Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25D—PROCESSES FOR THE ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PRODUCTION OF COATINGS; ELECTROFORMING; APPARATUS THEREFOR
  • C25D9/00—Electrolytic coating other than with metals
  • C25D9/04—Electrolytic coating other than with metals with inorganic materials
  • C25D9/06—Electrolytic coating other than with metals with inorganic materials by anodic processes
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
  • H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
  • H01G11/22—Electrodes
  • H01G11/26—Electrodes characterised by their structure, e.g. multi-layered, porosity or surface features
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
  • H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
  • H01G11/22—Electrodes
  • H01G11/30—Electrodes characterised by their material
  • H01G11/32—Carbon-based
  • H01G11/42—Powders or particles, e.g. composition thereof
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
  • H01G11/00—Hybrid capacitors, i.e. capacitors having different positive and negative electrodes; Electric double-layer [EDL] capacitors; Processes for the manufacture thereof or of parts thereof
  • H01G11/22—Electrodes
  • H01G11/30—Electrodes characterised by their material
  • H01G11/46—Metal oxides
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01G—CAPACITORS; CAPACITORS, RECTIFIERS, DETECTORS, SWITCHING DEVICES, LIGHT-SENSITIVE OR TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE DEVICES OF THE ELECTROLYTIC TYPE
  • H01G9/00—Electrolytic capacitors, rectifiers, detectors, switching devices, light-sensitive or temperature-sensitive devices; Processes of their manufacture
  • H01G9/0029—Processes of manufacture
  • H01G9/0032—Processes of manufacture formation of the dielectric layer
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/13—Energy storage using capacitors

Definitions

• the present invention relates to supercapacitor electrodes and in particular, to manganese oxide-based supercapacitor electrodes wherein the oxide is coated upon the electrode by chronoamperometric electrodeposition.
• fuel cells provide the highest energy density at the expense of power density, whilst the performance of supercapacitors is essentially the opposite.
• Batteries generally occupy a region intermediate fuel cells and supercapacitors, providing greater energy density than supercapacitors and greater power density than fuel cells.
• Extensive global research has been devoted to optimising the performance of each power source, as well as identifying their preferred applications. The focus of such research is broadly categorised as being either advanced material development (such as in the case of the present invention), or system development through the construction of more efficient, higher performance devices.
• supercapacitor can be broadly classified as an electric double layer capacitor (EDLC) which employs particles or fibers having a high specific surface area as an electrode material.
• EDLC electric double layer capacitor
• Other forms of supercapacitor comprise a metal oxide or a conductive polymer.
• An EDLC has a relatively long lifespan, but due to the accumulation of charges only at the surface of the electric double layer, the capacitance of an EDLC is generally lower than that of a metal oxide-based or an electrically-conductive polymer-based supercapacitor.
• the metal of a metal oxide-based supercapacitor is capable of undergoing a change in its multiple valence states, which allows fast reduction and fast oxidation reactions to take place.
• the redox reactions corresponding to respective discharging and charging processes, require the ion and electron to move rapidly between the electrolyte and the electrode.
• the electrode is preferred to have a high specific surface area, and the electrode - active material ideally has a high electrical conductivity.
• the present invention relates to ongoing attempts in the art to increase or optimise supercapacitor energy density, thereby making supercapacitors more broadly applicable as power sources.
• Commercially-available supercapacitors are symmetrical devices (identical electrodes) employing activated carbon electrodes with either an aqueous (e.g., H 2 SO 4 ) or non-aqueous (e.g., tetraalkylammonium tetrafluoroborate in acetonitrile) electrolyte [P. Simon and Y. Gogotsi, Nature Materials, 7(11) (2008) 845]. Whilst the performance of such devices generally shows high power density and long cycle life, their energy density is limited, as mentioned above.
