US9523846B2 - 3D localisation microscopy and 4D localisation microscopy and tracking methods and systems - Google Patents

3D localisation microscopy and 4D localisation microscopy and tracking methods and systems Download PDF

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US9523846B2
US9523846B2 US13/825,794 US201113825794A US9523846B2 US 9523846 B2 US9523846 B2 US 9523846B2 US 201113825794 A US201113825794 A US 201113825794A US 9523846 B2 US9523846 B2 US 9523846B2
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objective
image
emitter
light passing
lobes
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Christian Soeller
David Michael Baddeley
Mark Bryden Cannell
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Carl Zeiss Microscopy GmbH
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    • G01N21/00—Investigating or analysing materials by the use of optical means, i.e. using sub-millimetre waves, infrared, visible or ultraviolet light
    • G01N21/62—Systems in which the material investigated is excited whereby it emits light or causes a change in wavelength of the incident light
    • G01N21/63—Systems in which the material investigated is excited whereby it emits light or causes a change in wavelength of the incident light optically excited
    • G01N21/64—Fluorescence; Phosphorescence
    • G01N21/645—Specially adapted constructive features of fluorimeters
    • G01N21/6456—Spatial resolved fluorescence measurements; Imaging
    • G01N21/6458—Fluorescence microscopy
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B21/00—Microscopes
    • G02B21/0004—Microscopes specially adapted for specific applications
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
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    • G02B21/0004—Microscopes specially adapted for specific applications
    • G02B21/0092—Polarisation microscopes
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B21/00—Microscopes
    • G02B21/06—Means for illuminating specimens
    • G02B21/08—Condensers
    • G02B21/14—Condensers affording illumination for phase-contrast observation
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B21/00—Microscopes
    • G02B21/16—Microscopes adapted for ultraviolet illumination ; Fluorescence microscopes
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B21/00—Microscopes
    • G02B21/36—Microscopes arranged for photographic purposes or projection purposes or digital imaging or video purposes including associated control and data processing arrangements
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B21/00—Microscopes
    • G02B21/36—Microscopes arranged for photographic purposes or projection purposes or digital imaging or video purposes including associated control and data processing arrangements
    • G02B21/365—Control or image processing arrangements for digital or video microscopes
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B21/00—Microscopes
    • G02B21/36—Microscopes arranged for photographic purposes or projection purposes or digital imaging or video purposes including associated control and data processing arrangements
    • G02B21/365—Control or image processing arrangements for digital or video microscopes
    • G02B21/367—Control or image processing arrangements for digital or video microscopes providing an output produced by processing a plurality of individual source images, e.g. image tiling, montage, composite images, depth sectioning, image comparison
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G02—OPTICS
    • G02B—OPTICAL ELEMENTS, SYSTEMS OR APPARATUS
    • G02B27/00—Optical systems or apparatus not provided for by any of the groups G02B1/00 - G02B26/00, G02B30/00
    • G02B27/58—Optics for apodization or superresolution; Optical synthetic aperture systems
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G06—COMPUTING OR CALCULATING; COUNTING
    • G06F—ELECTRIC DIGITAL DATA PROCESSING
    • G06F18/00—Pattern recognition
    • G06F18/20—Analysing
    • G06F18/24—Classification techniques
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    • G06T7/70—Determining position or orientation of objects or cameras
    • G06T7/73—Determining position or orientation of objects or cameras using feature-based methods
    • H—ELECTRICITY
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    • H04N—PICTORIAL COMMUNICATION, e.g. TELEVISION
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    • G06T2207/10—Image acquisition modality
    • G06T2207/10056—Microscopic image

Definitions

  • the invention relates to 3D localisation microscopy and 4D localisation microscopy and tracking systems and methods.
  • the invention comprises a method of 3D localisation microscopy (herein referred to as the 3D method of the invention) which includes causing a phase difference between light passing to or from one part of the objective relative to light passing to or from another part of the objective to produce a point emitter image which comprises two image lobes, such that in a position of an emitter relative to the objective causing negative defocus the two image lobes are separated from each other in first opposite directions substantially along an axis, and in a position of an emitter relative to the objective causing negative defocus the two image lobes are separated from each other substantially along said axis in second opposite directions, and a z axis position of the emitter from relative positions of the image lobes.
