Classifications

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  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D231/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-diazole or hydrogenated 1,2-diazole rings
  • C07D231/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-diazole or hydrogenated 1,2-diazole rings not condensed with other rings
  • C07D231/10—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-diazole or hydrogenated 1,2-diazole rings not condensed with other rings having two or three double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members
  • C07D231/12—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-diazole or hydrogenated 1,2-diazole rings not condensed with other rings having two or three double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members with only hydrogen atoms, hydrocarbon or substituted hydrocarbon radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P35/00—Antineoplastic agents
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P35/00—Antineoplastic agents
  • A61P35/02—Antineoplastic agents specific for leukemia
• • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
  • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
  • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
  • A61P43/00—Drugs for specific purposes, not provided for in groups A61P1/00-A61P41/00
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D261/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,2-oxazole rings
  • C07D261/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,2-oxazole rings not condensed with other rings
  • C07D261/06—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,2-oxazole rings not condensed with other rings having two or more double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members
  • C07D261/08—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,2-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,2-oxazole rings not condensed with other rings having two or more double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members with only hydrogen atoms, hydrocarbon or substituted hydrocarbon radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
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  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D263/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,3-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,3-oxazole rings
  • C07D263/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,3-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,3-oxazole rings not condensed with other rings
  • C07D263/30—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,3-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,3-oxazole rings not condensed with other rings having two or three double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members
  • C07D263/34—Heterocyclic compounds containing 1,3-oxazole or hydrogenated 1,3-oxazole rings not condensed with other rings having two or three double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members with hetero atoms or with carbon atoms having three bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. ester or nitrile radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
  • C07D263/36—One oxygen atom
  • C07D263/38—One oxygen atom attached in position 2
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D307/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom
  • C07D307/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings
  • C07D307/34—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings having two or three double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members
  • C07D307/56—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one oxygen atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings having two or three double bonds between ring members or between ring members and non-ring members with hetero atoms or with carbon atoms having three bonds to hetero atoms with at the most one bond to halogen, e.g. ester or nitrile radicals, directly attached to ring carbon atoms
  • C07D307/58—One oxygen atom, e.g. butenolide
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  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D333/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one sulfur atom as the only ring hetero atom
  • C07D333/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one sulfur atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings
  • C07D333/04—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one sulfur atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings not substituted on the ring sulphur atom
  • C07D333/06—Heterocyclic compounds containing five-membered rings having one sulfur atom as the only ring hetero atom not condensed with other rings not substituted on the ring sulphur atom with only hydrogen atoms, hydrocarbon or substituted hydrocarbon radicals, directly attached to the ring carbon atoms
  • C07D333/14—Radicals substituted by singly bound hetero atoms other than halogen
  • C07D333/18—Radicals substituted by singly bound hetero atoms other than halogen by sulfur atoms
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D401/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, at least one ring being a six-membered ring with only one nitrogen atom
  • C07D401/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, at least one ring being a six-membered ring with only one nitrogen atom containing two hetero rings
  • C07D401/04—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, at least one ring being a six-membered ring with only one nitrogen atom containing two hetero rings directly linked by a ring-member-to-ring-member bond
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D403/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, not provided for by group C07D401/00
  • C07D403/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, not provided for by group C07D401/00 containing two hetero rings
  • C07D403/04—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, having nitrogen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, not provided for by group C07D401/00 containing two hetero rings directly linked by a ring-member-to-ring-member bond
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D405/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing both one or more hetero rings having oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, and one or more rings having nitrogen as the only ring hetero atom
  • C07D405/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing both one or more hetero rings having oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, and one or more rings having nitrogen as the only ring hetero atom containing two hetero rings
  • C07D405/04—Heterocyclic compounds containing both one or more hetero rings having oxygen atoms as the only ring hetero atoms, and one or more rings having nitrogen as the only ring hetero atom containing two hetero rings directly linked by a ring-member-to-ring-member bond
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C07D—HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS
  • C07D409/00—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, at least one ring having sulfur atoms as the only ring hetero atoms
  • C07D409/02—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, at least one ring having sulfur atoms as the only ring hetero atoms containing two hetero rings
  • C07D409/04—Heterocyclic compounds containing two or more hetero rings, at least one ring having sulfur atoms as the only ring hetero atoms containing two hetero rings directly linked by a ring-member-to-ring-member bond

Definitions

• the present invention relates to agents and methods for treating cancer, particularly prostate cancer as well as other cancers, particularly androgen-insensitive cancers, in humans.
• the mainstay of treatment for metastatic prostate cancer is hormonal or endocrine therapy (Kozlowski, J.M. et al. Urol. Clin. North Am. 18: 15-24 (1991), and Balmer, C. et al., Finley, R.S. and Balmer, C. (eds.), Concepts on Oncology Therapeutics, pp. 211-229, Bethesda: ASHP (1998)). It is aimed at androgen ablation by interfering either with androgen production or with the action of androgen within prostate cancer cells.
• R 1 is a group that is capable of forming hydrogen bonds
• R 2 is a group that has a high electron density
• Ar is an aryl group.
• Ar has one or more substituents which provide hydrophobicity, because the substituents are non-polar, and/or steric effects, i.e. make the aryl group bulky.
• the hydrogen-bonding group R 1 is preferably an amide, more preferably a carboxyamide;
• R 2 is a group that has a high electron density, preferably an alkyl or haloalkyl group, more preferably trifiuoromethyl;
• Ar is selected from phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl, anthryl, indolyl, pyrrolyl, and fluorenyl.
• Substituents on Ar include one or more radicals selected from the group consisting of halo, azido, alkyl, Ci — C haloalkyl, — C 4 azidoalkyl, aryl, alkylaryl, haloaryl, haloalkylaryl, and combinations thereof.
