Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • H10D—INORGANIC ELECTRIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
  • H10D84/00—Integrated devices formed in or on semiconductor substrates that comprise only semiconducting layers, e.g. on Si wafers or on GaAs-on-Si wafers
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • H10F—INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES SENSITIVE TO INFRARED RADIATION, LIGHT, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OF SHORTER WAVELENGTH OR CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
  • H10F77/00—Constructional details of devices covered by this subclass
  • H10F77/10—Semiconductor bodies
  • H10F77/14—Shape of semiconductor bodies; Shapes, relative sizes or dispositions of semiconductor regions within semiconductor bodies
  • H10F77/143—Shape of semiconductor bodies; Shapes, relative sizes or dispositions of semiconductor regions within semiconductor bodies comprising quantum structures
  • H10F77/1437—Quantum wires or nanorods
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B82—NANOTECHNOLOGY
  • B82Y—SPECIFIC USES OR APPLICATIONS OF NANOSTRUCTURES; MEASUREMENT OR ANALYSIS OF NANOSTRUCTURES; MANUFACTURE OR TREATMENT OF NANOSTRUCTURES
  • B82Y10/00—Nanotechnology for information processing, storage or transmission, e.g. quantum computing or single electron logic
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B82—NANOTECHNOLOGY
  • B82Y—SPECIFIC USES OR APPLICATIONS OF NANOSTRUCTURES; MEASUREMENT OR ANALYSIS OF NANOSTRUCTURES; MANUFACTURE OR TREATMENT OF NANOSTRUCTURES
  • B82Y30/00—Nanotechnology for materials or surface science, e.g. nanocomposites
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • H10F—INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES SENSITIVE TO INFRARED RADIATION, LIGHT, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OF SHORTER WAVELENGTH OR CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
  • H10F10/00—Individual photovoltaic cells, e.g. solar cells
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • H10F—INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES SENSITIVE TO INFRARED RADIATION, LIGHT, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OF SHORTER WAVELENGTH OR CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
  • H10F30/00—Individual radiation-sensitive semiconductor devices in which radiation controls the flow of current through the devices, e.g. photodetectors
  • H10F30/20—Individual radiation-sensitive semiconductor devices in which radiation controls the flow of current through the devices, e.g. photodetectors the devices having potential barriers, e.g. phototransistors
  • H10F30/21—Individual radiation-sensitive semiconductor devices in which radiation controls the flow of current through the devices, e.g. photodetectors the devices having potential barriers, e.g. phototransistors the devices being sensitive to infrared, visible or ultraviolet radiation
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
  • H10F—INORGANIC SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES SENSITIVE TO INFRARED RADIATION, LIGHT, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION OF SHORTER WAVELENGTH OR CORPUSCULAR RADIATION
  • H10F77/00—Constructional details of devices covered by this subclass
  • H10F77/10—Semiconductor bodies
  • H10F77/12—Active materials
  • H10F77/122—Active materials comprising only Group IV materials
• • B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
  • B82—NANOTECHNOLOGY
  • B82Y—SPECIFIC USES OR APPLICATIONS OF NANOSTRUCTURES; MEASUREMENT OR ANALYSIS OF NANOSTRUCTURES; MANUFACTURE OR TREATMENT OF NANOSTRUCTURES
  • B82Y20/00—Nanooptics, e.g. quantum optics or photonic crystals
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
  • Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy
  • Y02E10/547—Monocrystalline silicon PV cells
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
  • Y10S—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10S977/00—Nanotechnology
  • Y10S977/70—Nanostructure
  • Y10S977/762—Nanowire or quantum wire, i.e. axially elongated structure having two dimensions of 100 nm or less
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y10—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC
  • Y10T—TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER US CLASSIFICATION
  • Y10T428/00—Stock material or miscellaneous articles
  • Y10T428/29—Coated or structually defined flake, particle, cell, strand, strand portion, rod, filament, macroscopic fiber or mass thereof
  • Y10T428/2913—Rod, strand, filament or fiber
  • Y10T428/298—Physical dimension

Definitions

• the invention relates to optical materials and devices. More particularly, the invention relates to optical materials and devices in which interfacial mixing of electronic states occurs. Even more particularly, the invention relates to nano-wires comprising such optical materials.