  • the invention comprises a 3D localisation microscopy system (herein referred to as the 3D system of the invention) arranged to cause a phase difference between light passing to or from one part of the objective relative to light passing to or from another part of the objective to produce a point emitter image which comprises two image lobes, such that in a position of an emitter relative to the objective causing negative defocus the two image lobes are separated from each other in first opposite directions substantially along an axis, and in a position of an emitter relative to the objective causing negative defocus the two image lobes are separated from each other substantially along said axis in second opposite directions.
  • the 3D system of the invention 3D localisation microscopy system
  • the invention comprises a method of localisation microscopy or single emitter tracking (herein referred to as the 4D method of the invention) which includes causing a phase difference between light passing to or from one part of the objective relative to light passing to or from another part of the objective, to produce a point emitter image which comprises two lobes, a separation between which is related to the position of the emitter relative to the objective of the imaging system, and a further property of which image or of said light to or from the objective is related to another location independent property of the emitter, and a z axis position of the emitter from relative positions of the image lobes, and assessing said another location independent property.
  • the further property may be a separation between the image lobes, such as a separation between the image lobes in an axis at an angle to, such as substantially orthogonal to, the axis of the separation between the image lobes related to the position of the emitter.
  • the further property' may alternatively be a property may be any one or more of the spectral content, lifetime, or polarization of light from the emitter.
  • the location independent property of the emitter may be any one or more of a spectral content, lifetime, or polarization of light from the emitter.
  • the two image lobes in an in focus position of an emitter relative to the objective may be substantially not separated from each other along said axis. Also, in an in focus position of an emitter relative to the objective the two image lobes may be separated from each other substantially orthogonal to said axis.
  • the phase change device in the imaging system may comprise a phase ramp on one side such as a linear phase ramp, or multiple phase ramps, and which may not affect phase on the other side or which may have a phase change effect on the other side which varies in sign or magnitude.
  • the phase change device in the imaging system may be constructed such that there is a linearly varying phase difference between the two halves of the pupil plane. It may take the form of a single phase ramp covering one half of the pupil plane, or of two phase ramps of different gradient covering the two halves such that a linearly varying phase difference is present between the two halves. It may comprise two phase ramps of equal but opposite gradient as this results in no displacement of the image upon insertion.
  • the phase ramps need not be continuous, and may be composed of several linear segments in a sawtooth pattern, such that each segment covers a phase angle of 2 Pi.
  • the two halves of the pupil plane may also have an additional constant (i.e. not spatially varying) phase difference and this may be such that the interaction of light from both halves is either coherent or incoherent.
  • the phase change device is such that the image of a single point emitter comprises two image lobes which are sufficiently close to form a single (elongated) image (at least when in focus), the shape or separation of which varies with change in emitter distance to the objective (positive or negative defocus).
  • the image of a single point emitter comprises two separated image lobes (at least when near focus), the separation between which varies with change in emitter distance to the objective.
  • optical elements may be included which alter one or both lobes of the PSF in such a way as to encode a second, location independent property of the emitter as referred to above.
  • the optical system is engineered so that the lobe separation in an orthogonal direction depends on the other location independent property of the emitter.
  • the optical system may alternatively be engineered so that the relative brightness of the two lobes depends on the other property of the emitter.
  • the steepness of the phase gradient may produce a point emitter image which comprises two lobes, the separation between which in one direction is related to the position of the emitter relative to the objective of the imaging system, and in the other, orthogonal, direction is related to the other encoded property of the emitter such as spectral content, fluorescence lifetime, or polarization for example.
  • fluorescence also includes phosphorescence, luminescence or similar modes of light emission from a marker object.
  • 3D localisation microscopy comprises building up an image of the location of multiple molecules or emitters and where the location information of a given marker is generally obtained for a spatially stationary sample.
  • Particle or molecule tracking microscopy involves causing a marker or markers to fluoresce and tracking its or their movement over time.