• Preferred groups for Ar include 2-naphthyl, 4-biphenyl, 9-anthryl, 2-fluorenyl, 4-azidophenyl, 4-azidomethylphenyl, 4-(2-azidoethyl)phenyl, 4-(3 -azidopropyl)phenyl, 4-(4-az ⁇ do butyl)phenyl,
• the compounds of formula I are useful for treating, inhibiting, and delaying the onset of cancers, including, but not limited to leukemia, non-small cell lung cancer, colon cancer, CNS cancer, melanoma, ovarian cancer, renal cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, lymphoma, and breast cancer, in mammals, especially in humans.
• R 3 is a group capable of forming hydrogen-bonds.
• R 3 is preferably an amide selected from carboxyamides and sulfonamides.
• R 4 is selected from alkyl and haloalkyl; R 4 is preferably trifluoromethyl.
• Ar' is a an aryl group that preferably has one or more substituents which provide hydrophobicity, because the substituents are non-polar, and/or steric effects, i.e. make the aryl group bulky.
• Preferred groups for Ar' include 4-azidophenyl, 4-(2-azidoethyl)phenyl 5 4-(3-azidopropyl)phenyl, 4-(4-azidobutyl)phenyl, 4-(4-azidophenyl)phenyl,
• Preferred compounds of formula II include:
• the compounds of formulae I and II are useful in inducing apoptosis in proliferative cells, including, but not limited to cancer cells.
• the compounds are further useful for treating, inhibiting, and delaying the onset of cancer in mammals, and especially in humans. Cancers that these compounds work particularly well against include, but are not limited to, leukemia, non- small cell lung cancer, colon cancer, CNS cancer, melanoma, ovarian cancer, renal cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, lymphoma, and breast cancer.
• the compounds of the present invention are able to induce apoptosis in cancer cells independent of the level of Bcl- 2 expression and p53 functional status, which means that the inventive compounds are potent even against cancers that are androgen-independent, such as hormone-refractory prostate cancer.
• the present invention relates to compounds useful for inducing apoptosis in unwanted proliferative cells, including cancer cells.
• the present invention also relates to methods of using the inventive compounds to treat, to prevent, or to delay the onset of disorders characterized by unwanted, rapid cell proliferation, including but not limited to cancer.
• the present invention also relates methods of using the inventive compounds to treat specific kinds of cancers, including but not limited to leukemia, non-small cell lung cancer, colon cancer, CNS cancer, melanoma, ovarian cancer, renal cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, lymphoma, and breast cancer. It further relates to methods of treating, preventing, and delaying the onset of androgen-independent cancers. It still further relates to methods of treating advanced prostate cancer.
• FIGURE 1 shows a general synthetic scheme for preparing the compounds of the present invention.
• FIGURE 2 shows the characterization of antisense cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) PC-3 transfectants through Western blot analysis.
• FIGURE 3 A shows a graph of Cell Viability versus Time for PC-3 cells arid the COX-2 deficient clone 2F6, and a graph of Cell Viability versus Time for the COX-2 antisense clone 7D9 with and without doxycycline pretreatment.
• FIGURE 3B shows Western blots of 7D9 with and without doxycycline.
• FIGURE 4 is a graph of Cell Viability versus Time showing the effect of rofecoxibn and the dimethylsulfoxide vehicles on the viability of the COX-2 antisense clone 7D9 with and without doxycycline treatment.
• FIGURE 5 shows the structure and characteristics of celecoxib and compounds la - 7a.
• FIGURE 6 A shows dose and time-dependent effects of compound 7a on the cell viability of PC-3 cells.
• FIGURE 6B shows phase-contrast micrographs, fluorescence microscopy after staining with DAPI, and detection of annexin V binding to the surface of apoptotic cells by fluorescence microscopy for PC-3 cells after treatment with compound 7a or DMSO.
• FIGURE 6C is a graph of Nucleosome formation (O.D. at 405 nm) versus Time for PC-3 cells treated with DMSO and compound 7a.
• FIGURE 6D is a Western blot showing induction of PARP
• FIGURE 7A shows the time-dependent effect of compound 7a on Bcl-2 expression levels
• FIGURE 7B the phosphorylation status of Akt
• FIGURE 7C the phosphorylation status of ERK2 in PC-3 cells.
• FIGURE 8 A shows the structures, IC 50 in COX-2 inhibition, and the apoptosis-inducing potentcy (T ⁇ / 2 ) of various COX-2 inhibitors.
• FIGURE 8B shows a comparison of the effect of sulfonamide versus methylsulfone on cell viability.
• FIGURE 9 A shows the time- and dose-dependent effect of compound 10B on the cell viability of PC-3 cells in serum-starved RPMI 1640 medium.
• FIGURE 9B shows
• FIGURE 10A is a table showing the potency of compounds 30b - 39b.
• FIGURE 10B shows the time course of formation of nucleosomal DNA in PC-3 cells treated with DMSO or compound 37b, and a Western blot showing induction of PARP cleavage by compound 37b.
• FIGURE 10C is a Western blot showing the time-dependent effect of compound 37 on Akt and ERK-2 phosphorylation.
• FIGURE 11 shows computer modeling of celecoxib, rofecoxib, compound 47b, compound 49b, and compound 8b.
• FIGURE 12 is a working model depicting the interaction between celecoxib and its protein target.
• the present invention provides compounds useful for inducing apoptosis in undesirable proliferating cells as well as methods of using these compounds to induce apoptosis in the undesirable proliferating cells in subjects in need of such treatment.
• the method involves treating the subject in need of such treatment with a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of the present invention or a derivative or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
• the compounds and methods of the present invention are useful for, but not limited to treating, inhibiting, or delaying the onset of cancers.
• the compounds and methods are also useful in the treatment of precancers and other incidents of undesirable cell proliferation.
