Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C02—TREATMENT OF WATER, WASTE WATER, SEWAGE, OR SLUDGE
  • C02F—TREATMENT OF WATER, WASTE WATER, SEWAGE, OR SLUDGE
  • C02F1/00—Treatment of water, waste water, or sewage
  • C02F1/30—Treatment of water, waste water, or sewage by irradiation
  • C02F1/32—Treatment of water, waste water, or sewage by irradiation with ultraviolet light
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C02—TREATMENT OF WATER, WASTE WATER, SEWAGE, OR SLUDGE
  • C02F—TREATMENT OF WATER, WASTE WATER, SEWAGE, OR SLUDGE
  • C02F1/00—Treatment of water, waste water, or sewage
  • C02F1/72—Treatment of water, waste water, or sewage by oxidation
  • C02F1/725—Treatment of water, waste water, or sewage by oxidation by catalytic oxidation
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C02—TREATMENT OF WATER, WASTE WATER, SEWAGE, OR SLUDGE
  • C02F—TREATMENT OF WATER, WASTE WATER, SEWAGE, OR SLUDGE
  • C02F2103/00—Nature of the water, waste water, sewage or sludge to be treated
  • C02F2103/008—Originating from marine vessels, ships and boats, e.g. bilge water or ballast water
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/30—Hydrogen technology
  • Y02E60/36—Hydrogen production from non-carbon containing sources, e.g. by water electrolysis

Definitions

• the present invention relates to a process for dissociating target molecules into ions or elements.
• the process can be used for energy, reclamation, and a variety of other applications, including drug delivery, by using selected individual or group bond energies of dissociation or ionization.
• PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
• Remediation methods for liquid samples include filtration, sedimentation, reverse osmosis, forward osmosis, oxidation/reduction processes, electrolysis, thermal radiation, irradiation, pyrolysis, and enzymatic degradation.
• Drawbacks to the above-mentioned processes are similar to those for traditional solid waste treatment; namely cost effectiveness, high energy consumption, and significant intermediate and byproduct formation requiring further remediation.
• Photocatalytic oxidation uses a photocatalyst for the destruction of substances in fluids or air.
• Useful photocatalysts are generally
• a process has been developed to selectively dissociate target molecules into component products compositionally distinct from the target molecule, wherein the bonds of the target molecule do not reform because the components are no longer reactive with each other.
• Dissociation is effected by treating the target molecule with energy such as light at a frequency and intensity, alone or in combination with a catalyst, in an amount effective to selectively break bonds within the target molecule.
• This process does not result in the re-association of the component parts into the target molecule by the reverse process.
• the process also does not produce component products by oxidation or reduction process, an exchange of electrons, or a change in oxidative state of the molecule which have incorporated oxygen or other additives because the process does not proceed via a typical reduction-oxidation mechanism.
• the process is specific for target molecules, providing a mechanism for targeting molecules in a complex mixture.
• the process can further include purification of the resultant component products.
• the process can be used to remediate waste or recycle the component products.
• the process can be used to dissociate target molecules to generate hydrogen, which can be used as an energy source. Examples include ammonia, as in urine, fertilizer runoff, and aguaculture wastes.
• PCBs are degraded quickly, efficiently, and cost-effectively, producing biphenyl and elemental chlorine as the only byproducts of the reaction. Biphenyl is much less toxic and is more degradable than are the parent PCBs.
• the process can also be used to treat, prevent, and detect biological diseases and disorders.
• a nanoparticle composition includes a
• Figure 1 is a bar graph of the percentage decrease of aqueous ammonia after photocatalytic degradation. The results are achieved with the following catalysts: Pt Ti02 (platinized titania), Ti02 (Titanium oxide), Cu- AMO (Copper-doped Amorphous Manganese Oxide, AMO (Amorphous Manganese Oxide), and Cu-Ce-Co (Copper-Cerium-Cobalt).
• An atom is ionized by absorbing a photon of energy equal to or higher than the ionization energy of the atom. Multiple photons below the ionization threshold of an atom may combine their energies to ionize an atom by a process known as multi-photon ionization. These concepts also apply to molecules.
• Resonance enhanced multi-photon ionization is a technique in which a molecule is subject to a single resonant or multi-photon frequency such that an electronically excited intermediate state is reached. A second photon or multi-photon then ejects the electronically excited electron and ionizes the molecule.
• the process described herein relies on two main principles.
• the first principle is that the dissociation of target molecules requires breaking multiple bonds. Thus, a plurality of photons or other energetic sources are absorbed by a given molecule.
• the second principle is that dissociation of molecules in a complex mixture can be achieved with specific selection of the energy for dissociation (both frequency and intensity), defined herein as the promoter.
• Irradiation refers to subjecting or treating a sample with beams of particles or energy. Irradiation includes any form of electromagnetic or acoustic radiation.
• Bioactive agent as generally used herein refers to any substance
• a biologically active agent is a substance used for the treatment (e.g., therapeutic agent), prevention (e.g., prophylactic agent), diagnosis (e.g., diagnostic agent), cure or mitigation of one or more symptoms of a disease or disorder, a substance which affects the structure or function of the body, or pro-drugs, which become biologically active or more active after they have been placed in a predetermined physiological environment
• examples can include, but are not limited to, small-molecule drugs, peptides, proteins such as antibodies, sugars, polysaccharides, nucleotides, oligonucleotides such as aptamers, siRNA, and miRNAs, and combinations thereof.
• Bind dissociation energy refers to the standard enthalpy of change when a bond is cleaved.
• Bind energy refers to the average of the sum of the bond dissociation energies in a molecule.
• Component products refers to known ions or atoms composed of only elements found within the target molecule. Individual component products have a chemical formula distinct from the target molecule. An example is N 2 and H 2) which are each component products of NH 3 .
