Classifications

• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C01G—COMPOUNDS CONTAINING METALS NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASSES C01D OR C01F
  • C01G53/00—Compounds of nickel
  • C01G53/40—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element
  • C01G53/42—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiNiO2
  • C01G53/44—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiNiO2 containing manganese
  • C01G53/50—Complex oxides containing nickel and at least one other metal element containing alkali metals, e.g. LiNiO2 containing manganese of the type (MnO2)n-, e.g. Li(NixMn1-x)O2 or Li(MyNixMn1-x-y)O2
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
  • H01M4/52—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron
  • H01M4/525—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of nickel, cobalt or iron of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing iron, cobalt or nickel for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiNiO2, LiCoO2 or LiCoOxFy
• • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
  • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
  • C01P—INDEXING SCHEME RELATING TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF SOLID INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
  • C01P2006/00—Physical properties of inorganic compounds
  • C01P2006/40—Electric properties
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/48—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides
  • H01M4/50—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese
  • H01M4/505—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic oxides or hydroxides of manganese of mixed oxides or hydroxides containing manganese for inserting or intercalating light metals, e.g. LiMn2O4 or LiMn2OxFy
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries

Definitions

• the present invention is directed towards a process for making an electrode active material according to general formula ⁇ _ ⁇ + ⁇ ⁇ - ⁇ 2, wherein TM is a combination of Mn, Co and Ni in com- bination with at least one more metal M selected from Al, Ti, and W, wherein at least 60 mole-% of TM is Ni, the percentage referring to the sum of Ni, Co and Mn, and x is in the range of from zero to 0.2, said process comprising the following steps:
• (B) at least one lithium compound selected from lithium hydroxide, lithium oxide and lithium carbonate, and
• Lithiated transition metal oxides are currently being used as electrode active materials for lithium-ion batteries. Extensive research and developmental work has been performed in the past years to improve properties like charge density, specific energy, but also other properties like the reduced cycle life and capacity loss that may adversely affect the lifetime or applicability of a lithium-ion battery. Additional effort has been made to improve manufacturing methods.
• NCM materials lithiated nickel-cobalt- manganese oxide
• a so-called precursor is being formed by co-precipitating the transition metals as carbonates, oxides or preferably as hydroxides that may or may not be basic.
• the precursor is then mixed with a lithium salt such as, but not limited to LiOH, L12O or - especially - U2CO3 - and calcined (fired) at high tem- peratures.
• Lithium salt(s) can be employed as hydrate(s) or in dehydrated form.
• the calcination - or firing - generally also referred to as thermal treatment or heat treatment of the precursor - is usually carried out at temperatures in the range of from 600 to 1 ,000 °C.
• the thermal treatment a solid state reaction takes place, and the electrode active material is formed.
• the solid state reaction follows a removal of water or carbon dioxide.
• the thermal treatment is performed in the heating zone of an oven or kiln.
• the inventive process is a process for making an electrode active material according to general formula ⁇ _ ⁇ + ⁇ ⁇ - ⁇ 2, wherein TM is a combination of Mn, Co and Ni in combination with at least one more metal M selected from Al, Ti, and W, wherein at least 60 mole-% of TM is Ni, the percentage referring to the sum of Ni, Co and Mn, and x is in the range of from zero to 0.2, preferably 0.01 to 0.05, said process comprising the following steps, hereinafter in brief also referred to as step (a) and step (b), respectively.
• Step (a) includes mixing
• A a mixed oxide or oxyhydroxide of Mn, Co and Ni, hereinafter also referred to as oxyhy- droxide (A) or oxide (A), respectively, or altogether as precursor (A), and
• (B) at least one lithium compound selected from lithium hydroxide, lithium oxide and lithium carbonate, hereinafter also referred to as lithium salt (B) or lithium compound (B), and
• (C) an oxide, hydroxide or oxyhydroxide of Al, Ti or W, hereinafter also referred to as compound (C), wherein at least 60 mole-% of TM is Ni, referring to the sum of Ni, Co and Mn.
• precursor (A) is obtained by co-precipitation of a mixed hydroxide of nickel, cobalt and manganese, followed by drying under air and partial or full dehydration.
• Precursor (A) may be obtained by co-precipitating nickel, cobalt and manganese as hydroxides followed by drying in an atmosphere containing oxygen and a thermal pre-treatment in an atmosphere containing oxygen.
• Precursor (A) is preferably obtained by co-precipitating nickel, cobalt and manganese as hy- droxides from an aqueous solution containing nitrates, acetates or preferably sulfates of nickel, cobalt and manganese in a stoichiometric ratio corresponding to TM.