• the compounds of formula I or II are administered to a subject experiencing undesirable cell proliferation.
• the compounds and methods are useful for treating cancers including, but not limited to, leukemia, non-small cell lung cancer, colon cancer, CNS cancer, melanoma, ovarian cancer, renal cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, lymphoma, and breast cancer. Furthermore, they are useful in the prevention of these cancers in individuals with precancers, as well as individuals prone to these disorders.
• treatment includes partial or total destruction of the undesirable proliferating cells with minimal destructive effects on normal cells.
• a desired mechanism of treatment at the cellular level is apoptosis.
• prevention includes either preventing the onset of a clinically evident unwanted cell proliferation altogether or preventing the onset of a preclinically evident stage of unwanted rapid cell proliferation in individuals at risk. Also intended to be encompassed by this definition is the prevention of metastasis of malignant cells or to arrest or reverse the progression of malignant cells. This includes prophylactic treatment of those at risk of developing precancers and cancers.
• the terms “therapeutically effective” and “pharmacologically effective” are intended to qualify the amount of each agent which will achieve the goal of improvement in disease severity and the frequency of incidence over treatment of each agent by itself, while avoiding adverse side effects typically associated with alternative therapies.
• the term "subject" for purposes of treatment includes any human or animal subject who has a disorder characterized by unwanted, rapid cell proliferation. Such disorders include, but are not limited to cancers and precancers.
• the subject is any human or animal subject, and preferably is a human subject who is at risk of obtaining a disorder characterized by unwanted, rapid cell proliferation, such as cancer.
• the subject may be at risk due to exposure to carcinogenic agents, being genetically predisposed to disorders characterized by unwanted, rapid cell proliferation, and so on.
• the compounds of the present invention are also useful for veterinary treatment of mammals, including companion animals and farm animals, such as, but not limited to dogs, cats, horses, cows, sheep, and pigs.
• subject means a human.
• the compounds of the present invention may trigger cell death by a number of different mechanisms, however, an aspect of the inventive compounds is that they are able to induce apoptosis in unwanted, proliferative cells.
• apoptosis refers to the process of programmed cell death. In every person hundreds of thousands of old or damaged cells die each day by the process of apoptosis and are replaced in the ebb and flow of maintaining a constant number of living cells in the body. Old and damaged cells die in response to a signal triggered on the cell surface for the targeted cell to self destruct. Apoptosis is distinguished from other mechanisms of cell death, such as necrosis, which results in inflammation including swelling, redness, pain and tenderness.
• Apoptosis does not stimulate such reactions. In apoptosis, the cells shrivel up, break into pieces and the contents are quietly removed by methods that do not induce inflammation. For these reasons, it is highly desirable to induce apoptosis, rather than necrosis, in rapidly proliferating cells, such as cancer cells. However, mutations in some cancer cells confer resistance of these cells to apoptosis.
• the compounds of formulae I and II have been found to induce apoptosis even in cancer cells which, because of mutations, are otherwise resistant to apoptosis. Apoptosis can be distinguished from other treatment mechanisms by methods such as microscopy, which are known in the art.
• proliferative cells refer to cancer cells, precancer cells, and other abnormal, rapidly dividing cells in a subject.
• COX-2 inhibitory refers to compounds that can effectively inhibit the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme, and is generally expressed as an IC 50 value (concentration for 50% inhibition).
• COX-2 inhibitors have been found to have potentially severe gastrointestinal toxicity, including upper GI ulcers, gross bleeding, ulceration, and perforation of the stomach, small intestine, or large intestine, sometimes resulting in death. These risks are greatly increased for patients with a prior history of peptic ulcer disease and/or gastrointestinal bleeding, as well as those patients who take certain medications such as anticoagulants, or smoke, and for those patients who are older or in poor general health. Furthermore, these risks increase as treatment progresses. Because of these risks, it is desirable that the compounds of the present invention are not COX-2 inhibitory. Accordingly, it is highly desirable that the compounds of the present invention have an IC 50 of 100 ⁇ M or more with respect to COX-2.
• R 1 is a group that is capable of forming hydrogen bonds
• R 2 is a group that preferably has a high electron density
• Ar is an aryl group that is preferably bulky.
• the hydrogen- bonding group R 1 is preferably an amide, and most preferably a carboxyamide.
• R 2 is preferably an alkyl or haloalkyl radical, more preferably, R 2 is a C ⁇ — C 4 haloalkyl, and even more preferably, R 2 is trifluoromethyl.
• Ar is an aryl radical selected from phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl, anthryl, and fluorenyl; and Ar is preferably substituted at one or more substitutable positions with one or more radicals selected from halo, azido, Ci — C 4 alkyl, C ⁇ — C 4 haloalkyl, C ⁇ — C 4 azidoalkyl, aryl, alkylaryl, haloaryl, haloalkylaryl, and combinations thereof.
• a preferred class of compounds of the present invention are those of formula I wherein
• R 1 is carboxyamide
• R 2 is trifluoromethyl
• Ar is selected from 2-naphthyl, 4-biphenyl,
• a family of specific compounds of formula I consists of the following compounds and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:
• a second class of compounds of the present invention are those of formula II: wherein R 3 is a group that is capable of forming hydrogen bonds, R 4 is a group that preferably has a high electron density, and Ar is an aryl group that is preferably bulky.
• R 3 is preferably an amide selected from carboxyamide and sulfonamide.
• R 4 is selected from alkyl and haloalkyl, and is preferably Ci — C alkyl or — C haloalkyl, and is even more preferably trifluoromethyl.
