) coupled to a drain of the pass FET 208, a second input (e.g., a negative or inverting input) configured to receive a reference voltage (Vref), and an output.
• the compensation circuit 204 is coupled between the output of the error amplifier 202 and ground 220.
• the compensation circuit 204 includes one or more passive components (not shown), such as capacitors and/or resistors, which may filter or otherwise provide compensation to an error amplifier output signal (V_ea) from the output of the error amplifier 202.
• the buffer 206 has: an input coupled to the output of the error amplifier 202; and an output coupled to a gate of the pass FET 208.
• the CFFRC 106 has: an input coupled to a source of the pass FET 208 and configured to receive VTN; and an output coupled to the gate of the pass FET 208.
• an impedance may be provided at the output of the buffer 206. This is shown in the LDO 104 as impedance 222 coupled between the output of the buffer 206 and ground 220. However, in at least some examples, the impedance 222 may not be a physical component. Instead, the impedance 222 may be representative of an output impedance that is inherent to, and provided at the output of, the buffer 206.
• the current sense FET 210 has a source coupled to the source of the pass FET 208, a gate coupled to the gate of the pass FET 208, and a drain coupled to an input of the adaptive bias generation circuit 212.
• the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 has: a first output coupled to the compensation circuit 204; and a second output coupled to a first input of the dynamic bias generation circuit 214.
• the dynamic bias generation circuit 214 has: a first output coupled to bias inputs of the error amplifier 202 and the buffer 206; a second output coupled to the first input of the error amplifier 202; a second input configured to receive Vref; and a third input coupled to the drain of the pass FET 208.
• an output of the LDO 104 (at which VOUT is provided) is the drain of the pass FET 208.
• the resistor 216 and the capacitor 218 may be coupled in series between the drain of the pass FET 208 and ground 220.
• the capacitor 218 may be an off-chip capacitor to which the LDO 104 is adapted to be coupled, and which sets a dominant pole in a frequency response of VOUT, which is provided by the LDO 104.
• a resistor divider is coupled between the drain of the pass FET 208 and ground 220, and the first input of the error amplifier 202 is coupled to an output of the resistor divider instead of directly to the drain of the pass FET 208.
• VTN is received and passed by the pass FET 208, so the LDO 104 may provide it as VOUT.
• the pass FET 208 passes VIN (for providing as VOUT) based on a value of a signal received at the gate of the pass FET 208.
• An amount of current flowing through the pass FET 208 is related to a value of the signal received at the gate of the pass FET 208, so a larger value signal at the gate of the pass FET 208 (such as causing a lager gate-to-source voltage differential of the pass FET 208) may result in VOUT having a value nearer VIN.
• the error amplifier 202 compares VOUT to Vref and provides V_ea having a value that indicates a difference between VOUT and Vref.
• the error amplifier 202 is a folded cascode operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) based error amplifier that may be biased with a combination of a static bias current (e.g., in no load operation) and adaptive or dynamic biasing (e.g., for transient and high load current operation), such as provided by the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 and/or the dynamic bias generation circuit 214, as described below.
• OTA operational transconductance amplifier
• compensation is provided to V_ea by the compensation circuit 204, such as under control of the adaptive bias generation circuit 212.
• the buffer 206 provides V_ea to the gate of the pass FET 208.
• the CFFRC 106 also provides a signal to the gate of the pass FET 208.
• the CFFRC 106 may sense a voltage ripple in VIN, convert the voltage ripple to a current representation of the voltage ripple, indicated as i ripple, and provide i ripple to the gate of the pass FET 208.
• the current of i ripple and current provided by the buffer 206 in providing V_ea are summed at the gate of the pass FET 208 and have a voltage determined at least partially according to the impedance 222. In at least some examples, this mirrors the voltage ripple of VTN to the gate of the pass FET 208, increasing the PSR ratio of the LDO 104.
• voltage ripple in the signal provided at the gate of the pass FET 208 may be approximately equal to VIN ripple multiplied by a ratio of transconductance of the CFFRC 106 to transconductance of the buffer 206.
• the ratio may be controlled to be 1, thereby causing the voltage ripple in the signal provided at the gate of the pass FET 208 to approximately equal the VIN ripple.
