US20140377664A1 - Lithium all-solid-state battery - Google Patents

Lithium all-solid-state battery Download PDF

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US20140377664A1
US20140377664A1 US14/371,500 US201314371500A US2014377664A1 US 20140377664 A1 US20140377664 A1 US 20140377664A1 US 201314371500 A US201314371500 A US 201314371500A US 2014377664 A1 US2014377664 A1 US 2014377664A1
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battery
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Thomas A. Yersak
Se-Hee Lee
Conrad Stoldt
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University of Colorado
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/056—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes
    • H01M10/0561—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte characterised by the materials used as electrolytes, e.g. mixed inorganic/organic electrolytes the electrolyte being constituted of inorganic materials only
    • H01M10/0562—Solid materials
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
    • H01M10/05—Accumulators with non-aqueous electrolyte
    • H01M10/052—Li-accumulators
    • H01M10/0525—Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/362—Composites
    • H01M4/364—Composites as mixtures
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/38—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of elements or alloys
    • H01M4/381—Alkaline or alkaline earth metals elements
    • H01M4/382—Lithium
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
    • H01M4/581—Chalcogenides or intercalation compounds thereof
    • H01M4/5815—Sulfides
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M2300/00—Electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0017—Non-aqueous electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0065—Solid electrolytes
    • H01M2300/0068—Solid electrolytes inorganic
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
    • H01M4/00—Electrodes
    • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
    • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
    • H01M4/38—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of elements or alloys
    • H01M4/386—Silicon or alloys based on silicon
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
    • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries

Definitions

  • Molten salt solid-state batteries require high operating temperatures (e.g., 400° C. and higher), so research was abandoned in search of room temperature lithium-ion and lithium-polymer technologies. Iron disulfide has been successfully commercialized in high energy density primary cells. Unfortunately, sulfide conversion chemistries are irreversible at ambient to moderately elevated temperatures, making these unusable for rechargeable batteries.
  • FIG. 1 is a high-level depiction of an example lithium or lithium-ion all-solid-state battery structure.
  • FIG. 2 shows for an example battery: (a) a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) micrograph of synthetic FeS 2 that confirms cubic structure with 2-3 ⁇ m cubes, and (b) X-ray diffraction of synthetic pyrite.
  • FESEM field emission scanning electron microscope
  • FIG. 3 shows as an example of FeS 2 cycled at ambient temperature (about 30° C.) and moderately elevated temperature (60° C.) in a liquid coin cell and in an all-solid-state configuration for: (a) solid-state at 30° C., (b) solid-state at 60° C. (c) liquid coin cell at 30° C., (d) a liquid coin cell at 60° C., (e) capacity retention comparison of cells cycled at 30° C., and (f) capacity retention comparison of cells cycled at 60° C.
  • FIG. 4 shows an example DFT simulation, where (a) is a so-called “ball-and-stick” representation of Li x FeS 2 along a charging cycle, and (b) illustrates the average Fe—Fe distance (d Fe—Fe ) at each state in comparison with the Fe bulk value.
  • FIG. 5 shows a) Coulometric titration results for a solid-state cell, b) shows dQ/dV of a solid-state cell, and c) shows deconvolution of the dQ/dV peaks.
  • FIG. 6 shows electrode material from the solid-state cell cycled at 60° C. recovered after the twentieth charge for transmission electron microscopy (TEM), where (a) is a bright field TEM image, and (b) is a high resolution (HR-) TEM image.
  • TEM transmission electron microscopy
  • FIGS. 7-9 are plots showing actual data obtained for Example 2.
  • FIG. 10 is a plot illustrating that activation of Li 2 S exhibits ionic and electronic conductivity, as well as added thermal energy.
  • FIG. 11 is a plot showing cells cycled at C/5 and C/5 charge and discharge rates.
  • FIGS. 12( a )-( d ) are plots of an example rate study.
  • FIGS. 13( a )-( b ) are plots showing cycling data for a lithium metal cell.
  • FIG. 14 is an x-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra.
  • FIG. 15 shows (a) x-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra and (b) a TEM image.
  • FIG. 16 shows (a) cyclic stability of a FeS+S/Li battery, and (b)-(e) are voltage profiles of the same battery.
  • FIG. 17 shows (a) dQ/dV profiles for bulk-type all-solid-state Li metal batteries, and (b)-(e) dQ/dV profiles of an example battery.
  • FIG. 18 shows (a) XRD of FeS before and after milling, (b) an FESEM micrograph of FeS, and (c) an FESEM micrograph of Fe 1-x S after mechanical milling.
  • FIG. 19 shows (a) voltage profiles for two initially overcharged FeS/LiIn batteries, and (b) XRD measurements normalized with the (100) reflection of the beta-Be sample window.
  • FIG. 20 shows voltage profiles of a FeS/LiIn battery.
  • FIG. 21 shows (a) specific discharge capacity of a battery as a function of applied current, and (b) voltage profiles of the same battery as a function of applied current.
  • a strong argument can be made that bulk-type all-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLB) hold a competitive edge in this technological race because they are inherently safe, have excellent shelf life, perform stably at high temperatures, and enable the reversibility of high capacity conversion battery materials like FeS 2 .
  • ASSLB all-solid-state lithium batteries
  • the energy density of high power ASSLBs must be improved.
  • the success of the ASSLB architecture can be realized with energy dense all-solid-state composite cathodes.
  • Examples of an ambient temperature, reversible solid-state cathode are disclosed.
  • An example implementation is in a lithium (Li) metal configuration.
  • the battery may be constructed using a sulfide glass-ceramic solid electrolyte, and is implemented in an all-solid-state cell architecture.