• Said co-precipitation is effected by the addition of alkali metal hydroxide, for example potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, in a continuous, semi-continuous or batch process.
• Said co-precipitation is then followed by removal of the mother liquor, for example filtration, and subsequent removal of water.
• TM in the targeted electrode active material is the same as TM in precursor (A) plus the metal M, see below.
• the removal of water is preferably performed in at least two sub-steps at different temperatures, for example 80 to 150°C in sub-step 1 and 165 to 600°C in sub-step 2. In one embodiment of the present invention, the removal of water is performed in different apparatuses.
• Sub-step 1 is preferably performed in a spray dryer, in a spin-flash dryer or in a contact dryer.
• Sub-step 2 may be performed in a rotary kiln, a roller heath kiln or in a box kiln.
• Precursor (A) is in particulate form.
• the mean parti- cle diameter (D50) of precursor (A) is in the range of from 6 to 12 ⁇ , preferably 7 to 10 ⁇ .
• the mean particle diameter (D50) in the context of the present invention refers to the median of the volume-based particle diameter, as can be determined, for example, by light scattering.
• the particle shape of the secondary particles of precursor (A) is preferably spheroidal, that are particles that have a spherical shape.
• Spherical spheroidal shall include not just those which are exactly spherical but also those particles in which the maximum and minimum diameter of at least 90% (number average) of a representative sample differ by not more than 10%.
• precursor (A) is comprised of secondary particles that are agglomerates of primary particles.
• precursor (A) is comprised of spherical secondary particles that are agglomerates of primary particles.
• precursor (A) is comprised of spherical secondary particles that are agglomerates of spherical primary particles or platelets.
• precursor (A) may have a particle diameter distribution span in the range of from 0.5 to 0.9, the span being defined as [(D90) - (D10)] divided by (D50), all being determined by LASER analysis.
• precursor (A) may have a particle diameter distribution span in the range of from 1.1 to 1.8.
• the surface (BET) of precursor (A) is in the range of from 2 to 10 m 2 /g, determined by nitrogen adsorption, for example in accordance with to DIN- ISO 9277:2003-05.
• precursor (A) may have a homogeneous distribu- tion of the transition metals nickel, cobalt and manganese over the diameter of the particles.
• the distribution of at least two of nickel, cobalt and manganese is non-homogeneous, for example exhibiting a gradient of nickel and manganese, or showing layers of different concentrations of at least two of nickel, cobalt and manganese. It is preferred that precursor (A) has a homogeneous distribution of the transition metals over the diameter of particles.
• precursor (A) may contain elements other than nickel, cobalt and manganese, for example titanium, aluminum, zirconium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum, niobium or magnesium, for example in amounts of 0.1 to 5% by mole, referring to TM.
• precursor (A) only contains negligible amounts of elements other nickel, cobalt and manganese, for example detection level up to 0.05% by mole.
• Precursor (A) may contain traces of metal ions, for example traces of ubiquitous metals such as sodium, calcium, iron or zinc, as impurities but such traces will not be taken into account in the description of the present invention. Traces in this context will mean amounts of 0.05 mol-% or less, referring to the total metal content of TM.
• precursor (A) contains one or more impurities such as residual sulphate in case such precursor has been made by co-precipitation from a solution of one or more sulphates of nickel, cobalt and manganese.
• the sulphate may be in the range of from 0.1 to 0.4% by weight, referring to the entire precursor (A).
• TM is of the general formula (I)
• a being in the range of from 0.6 to 0.85, preferably 0.6 to 0.7,
• b being in the range of from 0.05 to 0.2, preferably 0.1 to 0.2,
• c being in the range of from 0.05 to 0.2, preferably 0.1 to 0.2, and
• d being in the range of from 0.005 to 0.1
• M is Al
• a + b + c 1 .
• At least 60 mole-% of TM is Ni, for example 60 to 95 mole-%, more preferably 60 to 90 mole% and even more preferably 60 to 80 mole-%, the percentage in each case referring to the sum of Ni, Co and Mn.
• Specific examples are Nio.5Coo.2Mn 0 .3, Nio.6Coo.2Mn 0 .2, Nio.eCoo.iMno.i, and Nio.7Coo.2Mno.-i.
• precursor (A) is an oxide or oxyhydroxide of TM
• the resultant electrode active material is ⁇ _ ⁇ + ⁇ ⁇ - ⁇ 2
• TM in precursor (A) is the same with respect to the amounts of transition metals as in the electrode active material minus M selected from Al, Ti, and W, as the case may be.