• a strategy for improving supercapacitor energy density is to incorporate a pseudo-capacitive electrode [B. E. Conway, Electrochemical Supercapacitors: Scientific Fundamentals and Technological Applications, Kluwer- Plenum Publishing Company, New York (1999)]; i.e., an electrode that can store charge in the double layer (i.e., as a conventional supercapacitor electrode would do), as well as undergo fast reversible surface redox reactions.
• a pseudo-capacitive electrode [B. E. Conway, Electrochemical Supercapacitors: Scientific Fundamentals and Technological Applications, Kluwer- Plenum Publishing Company, New York (1999)]; i.e., an electrode that can store charge in the double layer (i.e., as a conventional supercapacitor electrode would do), as well as undergo fast reversible surface redox reactions.
• These types of electrodes have an enhanced capacitance compared with carbon-based electrodes as a result of the "faradaic contribution", as well as a higher density. As a result
• the prototypical supercapacitor electrode material is amorphous hydrated ruthenium dioxide (Ru0 2 .xH 2 0) which has been reported to have a capacitance exceeding 900 F/g in an aqueous H 2 S0 4 electrolyte [K. Naoi and P. Simon, Interface, 17(1) (2008) 34].
• Ru0 2 amorphous hydrated ruthenium dioxide
• the commercial scope of Ru0 2 is limited primarily by cost. Accordingly, the art has sought suitable alternatives exhibiting similar behaviour.
• United States patent number US 7,199,997 discloses an asymmetric supercapacitor having as a positive terminal a material selected from manganese dioxide, silver oxide, iron sulfide and mixtures thereof.
• the negative electrode is a carbonaceous active material.
• at least one of the electrodes has nanostructured/nanofibrous material.
• Chinese patent number CN 101286418 discloses a manganese dioxide electrochemical supercapacitor.
• the positive electrode is manganese dioxide material having high capacitance
• the negative electrode is a high surface area carbon material
• the electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing divalent cations, thus forming the asymmetric electrochemical capacitor.
• the individual voltage of the asymmetric electrochemical capacitor can be up to 2V or more, and as the divalent cations are adopted as cations of the electrolyte, the specific capacity of the positive electrode and the negative electrode are improved.
• the present invention pertains to the use of electrodepo sited manganese oxides for supercapacitor electrodes. Whilst obtaining manganese oxides via electrodepo sition is not new - indeed, commercial production of manganese dioxide is primarily by electrodepo sition - the materials produced by existing processes are intended for alkaline battery usage rather than for supercapacitors.
• the present Applicant has surprisingly shown that the electrodeposition of manganese dioxide over a period from a few seconds, up to about 30 seconds leads to superior performance, possibly as the result of increased surface area of the deposit.
• the electrolytes used by the present Applicant are different to those used in the existing supercapacitor literature.
• the transition between electrodeposition and testing regime is markedly different in the sense that it does not involve a drying step. This likely has the effect of retaining the pore structure of the electrodepo sited manganese dioxide, which if it were dried, would decrease considerably.
• the electrodeposition of manganese oxides has the added advantage that it produces an electrode that is already in a suitable state for inclusion into a supercapacitor device.
• the Applicant has noted the excellent and surprising performance of electrodepo sited thin films of manganese dioxide in aqueous electrolytes.
• One of the principal advantages of this electrodepo sited material is its inherent processing characteristics in that it requires only minimal additional processing by comparison with the alternative powder coating method that requires several processing steps.
• a further advantage is by way of the capacitance of the materials produced by such a process. Such materials typically display capacitance within the range of about 2000 F/g to about 4000 F/g.
• an added advantage of the present invention is that using the inventive electrodeposition process provides an electrode.
• the preferred substrate for the inventive electrodeposition process is platinum, any other suitable substrate may be employed; particularly suitable candidates include titanium and conductive glasses.
• a method for chronoamperometrically electrodepo siting a metal oxide upon a working electrode comprising the steps of:
• working electrode is intended to mean the substrate upon which the electrodeposition takes place.
• said metal is selected from the group consisting of transition metals. More preferably, said metal is selected from the group consisting of manganese, titanium and ruthenium. In a preferred embodiment, said metal oxide is manganese dioxide.