  • This nomenclature is intended to include at least the following systems: FeS 2 , FeS, FeS+S, and may also include other suitable substitutes as will be understood by those having ordinary skill in the art after becoming familiar with the teachings herein.
  • electrochemical synthesis of metal nano-partides maintains the electrochemical activity of Li 2 S. Accordingly, the battery addresses issues previously associated with rapid capacity fade at ambient temperature.
  • the electrochemically driven synthesis of orthorhombic-FeS 2 (marcasite) can be at least partially achieved at ambient temperatures.
  • the design of an ambient temperature transition metal plus sulfide batteries is based at least in part on management of electro-active species formed upon full charge (2.5V versus Li+/Li) and full discharge (1.0V versus Li + /Li).
  • Two example species are elemental iron (Fe 0 ) and polysulfides (S n 2 ⁇ ). To reduce or altogether prevent diffusion and agglomeration of Fe 0 nanoparticles in conventional cells, a variety of polymer electrolytes have been employed with limited success.
  • Example methods for addressing intermediate polysulfide dissolution and Li 2 S irreversibility include polysulfide adsorption on high surface area CMK-3 nano-porous carbon electrodes, polymer electrolytes, and polyacrylonitrile-sulfur composites.
  • Another approach is to limit the upper and/or lower voltage bounds of the FeS 2 cells, for example, to about 2.2V and 1.3V respectively.
  • the formation of Fe 0 and S n 2 ⁇ is inhibited by avoiding full discharge and charge.
  • limiting the cell voltage range diminishes achievable energy density and subjects the cells to the risk of over-charge or over-discharge.
  • An all-solid-state cell architecture allows for the confinement of electro-active species.
  • FeS 2 and Li 2 FeS 2 can both be utilized reversibly as an all-solid-state anode.
  • An all-solid-state architecture reduces or altogether prevents Fe 0 dissolution and agglomeration.
  • Sulfide-based, glass-ceramic solid electrolytes and other materials that are stable at elevated temperatures demonstrate higher conductivities at ambient temperatures. Accordingly, lithium metal anodes can be safely used with solid electrolytes because cell failure does not precipitate thermal runaway.
  • a lithium metal electrode has a theoretical capacity of about 3876 mAh g ⁇ 1 , is non-polarizable and has a low operating voltage that increases achievable cell energy density.
  • An all-solid-state architecture not only enables the safe use of a lithium metal anode, but also enables the reversible full utilization the cathode material.
  • the best performing composite electrode compositions are composed of no more than about 25% S or Li 2 S by weight.
  • Sulfur's high theoretical specific capacity of about 1672 mAh g ⁇ 1 offsets poor active material mass loading so that high overall electrode energy densities can be achieved for ASSLBs.
  • the techniques described herein reversibly electrochemically utilize the glass-ceramic electrolyte.
  • the Li 2 S component of glass-ceramic electrolyte electrochemical can be utilized.
  • the active metal can be provided by in-situ electrochemical reduction.
  • the examples described herein may be further optimized by utilizing a mechanochemically prepared active material nano-composite of high capacity conversion battery materials like FeS and S.
  • This material provides an alternative to the expensive solvothermally synthesized cubic-FeS 2 (pyrite) based cathode.
  • the precursors e.g., FeS and S
  • the mechanical milling process also provides material much more readily than the solvothermal method.
  • the rapidly increasing specific capacity of the nano-composite electrode quickly exceeded its theoretical capacity by about 94% in testing.
  • the excess capacity is a result of a dramatic utilization of the glass electrolyte in the composite electrode without a degradation of cell performance.
  • an example electrode exhibited an energy density of about 1040 Wh kg ⁇ 1 which is the highest energy density achieved for a bulk-type all-solid-state electrode.
  • the electrochemistry of the composite electrode e.g., FeS+S
  • the terms “includes” and “including” mean, but is not limited to, “includes” or “including” and “includes at least” or “including at least.”
  • the term “based on” means “based on” and “based at least in part on.”
  • FIG. 1 shows a high-level depiction of a lithium all-solid-state battery structure 100 .
  • the battery structure 100 is shown including a cathode 101 , solid state electrolyte 102 , and an anode 103 .
  • the arrows are illustrative of charge and recharge cycles.
  • the anode may include a lithium metal, graphite, silicon, and/or other active materials that transfer electrons during charge/discharge cycles.
  • the lithium reservoir may be a stabilized Li metal powder.
  • the cathode 101 is shown in more detail in the exploded view 101 ′, wherein the white circles labeled 110 represent a transition metal sulfide (e.g., FeS 2 or an mixture of FeS plus S).
  • the gray circles labeled 111 represent solid state electrolyte (SSE) particles.
  • SSE particles promote ionic conductive pathways in and out of the cathode 101 .
  • the black circles labeled 112 represent a conducting additive, such as acetylene black.
  • the transition metal sulfide e.g., FeS plus S
  • the transition metal sulfide may be mechanically mixed (e.g., using ball milling or other mechanical processes), and are not chemically combined.
  • the chemistry of the cathode approximates FeS 2 on the first cycle. After 10 or more charge cycles, the cathode exhibits a behavior that is similar to that of the first cycle.
  • lithium all-solid-state battery structure 100 may be implemented using any suitable transition metal sulfide plus sulfide combination, the following discusses a specific battery structure based upon synthetic iron disulfide.
  • Synthetically prepared FeS 2 is characterized with field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and x-ray analysis.
  • FIG. 2 shows (a) a FESEM micrograph of synthetic FeS 2 that confirms cubic structure with wide 2-3 ⁇ m cubes, and (b) X-ray diffraction of synthetic pyrite.
  • the FESEM micrograph shown in FIG. 2( a ) reveals cubic FeS 2 particles with 3 ⁇ m wide faces.