• precursor (A) oxyhydroxides with a residual moisture content in the range of from 0.1 to 50 % by weight are particularly feasible.
• the moisture content is calculated as g H2O per 100 g of precursor (A).
• H2O may be bound chemically as hydroxyl group, or be bound by physisorption.
• the residual moisture in precursor (A) is low, for example 0.1 to 5 % by weight. Even more preferably, precursor (A) is an oxide of TM with no detectable amounts of residual moisture.
• lithium compound (B) examples include U2O, LiOH, and U2CO3, each water-free or as hydrate, if applicable, for example LiOH-l-bO.
• Preferred example is lithium hydroxide.
• Lithium compound (B) is preferable in particulate form, for example with an average diameter (D50) in the range of from 3 to 10 ⁇ , preferably from 5 to 9 ⁇ .
• D50 average diameter
• Compound (C) may serve as source of dopant.
• Compound (C) is selected from oxides, hydroxides and oxyhydroxides of Ti, W and especially of Al.
• Lithium titanate is also a possible source of titanium.
• Examples of compounds (C) are WO3, ⁇ 2 selected from rutile and anatase, ana- tase being preferred, furthermore basic titania such as TiO(OH)2, furthermore Li4Ti 5 0i2, WO3, AI(OH) 3 , AI2O3, Al 2 0 3 -aq, and AIOOH.
• Al compounds such as AI(OH) 3 , ⁇ - ⁇ 2 0 3 , ⁇ - A 0 3 , A 0 3 -aq, and AIOOH.
• Even more preferred compounds (C) are A 0 3 selected from a- A 0 3 , Y-A 0 3 , and most preferred is Y-A 0 3 .
• compound (C) may have a surface (BET) In the range of from 1 to 200 m 2 /g, preferably 50 to 150 m 2 /g.
• the surface BET may be determined by nitrogen adsorption, for example according to DIN-ISO 9277:2003-05.
• compound (C) is nanocrystalline.
• the average crystallite diameter of compound (C) is 100 nm at most, preferably 50 nm at most and even more preferably 15 nm at most.
• the minimum diameter may be 4 nm.
• compound (C) is a particulate material with an average diameter (D50) in the range of from 1 to 10 ⁇ , preferably 2 to 4 ⁇ .
• Compound (C) is usually in the form of agglomerates. Its particle diameter refers to the diameter of said agglomerates.
• compound (C) is applied in an amount of up to 1.5 mole % (referred to the sum of Ni, Co and Mn), preferably 0.1 up to 0.5 mole %.
• Examples of suitable apparatuses for performing step (a) are high-shear mixers, tumbler mixers, plough-share mixers and free fall mixers.
• step (a) is performed at a temperature in the range of from ambient temperature to 200°C, preferably 20 to 50°C. In one embodiment of the present invention, step (a) has a duration of 10 minutes to 2 hours. Depending on whether additional mixing is performed in step (b) or not, thorough mixing has to be accomplished in step (a).
• Mixing of precursor (A), lithium compound (B) and compound (C) may be performed all in one or in sub-steps, for example by first mixing lithium compound (B) and compound (C) and adding such mixture to precursor (A), or by first mixing precursor (A) and lithium compound (B) and then adding compound (C), or by first mixing compound (C) and precursor (A) and then adding lithium compound (B). It is preferred to first mix precursor (A) and lithium compound (B) and to then add compound (C).
• step (a) it is preferred to perform step (a) in the dry state, that is without addition of water or of an organic solvent.
• organic solvent for example glycerol or glycol
• Step (b) includes subjecting said mixture to heat treatment at a temperature in the range of from 700 to 1000°C, preferably 750 to 925°C.
• the mixture of precursor (A) and lithium compound (B) and residual (C) and, optionally, solvent(s), is heated to 700 to 1000 °C with a heating rate of 0.1 to 10 °C/min.
• the temperature is ramped up before reaching the desired temperature of from 700 to 1000°C, preferably 750 to 900°C.
• first the mixture of precursor (A) and lithium compound (B) and compound (C) is heated to a temperature to 350 to 550°C and then held constant for a time of 10 min to 4 hours, and then it is raised to 700°C up to 1000°C.
• step (b) is performed in a roller hearth kiln, a pusher kiln or a rotary kiln or a combination of at least two of the foregoing.
• Rotary kilns have the advantage of a very good homogenization of the material made therein. In roller hearth kilns and in pusher kilns, different reaction conditions with respect to different steps may be set quite easily.
• step (b) is performed in an oxygen-containing atmosphere, for example in a nitrogen-air mixture, in a rare gas-oxygen mixture, in air, in oxygen or in oxygen-enriched air.