• Catalyst refers to any chemical which enhances the rate and or efficiency of molecular dissociation compared with the rate and/or efficiency of dissociation in the absence of the catalyst
• “Chemical waste” as generally used herein refers to any inorganic or organic substance, present in any physical state, that is unwanted in a given sample due to environmental or toxicity concerns.
• Dissociation refers to breaking the bonds of a molecule. Dissociation in the current process is requires that the original bonds of the target molecule do not re-associate.
• Excited state refers to a state in which one or more electrons of an atom or molecule are in a higher-energy level than ground state.
• Globally refers to treatment of an organism with a energy of dissociation over a surface area including multiple organs. In the extreme instance, globally refers to treatment of the entire organism with a energy of dissociation without regard to the specific tissue or target organ of interest
• Nanoparticle refers to particle or a structure in the nanometer (nm) range, typically from about 0.1 nm to about 1000 nm in diameter.
• Non-target molecule refers to the any substance within a sample containing target molecules which is not affected by the process.
• “Pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to those compounds, materials, compositions, and/or dosage forms which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of human beings and animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response, or other problems or complications
• Promoter refers to the energy required for dissociation of a target bond, which is both selective for the target bond and sufficient to prevent re-association of the bond.
• Energy of dissociation source refers to any chemical, apparatus, or combination thereof, which supplies the energy of dissociation with the energy required to dissociate target bonds within a target molecule.
• the energy of dissociation source must supply suitable intensity and suitable frequency for target bond dissociation.
• An example of a energy of dissociation source is a xenon lamp coupled to a pulse generator.
• a energy of dissociation source can optionally contain a catalyst
• An example of such an energy of dissociation source is a titanium dioxide catalyst and a xenon lamp coupled to a pulse generator.
• Recycling refers to reusing substances found in waste for any purpose.
• Targeting agent refers to any entity which is specific for a particular cell type, tissue, or organ within an organism.
• Targeting agents can be synthetic or biologic agents. Biologic, synthetic, and other targeting agents on the surface of the nanoparticle compositions direct the nanoparticle composition to cells of interest which are to be treated with the encapsulated bioactive agent upon treatment with the promoter.
• Target bond refers to any bond within a target molecule.
• Target bonds can be covalent, ionic, or "weak bonds” including dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, or hydrogen bonding.
• Target bonds can be single or multiple covalent bonds.
• Target molecule refers to a molecule, or portion of a macromolecule, that contains at least one bond.
• a target molecule can be a nanoparticle.
• Target molecules must contain at least one bond to be dissociated.
• Target molecules can be any compound of the solid, liquid, gas, or plasma physical state.
• Target molecules can be charged or uncharged.
• Target molecules can be naturally occurring or synthetically prepared compounds.
• target molecules are purified material.
• An example is distilled water, which is dissociated into 3 ⁇ 4 and 0 2 by the process described herein.
• target molecules are in a mixture including non-target molecules.
• An example of such an embodiment is ammonia dissolved in water.
• ammonia is the target molecule, and is dissociated into N 2 and H 2 .
• Water in this embodiment is not dissociated because the energy of dissociation is specific for the energy required to dissociate the N-H bonds of ammonia and not the O-H bonds of water.
• Target molecules are preferably waste or pollutant products from any source, such as alkyl sulfonates, alkyl phenols, ammonia, benzoic acid, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, dioxin, fumaric acid, grease, herbicides, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, formaldehyde, methane, nitrogenous wastes (sewage, waste water, and agricultural runoff), nitric acid, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, oil, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid.
• Target molecules can be reactive or volatile aliphatic or aromatic organic compounds.
• the molecule may be a nanoparticle releasing a therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic agent.
• Target molecules can also be critical proteins, polysaccharides, or oligonucleotides of infectious agents, transformed (cancerous) cells, bacteria, or other living organisms. Delivery of therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic agents can be effected by exposure to the energy of dissociation in a highly specific and controlled manner. This may be application to the molecules per se, or to nanoparticles formed of or incorporating agent to be released.
• a target bond is any bond within a target molecule.
• Types of bonds affected by the dissociative process described herein include covalent, ionic, van der Waals, hydrogen bonding, or London dispersion forces or any bond which can form and has dissociation energy or energies if applied will break the bond and not allow the reformation of the bond.
• the bond can be a single bond, double bond, or triple bond. The energy of dissociation must be specific for the target bond of the target molecule.
• the energy of dissociation energy of dissociation is specific for the bond dissociation energy of a target bond.
• target bonds are dissociated heterolytically by the process described herein.
• ionic component products may be produced in addition to radicals and ejected electrons, for example:
• the radicals can re-associate to form A:B, but in the preferred embodiment, the radicals re-associate in a homomeric fashion to form A:A and B:B component products.
• One, two, or more identical radicals can associate to form known ions, atoms, or molecules.
• target molecules contain multiple non- identical atoms, multiple oxidation states, or combinations thereof, all of which contain a variety of types of target bonds.
• target molecules with non-identical target bonds containing multiple non-identical atoms are dichloroethane (CH 2 CI 2 ) and ethanolamine (OHCH 2 CH 2 NH 2 ).
• target molecules with non-identical target bonds with multiple oxidation states include ethyl acetylene HC ⁇ CH 2 CHj and ethyl isocyanate
• gaseous material is dissolved in water.
• Gaseous waste sources include, among others, ventilation makeup air, ambient air, air from stripping and off-gassing operations, soil vapor extraction (SVE), airborne matter, organic particulate matter, process vent gas, and wastewater treatment off-gas.
• SVE soil vapor extraction
• aqueous treatment streams including liquid effluents, wastewater, industrial runoff, and agricultural runoff is used as the sample.
• liquid waste sources are already in aqueous form and can be directly treated with the promoter.
• solid and sludge waste sources such as landfill waste and polluted soil are treated.
• the target molecule is present in a range from
• the sample is completely comprised of target material.
• target material is water.
• the energy of dissociation is the energy required for dissociation of a target molecule, and is specific for the target bond or bonds within a target molecule.