• said working electrode is selected from the group consisting of platinum, titanium and conductive glasses.
• said working electrode is a platinum disk working electrode.
• said counter electrode is a carbon rod counter electrode.
• said electrolytic solution is a metal cation/acid electrolytic solution.
• said electrolytic solution comprises said metal cation at a concentration of from about 0.001 to about 1.0 M.
• said metal cation is Mn 2+ .
• said electrolytic solution comprises said acid up to a concentration of about 1.0 M.
• said acid is H 2 SO 4 .
• said electrolytic solution is a solution.
• said method takes place at between about 0 °C to about 40 °C.
• said method takes place at substantially ambient temperature.
• said predetermined period is from about 5 to about 60 seconds. Preferably, said predetermined period is about 30 seconds.
• the working electrode is platinum
• the counter electrode is carbon
• the predetermined period is about 30 seconds
• the electrolytic solution is 0.001 M MnSCVO. l M H 2 SO 4
• applying the one or more predetermined chronoamperometric step voltages to the electrochemical cell results in a thin layer of manganese dioxide being coated upon the surface of the platinum working electrode.
• the resultant coated electrode was found to have capacitance in the range of about 2000 F/g to about 4000 F/g.
• said electrolytic solution is conditioned prior to said electrodeposition.
• the conditioning of said electrolytic solution is effected by degassing said solution with humid nitrogen gas for around ten minutes.
• said one or more predetermined chronoamperometric step voltages is/are selected from analysis of a linear sweep voltammogram of said working electrode relative to a reference electrode in said electrolytic solution.
• said reference electrode is a saturated calomel (SCE) reference electrode.
• said linear sweep voltammogram of said working electrode in said electrolytic solution is provided from an open circuit voltage up to 1.6 V at 5 mV/s.
• said one or more predetermined chronoamperometric step voltages is/are selected from the non diffusion-limited and the diffusion-limited voltage range.
• said one or more predetermined chronoamperometric step voltages comprise at least one in the non diffusion-limited and at least one in the diffusion-limited voltage range.
• said one or more predetermined chronoamperometric step voltages comprise two in the non diffusion-limited and two in the diffusion-limited voltage range.
• said one or more predetermined chronoamperometric step voltages are a function of the electrolytic solution.
• the voltage at which said metal oxide electrodeposition occurs is dependent upon both said cation and said acid concentrations in said electrolytic solution.
• said metal cations are present in a relatively low concentration; said acid is present in a relatively high concentration; and said step voltage is in the non diffusion-limited region.
• said metal cations are Mn 2+ at a concentration of about 0.01 M; said acid is H 2 SO 4 at a concentration of about 0.1 M; and said step voltage is 1.05 V.
• a working electrode when coated with a metal oxide by a chronoamperometric electrodeposition method defined according to the first aspect of the present invention.
• an electrical device having an energy storage unit comprising an electrode coated with a metal oxide by a chronoamperometric electrodeposition method defined according to the first aspect of the present invention.
• said specific capacitance is between about 2000 F/g and about 4000 F/g.
• said metal oxide is manganese dioxide.
• said electrode is platinum, titanium or conductive glass. Preferably, said electrode is platinum.
• said metal oxide is coated upon said electrode to a thickness of about 40 nm. In an embodiment, said metal oxide is relatively porous. Preferably, said metal oxide is coated upon said electrode at a density below about 4.0 g/cm 3 .
• said metal oxide has a specific surface area (BET) of >1000 m /g.
• said metal oxide has a specific surface area (BET) of about 1300 m 2 /g.
• an electrode for use in a supercapacitor said electrode being coated with a metal oxide and having a specific capacitance of greater than about 1300 F/g.
• said specific capacitance is between about 2000 F/g and about 4000 F/g.
• said metal oxide is manganese dioxide.
• said electrode is platinum, titanium or conductive glass. Preferably, said electrode is platinum.