  • FIGS. 2 d and 2 e shows other possible pupil phase distribution of the microscope system
  • FIG. 2 c illustrates the change in the shape of emitter image when defocus occurs
  • FIG. 3 a schematically shows two lobes of an in focus emitter image
  • FIGS. 3 b and 3 c show the two image lobes separated with negative and positive defocus
  • FIG. 4 schematically shows a microscope system comprising a reflective surface as the phase ramp
  • FIGS. 5 a and 5 b schematically show an implementation of a dispersive phase mask comprising materials of high and low dispersions
  • FIG. 6 schematically shows an implementation of a dispersive phase mask using a diffraction grating
  • FIG. 7 is a flow chart of an image analysis algorithm of an embodiment of the invention.
  • FIG. 8 is a flow chart of the “debounce” algorithm of an embodiment of the invention.
  • FIG. 9 is a flow chart of the “fitting” algorithm an embodiment of the invention.
  • FIG. 10 a shows a phase ramp and its effect on the PSF of a microscope system
  • FIG. 10 c is a histogram of z-positions
  • FIG. 10 d is an isosurface representation of an area of the reconstructed image corresponding to the dotted region in FIG. 10 b , all as referred to in the following description of experimental work;
  • FIG. 11 shows actual defocus and the results obtained by fitting a phase ramp PSF to a series of images of three 200 nm diameter, dark red fluorescent beads, referred to in the following description of experimental work;
  • FIGS. 12 a and 12 b illustrate an experimental comparison of the method of the invention with astigmatic detection
  • FIG. 13 illustrates a comparison of the method of the invention and astigmatic detection and biplane detection
  • FIG. 14 illustrates the use of a filter to induce a wavelength dependent change in the relative height of the PSF lobes.
  • a fluorescent microscope comprises a light source such as a xenon arc lamp or mercury-vapor lamp or laser excitation 7 , excitation filter 8 , and dichroic mirror 6 or dichromatic beamsplitter, and emission filter (not shown).
  • the filters and the dichroic are chosen to match the spectral excitation and emission characteristics of the fluorophore(s) used to label the specimen.
  • the microscope supports the object 1 , and light from the fluorophores after excitation passes through an objective lens 2 to an imaging plane (also alternatively referred to herein as the pupil plane), for example at a camera 3 (or other imaging device) via a tube lens 4 which focuses light onto the imaging plane 3 .
  • the fluorescence microscope may be of any known or suitable form.
  • the microscope comprises a phase change device such as in this embodiment a refractive phase ramp 5 between the objective lens and the imaging plane 3 , and specifically in the embodiment shown within an infinite conjugate part of the beam path, which causes a phase difference between the light from the emitters passing from one part of the objective relative to another, resulting in an image of each point emitter, at the imaging plane, which comprises two lobes connected or separate, the degree of separation of which is dependent on the distance of the emitter from the objective, as referred to further below.
  • the phase ramp element 5 is in the optical path at the level of the rear aperture of the objective lens.
  • the phase ramp is at the rear aperture or close to it within the infinity-space of the objective (where the in-focus light is approximately parallel).
  • phase ramp may be within some approximation of the back focal/fourier plane.
  • phase ramp device is refractive but in other embodiments the phase ramp device(s) may be reflective or dispersive as will be further described.
  • an additional spectral filter element 9 may be inserted before or after the phase ramp 5 so that the relative brightness of the two lobes depends on a location independent property of the emitter.
  • the phase ramp device may be additionally thin- film coated or otherwise treated so that the relative brightness of the two lobes depends on such a location independent property of the emitter.
  • one or more emitters in a sample are photo-activated or photo-switched and caused to fluoresce, and emit photons of a specific wavelength.
  • the illumination randomly excites only some markers and after each fluorophore bleaches (permanently or reversibly) the location of one or more of the fluorophores is determined.
  • the x- and y-axis position of each emitter can be obtained from a measurement of the centroid of the marker image either directly by a centroid formula, or in a computer image processing system by fitting a PSF model to the marker image.
  • a 3D model may be fitted to the image to obtain all of the x-, y-, and z-axis positions of the emitter at the same time.
  • the z dimension is determined from the degree of image elongation or separation of or between the two image lobes, which is related to the distance between the emitter and the objective.
  • one or more emitters such as fluorescent beads
  • the objective is moved between positions each a known distance from the object plane/ emitter(s), causing the image shape to change, and a relationship between image shape and focus distance is developed.
