US20080314395A1 - Accuracy of Continuous Glucose Sensors - Google Patents

Accuracy of Continuous Glucose Sensors Download PDF

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US20080314395A1
US20080314395A1 US12/065,257 US6525706A US2008314395A1 US 20080314395 A1 US20080314395 A1 US 20080314395A1 US 6525706 A US6525706 A US 6525706A US 2008314395 A1 US2008314395 A1 US 2008314395A1
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cgs
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Boris P. Kovatchev
Christopher Ryan King
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Abbott Diabetes Care Inc
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University of Virginia Patent Foundation
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    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B5/00—Measuring for diagnostic purposes; Identification of persons
    • A61B5/145—Measuring characteristics of blood in vivo, e.g. gas concentration, pH value; Measuring characteristics of body fluids or tissues, e.g. interstitial fluid, cerebral tissue
    • A61B5/1495—Calibrating or testing of in-vivo probes
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B5/00—Measuring for diagnostic purposes; Identification of persons
    • A61B5/145—Measuring characteristics of blood in vivo, e.g. gas concentration, pH value; Measuring characteristics of body fluids or tissues, e.g. interstitial fluid, cerebral tissue
    • A61B5/14532—Measuring characteristics of blood in vivo, e.g. gas concentration, pH value; Measuring characteristics of body fluids or tissues, e.g. interstitial fluid, cerebral tissue for measuring glucose, e.g. by tissue impedance measurement
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B5/00—Measuring for diagnostic purposes; Identification of persons
    • A61B5/72—Signal processing specially adapted for physiological signals or for diagnostic purposes
    • A61B5/7203—Signal processing specially adapted for physiological signals or for diagnostic purposes for noise prevention, reduction or removal
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B5/00—Measuring for diagnostic purposes; Identification of persons
    • A61B5/72—Signal processing specially adapted for physiological signals or for diagnostic purposes
    • A61B5/7271—Specific aspects of physiological measurement analysis
    • A61B5/7275—Determining trends in physiological measurement data; Predicting development of a medical condition based on physiological measurements, e.g. determining a risk factor
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B5/00—Measuring for diagnostic purposes; Identification of persons
    • A61B5/72—Signal processing specially adapted for physiological signals or for diagnostic purposes
    • A61B5/7271—Specific aspects of physiological measurement analysis
    • A61B5/7278—Artificial waveform generation or derivation, e.g. synthesising signals from measured signals

Definitions

  • the present invention relates to the art of glucose monitoring, and more particularly to methods and systems for continuous glucose monitoring.
  • BG blood glucose
  • IG interstitial glucose
  • BG and CGS readings arises from following major factors: physiology, sensor calibration, noise, and engineering.
  • the physiological time lag and gradients are changing dynamically with time, with BG levels, and across subjects; and the direct frequent in vivo sampling of IG is extremely difficult. Consequently, the evaluation of engineering performance of CGS is left with a central problem: separating the portion of BG/CGS error due to calibration, sensor noise, and BG/IG gradient.
  • the present invention improves the accuracy and reliability of CGS by improving the calibration of CGS sensors or remedying errors due to physiological time lag or a combination thereof.
  • a method for improving accuracy of a continuous glucose sensor comprises: calibrating the CGS at a first time; and changing the CGS calibration at a second time that is determined based upon a dynamically monitored CGS value, a rate of CGS change, and a predetermined criterion.
  • a method for improving accuracy of a continuous glucose sensor comprises: calibrating the CGS using a first blood glucose data and a second blood glucose data different from the first glucose data.
  • a continuous glucose sensing (CGS) device comprises: first means for measuring interstitial glucose level so as to obtain a CGS output; and a calibration module accessible to the CGS output for improving accuracy of the CGS, further comprising: a monitoring module accessible to the CGS output for dynamically monitoring the CGS and a time derivative of the CGS; and instructing another calibration event based on the dynamic CGS value, the time derivative of the CGS value, and a predetermined criterion.
  • CGS continuous glucose sensing
  • a computer-readable medium having computer executable instructions for performing a method for improving accuracy of a continuous glucose sensor
  • the method comprises: retrieving an initial blood glucose value and a CGS value obtained in a measurement for the initial blood glucose value; monitoring the CGS value and a time derivative of the CGS value over time; determining whether to initiate another calibration based on the monitored CGS values and the time derivative of the CGS value; and calibrating the CGS if it is determined to initiate said another calibration.