• said metal oxide is coated upon said electrode to a thickness of about 40 nm. In an embodiment, said metal oxide is relatively porous. Preferably, said metal oxide is coated upon said electrode at a density below about 4.0 g/cm 3 .
• said metal oxide has a specific surface area (BET) of >1000 m /g.
• said metal oxide has a specific surface area (BET) of about 1300 m 2 /g.
• said specific capacitance is between about 2000 F/g and about 4000 F/g.
• an electrode comprising a substrate and a coating of a transition metal thereupon, said coating having a thickness of about 40 nm and a specific surface area (BET) of >1000 m 2 /g.
• said electrode has a specific surface area (BET) of about
• said metal oxide of manganese dioxide is 1300 m /g.
• said metal oxide of manganese dioxide is 1300 m /g.
• a chronoampero metric electrodeposition method defined according to the first aspect of the present invention, said method comprising the steps of:
• said cycling electrolytic solution is within a second electrochemical cell.
• said working electrode is cleansed prior to said equilibration step.
• said cleansing comprises a rinsing step and a drying step.
• said second predetermined period is about 1 hour.
• said cycling electrolytic solution is nitrogen-purged 0.5 M Na 2 S0 4 .
• said open circuit conditions comprise cycling in the voltage range of about 0 to about 0.8 V versus a saturated calomel reference electrode at 5 mV/s for at least 50 cycles against a carbon counter electrode.
• said data are in the form of a voltammogram.
• FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of the electrochemical cell.
• the working electrode (platinum) is designated “WE”
• the counter electrode (carbon) designated “CE”
• the reference electrode saturated calomel electrode
• the gas in/gas out ports are for degassing the electrolytic solution with humid nitrogen gas;
• Figure 2 is an example of the linear sweep voltammetry obtained from a sweep of the platinum working electrode in 0.1 M Mn 2+ (as MnS0 4 ) with H 2 S0 4 concentrations varying from 0.001 to 0.1 M;
• Figure 3 represents the proposed mechanistic pathways (see, Paths A, B and C, below) for the electrodeposition of manganese dioxide according to the present invention. In practice, a combination of all three is likely;
• Figure 4 shows a typical example of the resultant chronoamperometry data, in the case with an electrolyte of 0.1 M Mn 2+ (as MnS0 4 ) in 0.001 M H 2 S0 4 .
• the steps to 0.95 and 1.05 V were activation-controlled, while the steps to 1.15 and 1.25 V were mass transport-controlled;
• the electrolyte consisted of varying amounts of Mn 2+ (0.001-1.0 M, as MnS0 4 ) with 0.01 M H 2 S0 4 ;
• Figure 6 is a typical voltammogram for an electrodepo sited manganese dioxide electrode made in accordance with the present invention.
• Figure 7 depicts a cycle life example (capacitance versus number of cycles) for manganese dioxide electrodepo sited upon a platinum electrode in accordance with the present invention
• Figure 8a shows specific capacitance at the 50 th cycle for the electrodepo sited manganese dioxide samples as a function of Mn 2+ concentration (0.001 M);
• Figure 8b shows specific capacitance at the 50 th cycle for the electrodepo sited manganese dioxide samples as a function of Mn 2+ concentration (0.01 M);
• Figure 8c shows specific capacitance at the 50 th cycle for the electrodepo sited manganese dioxide samples as a function of H 2 S0 4 concentration (0.1 M);
• Figure 9 demonstrates the effect of deposition temperature on capacitance for a manganese dioxide electrodepo sit on a platinum electrode produced in accordance with the present invention
• Figure 10 shows the effect of deposition time on specific capacitance and confirms that the relatively short deposition period of the present invention provides for relatively optimised capacitance
• FIG 11 is a schematic diagram of the manganese discharge mechanism in basic and acidic electrolytes.
• the cell used for electrodeposition consists of a 250 mL glass beaker with a machined PTFE lid.
• the electrodes are an epoxy body platinum disk working electrode (WE) (1.325 cm ), a carbon rod counter electrode (CE), and a saturated calomel reference electrode (RE) against which all voltages are reported unless otherwise stated.