• the atmosphere in step (b) is selected from air, oxygen and oxygen-enriched air.
• Oxygen-enriched air may be, for example, a 50:50 by volume mix of air and oxygen.
• Other options are 1 :2 by volume mixtures of air and oxygen, 1 :3 by volume mixtures of air and oxygen, 2:1 by volume mixtures of air and oxygen, and 3:1 by volume mixtures of air and oxygen.
• step (b) of the present invention is performed un- der a stream of gas, for example air, oxygen and oxygen-enriched air.
• a stream of gas for example air, oxygen and oxygen-enriched air.
• Such stream of gas may be termed a forced gas flow.
• Such stream of gas may have a specific flow rate in the range of from 0.5 to 15 m 3 /h-kg material according to general formula ⁇ _ ⁇ + ⁇ ⁇ - ⁇ 2. The volume is determined under normal conditions: 298 Kelvin and 1 atmosphere. Said stream of gas is useful for removal of gaseous cleavage products such as water and carbon dioxide.
• the inventive process may include further steps such as, but not limited, additional calcination steps at a temperature in the range of from 500 to 1000°C subsequently to step (b).
• step (b) has a duration in the range of from one hour to 30 hours. Preferred are 10 to 24 hours. The cooling time is neglected in this context.
• the electrode active material so obtained is cooled down before further processing.
• electrode active materials with excellent properties are available through a straightforward process.
• the electrode active materials so obtained have a surface (BET) in the range of from 0.1 to 0.8 m 2 /g, determined according to DIN- ISO 9277:2003-05.
• BET surface
• a stirred tank reactor was filled with deionized water and 49 g of ammonium sulfate per kg of water.
• the solution was tempered to 55°C and a pH value of 12 was adjusted by adding an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution.
• the co-precipitation reaction was started by simultaneously feeding an aqueous transition metal sulfate solution and aqueous sodium hydroxide solution at a flow rate ratio of 1.8, and a total flow rate resulting in a residence time of 8 hours.
• the transition metal solution contained Ni, Co and Mn at a molar ratio of 8:1 :1 and a total transition metal concentration of 1 .65 mol/kg.
• the aqueous sodium hydroxide solution was a 25 wt.% sodium hydroxide solution and 25 wt.% ammonia solution in a weight ratio of 6.
• the pH value was kept at 12 by the separate feed of an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. Beginning with the start-up of all feeds, mother liquor was removed continuously. After 33 hours all feed flows were stopped.
• the mixed transition metal (TM) oxyhydroxide precursor (A.1 ) was obtained by filtration of the resulting suspension, wash- ing with distilled water, drying at 120°C in air and sieving.
• the mixture was heated to 800°C and kept for 6 h in a forced flow of oxygen.
• Cathode active material CAM.1 so obtained was tested as described below.
• CAM.1 showed excellent cycling stability at a temperature of 45°C. Comparative example 1 :
• the mixed transition metal oxyhydroxide precursor was prepared as described in Ex. 1 but an aqueous solution of sodium tungstate was added continuously to the stirred tank reactor, resulting in co-precipitation of 1 mole-% of tungsten referring to the urn of Ni, Co, and Mn.
• Precursor C-(A.1 ) was obtained.
• Precursor C-(A.1 ) was mixed with LiOH monohydrate in a Li/(Ni+Co+Mn+W) ratio of 1.03 and the mixture was heated in the same way as in Example 1. Comparative cathode active material C-CAM.1 was obtained. C-CAM.1 exhibits much lower capacity and cycling stability than CAM.1 .
• Precursor (A.1 ) was mixed with T1O2 and LiOH monohydrate to obtain a concentration of 0.3 mole-% Ti relative to Ni+Co+Mn+Ti and a Li/(Ni+Co+Mn+Ti) molar ratio of 1.03.
• the resultant mixture was treated thermally in the same way as in Example 1 .
• Cathode active material CAM.2 was obtained.
• CAM.2 showed excellent cycling stability at a temperature of 45°C.
• Example 3 was performed in the same way as Example 2 except that instead of T1O2, Li4Ti 5 0i2 was added together with LiOH monohydrate and the Ti concentration and the Li/(Ni+Co+Mn+Ti) ratios were adjusted in accordance with Example 2. Cathode active material CAM.3 was obtained.
• the mixed transition metal oxyhydroxide precursor was prepared as described in Example 1 but 0.4 mole-% of Ti was added as TiOSC to the slurry and co-precipitated at the end of the co- precipitation process.
• Precursor C-(A.2) was obtained.