• Ar' is selected from 4-azidophenyl, 4-(2-azidoethyl)phenyl, 4-(3-azidopropyl)phenyl, 4-(4-azidobutyl)phenyl, 4-(4-azidophenyl)phenyl, 4-(4-azidomethylphenyl)phenyl,
• a family of specific compounds of particular interest within formula II consists of the following compounds and derivatives and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof:
• Derivatives are intended to encompass any compounds which are structurally related to the compounds of formulae I and II or which possess the substantially equivalent activity, as measured by the derivative's ability to induce apoptosis in rapidly proliferating cells without substantial COX-2 inhibition.
• such compounds may include, but are not limited to, prodrugs thereof.
• Such compounds can be formed in vivo, such as by metabolic mechanisms.
• the present invention also relates to therapeutic methods of inducing apoptosis in undesirable rapidly proliferating cells, which include, but are not limited to cancer cells.
• the methods comprise administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of formula I or II to a subject having a disorder or being predisposed to a disorder involving rapidly proliferating cells.
• alkyl is used, either alone or with other terms, such as haloalkyl or alkylaryl, it includes G . to C 10 linear or branched alkyl radicals, examples include methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, tert-butyl, and so forth.
• haloalkyl includes C ⁇ to C 10 linear or branched alkyl radicals substituted with one or more halo radicals. Some examples of haloalkyl radicals include trifluoromethyl, 1,2-dichloroethyl, 3-bromopropyl, and so forth.
• halo includes radicals selected from F, CI, Br, and I. Alkyl radical substituents of the present invention may also be substituted with other groups such as azido, for example, azidomethyl, 2-azidoethyl, 3-azidopropyl and so on.
• aryl used alone or in combination with other terms such as alkylaryl, haloaryl, or haloalkylaryl, includes such aromatic radicals as phenyl, biphenyl, and benzyl, as well as fused aryl radicals such as naphthyl, anthryl, phenanthrenyl, fluorenyl, and indenyl and so forth.
• aryl also encompasses "heteroaryls,” which are aryls that have carbon and one or more heteroatoms, such as O, N, or S in the aromatic ring. Examples of heteroaryls include indolyl, pyrrolyl, and so on .
• Alkylaryl or “arylalkyl” refers to alkyl-substituted aryl groups such as butylphenyl, propylphenyl, ethylphenyl, methylphenyl, 3,5-dimethylphenyl, tert-butylphenyl and so forth.
• Haloaryl refers to aryl radicals in which one or more substitutable positions has been substituted with a halo radical, examples include fluorophenyl, 4-chlorophenyl, 2,5-chlorophenyl and so forth.
• Haloalkylaryl refers to aryl radicals that have a haloalkyl substituent.
• haloalkylaryls include such radicals as bromomethylphenyl, 4-bromobutylphenyl and so on.
• Carboxyamide refers to the group -CONH 2
• sulfonamide refers to the group -SO 2 NH 2 .
• compositions of formulae I and II are also included in the family of compounds of formulae I and II.
• pharmaceutically acceptable salts connotes salts commonly used to form alkali metal salts and to form addition salts of free acids or free bases. The nature of the salt is not critical, provided that it is pharmaceutically acceptable.
• Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts of compounds of formulae I and II may be prepared from an inorganic acid or from an organic acid. Examples of such inorganic acids are hydrochloric, hydrobromic, hydroiodic, nitric, carbonic, sulfuric, and phosphoric acid.
• Appropriate organic acids may be selected from aliphatic, cycloaliphatic, aromatic, araliphatic, heterocyclic, carboxylic, and sulfonic classes of organic acids, examples of which include formic, acetic, propionic, succinic, glycolic, gluconic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, glucoronic, maleic, fumaric, pyruvic, aspartic, glutamic, benzoic, anthranilic, mesylic, salicylic, p- hydroxybenzoic, phenylacetic, mandelic, ambonic, pamoic, methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, benzenesulfonic, pantothenic, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic, toluenesulfonic, sulfanilic, cyclohexylaminosulfonic, stearic, algenic, galactaric, and galacturonic acids
• Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts of compounds of formulae I and II include metallic salts made from aluminum, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and zinc.
• organic salts made from N,N'-dibenzylethylenediamine, chloroprocaine, choline, diethanolamine, ethylenediamine, meglumine (N-methylglucamine) and procaine may be used form base addition salts of the compounds of formulae I and II. All of these salts may be prepared by conventional means from the corresponding compounds of formulae I and II by reacting, for example, the appropriate acid or base with the compound of formula I or II.
• Step a The preparation of 4,4,4- trifluoro-l-(4-chlorophenyl)butane-l,3-dione was carried out as follows. To a solution of ethyl trifluoroacetate (1.08 g, 7.61 mmol) in 5 mL of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) was added 25% sodium methoxide in methanol (1.8 mL) over 2 min. A solution of 4'-chloroacetophenone (1 g,
• Step b (4-Sulfamoylphenyl)hydrazine hydrochloride (200 mg, 0.89 mmol) was added to a stirred solution of the above dione (244 mg, 0.89 mmol) in 20 mL of ethyl acetate, The mixture was headed to reflux and stirred for 24 hr. After cooling to room temperature, the reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate, washed with water and brine. Silica gel chromatography gave the title compound (246 mg, 65% yield).
• the 1,3-dicarbonyl intermediate was purified by flash chromotography, and the final product can be isolated by crystallization from the reaction mixture with purity greater than 98%. Overall, the synthesis and purification procedures are straightforward and amenable to large-scale production.
• Examples 1-13 Samples 1-13 were tested for their ability to induce apoptosis using the following procedure. Results are listed in Table 1 along with IC 50 values for the compounds.
• Analysis for apoptosis Apoptosis ELISA. Induction of apoptosis was also assessed by using a "Cell Death Detection ELISA" assay (Boehringer-Mannheim) following the manufacturer's instructions. This test is based on the quantitative determination of cytoplasmic histone-associated DNA fragments in the form of mono- and oligonucleosomes after induced apoptotic death. In brief, PC-3 cells (2.5 x 10 6 ) were plated on a T-75 flask 24 h before experiment.