• WE epoxy body platinum disk working electrode
• CE carbon rod counter electrode
• RE saturated calomel reference electrode
• the temperature is ambient (i.e. 22.0 ⁇ 0.5 °C), however, this can be varied between 0.0 ⁇ 0.5°C using an ice- water bath, or around 40 °C through the use of a thermostat-controlled heating jacket.
• the working electrode was firstly cleaned in a bath of acidic hydrogen peroxide (0.1 M H 2 SO 4 + 10% ⁇ 2 0 2 ) to remove any residual manganese dioxide present from previous experiments.
• the platinum was then polished by rubbing on a moist cloth coated with 1 ⁇ alumina particles for about two minutes.
• the electrode was then rinsed thoroughly with Milli-Q ultra pure water to remove any attached alumina particles before being patted dry with a lint-free tissue.
• the clean working electrode was then placed in the electrochemical cell together with the counter and reference electrodes, and an electrolytic solution of 0.01 M MnS0 4 and 0.1 M H 2 S0 4 that had previously been degassed with humid nitrogen gas for 10 minutes was added such that the electrolytic solution, the WE, CE and RE were each operatively associated within the cell.
• a linear sweep voltammogram of the WE in the electrolytic solution was conducted from the open circuit voltage up to 1.6 V at 5 mV/s.
• the resultant voltammogram was analysed and appropriate step voltages were chosen; two in the non diffusion-limited (i.e. 0.95 and 1.05 V) and two in the diffusion-limited (i.e. 1.15 and 1.25 V) voltage range.
• the selected chronoamperometric voltages are a function of both the Mn 2+ and acid concentrations.
• the WE was cleaned and then returned to the cell. Chronoamperometry was then conducted by stepping the WE voltage from the open circuit voltage to one of the previously identified step voltages for about 30 seconds to effect electrodeposition of manganese dioxide upon the platinum WE. After this, the WE was removed immediately from the cell, rinsed thoroughly to remove any entrained electrolytic solution with Milli-Q water, and then patted dry with a lint-free tissue.
• the coated WE was then immersed directly into a second similar cell containing nitrogen purged 0.5 M Na 2 S0 4 and allowed to equilibrate for 1 hour under open circuit conditions. After this time, the manganese dioxide coated WE was cycled in the voltage range 0.0-0.8 V versus the RE at 5 mV/s for at least 50 cycles, again using a carbon CE and an saturated calomel RE.
• the resultant manganese dioxide coated WE was found to have an excellent specific capacitance of greater than 1300 F/g and typically within the range of about 2000 F/g to 4000 F/g.
• MnS0 4 .H 2 0 Sigma Aldrich; >99.5
• concentrated H 2 S0 4 Sigma Aldrich; >98
• Na 2 S0 4 Sigma- Aldrich; >99 . All solutions from these chemicals were made up using Milli-Q ultra pure water (>18 ⁇ resistivity).
• Manganese dioxide electrodeposition was carried out from a matrix of electrolytes covering the compositional range 0.001-1.0 M Mn 2+ and 0.0-1.0 M H 2 S0 4 . To evaluate the performance of the electrodepo sited manganese dioxide samples as supercapacitor electrodes, an electrolyte of 0.5 M Na 2 S0 4 was used.
• FIG. 1 A schematic diagram of the cell used for electrodeposition is shown in Figure 1. It consists of a 250 mL glass beaker with a machined PTFE lid.
• the electrodes used were an epoxy body platinum disk working electrode (1.325 cm ), a carbon rod counter electrode, and a saturated calomel reference electrode (SCE) against which all voltages are reported unless otherwise stated.