• the energy of dissociation is tunable and specific for the bond dissociation energy of any target bond within any target molecule.
• the energy of dissociation is applied at a frequency and intensity effective for both scission of the target bond and target molecule dissociation.
• the target molecule is AB
• application of the energy of dissociation specific for the A-B bond results in ejection of an electron from the target bond yielding a radical, an ion, and an electron, according to the following possible mechanisms:
• the ions and radicals can be stable isolable species, or can combine with other ions to form molecules, i.e. the component products.
• the ejected electrons can be captured by an electron sink. The intensity of the energy of dissociation must be such that re-association of components back into the target molecules does not occur.
• application of the energy of dissociation satisfies the bond dissociation energy of the target bond of a target molecule via a one step electronic process, and the target bond is dissociated.
• the energy of dissociation source can be tuned to the f equency of a second target bond dissociation energy and applied to the sample to affect dissociation of a second target bond.
• the energy of dissociation sources can be tuned as needed to dissociate all target bonds of the target molecule.
• application of the energy of dissociation satisfies the bond dissociation energy of the target bond of a target molecule via a process involving the Rydberg excited state of the target molecule.
• the energy of dissociation source excites the target molecule to a Rydberg state, wherein the energy required to nearly remove an electron from the ionic core (the ionization or dissociation energy) of a target molecule has been achieved.
• the same or different energy of dissociation source then supplies sufficient energy to eject the excited electron from the target bond.
• one or more energy of dissociation sources can be used for each step. Once one target bond has been dissociated, the energy of dissociation source can be tuned to the frequency of a second target bond dissociation energy. The energy of dissociation sources can be tuned as needed to dissociate all target bonds of the target molecule.
• treatment of ammonia with an energy of dissociation occurs via the two-step process involving the Rydberg State.
• energy of dissociation treatment of 193 nm excites a shared electron in the N-H bond such that ammonia is in an excited Rydberg state.
• energy of dissociation treatment of 214 nm energy expels the electron and dissociates ammonia into NH 2 - and H.
• Subsequent dissociative processes will give component products which re-associate to form N 2 and H 2 .
• the one-step process, the two-step process, or a combination thereof are used to dissociate the target molecule.
• one or more energy of dissociation sources are used for dissociation of each target bond within a target molecule.
• one or more energy of dissociation sources are used in combination for dissociation of each target bond within a target molecule.
• An exemplary molecule contains N-H, C-O, and O-H bonds.
• H bond is cleaved with application of a 193 nm and 214 nm xenon bulb energy of dissociation source.
• the C-0 bonds are cleaved with a monochromatic pulse generator.
• the O-H bonds are cleaved with a combination of photocatalyst and UV radiation. All of these energy of dissociation sources comprise the energy of dissociation required for complete dissociation of all the bonds of the target molecule. In some cases this requires three or more bond energies to expel the electron.
• a filter may be used to isolate wavelengths or energies from a wide range source.
• the energy of dissociation source delivers irradiative energy, catalysis, or combinations thereof.
• An energy of dissociation source supplies the energy of dissociation with electromagnetic energy, acoustic energy, or any other energy which meets the bond dissociation energy of the target bond.
• the energy of dissociation source energy is selected from a non-exclusive list including photonic, photo-catalytic, chemical, kinetic, potential, magnetic, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic, DC or AC modulation current (electrical), plasma, ultrasound, piezoelectric, or electrochemical energy.
• Energy of dissociation sources include any apparatus which can supply the specific bond dissociation energy to break target bonds of target molecules specifically without non-target molecule bonds being affected. Examples include mono-chromatic light, monotone sound, or any other mono-energy source.
• an energy of dissociation source is applied at the appropriate frequency and intensity to attain a multi-photon or multi- frequency energy of dissociation within a rapid time scale through use of a generator of nano to pico-pulse cycles.
• energy of dissociation sources can be frequency generators, electrical generators, plasma generators, arc lamps, pulse generators, amplifying generators, tunable lasers, ultraviolet lamps, ultraviolet lasers, pulse ultraviolet generators, and ultrasound generators.
• the energy of dissociation source is one or more reactor beds having any number of lamps, generators, and/or bulbs; lamps, generators, and/or bulbs having the same or different sizes in terms of diameter and length; lamps, generators, and or bulbs having the same or different wattages and/or any combination of the foregoing.
• the lamps, generators, and/or bulbs useful in this method can be any shape, size, or wattage.
• use of a pulse light source allows one to use a 10 watt input of energy and generate 400,000 watts of pulse energy within 1/3 of a second of output, thereby reducing energy usage and equipment size and cost.
• the energy of dissociation source is a pulse tunable laser or diode attached to a pulse generator.
• target bond and target molecule will determine the identity, frequency, and intensity of energy of dissociation source.
• photocatalytic processes use ultraviolet light promoters, supplied by ultraviolet energy of dissociation sources that are positioned to emit photons of ultraviolet light.
• the ultraviolet light sources are generally adapted to produce light having one or more wavelengths within the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• the method should be understood as including ultraviolet light sources that may produce other light having one or more wavelengths that are not within the ultraviolet portion (e.g., wavelengths greater than 400 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• the energy of dissociation source is replaced by other devices, such as lamps or bulbs other than ultraviolet fluorescent lamps or bulbs; non-ultraviolet light emitting diodes; waveguides that increase surface areas and direct ultraviolet light and any energy light source that activates a photocatalyst; mercury vapor lamps; xenon lamps; halogen lamps; combination gas lamps; and microwave sources to provide sufficient energy to the photocatalyst substance to cause the bond
• the photocatalyst is applied to the surface of a fiber optic device and activated from the inside by the specific energy of dissociation.
• the fiber optic device can be placed into a membrane through which air, solids or liquids flows.