  • the X-ray analysis of synthetically prepared FeS 2 shown in FIG. 2( b ) shows diffraction peaks that match well with indexed peaks.
  • Synthetic FeS 2 was tested in both an all-solid-state and liquid cell configuration. To achieve full utilization of FeS 2 , the cells are cycled to full discharge (1.0V) and full charge (3.0V). The results of cycling at ambient and moderate temperatures are shown in FIG. 3 . For purposes of illustration, FIG.
  • FIG. 3 shows FeS 2 cycled at ambient temperature (about 30° C.) and moderately elevated temperature (about 60° C.) in a liquid coin cell and in an all-solid-state configuration for: (a) solid-state at 30° C., (b) solid-state at 60° C., (c) liquid coin cell at 30° C., (d) a liquid coin cell at 60° C., (e) capacity retention comparison of cells cycled at 30° C., and (f) capacity retention comparison of cells cycled at 60° C. All cells except for the 30° C. solid-state cell were cycled at a current of 144 ⁇ A which corresponds to a rate of C/10 for charge and discharge. The 30° C. solid-state cell was cycled at rate of C/10 for the first cycle and C/20 (72 ⁇ A) for all subsequent cycles.
  • the conductivity of the 77.5Li 2 S ⁇ 22.5P 2 S 5 solid electrolyte increases to 4.4 ⁇ 10 ⁇ 3 ⁇ ⁇ 1 cm ⁇ 1 from 9.17 ⁇ 10 ⁇ 4 ⁇ ⁇ 1 cm ⁇ 1 at 30° C.
  • a higher operating temperature increases the Li + diffusivity in pyrite particles. More efficient Li + insertion into cubic-FeS 2 is also likely to result in better FeS 2 utilization.
  • FeS 2 reduction is elemental iron (Fe 0 ) and Li 2 S.
  • XANES near-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy
  • Each reaction can occur at one voltage or two, depending at least in part on the kinetics of the system.
  • 3( c ) may be attributed to an irreversible side reaction of FeS 2 intermediaries with the organic electrolyte. It is noted that the initial discharge profile of the FeS 2 cells is much different than subsequent discharge profiles. The variation in discharge profiles may be due to the improved reaction kinetics of charge products compared to that of cubic- ⁇ mFeS 2 . Better kinetics may be due to changes in FeS 2 particle morphology and the electrochemical formation of a different phase of stoichiometric of FeS 2 like orthorhombic-FeS 2 (marcasite).
  • Fe 0 takes the form of super-paramagnetic atoms or small aggregates of atoms of about 3.6 nm in diameter.
  • Nano-particles of Fe 0 have a high reactivity which is related to the nano-particle's large surface area. Should Fe 0 particles agglomerate into larger particles with smaller overall surface area, then these particles will have a lower reactivity. Without meaning to be limited by the theory, it may be the high reactivity of the Fe 0 nano-particles that maintains the electro-activity of Li 2 S. Of course, other theories are also possible.
  • Fe 0 is susceptible to continuous agglomeration upon cycling. Agglomeration of Fe 0 results in the isolation of Li 2 S species and the observed capacity fade when cells are discharged to low voltages.
  • An all-solid-state architecture can reduce or altogether prevent the agglomeration of Fe 0 nano-particles.
  • the atomic proximity of Fe 0 nanoparticles with Li 2 S maintains the electro-activity of Li 2 S without the excessive amount of conductive additive needed in S/Li 2 S based batteries.
  • An all-solid-state architecture is also successful at confining polysulfides S n 2 ⁇ formed when the electro-active species present at full charge are reduced.
  • FeS 2 is not regenerated by the four electron oxidation of Fe 0 and Li 2 S. But the same is not true for molten salt FeS 2 cells, which operate reversibly at temperatures in excess of 400° C.
  • equation (5) may be better represented by equation (6) based on the results to be outlined below:
  • Charge products at about 30-60° C. are likely a multi-phase mixture of nano-particles of orthorhombic-FeS 2 , non-stoichiometric FeS, phases like pyrrhotite and elemental sulfur.
  • the electrochemically active products resulting from sequential charge cycles simulate the FeS 2 chemistry as well as provide electrical conductivity within the electrode thus reducing the amount of conductive additive required. This conclusion is supported by the results of a DFT simulation shown in FIGS. 4-6 .
  • FIG. 5 shows: a) Coulometric titration results for a solid-state cell titrated at 60° C. compared with the first, second, and tenth discharge profiles for a solid-state cell cycled at 60° C., b) shows dQ/dV of a solid-state cell cycled at 30° C., and c) shows deconvolution of the dQ/dV peaks at 2.1 and 2.2V with fitted peaks and residual.
  • FIG. 6 shows electrode material from the solid-state cell cycled at 60° C. recovered after the twentieth charge for transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis, where: (a) is a bright field TEM image of the twentieth cycle sample with darker areas corresponding to nano-crystalline orthorhombic-FeS 2 and lighter areas corresponding to an amorphous region composed of FeS, and elemental sulfur, and (b) is a high resolution (HR-) TEM of the twentieth cycle sample. FFT analysis matches with orthorhombic-FeS 2 along the [ ⁇ 110] zone axis.
  • TEM transmission electron microscope
  • electrochemically produced FeS 2 particles are nano-crystalline, then the greatly increased interfacial surface area facilitates a fast reaction rate despite poor Li + diffusivity.
  • the diffusivity of Li may also be improved by regenerating a phase other than cubic-FeS 2 .
  • orthorhombic-FeS 2 has a more open structure than cubic-FeS 2 .
  • the formation of orthorhombic-FeS 2 instead of cubic-FeS 2 may result in faster Li + diffusion, thus further increasing the reduction reaction kinetics.