• Precursor C-(A.2) was mixed with LiOH monohydrate to obtain a Li/(TM+Ti) ratio of 1.03 and the mixture was heated in the same way as in Example 1. Comparative cathode active material C-CAM.2 was obtained. C-CAM.2 exhibits much lower capacity and cycling stability than CAM.2 or CAM.3.
• a mixed transition metal oxyhydroxide precursor was prepared as described in Example 1 but 0.2 mole-% of Ti was added as TiOSC to the slurry and co-precipitated at the end of the co- precipitation process. Precursor C-(A.3) was obtained.
• Precursor C-(A.3) was mixed with LiOH monohydrate to obtain a Li/(TM+Ti) ratio of 1.03 and the mixture was heated in the same way as in Example 1. Comparative cathode active material C-CAM.3 was obtained. C-CAM.3 exhibits much lower 1 st cycle capacity and cycling stability than CAM.2 or CAM.3.
• a stirred tank reactor was filled with deionized water.
• the precipitation of mixed transition metal hydroxide precursor was started by simultaneous feed of an aqueous transition metal solution and an alkaline precipitation agent at a flow rate ratio of 1 .8, and a total flow rate resulting in a residence time of 8 hours.
• the transition metal solution contained Ni, Co and Mn at a molar ra- tio of 8:1 :1 and a total transition metal concentration of 1 .65 mol/kg.
• the alkaline precipitation agent consisted of 25 wt.% sodium hydroxide solution and 25 wt.% ammonia solution in a weight ratio of 6.
• the pH was kept at 12.7 by separate feed of an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. After stabilization of particle size the resulting suspension was removed continuously from the stirred vessel.
• the mixed transition metal (TM) oxyhydroxide precursor was obtained by filtration of the resulting suspension, washing with distilled water, drying at 120°C in air and sieving
• the mixture was heated to 800°C and kept for 6 h in a forced flow of oxygen.
• CAM.4 was obtained.
• the residual lithium carbonate was determined and the electrochemical testing was carried out in coin half cells to obtain a 1 st cycle discharge capacity.
• the mixed transition metal oxyhydroxide precursor was prepared as described in Example 4 but 0.3 mole-% of Al was added as sodium aluminate to the reaction mixture and co-precipitated. Precursor C-(A.4) was obtained.
• Precursor C-(A.4) was mixed with LiOH monohydrate to obtain a Li/(TM+AI) ratio of 1.03 and the mixture was heated in the same way as in Example 4. Comparative cathode active material C-CAM.4 was obtained.
• C-CAM.4 exhibits a lower capacity than CAM.4 and, in addition, a significantly higher amount of residual Li species.
• Example 5 was carried out in the same way as Example 4 but AI2O3, average particle diameter 6 nm, was added to obtain a concentration of 1.0 mole-% Al relative to Ni+Co+Mn+AI %. CAM.5 was obtained. Results are shown in Table 1 .
• Comparative Ex. 5 was carried out according to Comparative Example 4 but 1.0 mole-% of Al was added as sodium aluminate to the precursor during precipitation. Precursor C-(A.5) was obtained.
• Precursor C-(A.5) was mixed with LiOH monohydrate to obtain a Li/(TM+AI) ratio of 1.03 and the mixture was heated in the same way as in Example 4. Comparative cathode active material C-CAM.5 was obtained. Results are shown in Table 1 .
• PVdF polyvinylidene difluoride
• NEP N-ethylpyrrolidone
• BET surface area 62 m 2 /g, commercially available as "Super C 65” from Imerys, 0.133 g graphite, commercially available as "SFG6L” from Imerys, 2.02 g of additional NEP.
• Cathodes were prepared as follows: On a 20 ⁇ thick aluminum foil, the above paste was applied with a doctor blade until a thickness of about 28 ⁇ after drying (about 7.5 mg of active material/cm 2 . The electrode foil was calendered to a density of the coating layer of about 3 g/cm 3 . Disc-shaped cathodes with a diameter of 20 mm were punched out of the foil. The cathode discs were then weighed, dried for 16 hours in a vacuum oven at 105°C and introduced into an argon glove box without exposure to ambient air. Then, cells with the cathodes were built.
• Electrochemical testing was conducted in coin-type cells.
• the electrolyte used was 300 ⁇ of a 1 M solution of LiPF6 in dimethyl carbonate / ethylene carbonate (weight ratio 1 :1 ).
• Anode lithium, separated from the cathode by a glass-fiber separator.
• the 1 st cycle discharge capacity was determined at 0.1 C and 3.0 to 4.3V (mA-h/g)

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