• Optoelectronic devices such as solar cells, radiation detectors, and light emitting diodes, generally depend upon bulk effects of semiconducting materials. Under such conditions, a single band-gap is accessible, and the overall efficiency of such devices is thereby limited to an upper value. In other applications, such as radiation detectors or light emitting diodes, the band-gap determines the energy of either emission or detection. Solar cells having a single band-gap, for example, are limited to an efficiency of less than about 41 percent.
• the present invention meets these and other needs by providing an optoelectronic device in which electronic transitions that are considered to be weak in bulk materials are intentionally enhanced. These electronic states are accessed by mixing electronic states at an interface that may be formed in a nano-well, a nano-dot, or a nano-wire.
• the optoelectronic device comprises an intermediate band-gap material.
• one aspect of the invention is to provide an optoelectronic device.
• the device comprises: a transparent conductor; a solid conductor; and a material disposed between the transparent conductor and the solid conductor such that at least a portion of the material is in electrical contact with the transparent conductor and the solid conductor.
• the material comprises a material having a Fermi energy level.
• the material has mixed electronic states at an interface and a plurality of carrier pockets comprising an initial state that is below or within kT of the Fermi energy level and a second state that is greater than or within kT of the Fermi energy level, where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin.
• the material has a predetermined disruption of symmetry at the interface.
• a second aspect of the invention is to provide a material having enhanced electronic transitions.
• the material has a Fermi energy level.
• the intermediate band-gap material has mixed electronic states at an interface and a plurality of carrier pockets comprising an initial state that is below or within kT of the Fermi energy level and a second state that is greater than or within kT of the Fermi energy level, where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin.
• the intermediate band-gap material has a predetermined disruption of symmetry at the interface.
• a third aspect of the invention is to provide an optoelectronic device.
• the optoelectronic device comprises: a transparent conductor; a solid conductor; and a plurality of nano-wires disposed between the transparent conductor and the solid conductor such that at least a portion of the plurality of nano-wires is in electrical contact with the transparent conductor and the solid conductor.
• the plurality of nano- wires comprises a material having enhanced electronic transitions.
• the material has a Fermi energy level, mixed electronic states at an interface, and a plurality of carrier pockets comprising an initial state that is below or within kT of the Fermi energy level and a second state that is greater than or within kT of the Fermi energy level, wherein k is the Boltzmann constant and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin.
• the material has a predetermined disruption of symmetry at the interface, and each of the plurality of nano-wires has a direction in a predetermined crystallographic orientation.
• FIGURE 1 is a schematic representation of: a) nano-well; b) nano-dot; and c) nano-wire structures, showing the direction of the electric field that will induce mixing of states due to surface effects;
• FIGURE 2 is a schematic representation of: a) T valence band, F band, and ⁇ 012> orientation in bismuth; and b) the electronic band structure of bismuth; and
• FIGURE 3 is a schematic representation of the electronic band structure of zinc.
• an intermediate band may serve to capture sub-band-gap radiation, thereby increasing the range of energies of photons that produce a photocurrent. If free carriers live long enough in the intermediate level, a second photon can then excite the electron from the intermediate level to the band edge, thus increasing current with little or no loss to the open current voltage.
• a maximum efficiency of about 63% may be obtained by using the intermediate band.
• a band-gap of 1.95 eV and a defect level at either 0.71 eV or 1.24 eV is needed to achieve such efficiency. Efficiencies of greater than about 60% can be achieved, however, for a wide range of band-gaps.
• Nano-structured materials offer the opportunity of enhancing otherwise weak electronic transitions, thus allowing for more freedom in the design of detectors, emitters, and solar cells.
• new emission or detection energies are made accessible by mixing electronic states.
• the present invention provides emitters and detectors for wavelengths in the mid- and far-infrared (about lO ⁇ m); blue and near UV (about 310-420 nm); and red (about 550-700 nm).
• interface refers to any interruption in crystalline order. Examples of such interfaces include, but are not limited to, interfaces between crystalline planes, grain boundaries, phase boundaries, including interfaces between different crystalline phases, crystalline and amorphous materials, solid and gaseous phases, solid and liquid phases, and the like.
• ⁇ (x) and ⁇ 2 (x) are the time independent electronic wave functions and are products of the Bloch ( u nk (x) ) and envelope ( e lk ' x ) functions, so that
• V(x) e * "u nK (x) .