• SCE saturated calomel reference electrode
• the platinum electrode Prior to any electrodeposition experiments, the platinum electrode was cleaned chemically in a bath of acidic hydrogen peroxide (0.1 M H 2 S0 4 + 10% H 2 0 2 ) to remove any residual manganese dioxide present from previous experiments. The platinum was then polished mechanically by rubbing on a moist cloth coated with 1 ⁇ alumina particles (2 minutes). After this, the electrode was rinsed thoroughly with Milli-Q ultra pure water to remove any attached alumina particles before being patted dry with a lint-free tissue. The clean platinum electrode was then placed in the electrochemical cell together with the counter and reference electrodes, and the MnS0 4 /H 2 S0 4 electrolyte that had previously been degassed with humid nitrogen gas for 10 minutes.
• acidic hydrogen peroxide 0.1 M H 2 S0 4 + 10% H 2 0 2
• a linear sweep voltammogram of the platinum in the chosen electrolyte was conducted from the open circuit voltage up to 1.6 V at 5 mV/s using a Perkin-Elmer VMP 16-channel potentiostat controlled by Echem software. From this voltammogram, appropriate step voltages were chosen; two in the non diffusion- limited and two in the diffusion-limited voltage range.
• the voltage at which manganese dioxide electrodeposition occurs is dependent upon both the Mn 2+ and acid concentrations in the electrolyte, and as such, the chronoamperometric voltages chosen varied depending on the electrolyte.
• the platinum electrode was cleaned and then returned to the electrodeposition cell.
• the chronoamperometry experiment was then conducted by stepping the platinum electrode voltage from the OCV to one of the previously- identified step voltages for an appropriate time, typically 30 seconds. After this, the platinum electrode was removed immediately from the electrochemical cell, rinsed thoroughly to remove any entrained electrolyte with Milli-Q water, and then patted dry with a lint-free tissue. It was then immersed directly into a second similar electrochemical cell containing nitrogen purged 0.5 M Na 2 S0 4 and allowed to equilibrate for 1 hour under open circuit conditions. After this time, the manganese dioxide electrode was cycled in the voltage range 0.0-0.8 V versus SCE at 5 mV/s for at least 50 cycles, again using a carbon counter electrode and an SCE reference electrode.
• FIG. 2 A typical example of the measured deposition voltammetric behaviour is provided in Figure 2.
• the voltammetric wave observed corresponds to the oxidation of Mn 2+ to Mn0 2 superimposed on oxygen evolution. This was to be expected given the identical E° values for the two redox half-reactions [M. Pourbaix, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston (1974)]; i.e.,
• Path B the initial Mn 2+ to Mn 3+ oxidation process is followed by another one-electron oxidation process to form Mn 4+ , which hydrolyses immediately to deposit Mn0 2 on the electrode, given that soluble Mn 4+ species in aqueous electrolytes without good complexing ligands have not been reported to exist.
• the existence of this pathway is questionable given that there is no electrochemical evidence (cf. Figure 2) to show two sequential redox processes, irrespective of the scan rate employed.
• the lifetime of the metastable Mn 3+ produced in the first oxidation step is sufficiently long for it to react with another Mn 3+ ion and disproportionate to form Mn 2+ and Mn 4+ , the latter of which hydrolyses immediately to deposit Mn0 2 on the electrode surface.
• These electrolyte conditions typically involve higher acid concentration electrolytes.
• the mass of manganese dioxide deposited onto the electrode surface must be determined.
• the most obvious approach is to determine by numerical integration the amount of charge passed during chronoamperometric deposition and then convert that into a mass of manganese dioxide.
• Figure 5 contains an example of the theoretical mass of manganese dioxide deposited during chronoamperometric deposition, assuming stoichiometric manganese dioxide is the product.
• a manganese dioxide density of 4.0 g/cm and that a dense deposit is produced for 0.05 C of charge passed (22.5 ⁇ g of Mn0 2 ) the electrode thickness is -40 nm.
• Mn(III) species MnOOH is an intermediate in which a proton has been included into the structure to compensate for Mn(III) rather than Mn(IV).
• partial oxidation is possible, particularly for the lower chronoamperometric step voltages, meaning that there could be a sizeable proportion of Mn(III) in the structure.