• Energy of dissociation source intensity is the quantity of energy supplied to the promoter, which treats a target molecule. Energy of dissociation source intensity is directly proportional to the number and percentage of bonds which can be dissociated. Low intensity energy of dissociation sources have the capability to dissociate a smaller proportion of target bonds compared to a higher intensity energy of dissociation sources. For example, in a photonic energy of dissociation source, the greater the number of photons present, the higher the likelihood of ejecting electrons.
• energy of dissociation source intensity is increased by use of a pulse generator in conjunction with a lamp of the proper wavelength, or a tunable laser.
• the pulse generator supplies a predetermined number of pulses per second.
• the frequency of energy of the energy of dissociation source (in photonic cases, the wavelengths of radiant energy) specifically dissociates target bonds of target compounds.
• One frequency, multiple selected frequencies, or combinations of energy of dissociation source frequencies can be used depending on the chemical structure of the target material.
• the apparatus must deliver sufficient intensity of the dissociation energy to completely dissociate the bond in adequate numbers to satisfy the need of the end user.
• REMPI resonance enhanced mult-photon ionization
• RIS resonance ionization spectroscopy
• photofragment imaging product imaging, velocity map imaging, three-dimensional ion imaging, centroiding, zero electron kinetic imaging (ZEKE), mass enhanced threshold ionization (MATI), and photo- induced Rydberg ionization (PIRI).
• REMPI resonance enhanced mult-photon ionization
• RIS resonance ionization spectroscopy
• RIS resonance ionization spectroscopy
• photofragment imaging product imaging
• velocity map imaging three-dimensional ion imaging
• centroiding three-dimensional ion imaging
• ZEKE zero electron kinetic imaging
• MATI mass enhanced threshold ionization
• PIRI photo- induced Rydberg ionization
• Wavelengths to dissociate hydrogens from ammonia are 193, 214, 222, 234 and 271nm. Three or more of these wavelengths in combination break N3 ⁇ 4 into its components: N 2 (g) and H 2 (g) without producing ozone. Examples of wavelengths for dissociation include 193 nm and 214 run, both of which are required. A wavelength of248 nm will break down Ozone.
• the energy of dissociation source frequency range is from 115 nm to 400 nm, with appropriate filters, to satisfy the precise frequency of dissociation energies required for hydrogen dissociation only. Adjustments are made for cage effect and molecular interaction.
• the energy of dissociation source frequency is supplied by a tunable laser or light energy source that subjects samples to a mono-energy.
• dissociation bond energy at a sufficient intensity to dissociate a selected bond or group of bonds is applied, there are no indiscriminate or random molecules or atoms produced other than what will be determined by the selected bonds which are targeted for dissociation, eliminating the random production of undesirable by-products or intermediates seen in oxidation and reduction, microbial or indiscriminate chemical reaction.
• An electron sink can also be added to the process to insure that there is no recombination or potential for intermediate or byproduct production.
• the energy of dissociation source includes a catalyst
• the catalyst enhances the rate of bond dissociation.
• the catalyst can be any material of any physical configuration which is compatible with the sample and any other energy of dissociation sources.
• Catalysts may be unifunctional, multifunctional, or a combination thereof. Catalysts can be used alone or in combination with other catalysts.
• the catalyst is used to drive the reaction to 100% completion, i.e., dissociating generally every ammonia molecule into nitrogen and hydrogen.
• the catalyst is applied to the target molecule or an interface between the energy source and the target molecule wherein the target molecule contacts the catalyst.
• Catalyst is applied to a surface (such as a nanoparticle or tube), or dispersed into a liquid or suspension, through which the energy passes to the target molecules.
• an energy of dissociation source includes a photocatalyst and photonic (light-based) energy source.
• the photocatalyst provides an effective means for converting light into chemical energy.
• the catalyst or photocatalyst is semi-conductive material such as titanium oxides, platinized titania, amorphous manganese oxide, and copper-doped manganese oxide, titanium dioxide, strontium titanate, barium titanate, sodium titanate, cadmium sulfide, zirconium dioxide, and iron oxide.
• Photocatalysts can also be semiconductors that support a metal, such as platinum, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium, strontium titanate, amorphous silicon, hydrogenated amorphous silicon, nitrogenated amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon, and germanium, and combinations thereof.
• Catalysts or photocatalysts can be carbon-based graphene or graphite, as well as carbon-doped semi-conductive or other magnetic material, for example, graphene doped AMO.
• Example 1 show good activity of Cu-AMO in the photocatalytic degradation of N3 ⁇ 4. Some of the parameters to increase activity include enhanced surface area, optimization of [Cu 2+ ], and resultant morphology.
• the electronic properties of the catalyst may also be important since the AMO is mixed valence (Mn 2+ , Mn 3+ , Mn 4+ ) and possible reduction of Cu 2+ to Cu 1+ .
• the most active photocatalysts can be analyzed with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to study the oxidation state of the copper in these materials.
• Catalysts are characterized with X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) to study any crystallinity of the materials, electron diffraction (ED) in a transmission electron microscope (TEM) to study both crystalline and amorphous content of the catalyst, and atomic absorption (AA) for compositions of the catalyst.
• XRD X-ray powder diffraction
• ED electron diffraction
• TEM transmission electron microscope
• AA atomic absorption
• Semi-quantitative analyses of the solid sample can be done by energy dispersive X-ray analyses in a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
• the process typically is conducted until all target molecules have been dissociated into component products.
• duration of time include from a fraction of a second to 10 minutes.
• the process is conducted for one minute.
• the component product gases, elements or chemicals can be purified, stored, utilized or disposed of.
• chemical waste or polluted material comprising target molecules are subjected to dissociation with an energy of dissociation to remediate treatment streams or waste sources.
• Types of treatment streams include, among others, ventilation makeup air, ambient air, air from stripping and off-gassing operations, soil vapor extraction (SVE), airborne matter, organic particulate matter, process vent gas, wastewater treatment off-gas, liquid effluents (e.g. wastewater, aquaculture water, industrial and agricultural runoff) containing at least one undesirable or otherwise unwanted compound.