  • a microscopy system of the invention may comprise a computer image processing system using a relationship algorithm or storing look up data correlating relative z axis position and image shape, or a model as referred to above, and arranged to determine relative z axis emitter position from the emitter image shape.
  • a computer image processing system may be arranged to match the image shape to a best-fit image from a look up database of images or a mathematical or numerical model of the defocus-dependent image.
  • the emitter coordinates (in x, y and z and, in some embodiments and one or more other emitter properties such as spectral content, lifetime, or polarization of light from the emitter may be estimated from a direct parameterisations of the image (such as image centroid, angle or distance between lobes and related measures).
  • FIG. 2 a represents a pupil plane with zero phase change in the vertical direction of the pupil plane on one side and a linear phase ramp on another side.
  • FIG. 2 b represents a similar pupil plane with multiple phase ramps on one side.
  • FIG. 2 d represents a pupil plane with equal and opposite phase changes in two sides of the pupil plane.
  • FIG. 2 e shows a pupil plane with a constant non-zero phase change in the vertical direction of the pupil plane on one side and a linear phase change on the other side.
  • FIG. 2 c illustrates how the variation in distance between an emitter and the microscope objective may affect the relative position of the two lobes of the emitter image in a system of the invention.
  • FIG. 3 is a schematic example which further illustrates this.
  • FIG. 3 a shows two in focus lobes of an in focus image, which are separated only in one axis namely vertically in axis LS the figure. The degree of separation depends on the phase ramp steepness and remains constant with positive and negative defocus.
  • FIGS. 3 b and 3 c show that with negative and positive defocus respectively the two image lobes separate in an orthogonal axis OS, the degree of separation in the example of FIG. 3 being indicated at FDS, and do so in a direction along this axis dependant on whether the defocus is positive or negative.
  • an emitter distance from the objective causing negative defocus one image lobe is positioned along the axis from the in focus position in one direction, and the other image lobe is positioned along the axis from the in focus position in an opposite direction.
  • the image lobes are separated along the axis from the in focus position in opposite directions from that for negative defocus.
  • the “movement” of the image lobes along the axis with changing focus is approximately or substantially linear.
  • FIG. 4 shows an alternative implementation of the invention utilising a reflective phase change device.
  • the reflective surface 6 is placed at or near the objective conjugate plane and is shaped such that one half of the back focal plane experiences a linear phase gradient with respect to the other.
  • the phase ramp may consist of a number of planar mirrors arranged to incline with respect to each other so that one half of the back focal plane experiences a linear phase gradient with respect to the other.
  • the phase ramp may consist of a deformable mirror driven such that one half of the back focal plane experiences a linear phase gradient with respect to the other.
  • the deformable mirror may use a superposition of phase patterns to correct for aberrations (of the optical system and/ or sample) and a phase gradient between the two halves of the back focal plane.
  • An advantage of systems comprising a reflective phase ramp is that the initial lobe separation may be easily tuned or set, by varying the relative angle of the mirror surfaces. Such tuning can be accomplished in a number of ways—either manually using adjustable mirror mounts, or electronically using piezo-activated mounts, digital micro-mirror device, or similar devices.
  • This ability to tune or set initial lobe separation may be useful in optimising any trade-off between sufficiently large lobe separation and thus robust axial discrimination, and separation between different emitter images which are active at the same time (increasing the lobe separation increases the ‘footprint’ of single molecule signals, and thus the distance required between single emitters before they can be reliably separated).
  • the use of a deformable mirror may allow the phase ramp to be combined with the correction of imaging aberrations through adaptive optics.
  • FIG. 5 a shows an alternative embodiment utilising a dispersive phase change device, specifically a phase mask which comprises two dispersive phase ramps, which may be positioned between objective lens 2 and tube lens 4 , one of which is a high-dispersion phase ramp 9 , and the of which is a low-dispersion phase mask 10 which reduces the effect of excess gradient introduced by high-dispersion phase mask 9 , as illustrated by FIG. 5 c .
  • the phase ramps are made of dispersive materials, the steepness of the phase gradient introduced depends on the wavelength of light travelling through the phase ramp. This results in a wavelength dependent change in the initial lobe separation.