  • High resolution transmission electron microscopy can be used to support this understanding through direct observation of orthorhombic-FeS 2 nano-particles upon charge.
  • electrode material was recovered from the solid-state cell cycled at about 60° C. upon completion of the twentieth charge as can be seen in FIG. 3( b ). This cell exhibits full utilization of FeS 2 so it is unlikely that a significant mass of electrochemically inactive synthetic cubic-FeS 2 remains in the cell by the twentieth charge.
  • FIG. 6( a ) shows a bright field (BF) TEM image of the 20th cycled charged FeS 2 solid-state electrode. This image depicts nano-crystalline domains (darker) of 100-200 nm in diameter encased by an amorphous material (lighter).
  • FFT Fast Fourier transform
  • the peak at about 2.2 V has an area of about 57.14 mAh g ⁇ 1
  • the peak at about 2.1V has an area of about 285.79 mAh g ⁇ 1 .
  • (2 ⁇ y)S is directly reduced to Li 2 S
  • the remaining capacity may be attributed to FeS y .
  • the value of y can be determined to be about 0.085. If subsequent discharges follow equation (5), then the chemical formula of FeS y is about FeS 1.92 . If FeS y primarily takes the form of Fe 7 S 8 (pyrrhotite), then the chemistry of subsequent cycles likely follows equation (6).
  • the charge products are likely a multiple phase mixture of nano-crystalline orthorhombic-FeS 2 , sulfur deficient phases of FeS, and elemental sulfur. Accordingly, the charge products are believed to be nano-crystalline orthorhombic-FeS 2 encased in amorphous sulfur deficient FeS y and sulfur (see FIG. 6( a )).
  • FeS, phases and elemental sulfur may explain the amorphous domains observed in the high resolution TEM images.
  • the presence of sulfur deficient FeS phases and the observation of orthorhombic-FeS 2 is consistent.
  • Orthorhombic-FeS 2 exhibits very weak temperature independent paramagnetism. For this reason, it is likely that 57 Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy used in previous studies was not capable of distinguishing orthorhombic-FeS 2 from other strong temperature dependent paramagnetic phases like FeS y and cubic-FeS 2 .
  • Fe 7 S 8 is ferrimagnetic while FeS is paramagnetic. It is noted that ferrimagnetism is a much stronger effect.
  • the results of the DFT analysis shown in FIG. 4 indicate the formation of highly reactive atomic particles of Fe 0 .
  • the fully-discharged, amorphous-like Li 4 FeS 2 model ( FIG. 4( a )) shows nanoscale separation of a Fe 0 nanocluster from Li 2 S.
  • the average Fe—Fe interatomic distance (d Fe—Fe ) at full discharge, x 4, is much shorter than that of Fe in the bulk ( FIG. 4( b )).
  • a shorter d Fe—Fe indicates that Fe 0 should be very catalytically active.
  • Results also indicate the presence of elemental sulfur as a charge product.
  • the FeS 2 synthetic methodology used solvothermal reaction conditions. Dielectric heating for the reaction was provided with a microwave reactor. Microwave heating was selected because of its high reproducibility and the ability for automation, making this methodology amenable to high throughput syntheses.
  • the microwave used for this example was a Discover SP (CEM Inc.).
  • the sample was irradiated with 75 W of power until reaching 190° C., as measured by an infrared detector. The heating took about 7 minutes, and was held at this temperature for 12 hours. Approximately 690 kPa of autogenous pressure was generated. After the reaction was finished, the product was cooled by compressed air.
  • Synthetic FeS 2 was characterized by Cu-K ⁇ x-ray diffraction (XRD) measurement, FESEM microscopy (JEOL JSM-7401F), and Raman spectroscopy (Jasco NRS ⁇ 3100).
  • the composite positive electrode had a 10:20:2 weight ratio mixture of synthetically prepared FeS 2 , 77.5Li 2 S ⁇ 22.5P 2 S 5 , and carbon black (Timcal Super C65), respectively.
  • the composite positive electrode was mixed using an agate mortar and pestle.
  • Stabilized lithium metal powder (SLMP) was used as the negative electrode (FMC Lithium Corp.).
  • the construction of solid-state cells utilized a titanium-polyaryletheretherketone (PEEK) test cell die. 200 mg of solid electrolyte powder was pressed at 1 metric ton in the PEEK cell die. 5 mg of composite positive electrode and the stabilized lithium metal powder were then attached to opposite sides of the solid electrolyte layer by pressing at 5 metric tons.
  • Liquid cells were fabricated by spreading an electrode slurry with a 6:2:2 weight ratio of synthetic FeS 2 , polyvinylfluorine (PVDF) binder (Alfa Aesar) and acetylene black (Alfa-Aesar, 50% compressed) respectively.
  • PVDF binder was first dissolved into N-methyl-2-Pyrrolidone (NMP) (Alfa-Aesar) solvent. FeS 2 and acetylene black were then stirred into the PVDF binder.
  • NMP N-methyl-2-Pyrrolidone
  • FeS 2 and acetylene black were then stirred into the PVDF binder.
  • a 50 ⁇ m thick layer of slurry was spread on onto aluminum foil (ESPI Metals, 0.001′′thick) and dried at 60° C. in a single wall gravity convection oven (Blue M) for 5 hours.
  • ESPI Metals 0.001′′thick
  • the electrode sheet was then calendared with a Durston rolling mill to 75% of the total thickness. 9/16′′ diameter electrodes were punched and heat treated at 200° C. in an Argon environment overnight. FeS 2 electrodes were then assembled into coin cells with a lithium foil negative electrode (Alfa-Aesar, 0.25 mm thick) and 1M LiPF 4 electrolyte.