• Cells were washed by 5 mL of serum-free RPMI 1640 medium twice, and were then treated with the test agent at different concentrations or DMSO vehicles for different time intervals. Both floating and adherent cells were collected, and cell lysates equivalent to 10 4 cells were used for the ELISA analysis.
• OVCAR-4 OVCAR-5
• OVCAR-8 SK-OV-3
• the present invention comprises a pharmaceutical composition for inducing apoptosis in undesirable, rapidly proliferating cells, such as for treating, preventing, or delaying the onset of a cancer in a subject in need of such treatment.
• the pharmaceutical composition comprises a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of fonnula I or II, or a derivative or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in association with at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, adjuvant, or diluent (collectively referred to herein as "carrier materials") and, if desired, other active ingredients.
• carrier materials collectively acceptable carrier, adjuvant, or diluent
• the active compounds of the present invention may be administered by any suitable route known to those skilled in the art, preferably in the form of a pharmaceutical composition adapted to such a route, and in a dose effective for the treatment intended.
• the active compounds and composition may, for example, be administered orally, intra-vascularly, intraperitoneally, intranasal, intrabronchial, subcutaneously, intramuscularly or topically (including aerosol). With some subjects local administration, rather than system administration, may be preferred. Formulation in a lipid vehicle may be used to enhance bioavailability.
• the administration of the present invention may be for either prevention or treatment purposes.
• the methods and compositions used herein may be used alone or in conjunction with additional therapies known to those skilled in the art in the prevention or treatment of disorders characterized by unwanted, rapid proliferation of cells.
• the methods and compositions described herein may be used as adjunct therapy.
• the apoptosis-inducing compounds of the present invention may be administered alone or in conjunction with other antineoplastic agents or other growth inhibiting agents or other drugs or nutrients.
• antineoplastic agents available in commercial use, in clinical evaluation and in pre-clinical development, which could be selected for treatment of cancers or other disorders characterized by rapid proliferation of cells by combination drug chemotherapy.
• Such antineoplastic agents fall into several major categories, namely, antibiotic-type agents, alkylating agents, antimetabolite agents, hormonal agents, immunological agents, interferon-type agents and a category of miscellaneous agents.
• other anti-neoplastic agents such as metallomatrix proteases inhibitors (MMP), such as MMP-13 inhibitors including batiastat, marimastat, Agouron Pharmaceuticals AG-3340, and Roche RO-32-3555, or v ⁇ , inhibitors may be used.
• MMP metallomatrix proteases inhibitors
• Suitable agents which may be used in combination therapy will be recognized by those of skill in the art.
• radioprotective agents known to those of skill in the art may also be used.
• adjunct therapy in defining use of a compound of the present invention and one or more other pharmaceutical agent, is intended to embrace administration of each agent in a sequential manner in a regimen that will provide beneficial effects of the drug combination, and is intended as well to embrace co-administration of these agents in a substantially simultaneous manner, such as in a single formulation having a fixed ratio of these active agents, or in multiple, separate formulations for each agent.
• the pharmaceutical composition may be in the form of, for example, a tablet, capsule, suspension or liquid.
• the pharmaceutical composition is preferably made in the form of a dosage unit containing a particular amount of the active ingredient.
• dosage units are capsules, tablets, powders, granules or a suspension, with conventional additives such as lactose, mannitol, corn starch or potato starch; with binders such as crystalline cellulose, cellulose derivatives, acacia, corn starch or gelatins; with disintegrators such as corn starch, potato starch or sodium carboxymethyl-cellulose; and with lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate.
• the active ingredient may also be administered by injection as a composition wherein, for example, saline, dextrose or water may be used as a suitable carrier.
• the compound may be combined with a sterile aqueous solution which is preferably isotonic with the blood of the recipient.
• a sterile aqueous solution which is preferably isotonic with the blood of the recipient.
• Such formulations may be prepared by dissolving solid active ingredient in water containing physiologically compatible substances such as sodium chloride, glycine, and the like, and having a buffered pH compatible with physiological conditions to produce an aqueous solution, and rendering said solution sterile.
• the formulations may be present in unit or multi-dose containers such as sealed ampoules or vials.
• the compound may be formulated with acid-stable, base-labile coatings known in the art which begin to dissolve in the high pH small intestine. Formulation to enhance local pharmacologic effects and reduce systemic uptake are preferred.
• Formulations suitable for parenteral administration conveniently comprise a sterile aqueous preparation of the active compound which is preferably made isotonic. Preparations for injections may also be formulated by suspending or emulsifying the compounds in non-aqueous solvent, such as vegetable oil, synthetic aliphatic acid glycerides, esters of higher aliphatic acids or propylene glycol.
• non-aqueous solvent such as vegetable oil, synthetic aliphatic acid glycerides, esters of higher aliphatic acids or propylene glycol.
• Formulations for topical use include known gels, creams, oils, and the like.
• the compounds may be formulated with known aerosol exipients, such as saline, and administered using commercially available nebulizers.
• Formulation in a fatty acid source may be used to enhance biocompatibility.
• the active ingredient may be formulated into suppositories using bases which are solid at room temperature and melt or dissolve at body temperature.
• bases include cocoa butter, glycerinated gelatin, hydrogenated vegetable oil, polyethylene glycols of various molecular weights, and fatty esters of polyethylene stearate.
• the dosage form and amount can be readily established by reference to known treatment or prophylactic regiments.
• the amount of therapeutically active compound that is administered and the dosage regimen for treating a disease condition with the compounds and/or compositions of this invention depends on a variety of factors, including the age, weight, sex, and medical condition of the subject, the severity of the disease, the route and frequency of administration, and the particular compound employed, the location of the unwanted proliferating cells, as well as the pharmacokinetic properties of the individual treated, and thus may vary widely.