  • the initial lobe separation is orthogonal to the changes in lobe position produced with defocus, it is possible to independently determine both spectral and spatial components of the point emitter image and therefore determine the colour of the imaging object and relative position of emitter on z axis.
  • the light may travel with relatively small deflection angles through these dispersive phase masks, in other embodiments the dispersive elements may give rise to larger deflection angles (e.g. when using prisms).
  • FIG. 6 shows an alternative embodiment comprising a phase change device which employs reflection from dispersive surfaces, for example a diffraction grating 11 .
  • a phase change device which employs reflection from dispersive surfaces, for example a diffraction grating 11 .
  • Any excess phase gradient such as may be required to provide sufficient wavelength dependence, can be unwound using additional planar mirror surfaces 12 .
  • a simpler arrangement may be achieved by placing a diffraction grating and a planar mirror in the two halves of the objective back focal plane.
  • FIG. 7 is a flow chart of an image analysis algorithm of an embodiment of 3D or 4D localisation microscopy of the invention.
  • a raw image is obtained, firstly measured camera properties are used to remove the offset in the raw image and calibration of the image is carried out in terms of photo-electrons.
  • a background removal process is then carried out on the calibrated image by subtracting a background image from the calibrated image.
  • the background image can be estimated by calculating the average of N images precedes the current calibrated image in the sequence of images already been calibrated.
  • a signal to noise (SNR) estimate is also obtained by calculating the square root of photo-electron numbers in each pixel of the calibrated image after the calibration process.
  • SNR signal to noise
  • deconvolution with respect to measured PSF of the imaging system being used are required for the background corrected image and SNR estimate of the calibrated image.
  • the deconvolution process removes multi-lobed PSF aberrations by any one of Wiener filtering, or correlation with PSF, or maximum-likelihood (ML) deconvolution.
  • Deconvolved SNR estimate is then multiplied by a threshold factor, which in use could make detection robust and eliminate the need of changing threshold over different image conditions by a user.
  • the SNR based threshold value is then being used to filter the image, only the values greater than threshold are selected in the image.
  • Binary masking and labelling of the image are subsequently performed to identify contiguous regions on the image and the intensity of at the centre of each contiguous regions are calculated which will result a list of starting positions.
  • the list of starting positions may also contain residual false detections resulting from the lobed nature of PSF and the false detections need to be removed and produce a clean list of starting positions by a “debounce” procedure which is illustrated in FIG. 8 .
  • the clean list of starting positions are then subject to a “fitting” process represented by FIG. 9 where each starting positions in the list is interpolated using an interpolating model derived from the measured PSF of the microscope being used.
  • the list of fitted positions can then be used to produce a 3D image and be displayed to the user.
  • FIG. 8 illustrates the debounce procedure which discards false detections contained in list of starting positions.
  • the next starting position in the list is then processed using the same method until all the starting positions in the list have been examined and a clean list of starting positions free of false detection is obtained.
  • FIG. 9 is a representation of the fitting process during which an interpolating model which is derived from the measured PSF of the microscope is fitted to the image data at the location of each starting position.
  • the interpolating model may be implemented by one or more of linear interpolation, cubic spline interpolation, or Fourier domain shifting.
  • data ROI and SNR ROI information are extracted from the background corrected image and SNR estimate of the calibrated image respectively.
  • SNR ROI is also used to estimate starting parameters of the fitting procedure. In case of PRI, angular moment of the ROI can be used to obtain a starting z-value.
  • the fitting process of each start position is then performed using interpolating model, data ROI (data), SNR ROI (weight), and starting parameters.
  • the fitting process can be implemented by a Levenberg-Marquadt solver to solve the weighted least squares problem to locate a fitted position.
  • the fitting process is performed on each starting position until a list of best-fit positions is estimated.
  • Ventricular myocytes were enzymatically isolated from an adult rat and fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde for 10 minutes. They were then labelled for ⁇ -tubulin according to a standard immunofluorescence protocol using a primary antibody raised in mouse (T4026, Sigma-Aldrich, NZ), and an Alexa 680 labelled secondary (A21058, Molecular Probes/Invitrogen, NZ).