  • FIGS. 7-9 are plots showing actual data obtained for Example 2. Specifically.
  • FIG. 7 shows charge/discharge profiles for FeS 2 in a solid state lithium battery, made from microwave synthesis.
  • FIG. 8 shows charge/discharge profiles for in-situ formation of FeS 2 upon cycling of FeS+S combined by planetary ball milling (cycled at C/10).
  • the top plot in FIG. 9 shows the performance of FeS, with significantly lowered capacity and a lack of voltage plateaus correlating to Eq. 7 and 8 below.
  • Upon discharge at room temperature a slightly lower voltage is observed due to internal resistance in the cell, and similarly for charging with a slightly higher voltage. A significant decrease in reversibility is also observed, with first cycle coulombic efficiency of both room temperature and elevated temperature FeS cells below 75%.
  • the bottom plot in FIG. 8 shows a first cycle of FeS at (a) room temperature and (b) elevated temperature.
  • solid state batteries utilizing highly conducting sulfide based solid electrolytes were used for reversible cycling of FeS 2 electrodes in both room temperature (25° C.) and elevated temperature environments (60° C.) as shown in FIG. 7 . Furthermore, it was shown that there is no capacity loss for increasing rates up to C/8 for elevated temperature testing.
  • the first cycle shows the reaction formation of Li 2 S and Fe down to 1.0V. Reversible cycling is allowed by the highly reactive iron allowing successful de-Lithiation of Li 2 S, and subsequent formation of various Li—Fe—S compounds according to the following equations which are visible in the charging profile.
  • FeS 2 was formed in-situ during the first cycle (and also occurs over the course of many cycles), utilizing stoichiometric combinations of other materials. FeS and S were mixed either by mortar and pestle grinding, or by ball milling to produce an active material that is simply the addition of both, without formation of FeS 2 .
  • Thermoelectrochemical activation of solid state electrolyte is also disclosed herein.
  • the solid state electrolyte e.g., Li 2 S
  • sulfide-based solid electrolytes including but not limited to xLi 2 S-(100 ⁇ x)P 2 S 5 .
  • FIG. 10 is a plot illustrating that the activation of Li 2 S is based at least in part on both the ionic and electronic conductivity of TiS 2 , as well as added thermal energy (e.g., about 60° C.).
  • the specific charge capacities shown in FIG. 10 are based on the total mass of TiS 2 solid electrolyte and acetylene black. Even at elevated temperature the composite with only solid electrolyte shows no capacity. Likewise, the composite with TiS 2 also shows no capacity when charged at room temperature.
  • the composite electrode with TiS 2 exhibited a charge capacity of 13 mAh g ⁇ 1 when charged at an elevated temperature of about 60° C. This corresponds to a specific charge capacity of about 40 mAh g ⁇ 1 based upon the TiS 2 mass.
  • the only source of lithium in these cells was Li 2 S. Under an applied current at elevated temperature, it is believed that otherwise inert Li 2 S is activated by the highly ionic and electronic conductive character of TiS 2 .
  • Other transition metal sulfides have similar material properties as TiS 2 , and may be useful in a similar Li 2 S activation process.
  • FIG. 11 shows results of thermo-electrochemical activation of Li 2 S using nano-LiTiS 2 .
  • FIG. 11 is a plot showing cells with a 10:20:1 wt % nano-LiTS 2 : 80Li 2 S ⁇ 20P 2 S 5 :acetylene black composite electrode cycled at C/5 and C/5 charge and discharge rates.
  • the bottom data series shows the cell cycled at 30° C. (without thermal-electrochemical activation), and the top data series (triangles) shows the cell initially charged at 60° C. before being removed to room temperature.
  • the nano-LiTiS 2 was synthesized using mechano-chemical milling process involving Li 3 N decomposition.
  • the composite electrodes are a 10:20:1 weight ratio mixture of nano-LiTiS 2 :80Li 2 S ⁇ 20P 2 S 5 :acetylene black.
  • the cells in this example have an In metal negative electrode and are cycled at a rate of C/5 for both charge and discharge. However, the initial charge and discharge cycles are both conducted at a rate of C/10. Specific charge capacities presented are based upon the mass of LiTiS 2 initially present in the composite electrode.
  • the first cell cycled at room temperature exhibits a very stable capacity of about 230 mAh g ⁇ 1 after about forty cycles.
  • the second cell undergoes an initial elevated temperature activation charge at about 60° C. It is then moved to room temperature (about 30° C.) for the first discharge and all cycles thereafter.
  • This cell exhibits a 345 mAh g ⁇ 1 discharge capacity after about the fortieth cycle. This represents about a 119 mAh g ⁇ 1 (or about a 53%) increase in capacity over the theoretical capacity of LiTiS 2 of 226 mAh g ⁇ 1 .
  • nano-LiTiS 2 The increase in capacity observed with nano-LiTiS 2 is much larger than the 40 mAh g ⁇ 1 excess capacity achieved with the TiS 2 -80Li 2 S:P 2 S 5 -acetylene black composite.
  • the greater surface area of the nano-LiTiS 2 particles is thought to more easily facilitate the activation of Li 2 S in the solid electrolyte. Supporting the previous finding, the rate performance of nano-LiTiS 2 composite electrodes is shown in FIG. 12 .
  • FIGS. 12( a )-( d ) are plots of an illustrative rate study of a 10:20:1 wt % LiTiS 2 : 80Li 2 S ⁇ 20P 2 S 5 :acetylene black composite electrode, where (a) and (b) are at 30° C., and (c) and (d) are at 60° C.
  • the plots in FIGS. 12( a )-( d ) confirm the repeatability of results shown in FIG. 11 .