  • a computer-readable medium having computer executable instructions for performing a method for improving accuracy of a continuous glucose sensor
  • the method comprises: retrieving a blood glucose value and a CGS value obtained in a measurement for the initial blood glucose value at a first time; and calibrating the CGS at a second time determined by a CGS value at substantially the second time, a time derivative of the CGS, and a predetermined criterion.
  • a system used for treating a disease associated with blood glucose comprises: a continuous glucose device of claim 300 ; means for delivering the CGS values to a disease treating center that is capable of issuing a corresponding treating instruction or taking a corresponding treating action.
  • FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a method for measuring blood glucose levels using a continuous glucose sensor according to an example of the invention
  • FIG. 2 is an exploded diagram showing the continuous glucose sensor comprising a calibrator of FIG. 1 ;
  • FIG. 3 is a gram illustrates functional modules of the calibrator and the time lag corrector according to an example of the invention
  • FIG. 4 a is a block diagram of the calibration module according to an example of the invention.
  • FIG. 4 b is a flow chart of a calibration process according to an example of the invention.
  • FIG. 5 illustrates therein the blood glucose differential during calibration and the accuracy of the CGS improved by an exemplary method of the invention
  • FIG. 6 is a flow chart showing the steps executed for improving the accuracy of the CGS using the time-lag correction method of the invention.
  • FIG. 7 is a flow chart showing the steps executed for calibrating the CGS according to yet another example of the invention.
  • FIG. 8 is a diagram showing the improved CGS measurement using an exemplary method of the invention.
  • FIG. 9 is another diagram showing the improved CGS measurement using an exemplary method of the invention.
  • FIG. 10 is yet another diagram showing the improved CGS measurement using an exemplary method of the invention.
  • FIG. 11 is a flow chart showing the steps executed for improving the accuracy of the CGS according to yet another example of the invention.
  • FIG. 12 is a diagram illustrating a system in which examples of the invention can be implemented.
  • FIG. 13 is a diagram showing an exemplary computing device having computer-readable instructions in which example of the invention can be implemented.
  • This invention provides a method and device for improving accuracy of continuous glucose sensors by improving the calibration of the CGS or by remedying errors arising from the physiological time lag between BG and IG, or a combination thereof.
  • the invention will be discussed in the following with reference to specific examples. However, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the following discussion is for demonstration purposes, and should not be interpreted as a limitation. Other variations without departing from the spirit of the invention are also applicable.
  • CGS 100 detects blood glucose level by measuring the glucose level in interstitial fluid 104 that interacts with blood vessels or arteries; and associating the output value of the CGS to the blood glucose level (the process is often referred to as calibration).
  • This indirect measurement stands on the proven basis that the blood glucose level co-varies with the glucose level in the interstitial fluid.
  • accuracy improver 106 is provided as shown in FIG. 2 .
  • the accuracy improver can improve the accuracy of the CGS by improving the CGS calibration through an optimal calibration recommendation (which will be discussed afterwards), or by remedying the error related to the physiology time lag (which will be discussed afterwards), or by a combination thereof.
  • FIG. 2 shows that the accuracy improver is included in the CGS ( 100 ) as a functional member, it is not required to be so.
  • the accuracy improver can be a stand-alone module or method that is separate from the CGS.
  • the accuracy improver can be implemented in a device in connection to the CGS output for improving the accuracy of the CGS.
  • the accuracy module can be implemented in the form of a sequence of computer-executable codes stored in a computer-readable medium; or can be implemented in hardware of the device, which will be detailed afterwards.
  • FIG. 3 schematically illustrates an exploded view of the accuracy improver ( 106 ) in FIG. 2 .
  • the accuracy improver ( 106 ) comprises CGS calibration module 108 and time lag correction module 110 .
  • the CGS calibration module by performing an optimal calibration recommendation cycle, is designated for improving the calibration of the CGS, thus improving the overall accuracy of the CGS.
  • the time lag correction module ( 110 ) is designated for remedying the error from the physiology time lag between the blood glucose and interstitial glucose levels.
  • the accuracy improver may have only one or both of the CGS calibration and time lag correction modules.
  • FIG. 4 a is a diagram showing functional modules of an exemplary CGS calibration ( 118 ) of FIG. 3 .
