Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D491/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing in the condensed ring system both one or more rings having oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms and one or more rings having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, not provided for by groups C07D451/00 - C07D459/00, C07D463/00, C07D477/00 or C07D489/00
  • C07D491/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing in the condensed ring system both one or more rings having oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms and one or more rings having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, not provided for by groups C07D451/00 - C07D459/00, C07D463/00, C07D477/00 or C07D489/00 in which the condensed system contains two hetero rings
  • C07D491/04—Ortho-condensed systems
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P29/00—Non-central analgesic, antipyretic or antiinflammatory agents, e.g. antirheumatic agents; Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs [NSAID]

Definitions

• the present invention relates to novel fused heterocyclic compounds, for the modulation of the histamine H4 receptor and the treatment or prevention of conditions mediated by the histamine H4 receptor.
• the invention also relates to the preparation of such compounds.
• Histamine is a biogenic amine important in the regulation of different physiological processes in the body. Histamine is synthesized, by histidine decarboxylation, from L- histidine in specific cell types such as mast cells, basophils and neurons. Histamine binds to cell membrane receptors of the G-protein coupled receptors family (GPCRs). Three different histamine receptors have been first identified: Hl, H2 and H3 (reviewed in S. J. Hill et al, International Union of Pharmacology. XIII. Pharmacol Rev 1997 49: 253-278). Hl receptors trigger smooth muscle contractions and play an important role in allergy. H2 receptors regulate gastric acid secretion in the stomach and H3 receptors control release of histamine and neurotransmitters by neurons.
• GPCRs G-protein coupled receptors
• H4 histamine receptor
• the H4 receptor is expressed mainly in cells of the hemopoietic lineage, especially mast cells, eosinophils and basophils (Oda T et al., J Biol Chem. 2000 Nov 24;275(47):36781-6, Zhu Y et al., MoI Pharmacol. 2001 Mar;59(3):434-41, Morse KL et al., J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001 Mar;296(3): 1058-66, Liu C et al., MoI Pharmacol. 2001 Mar;59(3):420-6).
• the H4 receptor is also expressed in lower species (mouse, rat, guinea pig) and its tissue distribution is similar to human.
• H4 receptor sequence in mouse, rat, and guinea pig is significantly different from the human H4 sequence (69%, 68%, 65% similarity respectively) and this translates in differences in binding affinities to histamine and H3/H4 ligands, as well as differences in signal transduction response (Liu C et al, J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001 Oct;299(l): 121-30).
• H4 receptors have been shown to mediate chemotaxis and calcium mobilization in mast cells (Hofstra CL et al., J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Jun;305(3): 1212-21) and eosinophil chemotaxis with cell shape change and up regulation of adhesion molecules (Ling P et al., Br J Pharmacol. 2004 May;l 42(1): 161-71. Erratum in: Br J Pharmacol. 2004 Jul;142(6):1052, Buckland KF et al., Br J Pharmacol. 2003 Nov;140(6):l 117-27, O'Reilly M et al., J Recept Signal Transduct Res. 2002 Feb-Nov;22(l-4):431-48).
• H4 is also implicated in histamine- induced interleukin-16 release from human CD8+ T cells (Gantner F et al., J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002 Oct;303(l):300-7), in leukotriene B4 production and mast cell dependent neutrophil recruitment (Takeshita K et al., J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003 Dec;307(3): 1072-8). All these data indicate that the histamine H4 receptor may play a role in the inflammatory response.
• JNJ7777120 An indole amide, JNJ7777120, has been recently described as a potent and selective Histamine H4 receptor antagonist, (Ki 4.5 nM. pA2 8.1. Equipotent against human, mouse and rat receptors. >1000-fold selectivity over Hl, H2, or H3 receptor and no cross binding against 50 other targets) (Thurmond RL et al., J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2004 Apr;309(l):404-13).