• proton substitution is most likely for charge compensation.
• Manganese dioxide is also known to be a relatively hydrated species, with the removal of protons upon heating, for instance, being considered as structural water. Furthermore, the surface of manganese dioxide is also hydrophilic meaning that it will adsorb and hold onto atmospheric water quite effectively. While not directly related to the molecular weight of the deposit, this surface-bound water does contribute mass to the electrode material.
• the location of this hydrolysis or disproportionation process relative to the electrode surface is critical in determining the fraction of manganese that is deposited onto the electrode. If the intermediate is relatively long-lived, it could diffuse or migrate away from the electrode surface before hydrolysing or disproportionating, meaning that it would be effectively lost from the deposit. As such, the charge efficiency would be less than 100%, and the mass deposited less than expected.
• the present Inventor has not attempted to characterise the morphology or crystal structure of any deposit made in accordance with the present invention for the simple reason that when the manganese dioxide-deposited electrode is removed from the plating electrolyte and dried, as is necessary for structural analysis or imaging, the material properties will change, and so structural and morphological measurements made will be a moot point.
• There is literature available that suggests that when a manganese dioxide sample is prepared and then dried, its morphology changes dramatically, in particular, the characteristic of material porosity, which decreases considerably.
• something that is relatively unknown is the effect that drying has on the surface chemistry of the manganese dioxide; e.g., surface crystallisation, hydration, reactivity, bond polarity, etc.
• the manganese dioxide-coated platinum electrode was removed from the electrolysis bath, washed thoroughly with Milli-Q ultra pure water, patted dry and then transferred immediately to an electrochemical cell containing the cycling electrolyte. After an hour of equilibration, the electrode was cycled potentiodynamically to evaluate its performance.
• Figure 6 shows a typical voltammogram obtained from an electrodepo sited manganese dioxide electrode; its appearance is as expected for a supercapacitive electrode material. The anodic and cathodic charge passed during each cycle was determined, and then converted to capacitance.
• Figure 7 shows a typical example of how the capacitance varied over the cycle life considered; the capacitance increases slightly with cycling, which is most likely due to the progressive development of the surface exposed to the electrolyte either as a result of increased electrolyte penetration into the pores of the material, or because of some mechanical breakdown of the manganese dioxide as a result of the structural expansion that occurs upon reduction. In the latter case, after cycling was complete, there was no evidence that the deposit had lost adhesion to the platinum substrate. Also immediately apparent in Figure 7 is the very high specific capacitance for the electrode, calculated assuming that all charge was associated with the electrodepo sition of manganese dioxide.
• Figure 8 contains specific capacitance data for all the electrodes prepared. As before, the specific capacitance achieved far exceeds what has been previously reported in the literature [S. C. Pang, M. A. Anderson and T. W. Chapman, J Electrochem. Soc, 147(2) (2000) 444]. Even within the range of errors that may change the mass from its theoretical value, the capacitances achieved are substantial. Considering the matrix of electrolytes considered, with their corresponding capacitance, one may conclude that under the conditions employed by the present Inventor, the largest capacitance can be extracted when relatively high H 2 SO 4 and relatively low Mn 2+ concentrations are used - and also when the step voltage is in the activation-controlled region, rather than mass transport- controlled.
• each of the above features of the system indicate that for the best performing electrode, and hence the highest surface area electrode, mass transport of the Mn 2+ to the electrode surface must be as slow as possible.
• mass transport of the Mn 2+ to the electrode surface must be as slow as possible.
• electrodeposition of manganese dioxide was carried out for various times ranging from 10 seconds to 5 minutes.
• the resultant capacitance data are shown in Figure 10. If the electrodeposition of manganese dioxide continued in the same fashion as the deposition time increased, one should expect a constant specific capacitance. The fact that the capacitance decreases indicates that the available surface area is also decreasing with time. As mentioned above, after an analysis of the effects of the electrodeposition conditions, crystal nucleation apparently predominates during the initial stages of deposition.