  • CGS calibrator 118 comprises initial calibration module 111 , storing module 113 , reassigning module 115 , and decision loop module 117 that further comprises monitoring module 119 , internal request module 121 , self-check initiation module 123 , determining module 125 , and sensor calibration module 129 .
  • the initial calibration module performs initial calibration so as to obtain an initial calibration data pair SG( 0 ) and BG( 0 ) from an initial measurement of BG( 0 ).
  • Storing module 113 couples to the output of the initial calibration module 111 and stores the initial calibration data pair SG( 0 ) and BG( 0 ).
  • Internal request module 121 connects to the output of the monitor module and manages internal requests for calibration.
  • Self-check initiation module 123 is connected to the output of the internal request module and designated for initiating a self-check procedure for optimal calibration timing.
  • determining module 125 makes decisions of whether to perform another calibration by sensor calibration module 129 at the particular time.
  • the calibration data from the calibration after the decision are reassigned to the CGS through reassign module 115 .
  • sensor calibration module 129 can be incorporated into initial sensor calibration module 111 for performing CGS calibration.
  • Any of monitor module 119 , internal request module 121 , self-check module 123 , and determining module 125 can be incorporated into combined functional module(s).
  • FIG. 4 b An exemplary operation of the functional modules in FIG. 4 a so as to accomplish the desired optimal calibration recommendation process of the invention is schematically illustrated in FIG. 4 b .
  • an initial calibration is performed by measuring the blood glucose level BG( 0 ) at the initial time t so as to obtain an initial CGS output SG( 0 ) (step 112 ).
  • This step can be performed by initial calibration module 111 in FIG. 4 a .
  • the initial pair of data BG( 0 ) and SG( 0 ) is recorded at step 114 .
  • This step can be performed by storing module 113 in FIG. 4 a .
  • Such initial calibration can be performed at a time recommended by the CGS manufacture, or at a time determined by the user.
  • the calibration procedure then enters to calibration decision making loop 118 that is administrated by decision loop module 117 as shown in FIG. 4 a.
  • the dynamic monitoring and derivation of the SG′(t) can be performed by monitor module 119 in FIG. 4 a .
  • a self-check procedure for optimal calibration timing is initiated at step 124 . This step triggers the sequence of actions determining whether a calibration should be performed or not performed at this time, e.g. 126 and 128 in FIG. 4 b .
  • the receiving of the calibration request and delivering such request to initiate the self-check procedure can be accomplished by the internal request module 121 in FIG. 4 a ; and the self-check initiation can be accomplished by the self-check initiation module 123 in FIG. 4 a .
  • the internal request for another calibration can be initiated at the time defined by the manufacture, or alternatively, by a time defined by the user, such as a doctor or even proper patients.
  • d(mg/dl) can be 10 mg/dl or higher, such as 15 mg/dl or higher, and more preferably 30 mg/dl or higher.
  • Either one or both of the determinations at steps 126 and 128 can be performed by determination module 125 as shown in FIG. 4 a . If
  • the CGS calibration values are reassigned at step 116 based on the recalibration at step 130 , for example, by respectively replacing the calibration values SG(t 0 ) and BG(t 0 ) with the recalibrated values SG(t 1 ) and BG(t 1 ).
  • the reassigned calibration values are stored at step 114 .
  • the above reassignment can be accomplished by reassigning module 115 in FIG. 4 a.
  • the calibration process After reassigning and recording, the calibration process re-enters the decision making cycle 118 , and repeat the above steps 114 , 120 , 122 , 124 , 126 , 128 , 130 , and 116 .
  • the number of calibration cycles can be determined by the default number of calibrations suggested by the CGS manufacture, or alternatively, by the user. As an example, a plurality of calibration cycles—e.g. 2 to 10, or more typically 3 to 4 calibration cycles can be performed during the first 24 hours of CGS life.
  • T1DM type 1 diabetes mellitus
  • GCRC general clinic research center
  • a Minimed CGMSTM was attached to each subject and was calibrated during the study in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. All CGMSTM were inserted in the abdomen. Hyperinsulmemic clamps were performed in the morning. Each clamp used constant insulin infusion rate of 1 mU/kg/min and variable glucose infusion rate to achieve and maintain BG levels at approximately 110 mg/dl (around 6 mmol/l).