• JNJ7777120 in vitro, blocks histamine-induced chemotaxis and calcium influx in mouse mast cells, and in vivo histamine induced migration of tracheal mast cells from the connective tissue to the epithelium in mice. JNJ7777120 reduces infiltration in a mouse zymosan-induced peritonitis model indicating a role of the histamine H4 receptor in an inflammatory process in vivo.
• modulators of the histamine H4 receptor have utility in a variety of inflammation disorders.
• Inflammation herein refers to the response that develops as a consequence of histamine release that can be caused by immunological and non-immunological stimuli. Inflammation can be due to any one or a plurality of conditions including, but not limited to, allergy, allergic rhinitis and asthma. In terms of the development of the disorder the inflammatory conditions include, but are not limited to, acute inflammation, allergic inflammation and chronic inflammation.
• the object of the present invention is to provide a new class of histamine H4 receptor modulators which may be effective, preferably in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.
• A represents heterocyclyl, having at least one nitrogen ring atom, which nitrogen is attached to the pyrimidine ring in formula (I) and wherein A is substituted with -NR 3 R 4 , R 7 and is optionally substituted with one or more other substituents independently selected from the group consisting of Ci -4 alkyl; F, Cl, Br, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, OH, and OCi -4 alkyl, wherein each Ci -4 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more halogen; R 1 and R 2 are independently H, -C(O)CH 3 , -SO 2 CH 3 , Ci -4 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, wherein each C i-4 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more halogen;
• R 3 and R 4 are independently H, Ci -4 alkyl or C 3-6 cycloalkyl; wherein each Ci -4 alkyl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halogen and C 3-6 cycloalkyl and wherein each C 3-6 cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more halogen;
• R 3 , R 4 jointly form together with the nitrogen to which they are attached to a heterocyclyl ring;
• R 5 and R 6 are independently H, F, Cl, Br, Ci -4 alkyl, OH, OCi -4 alkyl, wherein each Ci -4 alkyl is optionally substituted with one or more halogen;
• R 7 is selected from the group consisting of H, Ci -4 alkyl; F, Cl, Br, C 3-6 cycloalkyl, OH, and OCi -4 alkyl, wherein each Ci -4 alkyl, C 3-6 cycloalkyl is optionally substituted with one or more halogen; or optionally R 7 form together with R 3 (-R 7 -R 3 -) a -Ci -4 alkyl- group.
• Alkyl means a straight-chain or branched carbon chain that may contain double or triple bonds. It is generally preferred that alkyl doesn't contain double or triple bonds. Each hydrogen of an alkyl carbon may be replaced by a substituent.
• -CH 2 -, -CH 2 -CH 2 -, -CH CH-, -CH(CH 3 )-, -C(CH 2 ) 2 -, -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -, -CH 2 - CH 2 - CH 2 -CH 2 -, -CH(C 2 H 5 )-, -CH(CH 3 ) 2 -, when two moieties of a molecule are linked by the alkyl group.
• Each hydrogen of a Ci -4 alkyl carbon may be replaced by a substituent.
• Examples for a heterocycle are furan, thiophene, pyrrole, pyrroline, imidazole, imidazoline, pyrazole, pyrazoline, oxazole, oxazoline, isoxazole, isoxazoline, thiazole, thiazoline, isothiazole, isothiazoline, thiadiazole, thiadiazoline, tetrahydrofuran, tetrahydrothiophene, pyrrolidine, imidazolidine, pyrazolidine, oxazolidine, isoxazolidine, thiazolidine, isothiazolidine, thiadiazolidine, sulfolane, pyran, dihydropyran, tetrahydropyran, imidazolidine, pyridine, pyridazine, pyrazine, pyrimidine, piperazine, piperidine, morpholine, tetrazole, triazole, tri
• C3-6 Cycloalkyl means cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, and cyclohexyl.
• Halogen means fiuoro, chloro, bromo or iodo. It is generally preferred that halogen is fluoro or chloro.