  • the cell cycled at an elevated temperature exhibits discharge capacities in excess of 160 mAhg ⁇ 1 greater than the theoretical capacity of 226 mAhg ⁇ 1 for LiTiS 2 .
  • the cells in this example have a Li metal negative electrode to facilitate fast ion transfer. It is noted that the cell cycled at elevated temperature has a specific discharge capacity of nearly 390 mAh g ⁇ 1 at a rate of C/2 while the cell cycled room temperature only exhibits a capacity of 210 mAh g ⁇ 1 at C/2. Repeatedly charging at elevated temperature activates Li 2 S in the solid electrolyte, providing excess capacity.
  • FIGS. 13( a )-( b ) are plots showing cycling data for a lithium metal cell.
  • the plots show cycling data for a lithium metal cell with a 10:20:1 wt % FeS 8/7 +S:77.5Li 2 S ⁇ 22.5P 2 S 5 :acetylene black composite cathode cycled at 60° C.
  • the cell gains capacity during the first 10 cycles.
  • the increase in capacity is attributed to the S/Li 2 S redox reaction.
  • the activation of excess sulfur is responsible for the evolution of a voltage plateau at about 2.2V.
  • the cell has a specific discharge capacity of about 807 mAh g ⁇ 1 on the first discharge, but a specific discharge capacity of 1341 mAh g ⁇ 1 by the ninth cycle. This represents an activation of about 534 mAh g ⁇ 1 .
  • the activated capacity can be attributed to the evolution of the S/Li 2 S reduction plateau at about 2.2V.
  • the particular solid electrolyte system in this example is xLi 2 S-(100 ⁇ x)P 2 S 5 .
  • this technique is applicable to any Li 2 S containing sulfide based electrolyte system is not limited to Li 2 S—GeS 2 —P 2 S 5 or Li 2 S—SiS 2 .
  • These solid electrolytes are known as glass ceramics.
  • electrolyte synthesis e.g., by melt-quenching or mechano-chemical milling
  • Li 2 S is incorporated into glass formers not limited to GeS 2 , P 2 S 5 , and SiS 2 .
  • Super-ionically conducting crystalline phases can also be precipitated in a glassy matrix upon subsequent heat treatment. It is also possible, that these crystalline phases may decompose and result in some excess capacity.
  • FIG. 14 are x-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of an example 80Li 2 S ⁇ 20P 2 S 5 solid electrolyte, example 10:20:1 wt % LiTiS 2 :80Li 2 S ⁇ 20P 2 S 5 :acetylene black composite electrodes, and indexed spectra for Li 1.0 TiS 2 and Li 2 S.
  • the XRD spectra of the solid electrolyte in this illustration shows Li 2 S peaking at about 27 and about 31.2 degrees, indicating that there are some Li 2 S domains still present in the solid electrolyte. It is believed that the additional capacity is a result of reacting excess Li 2 S in the solid electrolyte. It is expected that the 77.5Li 2 S ⁇ 22.5P 2 S 5 solid electrolyte has less excess Li 2 S to participate in activation reactions.
  • the process described herein is analogous, but is also somewhat different. That is, Cu reacts to form Cu y S, while TiS 2 remains chemically/structurally stable. TiS 2 is an intercalation electrode material, while Cu y S is a conversion battery material. TiS 2 succeeds in electrochemically activating excess Li 2 S because it is both highly ionically and electronically conductive.
  • the process described herein is based onan initial charging at elevated temperature, as no excess capacity is observed at room temperature.
  • FeS 2 , FeS x , or FeS x +S systems disclosed herein are more like the Cu y S electrodes.
  • FeS 2 is not chemically/structurally stable like TiS 2 . Instead, FeS 2 reacts with 4Li + in a conversion reaction to form the completely reduced products of Fe 0 and 2Li 2 S.
  • Fe 0 acts as a catalyst for the oxidation of Li 2 S
  • the products of oxidation include various electronically conducting phases of FeS x . These phases then help to electrochemically activate excess Li 2 S present in the solid electrolyte.
  • the lithium all-solid-state battery described above which may be thermally activated as described above, may also be made using a high capacity conversion battery materials (e.g., FeS 2 ) equivalent. Examples are described in the following discussing as in-situ electrochemical formation of a FeS 2 phase and reversible utilization of a glass electrolyte for higher overall electrode energy density. However, the lithium all-solid state battery is not limited to such an implementation.
  • a high capacity conversion battery materials e.g., FeS 2
  • synthesis of the iron sulfide based all-solid-state composite electrodes can be by a three step planetary ball milling procedure (Across International, PQ-N2).
  • An example 77.5Li 2 S ⁇ 22.5P 2 S 5 (molar ratio) glass electrolyte can be prepared by milling about 0.832 g Li 2 S (Aldrich, 99.999%, reagent grade) and about 1.168 g P 2 S 5 (Aldrich, 99%) in a 500 mL stainless steel vial (Across International) with two stainless steel balls (having about a 16 mm diameter) and twenty stainless steel balls (having about a 10 mm diameter) at about 400 rpm for about 20 hours.
  • the 1:1 molar ratio FeS:S active material composite (denoted as FeS+S) can be prepared by milling about 0.733 g FeS (Aldrich, technical grade) and about 0.267 g Sulfur (Aldrich, 99.98%) in a 100 mL agate jar (Across International) with five agate balls (having about a 10 mm diameter) and fifty agate balls (having about a 6 mm diameter) at about 400 rpm for about 20 hours.
  • the composite electrode can be synthesized by milling a ratio of prepared FeS+S, 77.5Li 2 S ⁇ 22.5P 2 S 5 , and carbon black conductive additive (Timcal, C65) in a 100 mL agate jar with five agate balls (having about a 10 mm diameter) and fifty agate balls (having about a 6 mm diameter) at about 400 rpm for about 18 minutes.