• manganese dioxide is instead deposited in such a fashion as to fill up or close the pores, thus limiting the available surface area. This can be either by crystal growth of the initially-deposited crystals, or by nucleation within the pores.
• the key feature of a supercapacitive electrode material is its ability to undergo fast reversible surface redox reactions.
• the redox chemistry of manganese dioxide during electrochemical cycling is very complex, with different reactions apparent when the electrolyte is acidic, basic, or neutral.
• a schematic outline of these processes is shown in Figure 11.
• the manganese dioxide In a basic electrolyte, the manganese dioxide firstly undergoes proton intercalation. For most phases of manganese dioxide, this is then followed by solubilisation of the resultant Mn(III) species. The exception is the birnessite phase, which as a result of increased lattice strain due to proton intercalation, undergoes structural rearrangement to form electrochemically-inactive ⁇ 3 0 4 .
• ⁇ The extent to which intercalation occurs ( ⁇ ) is dependent upon the manganese dioxide phase and its ability to transport protons through its structure.
• Mn(III) solubilisation depends on the depth of discharge at the manganese dioxide surface and the base concentration in the electrolyte. For instance, ⁇ - ⁇ 0 2 can intercalate and disperse protons quite well throughout its structure, and so ⁇ — 0.9 before solubilisation can occur.
• ⁇ - ⁇ 0 2 is a poor host for protons, which means that its surface composition approaches MnOOHo.9, but its overall depth of discharge is quite low.
• solubilisation in the next step will be enhanced by a more concentrated basic electrolyte (e.g., 7 M), with in fact very little dissolution occurring in electrolytes even as concentrated as 1 M.
• a more concentrated basic electrolyte e.g. 7 M
• the soluble Mn(III) is then able to be reduced to Mn(II), which precipitates immediately as Mn(OH) 2 throughout the electrode.
• Mn(OH) 2 is essentially an insulator. Solubilisation essentially enhances the dispersion of Mn(OH) 2 throughout the electrode before passivation occurs. Even under ideal circumstances, this second electron reduction is only -40% efficient.
• the first step is still proton intercalation, which then may be followed by a number of different pathways to form Mn 2+ , which is soluble in the acidic electrolyte.
• the options include: (i) direct reduction of the solid Mn(III) species; (ii) solubilisation of Mn(III) followed by its reduction to soluble Mn(II); or (iii) disproportionation of soluble Mn(III) to form soluble Mn(II) and insoluble Mn(IV) (as Mn0 2 ).
• soluble Mn(II) is formed because it avoids passivation of the electrode surface. However, it does release electroactive ions into the electrolyte which can have a significant negative impact.
• the source of this enhanced specific capacitance may relate to the fact that the present Inventor has previously shown that the surface of manganese dioxide in an aqueous environment consists of a relatively high concentration of surface hydro xyl groups that exhibit amphoteric behaviour, i.e.,
• K b K a where K a and 3 ⁇ 4 are the acidic and basic equilibrium constants; and X " and M + are generic anionic and cationic counter charges.
• Whether the surface behaves in an acid or basic fashion is determined by the underlying crystal structure of the manganese dioxide, while the specific sites function depending on K a and K b , and the pH of the electrolyte in which the manganese dioxide is immersed, in which case the hydroxyl groups either release or abstract a proton to or from the electrolyte, respectively. It is apparent that these surface hydroxyl groups are charge storage sites, and instead of using the solution pH as a means to activate or deactivate the surface, the electrode potential can be used instead.
• the surface hydroxyl groups on the manganese dioxide can be polarised so that they can abstract a proton or metal ion from the electrolyte as a means of charge balance.
• This process is of course dependent on the conductivity of the manganese dioxide since the charge applied to the electrode has to find its way to the manganese dioxide-electrolyte interface without incurring significant ohmic polarisation.
• the conductivity of manganese dioxide ( ⁇ - ⁇ 0 2 ) has been reported to decrease substantially (around five orders of magnitude), at least in bulk form, when reduced.

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