• VOUT of the LDO 104 may be approximately equal to (gain/(l+gain))*Vref, where gain is the closed loop gain of the LDO 104.
• Having this ripple as a common mode input to both the gate and source of the pass FET 208 may reduce an amount of the ripple that is coupled by the pass FET 208 onto the drain of the pass FET 208, which (as described above) is the output of the LDO 104. In that way, the PSR ratio of the LDO 104 is increased. In at least some examples, the PSR ratio of the LDO 104 is increased without using a voltage summing amplifier, thereby resulting in reduced quiescent current of the LDO 104. For example, at least some implementations of the LDO 104 have a no-load quiescent current of about 5.6 microamps (uA).
• the current sense FET 210 is a scaled replica of the pass FET 208, and a current flowing through the current sense FET 210 (indicated as Ibias adap) is provided to the adaptive bias generation circuit 212.
• the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 implements a 1:M sense FET based architecture with a sense ratio of about 1 : 12000 (e.g., the sense FET 210 has a size approximately 12000 times a size of the pass FET 208). Based on Ibias adap, the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 may change the bandwidth of components of the LDO 104, such as the compensation circuit 204 and/or the dynamic bias generation circuit 214.
• the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 may provide a compensation current (Icomp) to the compensation circuit 204 to control (or bias) the compensation circuit 204.
• the compensation circuit 204 may implement a pole-zero tracking compensation technique, in which a frequency response zero is introduced at the output of the error amplifier 202.
• the LDO 104 may be a two-pole system (e.g., a pole resulting from the capacitor 218, as described above, and a pole resulting from the output of the error amplifier 202).
• compensation is provided by the compensation circuit 204 for the pole introduced at the output of the error amplifier 202.
• the compensation may be a frequency response zero with a location modulated according to Icomp (e.g., based on a load current of the LDO 104), in order to maintain stability of the LDO 104 across a range of load currents.
• the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 may also provide an adaptation current (Iadp) to the dynamic bias generation circuit 214.
• Iadp adaptation current
• Vref voltage bias generation circuit
• VOUT dynamic bias current
• the dynamic bias generation circuit 214 may provide a dynamic bias current (Idyn) to the error amplifier 202 and the buffer 206.
• Idyn is configured to provide current bursts to the error amplifier 202 and the buffer 206 to mitigate voltage overshoot or undershoot during load transients (e.g., at the drain of the pass FET 208).
• the dynamic bias generation circuit 214 may pull down (e.g., load) the drain of the pass FET 208 via Vpulldown to decrease a value of VOUT, thereby reducing a recovery time (e.g., in some implementations to less than about 10 microseconds) and an overshoot amount responsive to an overshoot in VOUT.
• the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 and/or the dynamic bias generation circuit 214 facilitate the transconductance of the transistor 307 tracking, or being controlled to approximately equal, the transconductance of the transistor 326, such as via one or more signals provided by the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 and/or the dynamic bias generation circuit 214.
• FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of the example implementation of a portion of the LDO 104.
• FIG. 3 is representative of a transistor-level implementation of at least a portion of the LDO 104 as shown in FIG. 2.
• the LDO 104 as shown in FIG. 3 includes the CFFRC 106, the buffer 206, the pass FET 208, and the impedance 222.
• the CFFRC 106 includes a resistor 302, a capacitor 304, a differential amplifier 306, a p- type FET (PFET) 307, a PFET 308, a current mirror 310 that includes a n-type FET (NFET) 312 and a NFET 314, and a current mirror 316 that includes a PFET 318 and a PFET 320.
• the buffer 206 includes a PFET 322, a PFET 324, and a PFET 326.
• the resistor 302 has: a first terminal configured to receive a bias voltage Vgs adap; and a second terminal coupled to a first input (e.g., a positive or non-inverting input) of the differential amplifier 306.
• the capacitor 304 is coupled between the first input of the differential amplifier 306 and ground 220.
• the differential amplifier 306 has an output coupled to a gate of the PFET 308.
• a source of the PFET 308 is coupled to a second input (e.g., a negative or inverting input) of the differential amplifier 306.
• a gate of the PFET 307 is coupled to the second input of the differential amplifier 306, a drain of the PFET 307 is coupled to the second input of the differential amplifier 306, and a source of the PFET 307 is configured to receive VIN.