  • the glucose infusion rate was reduced to permit a controlled decline in BG of approximately 1 mg/dl/min until BG reached 50 mg/dl (around 2.8 mmol/l).
  • Glucose infusion was then resumed to allow a recovery to normal glucose levels.
  • the euglycemic portion of the clamp study varied in length from 70 to 210 minutes; and the duration of the BG reduction procedure ranged from 30 to 60 minutes. The recovery ranged from 30 to 60 minutes.
  • Arterialized blood was achieved by warming the hand to 50° C. and was sampled every 5 minutes for reference BG levels. To allow for insulin to reach its steady state effect, the first 15 minutes of data after the beginning of infusion were ignored.
  • CGMSTM readings were synchronized with reference BG.
  • a recalibration of the sensor using 2 reference BG values taken during the clamp study described above is computer-simulated, as shown in FIG. 5 that presents the sensor error as a function of the difference between the two BG values.
  • the simulated recalibration uses the standard linear calibration function of the CGMSTM. The results from the recalibration are compared to the sensors' own accuracy displayed during the experiment and to a “perfect” calibration using all available reference BG values.
  • the X-axis presents the distance between two simulated calibration points in BG units (mg/dl); and the Y-axis presents the mean absolute error (MAE) of the sensor output with the two-point calibration.
  • MAE mean absolute error
  • physiology time lag between BG and IG also causes inaccuracy in the CGS output. This arises from the fact that most of current CGS devices doe not directly measure the blood glucose levels, but the IG levels in the interstitial fluids instead. CGS devices then convert the IG readings into estimates of BG. Therefore, an improved conversion method from IG to BG will lead to improved performance of CGS.
  • An object of the invention improves the conversion from IG to BG by including the physiology time lag between the IG and BG levels. Such improvement is accomplished through analyses and incorporation of the time dependency between IG and BG. Specifically, a mathematical model is established for describing the time dependency among BG and IG or CGS output.
  • a mathematical equation is derived to quantitatively express the time dependence of CGS output on BG—that is CGS is a function of BG. This equation is then converted so as to express BG as a function of CGS.
  • the inverted equation can thus be used to predict the BG level for given CGS output values.
  • the inverted equation is applied to the raw CGS data to produce accurate BG estimates.
  • glucose is a relatively small molecule
  • glucose can diffuse freely through capillary wall, such as blood vessels and adipose tissues.
  • Adipose tissue is highly vascularized; and the interstitial fluid occupies a relatively thin layer between cells. This fact implies that there is no volume element that is very far from a cell surface, nor is it very far from a capillary wall. Therefore, uptake and diffusion of glucose in the interstitial fluid can be assumed to be relatively topologically uniform.
  • FIG. 1 The transportation behavior of the IG and BG according to the invention is depicted in FIG. 1 .
  • the transport behavior of glucose between interstitial fluid and blood vessels (or adipose tissues) can be modeled as diffusion.
  • IG in the interstitial fluid also experiences consumption, which results in amount and/or concentration reduction.
  • ⁇ is the uptake of glucose per unit time per unit volume.
  • equations 1a and 1b describe the explicit time dependence.
  • Other variables such as insulin levels, exercise, and the like, which may directly effect the glucose uptake BG and IG, are not excluded from the equations.
  • Km is a constant in equation 1b; and it does not introduce additional fitable parameters.
  • Km can take those published values for the activity of GLUI-4, asset forth in “ Whole body glucose metabolism” by Zierler K, in Am J Physiol. 276:E409-E426, 1999, the subject matter of which is incorporated herein by reference in entirety.
  • Fick's Law the change in IG(t) due to diffusion from the blood can be described by equation 2:
  • equations 1a and 1b which can be expressed as the following equations 3a and 3b, wherein equation 3a corresponds to the uniform uptake diffusion model, and equation 3b corresponds to the Michaelis-Menten kinetic model.
  • Equation 3a is an ordinary differential equation that has analytical solutions; while equation 3b is a non-linear differential equation of the second type Abel equation that requires numerical simulation.
  • the analytical solution for equation 3a is expressed in the following equation 4:
  • equation 4 can be reduced to the following equation 6 using the Delta-tau notation as presented in the following equation 5:
  • equation 6 By removing the higher order derivative terms of BG(t) in equation 6, equation 6 can then be reduced to a form to which a Kalman recursion analysis based on Kalman filtering/smoothing technique are applicable.