• the dosage will generally be lower if the compounds are administered locally rather than systemically, and for prevention rather than for treatment. Such treatments may be administered as often as necessary and for the period of time judged necessary by the treating physician.
• the dosage regime or therapeutically effective amount of the inhibitor to be administrated may need to be optimized for each individual.
• the pharmaceutical compositions may contain active ingredient in the range of about 0.1 to 2000 mg, preferably in the range of about 0.5 to 500 mg and most preferably between about 1 and 200 mg.
• the daily dose can be administered in one to four doses per day.
• Tet-On COX-2 antisense clones were isolated to assess the effect of COX-2 expression on cell viability and sensitivity to apoptosis induction by COX-2 inhibitors. Untreated Tet-On clones differentially expressed COX-2, and doxycycline-treated clones were depleted of COX-2.
• COX-2 cyclooxygenase-2
• COX-2 inhibition plays an obligatory role in the induction of apoptosis by COX-2 inhibitors (11).
• the premise that COX-2 inhibition is integral to the antitumor effect is based on the assumption that prostaglandins and other COX-2-generated downstream mediators promote tumor cell proliferation, survival, and angiogenesis in an autocrine and/or paracrine manner (12-16).
• COX-2 overexpression leads to the inhibition of apoptosis or altered cell cycle kinetics in epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal system (17,18) and in PC-12 pheochromocytoma cells (19).
• knockout of the COX-2 gene can suppress tumorigenesis in mice with a genetic predisposition for polyp formation (20).
• Animal studies demonstrate that efficient tumor growth required the presence of COX-2 in tumor host (8) and that enhanced COX-2 expression was sufficient to induce mammary gland tumorigenesis (21).
• several lines of evidence indicate that a COX-2-independent mechanism may be involved in the antitumor effect of COX-2 inhibitors.
• sulindac metabolites which do not inhibit COX activity, induced apoptosis in prostate cancer cells with high potency (22).
• COX-2 overexpression in immortalized human umbilical vein endothelial, HEK- 293, COX-7, and NIH 3T3 cells led to increased cell death and/or cell cycle arrest (23,24).
• the dichotomous effect of COX-2 overexpression on cell growth may, in part, be attributable to physiologic differences among different cell types.
• malignant transformation in embryo fibroblasts was reportedly independent of the status of COX expression.
• PC-3 Tet-On antisense COX-2 clones PC-3 cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) in T-25 flasks at 37°C in a humidified CO 2 incubator to 80% confluency. Each flask was washed with 6 mL of serum- free Opti-MEM (Invitrogen Life Technologies; Carlsbad, CA), and then 3 mL of serum-free Opti- MEM was added.
• FBS fetal bovine serum
• the transfection medium was replaced with 5 mL of RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% Tet- System-approved FBS (Clontech). After 48 hours, cells were cultured in fresh medium containing G418 at 100 ⁇ g/mL to select for transfected clones. The G418-supplemented medium was changed every 4 days. After 3 weeks, G418-resistant cells were subcloned into 96-well plates by limiting dilution with a final cell density of about 0.5 cell per well. After 12 days with a change of G418-containing medium every 4 days, viable clones were further subcloned into 12- well plates.
• the membrane was incubated with the appropriate primary antibody (anti-COX-2, anti-Akt, anti-P- Ser Akt, anti-ERK, and anti- phospho-ERK antibodies diluted 1:1,000; anti-actin monoclonal antibody, diluted 1:5,000) in TBS-1% nonfat milk at 4°C for 12 hours and washed twice with TBST.
• the membranes were probed with goat anti-rabbit IgG-horseradish peroxidase conjugates (diluted 1:5,000) for 1 hour at room temperature and washed twice with TBST. Bands were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence.
• Prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) immunoassay Parental and transfected cells with or without a doxycycline (2 ⁇ g/mL) pretreatment were grown to 10 x 10 6 cells in T-75 flasks in 10% FBS- supplemented RPMI 1640 medium with or without a doxycycline. Culture medium was changed, and 24 hours later conditioned medium was collected to assay PGE 2 . Conditioned medium was centrifuged to remove particulate material, and then cells were collected by scraping to determine the protein concentration. PGE 2 was assayed in 100 ⁇ L medium in triplicate according to the manufacturer's instruction (R&D Systems, Inc.; Minneapolis, MN). PGE 2 data were normalized to protein content.
• adherent cells were harvested by trypsinization, and floating cells were recovered by centrifugation at 3,200 x g for 5 minutes. Cell morphology was assessed with a light microscope at x400. Both adherent and floating cells were combined, and cell viability was assessed by trypan blue dye exclusion.
• Phosphatidylserine externalization Approximately 2.5 x 10 5 cells were grown on glass coverslips for 24 hours. At various times after drug treatment, cells were washed gently with PBS and then exposed to 0.5 mL of binding buffer (10 mM HEPES [pH 7.4], containing 150 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM CaCl 2 , 1 mM MgCl 2 , and 4% bovine serum albumin), followed by 0.6 mL of annexin V-fluorescein isothiocynate (FITC) (200 ⁇ g/mL) for 30 minutes. After washing with binding buffer, apoptotic cells were identified directly as cells with annexin V-FITC on their outer membrane under a fluorescence microscope. In a set of controls, cells received medium containing DMSO vehicle in lieu of the test agent.
• binding buffer 10 mM HEPES [pH 7.4], containing 150 mM NaCl, 2.5 mM CaCl 2 ,
• DAPI 4',6-Diamidino-2-phenyIindole
• Floating cells then were collected, washed, and stained with DAPI as described above. Cells were allowed to attach to poly-L-lysine-coated coverslips and viewed by microscopy at a magnification of 400X.