• the process can also be used to remediate solid waste, sludge waste, landfill waste, and polluted soil.
• Nitrate and Ammonia Remediation in Water and Agriculture For example, ammonia gas, generally found dissolved in effluent streams and waste products resulting from farming and agriculture or aquaculture, can be dissociated into N 2 and H 2 gases.
• Nitrate one of the oxidation results of ammonia when found in ground water at levels of 10 ppm or more has been proven to cause spontaneous abortions in pregnant woman. With the increase in agriculture runoff and seepage into our fresh and salt water systems a need to remove these nitrogenous byproducts and most all others has become a necessary requirement to protect our growing population.
• microorganism or target molecule kill rate will be absolute with no toxic by-products produced, preventing such disasters as algae blooms or disease micro-organism contamination due to unchecked discharges of many of these nutrient rich and disease laden by-products which are not removed from most of the current municipal facilities.
• PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls are mixtures of up to 209 individual chlorinated compounds known as congeners. There are no known natural sources of PCBs. PCBs have been introduced into our environment due to their use as coolants and lubricants in transformers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment. Although the production of PCBs was stopped in 1977 they continue to effect our environment and all living organisms. The literature is full of accounts of the harmful effects of PCBs on animal and plant life. For example in 196S in Japan 14,000 people where poisoned by eating chicken whose rice feed was contaminated by PCB. It was also noted in a 2008 New York Times report "Toxic Breast Milk" that PCBs found their way into healthy nursing mothers throughout the US to levels topping the 1000s of ppb of PCB level.
• PCBs were dumped uncontrollably into the environment for years before the harmful effects of this chemical were known. GE dumped over 1.3 million pounds of PCBs into the Hudson River between 1947 to 1977. Other areas of major contamination are the areas around the old Westinghouse plant in Bloomington, Indiana. The great lakes are still heavily polluted, despite extensive work to clean up the area.
• PCBs exhibit a wide range of toxic effects. These effects may vary depending on the specific PCB. Similar to dioxin, toxicity of coplanar PCBs and mono-ortho-PCBs are thought to be primarily mediated via binding to aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Because AhR is a transcription factor, abnormal activation may disrupt cell function by altering the transcription of genes. The concept of toxic equivalency factors (TEF) is based on the ability of a PCB to activate AhR. For example, di-ortho-substituted non-coplanar PCBs interfere with intracellular signal transduction dependent on calcium; this may lead to neurotoxicity. Ortho-PCBs may disrupt thyroid hormone transport by binding to transthyretin.
• TEZR toxic equivalency factors
• PCBs Current methods of elimination of PCBs are physical, microbial, chemical and containment, all of which have their benefits and drawbacks.
• Large quantities of PCBs have been placed in landfills, mainly in the form of transformers and capacitors. Many municipal sites are not designed to contain these pollutants and PCBs are able to escape into the atmosphere or ground water.
• Incineration can be quite effective yet is expensive, can transfer intermediate contaminates into the air or water and can form new
• vitamin B12 in which a cobalt ion is in oxidation state (III) under normal redox conditions.
• titanium (III) citrate as a strong reductant converts the cobalt from Co(III) to Co(I), giving a new vitamin known as B 12s, which is a powerful nucleophile and reducing catalyst.
• B 12s which is a powerful nucleophile and reducing catalyst.
• PCBs which it de-chlorinates in a rapid and selective manner. Many inhibiting factors can affect the results. This process only eliminates the biological aspect of the process and takes a known catalyst in the form of an enzyme to perform a decomposition of PCB.
• component products once purified, are used to generate energy according to the following process:
• the resultant component products of dissociation process are purified and/or utilized for another purpose.
• resultant component products such as gases
• gases are collected by a microsieve or a nanosponge.
• evolved hydrogen gas is dissolved in water and converted to gaseous hydrogen.
• the gaseous hydrogen can further be purified by scrubbing, cryogenic separation, pressure-swing adsorption, or membrane separators.
• hydrogen gas resulting from the process is used to power fuel cells.
• hydrogen gas generated by dissociation of ammonia in urine with a promoter, is recovered and utilized as an energy source.
• the resultant hydrogen gas can be purified and used for energy.
• component products can be further recycled for purposes other than energy generation according to the following process:
• the resultant nitrogen gas can be stored and utilized as a preservative or industrial chemical.
• Other component products including all allotrope configurations, can be generated by the process including oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorous. All of these compounds are useful for various industrial processes.
• the method described herein can be used to delivery drugs, release drugs, or selectively kill cancerous or infectious agents. These may be by targeting specific molecule on or in a cell or organism, or a molecule in the form of, attached to, or incorporated into a nanoparticle.
• the gold nanoparticle can be made of a gold alloy.
• Metals that can be used to form the gold alloy nanoparticle compositions preferably have a high Z number, and include, but are not limited to, gold, silver, platinum, palladium, cobalt, iron, copper, tin, tantalum, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, osmium, iridium, rhenium, hafnium, thallium, lead, bismuth, gadolinium, dysprosium, holmium, and uranium.
• the target molecule is a nanoparticle composition made of a metal core and a modified surface layer surrounding the metal core.
• the metal core is preferably gold.
• the metal core may be made of a gold alloy or another metal.
• Metals which can be used to form the metal core of the alloy nanoparticle compositions preferably have a high Z number and include, but are not limited to, gold, silver, platinum, palladium, cobalt, iron, copper, tin, tantalum, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, osmium, iridium, rhenium, hafnium, thallium, lead, bismuth, gadolinium, dysprosium, holmium, and uranium.
• the metal core can consist of one metal, or it can be a mixture or an ordered, concentric layering of such metals, or a combination of mixtures and layers.
• the nanoparticle compositions include one or more bioactive agents.