  • An exemplary of such technique is set forth in “ Optimal Control and Estimation” New York: Dover Publications, 1994 37, the subject matter of which is incorporated herein by reference in entirety, wherein a “state-space model” and recursion process are used. The recursion process is attached herein in Appendix B.
  • a state-space model for dependence of CGS output and IG can be described in the following equation 9.
  • a state-space model for CGS output including the BG evolution can be expressed as the following equation 10.
  • a state-space model for CGS output including the BG evolution and linear projection can be expressed as the following equation 11.
  • equations 3a and 3b can be similarly performed given the estimates of consumption, permeability, IG, and the rate of change of IG.
  • the inversed equations of 3a and 3b are respectively presented as the following equations 12a and 12b:
  • Equations 12a and 12b indicate that the use of CGS becomes important to provide accurate estimates of the rate of change of IG. Presentations of the inversed equations 12a and 12b are also possible, which are expressed as following equations 13 and 14.
  • the mathematical model as discussed above is developed at step 132 .
  • the model describes the dynamics among BG(t), IG(t), and CGS output SG(t).
  • the first mathematical equation is reduced so as to find out SG(t) as a function of BG(t).
  • This first equation is preferably developed using Fick's law of diffusion and Michaelis-Menten consumption.
  • the first equation is then inversed so as to estimate the dynamics of BG(t) as a function of CGS output SG(t) at step 136 .
  • the inversed equation can then be applied to the CGS raw data to improve the accuracy of the CGS readings at step 138 .
  • An exemplary application of the inversed equation to the raw CGS data at step 138 is illustrated in FIG. 7 .
  • the data sets comprise CGS outputs SG(t i ), sample time Tm(t i ), and parameters Par ( ⁇ , ⁇ , calib), wherein parameter calib is a parameter presented in equation 9 as calibration.
  • the raw CGS data are preferably preprocessed (though not required) at step 142 .
  • the CGS raw data are processed by initial regression and/or filtering to smooth CGS raw data. This step is important in that the investigation showed that the raw CGS data current suffer from noise and random spikes that need to be filtered out in order to improve the accuracy of the inverted model equation. There are many ways to regress and/or filter the CGS data.
  • the raw CGS data can be filtered based upon clinically observed BG rate-of-change in combination with a Bayesian estimation technique.
  • the raw CGS output can be processed with a Kalman filter based methods of equations 10 and 11 that produce optimal estimation with the assumption that the evolution of BG meets its limitations.
  • the rate of change (time derivative) of CGS output is calculated at step 144 .
  • a unique feature of the CGS output is the ability to estimate the derivative of their outputs. However, because of the observation and systematic noise and wandering sensor sensitivity, it is observed that such instant raw estimates are rarely optimal. Instead, a short-interval polynomial smoothing technique using exponential weights can produce better results, as indicated by experiments. Then the IG proportionality coefficients are applied to CGS at step 146 , followed by application of the inverted model as described above to estimate the BG level at step 148 .
  • the process as described with reference to FIG. 7 can be implemented in many ways, one of which is in software.
  • the above process can be implemented in a real-time version, which can be of particular usage for the application directly into CGS outputs so as to convert the raw CGS outputs into BG estimates, and produce real-time results.
  • a set of real-time implementation program codes is attached herein as appendix D.
  • the process can be implemented as a retrospective version that is of particular usage for performing retrospective improvement of CGS accuracy; and is applicable to CGS that do not display real-time data.
  • a set of program codes for the retrospective implementation is attached herein as appendix E. It is noted that for ease of reference, the beginning of each line numbers is removed.
  • the hyperinsulinemic clamp used constant insulin infusion rate of 40 mU/kg/min and variable glucose infusion rate to achieve and maintain BG levels at approximately 110 mg/dl. Subsequently, the glucose infusion rate was reduced to permit a controlled decline in BG levels of approximately 1 mg/dl/min until the BG level reached 40 mg/dl.
  • the euglycemic clamp portion of the study varied in length from 70 to 210 minutes, while the duration of the BG reduction procedure ranged from 30 to 60 minutes. Arterialized blood was sampled every 5 minutes and reference BG levels were determined using a Beckman Glucose Analyzer (Beckman Instruments, Inc, Fullerton, Calif.).