• ELISA enzyme-linked immunsorbent assay
• Induction of apoptosis was also assessed by using a "Cell Death Detection ELISA” assay (Boehringer- Mannheim) by following the manufacturer's instructions. This test is based on the quantitative determination of cytoplasmic histone-associated DNA fragments in the form of mono- and oligonucleosomes after induced apoptotic death.
• PC-3 cells were cultured in a T-75 flask 24 hours before the experiment. Cells were washed twice in 5 mL of serum-free RPMI 1640 medium and then treated with a test agent or the DMSO vehicle as indicated. Both floating and adherent cells were collected, and cell lysates equivalent to 10 4 cells were used in the ELISA.
• Soluble cell lysates were collected after centrifugation at 1,500 x g for 5 minutes. Equivalent amounts of protein (60 - 100 ⁇ g) from each lysate were resolved in 10% SDS- polyacrylamide gels. Bands were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes and analyzed by immunoblotting with anti-PARP antibodies, as described above.
• Tet-On Antisense COX-2 Clones To assess the effect of COX-2 enzyme activity on cell growth, we prepared Tet-On antisense COX-2 clones by transfecting parental PC-3 cells with an antisense COX-2 cDNA construct under the control of a tetracycline-inducible promoter. Four Tet-On antisense COX-2 clones, 2F6, 1F2, 3D9, and 7D9, were selected after subcloning the G418-resistant cells by limiting dilution.
• 2F6 is a COX-2- def ⁇ cient clone in which the COX-2 protein was virtually undetectable, and 1F2, 3D9, and 7D9 are antisense COX-2 clones.
• COX-2 in the absence of doxycycline, COX-2 is differentially expressed, but in the presence of doxycycline, COX-2 is depleted (Fig. 2B).
• Fig. 2 A shows a western blot analysis of the effect of doxycycline (2 ⁇ g/mL) on COX-2 expression in the Tet-On clone 3D9 over a 10-day period.
• COX-2 protein had been depleted in 3D9 cells, and as long as doxycycline was present, COX-2 was not detected. Because COX-1 expression was negligible in these clones (data not shown), COX-2 was the major producer of prostaglandins. Accordingly, the level of COX-2 expression reflected the level of PGE 2 production. Although the levels of PGE 2 in 1F2 cells and parental PC-3 cells were comparable, those in 3D9 were twofold higher and those in 7D9 cells were 10-fold higher than levels in parental cells (Fig. 2C).
• Fig. 3A shows the time course of cell death in the presence of 50 ⁇ M celecoxib in PC-3 cells, COX-2-deficient 2F6 cells, and COX-2-overexpressing 7D9 cells with and without COX-2 depletion.
• the time required for 50% cell death (T ⁇ /2 ) of all the clones incubated with 50 ⁇ M celecoxib was approximately 2 hours. Similar results were noted with 1F2 and 3D9 cells.
• compounds 6a and 7a had no COX-2 inhibitory activity (IC 5 o > 100 ⁇ M) but were highly potent mediators of apoptotic death in PC-3 cells (T1/2 ⁇ 2 h).
• T1/2 ⁇ 2 h The time- and dose-dependent effect of compound 7a on cell viability is shown in Fig. 6A.
• Fig. 6 B-D Characteristics of apoptotic death in PC-3 cells are shown in Fig. 6 B-D.
• Fig. 6B shows pronounced changes in mo ⁇ hology and membrane compositions after treatment with compound 7a.
• phase-contrast microscopy treated cells shrunken, rounded, and detached from the dish, and bleb formation was evident 1 hour after compound 7a was added (left panel).
• Mo ⁇ hologic evidence of apoptosis was assessed as nuclear fragmentation detected by staining cells with DAPI, and cells treated with compound 7a were found to have condensed and fragmented nuclei (center panel).
• Fig. 7 A-C illustrates the effect of compound 7a on the expression level of Bcl-2, and the phosphorylation status of Akt and ERK2, respectively, in PC-3 cells.
• COX-2 inhibitors on apoptosis is independent of the COX-2 inhibitoiy activity in prostate cancer cells.
• This finding provides molecular unde ⁇ innings for the development of a new class of anticancer compounds whose mode of mechanism is distinctly different from that of conventional chemotherapeutic agents.
• celecoxib and rofecoxib as molecular platforms to understand the structural basis by which these compounds mediate apoptosis and to optimize their apoptosis-inducing potency in prostate cancer cells.
• ERK2 extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 in prostate cancer cells (49,50). Disruption of these signaling pathways results in loss of regulation of cellular functions that govern cell growth and survival, leading to rapid apoptotic death. [00104] This rapid induction of apoptosis, however, is unique to celecoxib since other
• COX-2 inhibitors examined such as rofecoxib, NS398, and DuP697 displayed nearly two orders of magnitude lower apoptosis-inducing potencies vis-a-vis celecoxib despite having comparable COX-2 inhibitory potencies (50).
• rofecoxib NS398, and DuP697
• COX-2 inhibitory potencies 50
• Based on the structural and computer-modeling data we were able to delineate a working model that provides insights into structural features essential to eliciting rapid apoptotic death in prostate cancer cells.
• Celecoxib and rofecoxib were obtained from commercial capsules by solvent extraction followed by recrystallization.
• NS398 was purchased from Calbiochem (San Diego, CA). Published procedures were used for the synthesis of the following compounds: lb and lb-NH 2 (51), 2b - 29b and 40b (52), 41b (53), 43b - 46b (54). The identity of these known compounds was confirmed by 1H NMR and mass spectral analysis.
• Rabbit polyclonal antibodies against Akt, phospho- 473 Ser Akt, p44/42 ERKs, and phospho-p44/42 ERKs were purchased from Cell Signaling Technologies (Beverly, MA).