• Fully saturated pertains to compounds and/or groups which do not have any carbon- carbon, carbon-nitrogen, nitrogen-nitrogen double bonds or carbon-carbon triple bonds.
• Preferred compounds are those of formula (Ia)
• preferred compounds of formula (I) and (Ia) are those compounds in which one or more of the residues contained therein have the meanings given below, with all combinations of preferred substituent definitions being a subject of the present invention.
• A represents a fully saturated heterocyclic ring, preferably selected from the group consisting of azetidine, pyrrolidine, oxazolidine, thiazolidine, piperidine, piperazine, and morpholine, more preferred azetidine or pyrrolidine.
• R 1 , R 2 are independently H or Ci -4 alkyl.
• R 3 , R 4 are independently H or Ci -4 alkyl.
• R 5 , R 6 are independently H, Cl, OH, CH 3 , OCH 3 , CF 3 or OCF 3 .
• R 7 is H or Ci -4 alkyl.
• R 7 and R 3 form a -Ci -4 alkyl- group.
• Preferred specific compounds are those selected from the group consisting of
• isomers can be separated by methods well known in the art, e.g. by liquid chromatography. Same applies for enantiomers by using e.g. chiral stationary phases. Additionally, enantiomers may be isolated by converting them into diastereomers, i.e. coupling with an enantiomerically pure auxiliary compound, subsequent separation of the resulting diastereomers and cleavage of the auxiliary residue. Alternatively, any enantiomer of a compound of formula (I) or (Ia) may be obtained from stereoselective synthesis using optically pure starting materials. Furthermore, the invention relates to any of the compounds according to the invention and/or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or ester thereof, especially for use as a medicament.
• Suitable salts include hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, methanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, napthalenedisulfonic acid, oxalic acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, lactic acid, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, formic acid, propionic acid, pivalic acid, diethylacetic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, pimelic acid, fumaric acid, maleic acid, malic acid, sulfamic acid, phenylpropionic acid, gluconic acid, ascorbic acid, isonicotinic acid, citric acid, adipic acid and other acids known to a person skilled in the art.
• pharmaceutically acceptable means approved by a regulatory agency such as the EMEA (Europe) and/or the FDA (US) and/or any other national regulatory agency for use in animals, preferably in humans.
• the respective salts of the compounds according to the invention can be obtained by customary methods which are known to the person skilled in the art, for example by contacting these with an organic or inorganic acid or base in a solvent or dispersant, or by anion exchange or cation exchange with other salts.
• the invention includes all salts of the compounds according to the invention which, owing to low physiological compatibility, are not directly suitable for use in pharmaceuticals but which can be used, for example, as intermediates for chemical reactions or for the preparation of pharmaceutically acceptable salts or which might be suitable for the H4 antagonist activity of a compound according of the invention in any suitable manner, such as any suitable in vitro assay.
• the present invention furthermore includes all solvates of the compounds according to the invention.
• the present invention furthermore includes derivatives/prodrugs (including the salts thereof) of the compounds according to the invention which contain physiologically tolerable and cleavable groups and which are metabolized in animals, preferably mammals, most preferably humans into a compound according to the invention.
• prodrug means a derivative that is converted into a compound according to the present invention by a reaction with an enzyme, gastric acid or the like under a physiological condition in the living body, e.g. by oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis or the like, each of which is carried out enzymatically.
• a prodrug are compounds, wherein the amino group in a compound of the present invention is acylated, alkylated or phosphorylated to form, e.g., eicosanoylamino, alanylamino, pivaloyloxymethylamino or wherein the hydroxyl group is acylated, alkylated, phosphorylated or converted into the borate, e.g.
• the present invention furthermore includes the metabolites of the compounds according to the invention.
• metabolites refers to all molecules derived from any of the compounds according to the invention in a cell or organism, preferably mammal.