  • Freestyle NavigatorTM glucose readings were recorded each minute and were synchronized with reference BG with a precision of 30 seconds. Reference and NavigatorTM rates and direction of BG change were calculated at five-minute intervals. This procedure resulted in 29 clamp data sets for the 16 participants in the study.
  • Equation 12a was applied to the unfiltered NavigatorTM raw data with parameters found via nonlinear least squares. Each data run begins at the start of descent into hypoglycemia. Table 1 presents a summary of the results for all 29 clamp events. It can be seen that the average RMS error of the NavigatorTM was reduced more than 3-folds; and the % RMS error was reduced more that 5-folds. In addition, the correlation between reference and sensor BG was improved by the model:
  • FIG. 8 to FIG. 10 depicts the results. Specifically, FIG. 8 shows the average of the 29 events matched at the nadir with five-minute data intervals.
  • the solid diamond symbols are reference BG recorded by the Beckman analyzer.
  • the solid squares are the data of the NavigatorTM.
  • the open squares are the NavigatorTM corrected by a method of the invention. It can be seen in the figure that the model-corrected data are much closer to reference BG than the original NavigatorTM outputs.
  • FIG. 9 and FIG. 10 show two individual patients with one-minute data interval. In both cases, a correction of the NavigatorTM data by a method of the invention (open squares) results in improved tracing of reference BG.
  • FIG. 11 illustrates a flow chart for performing a combined accuracy improving process in accordance with another example of the invention.
  • the combined process starts from calibrating the CGS using the method as described above with reference to FIG. 4 .
  • System errors can be eliminated or reduced.
  • the CGS outputs from the calibrated CGS are preprocessed at step 152 by filtering and/or smoothing the calibrated CGS output. This step can be performed using the same or different method as described at step 142 in FIG. 7 . It is noted that this step, though preferred, is not required.
  • sensor noise and/or minor random fluctuations in the CGS outputs and the first order time derivative can be removed or reduced.
  • the first order time derivations of CGS outputs SG(t i ) are calculated at step 144 .
  • the IG proportionality coefficient are then applied to the CGS outputs followed by the application of the inverted model equations to estimate the BG level, as described with reference to FIG. 6 , which will not be repeated herein.
  • Table 2 shows the accuracy improvement using the methods according to example of the invention by comparing the CGS outputs obtained from the methods of the invention and the CGS outputs in a typical CGS in the art without employing the methods of the invention.
  • the CGS outputs obtained from the typical CGS in the art are referenced in “Evaluating the accuracy of continuous glucose monitoring sensors: continuous glucose error grid analysis illustrated by therasense freestyle navigator data,” by B Kovatchev, L Gonder Frederick, D Cox, and W Clarke, Diabetes Care , vol. 27, pp 1922-1928, 2004.
  • Panel A of Table 2 presents the continuous glucose error-grid analysis (CG-EGA) of the accuracy of Minimed CGMSTM during the clamp study described above, stratified by hypoglycemia and euglycemia.
  • the clinically accurate sensor readings were 50.0% during hypoglycemia and 96.4% during euglycemia. The large difference between these percentages is primarily due to the more demanding clinical accuracy standards.
  • the sensor is desired to meet higher standards in order to provide accurate feedback for appropriate and timely treatment decision.
  • the CG-EGA reflects this distinction.
  • the MAE and the mean absolute percent error (MAPE) are included in Table 1 and stratified by BG range as well.
  • the panel B in Table 2 presents the CG-EGA, MAE and MAPE of a sensor re-calibrated by two reference BGs that are 30 mg/dl apart (e.g. differential d is 30 mg/dl), which is a clinically reasonable differential in the studied BG range. It can be seen that the percent of CG-EGA accurate readings increases from 50% to 86.7%, while MAE is reduced from 27.9 to 10.9 mg/dl during hypoglycemia. Improvement in MAE and MAPE is observed during euglycemia as well.
  • the panel C of Table 2 presents the CG-EGA, MAE and MAPE of the SIG vs. BG estimated after sensor re-calibration. It can be seen that the “accuracy” of SIG following BG fluctuation is high—nearly 100%, which signifies an excellent theoretical limit for potential sensor accuracy.