• PARP poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase
• Step a The preparation of 4,4,4-trifluoro-l-(4-chlorophenyl)butane-l,3-dione was carried out as follows. To a solution of ethyl trifluoroacetate (1.08 g, 7.61 mmol) in 5 mL of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) was added 25% sodium methoxide in methanol (1.8 mL) over 2 min.
• MTBE methyl tert-butyl ether
• Step b 2-Bromoacetophenone (1.02 g, 5.12 mmol), dissolved in acetonitrile, was added to Et 3 N (1.74 mL), followed by 4-methylsulfonylphenylacetic acid (1 g, 4.67 mmol). After 1.5 h at room temperature, l,8-diazabicyclo[5,4,0]undec-7-ene (1.67 mL) was added.
• Apoptosis ELISA Induction of apoptosis was also assessed by using a "Cell Death Detection ELISA” assay (Boehringer-Mannheim) following the manufacturer's instructions. This test is based on the quantitative determination of cytoplasmic histone-associated DNA fragments in the form of mono- and oligonucleosomes after induced apoptotic death.
• PC-3 cells 2.5 x 10 6
• Cells were washed by 5 mL of serum-free RPMI 1640 medium twice, and were then treated with the test agent at different concentrations or DMSO vehicles for different time intervals. Both floating and adherent cells were collected, and cell lysates equivalent to 10 4 cells were used for the ELISA analysis.
• Soluble cell lysates were collected after centrifugation at 1,500 x g for 5 min. Equivalent protein concentrations were resolved in 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gels, and were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. Immunoblotting with anti-PARP antibodies was carried out as described above. [0107] Immunoblotting. The general procedure for the Western blot analysis of Akt, phospho- Akt, ERKs, and phospho-ERKs is described as follows. Cells were washed in PBS, resuspended in SDS gel-loading buffer, sonicated by an ultrasonic sonicator for 5 sec, and boiled for 5 min.
• Strategy A the terminal aromatic ring was modified with various substituents (compounds 2b - 23b, Table 2), or was replaced by different ring systems (24b - 29b, Table 2).
• Strategy C we prepared compounds 40b - 46b to assess the effect of the heterocyclic system in modulating apoptosis-inducing potency.
• Computer modeling analysis of celecoxib versus rofecoxib suggests a correlation between the surface electrostatic potential surrounding the heterocyclic system and the apoptosis-inducing potency.
• a final, more comprehensive strategy was to compare vis-a-vis the entire molecules of active celecoxib and inactive rofecoxib in terms of their surface electrostatic potential (vide infra). Since this comparison revealed important differences in electron density, an effort to modify the molecule of rofecoxib to approximate the surface electrostatic potential of celecoxib resulted in the design of structural variants 47b - 50b.
• the sulfamoyl moiety plays a pivotal role in the effect of celecoxib on apoptosis.
• COX-2 inhibitors with similar IC 50 values in COX-2 inhibition exhibit a wide discrepancy in apoptosis-inducing potency in prostate cancer cells. Accordingly, COX-2 inhibitors could be classified into fast-acting and slow-acting apoptosis inducers (Fig. 8). Representatives of the slow-acting apoptosis inducer included rofecoxib, NS398, DuP697, and the te ⁇ henyl derivative lb. This discrepancy underscores differences in the biochemical mechanisms underlying the apoptotic action of these COX-2 inhibitors.
• Figure 9 depicts the time-and/or dose-dependent effect of compound 10b on cell viability (panel A), evidence for the apoptotic death (panel B), and the phosphorylation status of Akt and ERK2 (panel C) in PC-3 cells, which is pronounced to that observed with celecoxib (49,50).
• Strategy B The disparity in apoptosis-inducing activity between the sulfonamide and methylsulfone compounds suggests that the former pharmacophore confers optimal potency in apoptosis induction.
• this functional group could be replaced by a carboxamide moiety without abrogating activity. Accordingly, we investigated compounds 30b - 39b (Fig. 10 A) that possessed a carboxamide group in place of the sulfonamide present in celecoxib and in compounds 6b, 8b - 10b, 15b, and 18b - 21b.
• compound 49b was most noteworthy since its activity in apoptosis induction increased significantly (T ⁇ / 2 at 50 ⁇ M, 15 h) vis-a-vis rofecoxib, 48b, and 50b (T ⁇ /2 at 100 ⁇ M, > 100 h). It is noteworthy that the electrostatic potential map of compound 49b exhibited a high degree of resemblance to its pyrazole counte ⁇ art 8b (T 2 at 50 ⁇ M, 2 h), and that the electron density correlation between 49b and 8b (Fig. 1 ID & E) was akin to that between celecoxib and 47b, but improved on the 5-aryl moiety.
• the impetus of the present study is multifold.
• Dubois RN Abramson SB, Crofford L, Gupta RA, Simon LS, Van De Putte LB, et al: Cyclooxygenase in biology and disease. Faseb J 1998;12:1063-73.
• Tsujii M, DuBois RN Alterations in cellular adhesion and apoptosis in epithelial cells overexpressing prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase 2. Cell 1995;83:493-501.
• He TC, Chan TA, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW: PPARdelta is an APC-regulated target of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Cell 1999;99:335-45.
• Yin MJ Yamamoto Y, Gaynor RB: The anti-inflammatory agents aspirin and salicylate inhibit the activity of I(kappa)B kinase-beta. Nature 1998;396:77-80.
• Peleg, II, Wilcox CM The Role of Eicosanoids, Cyclooxygenases, and Nonsteroidal Anti- inflammatory Drugs in Colorectal Tumorigenesis and Chemoprevention. J Clin Gastroenterol 2002;34:117-25.
• Laaksonen L A graphics program for the analysis and display of molecular dynamics trajectories. J Mol Graphics 1992;10:33-34.

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