• the term relates to molecules which differ from any molecule which is present in any such cell or organism under physiological conditions.
• the structure of the metabolites of the compounds according to the invention will be obvious to any person skilled in the art, using the various appropriate methods
• Another object of the invention is a pharmaceutical composition
• a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to the present invention in a mixture with an inert carrier.
• “Pharmaceutical composition” means one or more active ingredients, and one or more inert ingredients that make up the carrier, as well as any product which results, directly or indirectly, from combination, complexation or aggregation of any two or more of the ingredients, or from dissociation of one or more of the ingredients, or from other types of reactions or interactions of one or more of the ingredients. Accordingly, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention encompass any composition made by mixing a compound of the present invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
• Any suitable route of administration may be employed for providing a mammal, especially a human, with an effective dosage of a compound of the present invention.
• oral, rectal, topical, parenteral, ocular, pulmonary, nasal, and the like may be employed.
• Dosage forms include tablets, troches, dispersions, suspensions, solutions, capsules, creams, ointments, aerosols, and the like.
• compositions of the present invention comprise a compound of formula (I) or (Ia) as an active ingredient or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and may also contain a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and optionally other therapeutic ingredients.
• pharmaceutically acceptable salts refers to salts prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic bases or acids including inorganic bases or acids and organic bases or acids.
• MDI metered dose inhalation
• suitable propellants such as fluorocarbons or hydrocarbons
• DPI dry powder inhalation aerosol
• Suitable topical formulations of a compound of formula (I) or (Ia) include transdermal devices, aerosols, creams, ointments, lotions, dusting powders and the like.
• the compounds of formula (I) or (Ia) can be combined as the active ingredient in intimate admixture with a pharmaceutical carrier according to conventional pharmaceutical compounding techniques.
• the carrier may take a wide variety of forms depending on the form of preparation desired for administration, e.g. oral or parenteral (including intravenous).
• any of the usual pharmaceutical media may be employed, such, as, for example, water, glycols, oils, alcohols, flavouring agents, preservatives, colouring agents and the like in the case of oral liquid preparations, such as, for example, suspensions, elixirs and solutions; or carriers such as starches, sugars, microcrystalline cellulose, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents and the like in the case of oral solid preparations such as, for example, powders, capsules and tablets, with the solid oral preparations being preferred over the liquid preparations. Because of their ease of administration, tablets and capsules represent the most advantageous oral dosage unit form in which case solid pharmaceutical carriers are obviously employed. If desired, tablets may be coated by standard aqueous or nonaqueous techniques.
• compositions of the present invention suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as capsules, cachets or tablets each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient, as a powder or granules or as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid, a non-aqueous liquid, an oil-in-water emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion.
• compositions may be prepared by any of the methods of pharmacy but all methods include the step of bringing into association the active ingredient with the carrier which constitutes one or more necessary ingredients.
• the compositions are prepared by uniformly and intimately admixing the active ingredient with liquid carriers or finely divided solid carriers or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product into the desired presentation.
• a tablet may be prepared by compression or moulding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients.
• Compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine, the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as powder or granules, optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, surface active or dispersing agent.
• Moulded tablets may be made by moulding in a suitable machine, a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. Desirably, each tablet contains from about 1 mg to about 500 mg of the active ingredient and each cachet or capsule contains from about 1 to about 500 mg of the active ingredient.
• Compounds of formula (I) or (Ia) may be used in combination with other drugs that are used in the treatment/prevention/suppression or amelioration of the diseases or conditions for which compounds of formula (I) are useful. Such other drugs may be administered, by a route and in an amount commonly used therefore, contemporaneously or sequentially with a compound of formula (I) or (Ia).
• a pharmaceutical composition containing such other drugs in addition to the compound of formula (I) or (Ia) is preferred.
• the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention include those that also contain one or more other active ingredients, in addition to a compound of formula (I) or (Ia).