  • the labelled cells were mounted in a ‘switching buffer’ consisting of 0.5 mg mL ⁇ 1 glucose oxidase, 40 ⁇ g mL ⁇ 1 catalase, 10% w/v glucose and 50 mM ⁇ -mercaptoethylamine in an 80:20 mixture of glycerol and PBS (all obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, NZ).
  • Imaging was performed using a modified Nikon TE2000 microscope with a 60 ⁇ 1.47 NA TIRF objective and using an Andor IXon DV887DCS-BV EMCCD camera for fluorescence detection. Highly inclined plane illumination was used with a 671 nm laser source, leading to a focal plane intensity of approximately 10 9 W/m 2 .
  • M the objective magnification
  • n the refractive index of the glass slide
  • 3D volume data was obtained by rendering each event as a 3D Gaussian with lateral and axial standard deviations corresponding to the event's estimated localisation errors in the lateral and axial directions.
  • volume data at conventional diffraction-limited resolution was reconstructed from the localisation events by rendering each event with lateral and axial standard deviations corresponding to those of a typical widefield PSF at the same excitation wavelength. Isosurface rendering of the volume data was performed using OpenDX (www.opendx.org).
  • FIG. 10 a shows die phase ramp and its effect on the PSF.
  • the PSF was recorded by imaging a 200 nm fluorescent bead. Note the focus dependent movements of the two lobes as seen at various values of defocus and in the 3D rendered PSF image.
  • FIG. 10 c is a histogram of z-positions obtained from the Alexa 680 labeled antibodies immobilized on a glass slide. The full width at half maximum spread of these points places an upper bound on the axial resolution of ⁇ 82 nm.
  • FIG. 10 b is a z-projected reconstruction of ⁇ -tubulin in a rat cardiac myocyte, acquired using the method of the invention. Depth is colour coded according to the lookup table shown in panel D.
  • FIG. 10 d is an isosurface representation of an area of the reconstructed image corresponding to the dotted region in FIG. 10 b .
  • a reconstruction at conventional, diffraction-limited resolution is shown for comparison. The significantly improved resolution of the method of the invention in all three dimensions is clearly illustrated.
  • FIG. 11 shows actual defocus and the results obtained by fitting the phase ramp PSF to a series of images of three 200 nm diameter, dark red fluorescent beads. Residual drift was corrected using the position data from one bead, filtered through a 10 frame top-hat filter. The measured spread (std. dev.) of z-localisations for each bead at zero defocus was ⁇ 9 nm, in good agreement with the estimated mean localisation error based on fit residuals.
  • the estimated localisation errors, and the number of fitted events as a function of defocus from acquisitions of [beta]-tubulin in cardiac myocytes are plotted. Only those events falling into a narrow (10%) intensity window about the respective mean intensities are selected. This avoids complicating effects due to the intensity dependence of detection. Both the number of ‘localizable’ events and the associated localisation errors remained within reasonable ranges over a larger axial range for phase-ramp imaging than for astigmatism.
  • FIG. 13 shows a theoretical comparison of the axial localisation accuracy of the method (PRI) with two existing 3D localisation methods, namely astigmatic detection and biplane detection.
  • PRI axial localisation accuracy
  • point-spread functions for the three methods were simulated and used to calculate the Cramer-Rao lower bound. This is based on the information contained in the point-spread function shape and represents the minimum possible localisation error (that which would be obtained with a perfect analysis algorithm) under given noise conditions. For noise calculations it was assumed that the noise followed poisson statistics with a total of 2000 photons being detected from each fluorescent molecule. It can be seen that the method of the invention is indicated as having superior axial and overall 3D accuracy compared with the other methods, and that the lateral accuracy is maintained over a wider axial range.
  • FIG. 14 illustrates that a wavelength dependence on the relative amplitude of the two lobes can be created using an optical filter.
  • a phase ramp was inserted into one half of the pupil plane and a longpass interference filter into the other. This configuration was used to image fluorescent beads in three different colours and an in-focus section through the point-spread functions corresponding to each of these bead types is shown in FIGS. 14 a - c .
  • a line profile through the center of each PSF was plotted as FIG. 14 d and shows that the different bead types are clearly distinguishable by their relative lobe heights.

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