• bioactive agents are selected from a non-exclusive list including antivirals such as acyclovir and protease inhibitors alone or in combination with nucleosides for treatment of HIV or Hepatitis B or C, anti-parasites (helminths, protozoans), anti-cancer agents (chemotherapeutics), antibodies and bioactive fragments thereof (including humanized, single chain, and chimeric antibodies), peptide drugs, antiinflammatories, oligonucleotide drugs (including antisense, aptamers, ribozymes, external guide sequences for ribonuclease P, and triplex forming agents), antibiotics, genes, antiulcerative agents such as bismuth
• subsalicylate subsalicylate, digestive supplements and cofactors, and vitamins.
• bioactive agents are imaging or diagnostic agents.
• the diagnostic agent is barium sulfate.
• Other radioactive materials or magnetic materials can be used in place of, or in addition to, radio-opaque imaging materials. Examples of other materials include gases or gas-emitting compounds.
• bioactive agents can be present alone or in combination with other bioactive agents, carrier, excipients, diluents, fillers, or other pharmaceutically acceptable materials.
• the bioactive agent is bonded to the nanoparticle composition covalently. In another embodiment, the bioactive agent is encapsulated within the nanoparticle composition.
• the nanoparticle composition includes a chemotherapeutic, or anti-cancer agent, such as vinca alkaloids, agents that disrupt microtubule function (microtubule stabilizers and destabilizers), anti-angiogenic agents, tyrosine kinase targeting agent (such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors), transitional metal complexes, proteasome inhibitors, antimetabolites (such as nucleoside analogs), alkylating agents, platinum-based agents, anthracycline antibiotics, topoisomerase inhibitors, macrolides, therapeutic antibodies, retinoids (such as all-trans retinoic acids or a derivatives thereof); geldanamycin or a derivative thereof (such as 17- AAG), and other standard chemotherapeutic agents well recognized in the art.
• a chemotherapeutic, or anti-cancer agent such as vinca alkaloids, agents that disrupt microtubule function (microtubule stabilizers and destabilizers), anti-angiogenic agents
• Examples include adriamycin, colchicine, cyclophosphamide, actinomycin, bleomycin, duanorubicin, doxorubicin, epirubicin, mitomycin, methotrexate, mitoxantrone, fluorouracil, carboplatin, carmustine (BCNU), methyl-CCNU, etoposide, interferons, camptothecin and derivatives thereof, phenesterine, taxanes and derivatives thereof (e.g., paclitaxel and derivatives thereof, taxotere and derivatives thereof, and the like), topetecan, vinblastine, vincristine, tamoxifen, piposulfan, nab- 5404, nab-5800, nab-S 801 ,
• GW57016 Herceptin, gemcitabine (Gemzar), capecitabine (Xeloda), Alimta, cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, epirubicin, cyclophosphamide, Avastin, Velcade, and derivatives thereof.
• chemotherapeutic agent is an antagonist of other factors that are involved in tumor growth, such as EGFR, ErbB2 (also known as Herb), ErbB3, ErbB4, orTNF.
• a bioactive agent can be homogeneously dispersed in the form of fine particles within the nanoparticulate material.
• the bioactive agent is partially solubilized in molten carrier material or partially dissolved with the carrier material in a mutual solvent during the formulation of the nanoparticle composition.
• the bioactive agent is completely solubilized in the molten carrier material or completely dissolved with the carrier material in a co-solvent during the formulation of the nanoparticle composition. This is accomplished through the selection of materials and the manner in which they are processed.
• Proteins which are water insoluble are preferred carrier materials for the formation of nanoparticle compositions containing a bioactive agent
• proteins, polysaccharides and combinations thereof which are water soluble can be formulated with a bioactive agent into nanoparticle compositions and subsequently cross-linked to form an insoluble network.
• cyclodextrins can be complexed with individual bioactive molecules and subsequently cross-linked.
• Certain polymers may also be used as carrier materials in the formulation of bioactive agent containing nanoparticle compositions.
• Suitable polymers include ethylcellulose and other natural or synthetic cellulose derivatives. Polymers which are slowly soluble and form a gel in an aqueous environment, such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or polyethylene oxide may also be suitable as carrier materials for nanoparticle compositions containing a bioactive agent.
• Encapsulation or incorporation of drug into carrier materials to produce bioactive agent containing nanoparticle compositions can be achieved through known pharmaceutical formulation techniques.
• To create a composition mat protects the bioactive agent from exposure upon mechanical disruption (e.g., grinding, chewing, or chopping), the bioactive agent is intimately dispersed within the carrier material.
• the carrier material In the case of formulation in fats, waxes or wax-like materials, the carrier material is heated above its melting temperature and the bioactive agent is added to form a mixture comprising bioactive particles suspended in the carrier material, bioactive particles dissolved in the carrier material, or a mixture thereof.
• Nanoparticle compositions can be subsequently formulated through several methods including, but not limited to, the processes of congealing, extrusion, spray chilling or aqueous dispersion.
• bioactive agent containing nanoparticle compositions it may be desirable to use a solvent evaporation technique to produce bioactive agent containing nanoparticle compositions.
• the bioactive agent and carrier material are co- dissolved in a mutual solvent and nanoparticles can subsequently be produced by several techniques including, but not limited to, forming an emulsion in water or other appropriate media, spray drying or by evaporating off the solvent from the bulk solution and milling the resulting material.
• the bioactive agent is covalently attached to the nanoparticle composition.
• Covalent attachment to the nanoparticle composition can be via any linker which is susceptible to hydrolysis in vivo such the non-exclusive list including anhydrides, esters, carbamates, amides, hydrazones, hydrazines, carbazides, semicarbazides, thiosemicarbazides, thiocarbazides and combinations thereof.
• linker which is susceptible to hydrolysis in vivo
• nanoparticle compositions include a targeting agent on the nanoparticle surface.
• Targeting agents are specific for a particular cell type, tissue, or organ within an organism.