• Another object of the present invention is a compound according to the invention for use as a medicament.
• Yet another object of the present invention is the use of a compound of the present invention for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prophylaxes of one or more diseases or disorders associated with the modulation of histamine H4 receptor, especially with the inflammatory response mediated by histamine H4 receptor.
• Yet another object of the present invention is the use of a compound according to the present invention for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prophylaxes of inflammatory diseases.
• Yet another object of the present invention is the use of a compound according to the present invention for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prophylaxes of one or more diseases or disorders selected from the group consisting of asthma, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, allergic rhinitis and other allergic diseases, atopic dermatitis and other dermatological disorders.
• diseases or disorders selected from the group consisting of asthma, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, allergic rhinitis and other allergic diseases, atopic dermatitis and other dermatological disorders.
• Yet another object of the present invention is a method for treating, controlling, delaying or preventing in a mammalian patient in need of treatment of one or more conditions associated with the modulation of histamine H4 receptor, wherein the method comprises the administration of said patient of a pharmaceutically effective amount of a compound according to the present invention.
• the present invention is also concerned with processes for preparing the compounds of this invention.
• the compounds of formula (I) or (Ia) of the present invention can be prepared according to the procedures of the following schemes and examples, using appropriate materials, and are further exemplified by the following specific examples. Moreover, by utilising the procedures described with the disclosure contained herein, one of ordinary skill in the art can readily prepare additional compounds of the present invention claimed herein.
• the compounds illustrated in the examples are not, however, to be construed as forming the only genus that is considered as the invention.
• the examples further illustrate details for the preparation of the compounds of the present invention. Those skilled in the art will readily understand that known variations of the conditions and processes of the following preparative procedures can be used to prepare these compounds.
• the compounds of the invention of formula (I) or (Ia) may be isolated in the form of their pharmaceutically acceptable salts, such as those described previously herein above.
• the free acid form corresponding to isolated salts can be generated by neutralisation with a suitable acid such as acetic acid and hydrochloric acid and extraction of the liberated free acid into an organic solvent followed by evaporation.
• the free acid form isolated in this manner can be further converted into another pharmaceutically acceptable salt by dissolution in an organic solvent followed by addition of the appropriate base and subsequent evaporation, precipitation, or crystallisation.
• Compounds of the invention of formula (I) may conveniently be prepared by the reaction in an inert solvent, usually under elevated temperatures, of a cyclic amine of formula (IV) and a compound of formula (V) in which R 8 represents a suitable leaving group; suitable leaving groups at R 8 include chloro, bromo, alkylsulphinyl, and alkylsulphonyl.
• reaction of intermediate (V), in which R 8 is a halo group such as chloro or bromo, with an cyclic amine intermediate of formula (IV) may be achieved in the presence of a palladium catalyst such as a mixture of palladium bis(trifluoroacetate) and tri(t ⁇ t-butyl)phosphine.
• a palladium catalyst such as a mixture of palladium bis(trifluoroacetate) and tri(t ⁇ t-butyl)phosphine.
• Intermediate compounds of formula (V) where R is chloro or bromo may be prepared, for example, by the Copper catalysed cyclisation of a compound of formula (VI) with a suitable base, for example caesium carbonate or potassium carbonate.
• a suitable base for example caesium carbonate or potassium carbonate.
• Intermediate compounds of formula (VI) may be prepared, for example, from compounds of formula (VII), by reaction with a suitable Lewis acid.
• a suitable Lewis acid includes boron trichloride.
• Intermediate compounds of formula (VII) may be prepared from an appropriately substituted dichloropyrimidine of formula (VIII) by reaction with a suitable boronic acid followed by bromination with N-bromosuccinimide.
• Another object of the present invention is a process for the preparation of a medicament comprising the steps of:
• the compounds of formula (I) and (Ia) are claimed as having activity as pharmaceuticals, in particular as modulators of histamine H4 receptor, and may be used in the treatment
• inflammatory diseases including, but not limited to asthma, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, allergic rhinitis and other allergic diseases, atopic dermatitis and other dermatological disorders.