  • the working electrode is about 5 mg of the mechanically prepared FeS+S based composite electrode.
  • about 5 mg of stabilized lithium metal powder (SLMP) was used as the counter electrode (FMC Lithium Corp., Lectro Max Powder 100).
  • the shell of the solid state battery was a titanium-polyaryletheretherketone (PEEK) test cell die.
  • PEEK titanium-polyaryletheretherketone
  • the glass electrolyte powder was first compressed at about 5 metric tons inside the PEEK cell die to form the separator pellet.
  • about 5 mg of composite positive electrode and the SLMP were then attached to opposite sides of the glass electrolyte pellet with about 5 metric tons force.
  • the FeS in these batteries was prepared by mechanically milling about 2 g of FeS in a 100 mL agate jar (Across International) with five agate balls (having about a 10 mm diameter) and fifty agate balls (having about a 6 mm diameter) at about 400 rpm for about 20 hours.
  • the cells used to electrochemically prepare the cycled XRD samples had a 165 mg FeS composite cathode and an InLi alloy anode. These cells operate at a lower potential because the InLi alloy has a potential of about 0.62V vs. Li + /Li.
  • FIG. 16 shows (a) XRD of FeS+S composite active material and FeS precursor with indexed reflections for Fe 7 S 8 and FeS.
  • the FeS precursor material is likely a multiphase mixture of FeS and an iron deficient Fe 1-x S phase. After mechanochemical milling, only reflections for FeS and S are observed which indicates that no solid state reactions occurred to form FeS 2 ; and (b) is an FESEM micrograph of the FeS+S composite active material.
  • XRD measurement presented in FIG. 15( a ) shows that the FeS precursor is composed partly of FeS (Triolite). However, the precursor also exhibits ferrimagnetism, which indicates that the sample is likely a multiphase mixture of FeS and an iron deficient phase like Fe 7 Se (Pyrrhotite). An unidentified peak at 44.64° suggests that other phases may be present as well.
  • FIG. 15( b ) confirms that the FeS+S nano-composite is comprised of sub-micron sized particles.
  • FIG. 16 shows (a) cyclic stability of a FeS+S/Li battery. Assuming that the active material composition of FeS+S has a theoretical specific capacity of 900 mAh g ⁇ 1 , the electrode's specific capacity should not exceed 281 mAh g ⁇ 1 . Excess capacity is evidence for the electrochemical utilization of the 77.5Li 2 S ⁇ 22.5P 2 S 5 glass electrolyte component; and (b)-(e) are voltage profiles for cycles 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, and 150 of the same battery. The variability of voltage profiles with respect to cycle number suggests an evolving electrochemistry.
  • FIG. 16( a ) shows the cyclic stability of a 5 mg electrode cycled at 60° C. with a current of 144 ⁇ A.
  • the electrode exhibits an initial discharge of 320 mAh g ⁇ 1 , or 1020 mAh g ⁇ 1 based only on the mass fraction of the FeS+S nano-composite active material.
  • the theoretical capacity of FeS+S should only be approximately 900 mAh g 1 , however, the other iron deficient phases present in the FeS precursor affect the actual theoretical value.
  • the electrode After the initial discharge, the electrode rapidly gains capacity until a maximum capacity of 550 mAh g ⁇ 1 and maximum energy density of 1040 Wh kg ⁇ 1 are achieved by the 16 th cycle.
  • FIGS. 2( b - e ) present the voltage profiles of the first and second, tenth and twentieth, thirtieth and fortieth, and sixtieth and one-hundred-fiftieth cycles, respectively.
  • FIG. 17 shows (a) dQ/dV profiles for bulk-type all-solid-state Li metal batteries with FeS, syn-FeS 2 , and S composite cathodes; and (b)-(e) dQ/dV profiles for cycles 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60 and 150 of an example FeS+S/Li battery. It is observed that the evolution of three parallel redox chemistries accounts for the changing capacity of the battery. Twinning of reduction peaks in voltage ranges between 2.13-2.19 and 1.56-1.51 V provides evidence for the in-situ electrochemical formation of a FeS 2 phase.
  • FIG. 17 a shows the characteristic behavior of FeS, FeS 2 , and S in an ASSLB.
  • the FeS 2 chemistry is characterized by dominant reduction peaks at 2.20, 2.14 and 1.49 V, while S is characterized by a reduction peak at 2.2V and FeS by a peak at 1.55V.
  • the dQ/dV profiles in FIG. 17 b for the first and second cycles show evidence for the reduction of only FeS and S. As the cell's capacity increases, so too does the complexity of the voltage profiles.
  • the dQ/dV profiles in FIG. 17 c show evidence for the reduction of FeS, S and FeS 2 .
  • the reduction of FeS 2 is apparent due to the twinning of reduction peaks in voltage ranges of 2.14-2.19 V and 1.51-1.56 V. This is the first time evidence for the in-situ electrochemical formation of FeS 2 has been presented.
  • capacity fade is correlated to the decline of peaks associated with Fe 0 Fe 2+ reduction and oxidation.
  • the dQ/dV profiles in FIG. 17 d for the thirtieth and fortieth cycles during the capacity fade phase show that Fe redox peaks disappear while the S redox peaks remain relatively stable.
  • the dQ/dV profiles in FIG. 17 e for the electrode achieve a degree of stability. Extended cycling capacity loss is associated with continued fade of the Fe redox peaks and the fade of S redox peaks.
  • the electrochemical utilization of the 77.5Li 2 S:22.5P 2 S 5 glass electrolyte can be understood with reference to ex-situ XRD measurement of FeS based electrodes.