• Targeting agents can be synthetic or biologic agents.
• the biologic, synthetic, or other targeting agent on the surface of the nanoparticle directs the nanoparticle specifically to cells of interest which are to be treated with the bioactive agent.
• the targeting agent is an antibody, preferably specific for a protein or receptor which binds to a tumor cell or tumor- associated tissue.
• the antibody can be monoclonal, polyclonal, antibody fragments. Examples of antibody fragments include Fab, Fab', F(ab')2, scFv, Fv, dsFv diabody, or Fd fragments.
• Exemplary tumor-specific antibodies include anti-HER-2 antibody for targeting breast cancer cells, anti-A33 antigen antibody for targeting colon or gastric cancer, anti-human carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) antibody for targeting carcinomas, HMFG2 or H17E2 antibodies for targeting breast cancer, and bispecific monoclonal antibodies composed of an anti-histamine-succinyl-glycine Fab 1 covalently coupled with an Fab' of either an anticarcinoembryonic antigen or an anticolon-specific antigen-p antibody.
• CEA human carcinoembryonic antigen
• the targeting agent is a small molecule.
• a number of receptors are over-expressed on the surfaces of cancer cells or cancer-associated tissues which bind small molecule ligands.
• Non-limiting examples of receptors over-expressed on cancer cells include folic acid (folate) receptors and Factor Vila. Conjugation of folic acid (folate) or the Factor Vila ligand to a nanoparticle composition delivers the compositions to cancer cells, upon which internalization by receptor-mediated endocytosis can occur. The contents of the nanoparticle composition are released upon treatment with the promoter.
• the targeting agent is a nucleic acid ligand aptamer.
• Aptamers are DNA or RNA oligonucleotides or modified DNA or RNA oligonucleotides which fold into unique conformations specific to satisfy a particular target-ligand binding conformation.
• Non-limiting examples of aptamers include aptamers that bind to vascular endothelial grown factor (VEGF) and prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA).
• VEGF vascular endothelial grown factor
• PSMA prostate specific membrane antigen
• Protocols for carrying out covalent attachment of targeting agents are routinely performed by the skilled artisan.
• conjugation can be carried out by reacting thiol derivatized targeting agent with the nanoparticle composition.
• the targeting agents are derivatized with a linker, wherein the linker can further include a chain of ethylene groups, a peptide or amino acid groups, polynucleotide or nucleotide groups which can be degraded in vivo.
• Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include talc, gum
• Arabic lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, cocoa butter, aqueous or nonaqueous vehicles, fatty substances of animal or vegetable origin, paraffin derivatives, glycols, various wetting, dispersing or emulsifying agents and preservatives.
• the lactones will typically be formulated as solutions or suspensions in a liquid carrier.
• nanoparticle compositions are prepared using a pharmaceutically acceptable "carrier” composed of materials that are considered safe and effective and may be administered to an individual without causing undesirable biological side effects or unwanted interactions.
• the “carrier” is all components present in the pharmaceutical formulation other than the active ingredient or ingredients.
• the term “carrier” includes, but is not limited to, diluents, binders, lubricants, desintegrators, fillers, and coating compositions.
• Carrier also includes all components of the coating composition which may include plasticizers, pigments, colorants, stabilizing agents, and glidants.
• the delayed release dosage formulations may be prepared as described in references such as "Pharmaceutical dosage form tablets", eds. Liberman et. al.
• suitable coating materials include, but are not limited to, cellulose polymers such as cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate; polyvinyl acetate phthalate, acrylic acid polymers and copolymers, and methacrylic resins that are commercially available under the trade name Eudragit® (Roth Pharma, Westerstadt, Germany), Zein, shellac, and polysaccharides.
• cellulose polymers such as cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate
• polyvinyl acetate phthalate acrylic acid polymers and copolymers
• methacrylic resins that are commercially available under the trade name Eudragit® (Roth Pharma, Westerstadt, Germany), Zein, shella
• the coating material may contain conventional carriers such as plasticizers, pigments, colorants, glidants, stabilization agents, pore formers and surfactants.
• Optional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients present in the drug- containing compositions include, but are not limited to, diluents, binders, lubricants, disintegrants, colorants, stabilizers, and surfactants.
• Diluents also termed “fillers,” are typically necessary to increase the bulk of a solid dosage form so that a practical size is provided for compression.
• Suitable diluents include, but are not limited to, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, calcium sulfate, lactose, sucrose, mannitol, sorbitol, cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, kaolin, sodium chloride, dry starch, hydrolyzed starches, pregelatinized starch, silicone dioxide, titanium oxide, magnesium aluminum silicate and powder sugar.
• Binders are used to impart cohesive qualities to a solid nanoparticle formulation.
• Suitable binder materials include, but are not limited to, starch, pregelatinized starch, gelatin, sugars (including sucrose, glucose, dextrose, lactose and sorbitol), polyethylene glycol, waxes, natural and synthetic gums such as acacia, tragacanth, sodium alginate, cellulose, including
• hydorxypropylmethylcellulose hydroxypropylcellulose, ethylcellulose, and veegum
• synthetic polymers such as acrylic acid and methacrylic acid copolymers, methacrylic acid copolymers, methyl methacrylate copolymers, aminoalkyl methacrylate copolymers, polyacrylic acid/polymethacrylic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone.
• Lubricants can also be used in the nanoparticle composition.
• Suitable lubricants include, but are not limited to, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid, glycerol behenate, polyethylene glycol, talc, and mineral oil.
• Disintegrants are used to facilitate dosage form disintegration or "breakup" after administration, and generally include, but are not limited to, starch, sodium starch glycolate, sodium carboxymethyl starch, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, pregelatinized starch, clays, cellulose, alginine, gums or cross linked polymers, such as cross- linked PVP (Polyplasdone XL from GAP Chemical Corp).