  • Examples of the invention can be implemented in many ways. For example, it can be implemented as a functional member of a continuous glucose sensor, or can be implemented as a standalone module associated with the continuous glucose sensor. In either instance, examples of the invention can be implemented as a set of program codes of software installed in a computing device, or a set of computer-executable codes of a hardware device coupled to the continuous glucose sensor. Regardless the implementation media, example of the invention can be associated with individual continuous glucose sensors for improving the accuracy of the individual glucose sensors. Alternatively, examples of the invention can be implemented in such a way that the real-time CGS data, along with related errors and error correction parameters and data, can be transmitted to an error processing center. The transmission may or may not be with the glucose data. In this way, a generalized continuous glucose sensing system can be established.
  • FIG. 12 diagrammatically illustrates an exemplary system in which examples of the invention can be implemented.
  • clinic setup 158 provides a place for doctors (e.g. 164 ) to diagnose patients (e.g. 160 ) with diseases related with glucose.
  • Continuous glucose sensor (or sensing device incorporating glucose testing function) 162 can be used to monitor and/or test the glucose levels of the patient. Such monitor and/or test can be short term (e.g. clinical visit) or long term (e.g. clinical stay or family).
  • the continuous glucose sensor incorporates therein an example of the accuracy improvement methods as discussed above.
  • the CGS outputs with improved accuracy can be used by the doctor for appropriate actions, such as insulin injection or food feeding for the patient, or other appropriate actions.
  • the CGS output with improved accuracy can be delivered to computer terminal 168 for instant or future analyses.
  • the delivery can be through cable or wireless or any other suitable medium.
  • the CGS output with improved accuracy from the patient can also be delivered to a portable device, such as PDA 166 .
  • the CGS outputs with improved accuracy can be delivered to a glucose monitoring center 172 for processing and/or analyzing.
  • Such delivery can be made accomplished through many ways, such as network connection 170 , which can be wired or wireless.
  • examples of the invention can also be implemented in a standalone computing device associated with the target continuous glucose sensors.
  • An exemplary computing device in which examples of the invention can be implemented is schematically illustrated in FIG. 13 . Although such devices are well known to those of skill in the art, a brief explanation will be provided herein for the convenience of other readers.
  • computing device 174 typically includes at least one processing unit 180 and memory 176 .
  • memory 176 can be volatile (such as RAM), non-volatile (such as ROM, flash memory, etc.) or some combination of the two.
  • device 174 may also have other features and/or functionality.
  • the device could also include additional removable and/or non-removable storage including, but not limited to, magnetic or optical disks or tape, as well as writable electrical storage media.
  • additional storage is the figure by removable storage 182 and non-removable storage 178 .
  • Computer storage media includes volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data.
  • the memory, the removable storage and the non-removable storage are all examples of computer storage media.
  • Computer storage media includes, but is not limited to, RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other memory technology, CDROM, digital versatile disks (DVD) or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and which can accessed by the device. Any such computer storage media may be part of, or used in conjunction with, the device.
  • the device may also contain one or more communications connections 184 that allow the device to communicate with other devices (e.g. other computing devices).
  • the communications connections carry information in a communication media.
  • Communication media typically embodies computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules or other data in a modulated data signal such as a carrier wave or other transport mechanism and includes any information delivery media.
  • modulated data signal means a signal that has one or more of its characteristics set or changed in such a manner as to encode information in the signal.
  • communication media includes wired media such as a wired network or direct-wired connection, and wireless media such as acoustic, RF, infrared and other wireless media.
  • the term computer readable media as used herein includes both storage media and communication media.
  • the Kalman filter is a two step process. First, one-step-ahead predictions are made. Second, a correction to that prediction is made based upon new measurements. Let us introduce to notation of ⁇ circumflex over (X) ⁇ i,j meaning “the estimate of x at i given the measurements up to and including j.” Assuming that we have current estimates of x and the error covariance of that estimate, P, we can write the first step as A1.2. In order to correct the estimates, we then calculate the Kalman gain in A1.3, and update the estimates in A1.4 using the new measurement, y.
  • i ⁇ 1 F ⁇ circumflex over (x) ⁇ i ⁇ 1
  • the diagonal operator can be written as in A2.9, which reduces A2.8 to A2.10. Furthermore, by again concatenating the first q+1 column vectors we can form the desired matrix A2.1 in A 2.11.

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