• a drain of the PFET 308 is coupled to a drain and a gate of the NFET 312.
• the NFET 312 has a source coupled to ground 220.
• the NFET 314 has a gate coupled to the gate of the NFET 312, a source coupled to ground 220, and a drain coupled to a drain of the PFET 318, a gate of the PFET 318, and a gate of the PFET 320.
• the PFET 318 and the PFET 320 each have sources configured to receive VIN.
• the PFET 320 has a drain coupled to, or adapted to be coupled to, the gate of the pass FET 208.
• the PFET 322 and the PFET 324 have respective sources configured to receive VTN.
• a drain of the PFET 322 is coupled to the gate of the PFET 322 and adapted to be coupled to the adaptive bias generation circuit 212, as described above.
• the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 sinks Ibias adap through the PFET 322.
• the PFET 322 is diode- connected, providing the bias voltage Vgs adap at the gate of the PFET 322, which is coupled to the gate of the PFET 320.
• the sense FET 210 and the PFET 322 may be implemented as the same.
• the PFET 324 also has a drain coupled to the gate of the pass FET 208.
• the PFET 326 has a gate coupled to the output of the error amplifier 202 and configured to receive V_ea, a source coupled to the gate of the pass FET 208, and a drain coupled to ground 220.
• transconductance of the PFET 307 and the PFET 326 may be matched to provide the transconductance ratio of 1, as described above.
• the resistor 302 and the capacitor 304 form a low-pass filter having an output coupled to the first input of the differential amplifier 306.
• the low-pass filter defines a cutoff frequency of the CFFRC 106 based on a resistance value of the resistor 302 and a capacitance value of the capacitor 304.
• the cutoff frequency is about 150 Hertz (Hz), resulting from a resistance of the resistor 302 of about 100 megaohms and a capacitance of the capacitor 304 of about 10 picofarads.
• the gate of the PFET 307 may be held at an alternating current (AC) ground compared to the source of the PFET 307.
• the differential amplifier 306 may set a value for a direct current (DC) bias current (Ibias) flowing through the PFET 307.
• the differential amplifier 306 is implemented as a 5-transistor OTA.
• the low-pass filter, in combination with the differential amplifier 306, may form a servo high-pass filter.
• transconductance of the PFET 307 and the PFET 326 may be matched, thereby providing the transconductance ratio of 1 as described above.
• Current flowing through the PFET 307 may be determined according to g_pfet307*VIN_ripple, where g_pfet307 is the transconductance of the PFET 307, and VIN ripple is the ripple present in VTN.
• the impedance 222 may have an approximate value determined according to l/g_pfet326, where g_pfet326 is a transconductance of the PFET 326.
• V ripple which is the voltage ripple provided to the gate of the pass FET 208 by the CFFRC 106, is approximately equal to the current flowing through the PFET 307 multiplied by the impedance 222.
• V ripple is approximately equal to (g_pfet307/g_pfet326)*VIN_ripple. If g_pfet307/g_pfet326 is controlled to be 1 as described above, V ripple becomes approximately equal to VIN ripple.
• FIG. 4 is a diagram 400 of example signal waveforms, which shows a comparison of PSR ratios of the LDO 104 including the CFFRC 106 versus an LDO that does not include a CFFRC 106.
• a horizontal axis represents frequency, on a logarithmic scale, in units of Hz; and a vertical axis represents the PSR, on a linear scale, in units of dB.
• the CFFRC 106 provides the LDO 104 with an increased PSR ratio across a wide frequency range, when compared to an LDO that does not include the CFFRC 106.
• FIG. 5 is a diagram 500 of example signal waveforms, which shows another comparison of PSR ratios, accounting for varying load currents (shown as IL) of the LDO 104 including the CFFRC 106 versus an LDO that does not include a CFFRC 106.
• the waveforms of the diagram 500 assume a VTN of about 5 V, a VOUT of about 4.5 V, and a load capacitance of about 2.2 microfarads (uF).
• a horizontal axis represents frequency, on a logarithmic scale, in units of Hz; and a vertical axis represents the PSR, on a linear scale, in units of dB.