• starch sodium starch glycolate, sodium carboxymethyl starch, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, pregelatinized starch, clays, cellulose, alginine, gums or cross linked polymers, such as cross- linked PVP (Polyplasdone XL from GAP Chemical Corp).
• Stabilizers are used to inhibit or retard drug decomposition reactions which include, by way of example, oxidative reactions.
• Surfactants may be anionic, cationic, amphoteric or nonionic surface active agents.
• Suitable anionic surfactants include, but are not limited to, those containing carboxylate, sulfonate and sulfate ions.
• anionic surfactants include sodium, potassium, and ammonium salts of long chain alkyl sulfonates and alkyl aryl sulfonates such as sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate; dialkyl sodium sulfosuccinates, such as sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate; dialkyl sodium sulfosuccinates, such as sodium bis-(2- ethylthioxyl)-sulfosuccinate; and alkyl sulfates such as sodium lauryl sulfate.
• Cationic surfactants include, but are not limited to, quaternary ammonium compounds such as benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, cetrimonium bromide, stearyl dimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride, polyoxyethylene and coconut amine.
• nonionic surfactants include ethylene glycol monostearate, propylene glycol myristate, glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl stearate, polyglyceryl-4-oleate, sorbitan acylate, sucrose acylate, PEG-150 laurate, PEG-400 monolaurate, polyoxyethylene monolaurate, polysorbates, polyoxyethylene octylphenylether, PEG- 1000 cetyl ether, polyoxyethylene tridecyl ether, polypropylene glycol butyl ether, Poloxamer® 401, stearoyl monoisopropanolamide, and polyoxyethylene hydrogenated tallow amide.
• amphoteric surfactants include
• myristoamphoacetate, lauryl betaine and lauryl sulfobetaine myristoamphoacetate, lauryl betaine and lauryl sulfobetaine.
• the nanoparticle compositions may also contain minor amount of nontoxic auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, dyes, pH buffering agents, and preservatives.
• the nanoparticle compositions are administered by any standard method including topical, enteral, or parenteral administration.
• Topical methods of administration include epicutaneous, inhalational, enema, eye or ear drop, and transmucosal.
• S administration include including oral dosing, feeding tube, or suppository.
• Parenteral forms of administration include intravenous injection, intraarterial injection, intramuscular injection, intraperitoneal injection, and subcutaneous injection.
• a reservoir device or cavity capable of a slow0 release of the nanoparticle composition can also be administered by the above-listed methods.
• the nanoparticle is injected into a specific tissue or organ before treatment
• the nanoparticle composition is injected into a cancerous tissue or organ before treatment.
• nanoparticle composition does not result in released bioactive agent due to degradation within the GI tract, degradation by enzymes or acids, or mechanical erosion.
• the nanoparticle composition can be administered to a patient to treat, prevent, and detect a biological disease or disorder by delivering0 bioactive agents to a cell, tissue, or organ.
• the nanoparticle composition can be administered systemically or locally.
• the energy of dissociation can be applied globally or locally. Those skilled in the art will recognize the specific combination of method of administration and energy of dissociation treatment will depend on the patient, dosage required, disease or disorder, and other factors.
• the nanoparticle composition is administered to a patient systemically, and energy of dissociation treatment occurs globally.
• a nanoparticle composition is administered to a patient systemically and energy of dissociation treatment occurs locally.
• Specificity for a target tissue or organ is obtained by treatment with the energy of dissociation at the site, tissue, or organ of interest.
• the targeting agent is specific for the cell, tissue, or organ of interest, and directs the nanoparticle composition to the appropriate location.
• the nanoparticle compositions will be endocytosed by cells.
• the nanoparticle composition is administered locally, via injection for example, and energy of dissociation treatment occurs locally via a non-invasive energetic energy of dissociation source, such as ultrasound applied to the abdomen.
• treatment with the energy of dissociation results in nanoparticle composition dissociation into component products such that the bioactive agents are released into the surrounding medium to act via the normal mechanism of action.
• the process can be used to deliver drugs to treat or prevent disease.
• the process can be used to deliver contrast or other imaging agents for detection or imaging purposes.
• medical imaging techniques include X-ray imaging, ultrasound imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear imaging, positron emission tomography (PET), radiography, fluoroscopy, and computed tomography (CT).
• Example 1 Photocatalytic Generation of N 2 from NH 3 Photocatalysis
• a pulse of light of a particular frequency and intensity of a quick duration is used to photodissociate ammonia to nitrogen and hydrogen with no production of any intermediates or oxidized by-products such as nitrate, nitrite or nitrous oxide. This is accomplished by the use of the correct promoter, light frequency energy and/or specific input of the correct bond dissociation energy or energies for ammonia with a proper intensity which provides for a multiphoton or frequency energy exposure of the ammonia molecule.
• a particular molecular bond having a precise energy of bond or dissociation in each target molecule is broken by photo- dissociation, only due to the light pulse being at the proper frequency and intensity with the proper number of photons attached within the necessary time to prevent reconnection, thereby producing harmless nitrogen and hydrogen, thereby removing the harmful ammonia from the water.
• a benefit of this process is that the off gases or cleaved atoms can be collected and used as energy sources as is in the situation with hydrogen in a fuel cell or hydride engine or as a nutrient.
• a three ounce solution of 1 ppm ammonia in water was irradiated with a xenon curing bulb attached to a pulse generator which supplied 3 pulses per second.
• a xenon curing bulb attached to a pulse generator which supplied 3 pulses per second.
• one of the following catalysts were included: Pt/Ti02 (platinized titania), T1O2 (Titanium oxide), Cu-AMO (Copper-doped Amorphous Manganese Oxide, AMO (Amorphous Manganese Oxide), and Cu-Ce-Co (Copper-Cerium-Cobalt).
• the xenon curing bulb was set to the low ultraviolet range from 185 nm to 280 nm. The solutions were tested for component gases after one second and one minute.

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