• Radioligand binding assay using histamine H4 receptor transfected CHO Kl membranes Radioligand binding assay using histamine H4 receptor transfected CHO Kl membranes.
• the receptor binding assay is performed in a final volume of 150 ⁇ L binding buffer (50 mM Tris (pH 7.4), 5 mM MgCl 2 ) using 18nM [2,5-3H]-histamine dihydrochloride (Amersham Biosciences UK Ltd) as the radioligand.
• Ligands are added in assay buffer containing a constant volume of DMSO (1% v/v). Total binding is determined using 1% v/v of DMSO in assay buffer and non-specific binding is determined using 100 ⁇ M of unlabeled histamine dihydrochloride (Sigma).
• the reaction is initiated with 20 ⁇ g histamine H4 receptor membranes (Euroscreen, Belgium) and the mixture incubated for 90 minutes at 25 0 C.
• the reaction is terminated by rapid filtration through GF/B filters pre- blocked with PEI (1 % v/v) using a Packard Cell harvester and the filter washed with 2 x 500 ⁇ L / well of cold wash buffer (50 mM Tris (pH 7.4), 5 mM MgCl 2 , 0.5 M NaCl).
• the residual radioligand bound to the filter was determined using a Topcount liquid scintillation counter (Perkin Elmer).
• Compound IC50 values can be determined using an 8- point dose response curve in duplicate with a semi-log compound dilution series.
• IC50 calculations may be performed using Excel and XL fit (Microsoft) and this value can be used to determine a K 1 value for the test compound using the Cheng-Prusoff equation.
• Preferred compounds of the present invention typically have IC50 values ⁇ 100 ⁇ m.
• the GTP ⁇ S binding assay is used as a measure of the functional activation of the histamine H4 receptor using membranes prepared from CHO Kl cells stably transfected with the cDNA for the histamine H4 receptor (Euroscreen, Belgium).
• the assay is performed in a 96 well Isoplate (Perkin Elmer) in a final volume of 200 ⁇ L assay buffer (20 mM HEPES (pH 7.4), 100 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl 2 , 10 ⁇ g/ml saponin and 10 ⁇ M GDP) using 0.InM GTP ⁇ [35S] (Amersham Biosciences UK Ltd) to measure functional incorporation, and in the case of antagonist studies 150 nM histamine dihydrochloride (EC80 for histamine dihydrochloride) to determine maximal incorporation of GTP ⁇ [35S].
• Method A Experiments performed on a Micromass Platform LCT spectrometer with positive ion electrospray and single wavelength UV 254nm detection using a Higgins Clipeus Cl 8 5 ⁇ m 100 x 3.0mm column and a 1 mL / minute flow rate.
• the initial solvent system was 95% water containing 0.1% formic acid (solvent A) and 5% acetonitrile containing 0.1% formic acid (solvent B) for the first minute followed by a gradient up to 5% solvent A and 95% solvent B over the next 14 minutes. The final solvent system was held constant for a further 5 minutes.
• Method B Experiments performed on a Micromass Platform LC spectrometer with positive and negative ion electrospray and ELS/Diode array detection using a Phenomenex Luna C 18(2) 30 x 4.6mm column and a 2 ml / minute flow rate.
• the solvent system was 95% solvent A and 5% solvent B for the first 0.50 minutes followed by a gradient up to 5% solvent A and 95% solvent B over the next 4 minutes. The final solvent system was held constant for a further 1 minute.
• Microwave experiments were carried out using either a Personal Chemistry Smith SynthesizerTM or Emrys OptimizerTM which use a single-mode resonator and dynamic field tuning, both of which give reproducibility and control. Temperatures from 40-250 0 C can be achieved, and pressures of up to 20bar can be reached.

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