• the CFFRC 106 provides the LDO 104 with an increased PSR ratio across a wide frequency range, when compared to an LDO that does not include the CFFRC 106. Also as shown in the diagram 500, the CFFRC 106 provides the LDO 104 with an increased PSR ratio across a range of load currents, in units of uA or milliamps (mA) (e.g., for load currents of 100 uA, 20 mA, and 250 mA).
• mA milliamps
• FIG. 6 is a diagram 600 of example signal waveforms, which shows another comparison of PSR ratios, accounting for varying output capacitances (shown as Cout) of the LDO 104.
• the waveforms of the diagram 600 assume a VIN of about 5 V, a VOUT of about 4.5 V, and a load current of about 20 mA.
• a horizontal axis represents frequency, on a logarithmic scale, in units of Hz; and a vertical axis represents the PSR, on a linear scale, in units of dB.
• the CFFRC 106 provides the LDO 104 with a similarly increased PSR ratio across a range of output capacitances, shown for output capacitances of 1 uF, 2.2 uF, and 12.2 uF.
• FIG. 7 is a diagram 700 of example signal waveforms, which shows another comparison of PSR ratios, accounting for varying values of VOUT of the LDO 104.
• the waveforms of the diagram 700 assume a VTN of about 5 V, a load capacitance of about 2.2 uF, and a load current of about 20 mA.
• a horizontal axis represents frequency, on a logarithmic scale, in units of Hz; and a vertical axis represents the PSR, on a linear scale, in units of dB.
• the CFFRC 106 provides the LDO 104 with a similarly increased PSR ratio across a range of values of VOUT, shown for VOUT values of 4.8 V, 4.7 V, 4.5 V, and 4 V.
• FIGS. 8A and 8B are diagrams of example signal waveforms.
• FIG. 8A is a diagram 805 of load transient response of the LDO 104 for a load current step up from about 100 uA to about 250 mA.
• FIG. 8B is a diagram 810 of load transient response of the LDO 104 for a load current step down from about 250 mA to about 100 uA.
• undershoot and overshoot in values of VOUT are reduced by the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 and the dynamic bias generation circuit 214, in comparison to an LDO that does not include the adaptive bias generation circuit 212 and the dynamic bias generation circuit 214.
• the term “couple” may cover connections, communications or signal paths that enable a functional relationship consistent with this description. For example, if device A provides a signal to control device B to perform an action, then: (a) in a first example, device A is directly coupled to device B; or (b) in a second example, device A is indirectly coupled to device B through intervening component C if intervening component C does not substantially alter the functional relationship between device A and device B, so device B is controlled by device A via the control signal provided by device A.
• a device that is “configured to” perform a task or function may be configured (e.g., programmed and/or hardwired) at a time of manufacturing by a manufacturer to perform the function and/or may be configurable (or reconfigurable) by a user after manufacturing to perform the function and/or other additional or alternative functions.
• the configuring may be through firmware and/or software programming of the device, through a construction and/or layout of hardware components and interconnections of the device, or a combination thereof.
• a circuit or device that is described herein as including certain components may instead be adapted to be coupled to those components to form the described circuitry or device.
• a structure described herein as including one or more semiconductor elements such as transistors
• one or more passive elements such as resistors, capacitors and/or inductors
• one or more sources such as voltage and/or current sources
• a single physical device e.g., a semiconductor die and/or integrated circuit (IC) package
• IC integrated circuit
• While certain components may be described herein as being of a particular process technology, these components may be exchanged for components of other process technologies. Circuits described herein are reconfigurable to include the replaced components to provide functionality at least partially similar to functionality available prior to the component replacement.
• Components shown as resistors are generally representative of any one or more elements coupled in series and/or parallel to provide an amount of impedance represented by the shown resistor.
• a resistor or capacitor shown and described herein as a single component may instead be multiple resistors or capacitors, respectively, coupled in series or in parallel between the same two nodes as the single resistor or capacitor.
• ground voltage potential in this description include a chassis ground, an Earth ground, a floating ground, a virtual ground, a digital ground, a common ground, and/or any other form of ground connection applicable to, or suitable for, the teachings of this description. Unless otherwise stated, “about,” “approximately,” or “substantially” preceding a value means +/- 10 percent of the stated value.

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