  • FeS was used instead of FeS+S to simplify the analysis.
  • a glass electrolyte was used because the absence of ceramic electrolyte diffraction patterns also simplifies the analysis.
  • the FeS used in this experiment was mechanically milled.
  • FIG. 18 shows (a) XRD of FeS before and after milling indicates that no phase changes occur during milling, (b) an FESEM micrograph of FeS as received from the vendor, and (c) an FESEM micrograph of Fe 1-x S after mechanical milling.
  • the XRD and FESEM analysis confirm that the mechanical milling provides the needed size reduction. Utilization of nano-FeS helps obtain good contact with the glass electrolyte.
  • FIG. 19( a ) shows voltage profiles for two initially overcharged FeS/LiIn batteries.
  • Composite electrodes were collected for XRD after full overcharge (solid) and full discharge (dashed). As seen in FIG. 19( a ), the FeS composite electrode was recovered after an initial overcharge (solid) and after full discharge (dashed) ( FIG. 4 a ).
  • the diffraction pattern for the glass electrolyte 1950 includes reflections for Li 2 S (dashed).
  • the diffraction pattern for an uncycled composite electrode 1951 includes reflections for Li 2 S and FeS (solid).
  • After an initial overcharge 1952 the reflections for Li 2 S disappear.
  • reflections for FeS disappear and weak reflections for Li 2 S are once again detected.
  • the reduced intensity of the Li 2 S reflections in this sample is believed to be due to the small size of electrochemically precipitated Li 2 S particles.
  • the percentage of Li 2 S oxidized in the cell presented in FIGS. 16 and 17 can be estimated by assuming that all of the FeS+S was electrochemically utilized and by acknowledging that the highest achieved capacity is 2.8 mAh. A fraction of this capacity can be attributed to utilization of the glass electrolyte at the electrode/glass electrolyte separator interface, as indicated by FIG. 21 .
  • FIG. 20 shows the first through seventeenth voltage profiles of a FeS/LiIn battery where the cathode is composed entirely of 5 mg of nano-FeS.
  • FeS should reversibly exhibit only a single plateau.
  • this battery develops a higher voltage plateau at approximately 1.4 V versus. InLi.
  • the evolution of the second plateau can be attributed to the electrochemical utilization of Li 2 S in the glass electrolyte at the electrode/glass electrolyte separator interface.
  • up to 300 ⁇ Ah of capacity can be attributed to the utilization of glass electrolyte separator. This interface utilization effect may lead to an overestimation of specific capacity and contribute to the observed excess capacity.
  • Utilization of the glass electrolyte separator may lead to an overestimation of specific capacity and contribute to the observed excess capacity especially when the electrode is very small like it is in this case.
  • the FeS+S component can account for 1.45 mAh of the maximum capacity. Without accounting for utilization of the glass electrolyte separator, the remaining capacity indicates that 1.16 mg, or 86%, of Li 2 S in the glass electrolyte is electrochemically utilized.
  • FIG. 21 shows (a) specific discharge capacity of a battery as a function of applied current, and (b) voltage profiles of the same battery as a function of applied current.
  • the electrode maintains a specific capacity of 200 mAh g ⁇ 1 with an applied current of about 2.40 mA.
  • P 2 S 5 component of the glass electrolyte may be electrochemically utilized as well. Utilization of P 2 S 5 also explains why capacity increases during discharge cycles, and not only during the charge cycles when excess Li 2 S is initially oxidized to S.
  • the degree and rate of capacity activation of each cell is much different.
  • the first cell exhibits a specific capacity of about 488 mAh g ⁇ 1
  • the cell used in the rate test only exhibits a specific capacity of about 400 mAh g ⁇ 1 .
  • the maximum capacity of the rate cell is also about 15% lower than that achieved by the first cell.
  • Electrolyte sensitivity is emphasized by the results of another study that did not observe electrolyte utilization.
  • nano-FeS was used as an active material and Li 2 S was a precursor for their electrolyte.
  • the electrolyte was a different composition, thio-LISICON Li 3.25 Ge 0.25 P 0.75 S 4 , and was prepared by melt quenching instead of mechanochemical milling. Previous work also did not show evidence for electrochemical activation of the glass electrolyte. In this study, three 5 micron cubes of synthetic FeS 2 were used as the active material.
  • Cubic-FeS 2 is also a semiconductor with a much lower electronic conductivity than that of the ferrimagnetic Fe 1-x S precursor used in this study.
  • the decision to mechanically combine ⁇ m-Cu powder with S or Li 2 S can be further improved.
  • the conversion materials, FeF 2 and CuF 2 suggest that a nano-structured network of reduced metallic nanoparticles may be employed for good reversibility.
  • a mechanical mixture with micron active metal particles is therefore not ideal for good reversibility or for good electrolyte utilization.
  • electrochemically reduced nano-active metal particles may be used due to the better atomic proximity to other reduced species, as well as to the electrolyte particles, to further enhance reversibility and effective electrolyte utilization.

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US9450234B2 (en) * 2012-05-15 2016-09-20 Tsinghua University Voltage cycling method for lithium ion battery comprising sulfur polymer composite in active material
CN105206841A (zh) * 2015-08-28 2015-12-30 清华大学 一种用于锂硫电池正极中的黄铁矿类添加剂
US11621420B2 (en) 2016-03-11 2023-04-04 University Of Houston System High ionic conductivity rechargeable solid state batteries with an organic electrode
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CN108878830A (zh) * 2018-06-26 2018-11-23 中国科学院宁波材料技术与工程研究所 一种室温固态锂硫电池用电极材料及其制备方法以及固态锂硫电池
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US11870032B2 (en) 2024-01-09

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