• equation (1) is no longer valid, and different wave functions can no longer be assumed to be orthogonal.
• the spatial overlap (V) between the wave functions then becomes Na
• V je' k ' ' ' x (x)e' k2' ' x (x)dx, (3)
• ft the crystal lattice momentum
• K the reciprocal lattice vector.
• the eigenvalues for the electronic wave functions are cosines and sines.
• Calculating the overlap function of two states leads to three possible combinations of sines and cosines: both wave functions are cosines; both wave functions are sines; and one wave function is a sine and one wave function is a cosine.
• V U- SIn(CK 2 + ft 2 )x)dx
• V Na K + k k' ⁇ 0 .
• the cosine terms in equation (6) are both 1 , and the integral a in equation (6) will be 0, which means that the states will not have enhanced coupling.
• the spatial overlap between the electronic state calculated by equation (6) is non-zero.
• equation (6) can be simplified to N Man V V K K 1 -- KK 2 A+- ⁇ Ir -- kIr 2 K K 1 A +- K K 2 A+- kIr ) t A +- kL- (7 ,
• a quantum dot, well, or wire In order to see quantum confinement effects, a quantum dot, well, or wire must have dimensions less than or on the order of both the de Broglie wavelength and the mean free path of the free carriers (or in some cases excitons).
• the mean free path In order to have significant mixing of bands at an interface requires only a large surface area to volume ratio, and does not require quantum confinement effects. Therefore, the only length scale requirement is the mean free path.
• the dimensions of the material can be larger than the de Broglie wavelength.
• the de Broglie wavelength is determined by the effective mass of the free carriers, which is deduced from the E vs. k relationship of the electronic energy bands.
• the mean free path depends on the material and the band of interest, as well as the defects, dopants, and temperature.
• the mean free path is on the order of microns, while the de Broglie length scale is usually in the tens of angstroms range and can be as high as around 500 A in materials with very small effective masses.
• utilizing this surface effect does not necessarily require dimensions as small as those effects resulting from quantum confinement. This point is critical for photovoltaic applications, as the cost of the cell increases when the dimensions of the device decrease.
• the mixing of states at a surface has many implications and the potential to impact many different applications. Accordingly, the invention provides a nano-wire solar cell that utilizes this effect to essentially create a double band gap material and thus increase the theoretical maximum photovoltaic efficiency.
• An intermediate band solar cell can be designed by utilizing the mixing of bulk states at an interface. In the design of an intermediate solar cell several aspects need to be considered.
• the nano-well 1 10 sample has both has a small cross sectional area for absorption and band mixing only for photons incident with the electric field in one direction (FIG. Ia).
• the electric field will always be perpendicular to an interface.
• Photovoltaic devices require conduction between a top electrode and a bottom electrode.
• Nano-dots 120 have the disadvantage that conduction takes place through tunneling or hopping. Hence, the free carrier mobility in nano-dots 120 is lower.
• Aligned nano- wires (FIG. Ic), on the other hand, satisfy both the requirement of a continuous conduction path and have all the incident photons with an electric field perpendicular to an interface.
• An optoelectronic device 130 such as a solar cell, LED, or the like, comprising a plurality of nano-wires 134 is schematically shown in FIG. Ic. Aligned nano-wires 134 are disposed between a transparent conductor 132 and a solid conductor 136. Transparent conductor 132 and solid conductor 136 are formed from materials that are known in the art. An insulating material 138 such as, for example, alumina, may be disposed between nano-wires 134.
• the material from which an intermediate band solar cell is formed also needs to be considered.
• a material in which both the conduction and intermediate band edges have acceptable energies should be chosen. That is, the energies of the intermediate band and the conduction band (relative to the valence band) have to be a combination in which high efficiencies can be obtained.
• a material in which the electronic energy bands of interest either do not have non-radiative recombination routes, or at least only very slow recombination routes, should be selected. For example, a saddle point in the E vs. k diagram could not be used as an intermediate band. Although this requirement immediately rules out some materials, only experimental evidence can conclusively prove the absence of non-radiative recombination routes.
• One material in which the energy levels are close to ideal for an intermediate band solar cell is silicon.
• the energy bands of interest in silicon do not have obvious non-radiative recombination routes between them.
• the gamma (F) to delta ( ⁇ ) indirect band-gap of silicon is 1.17 eV, whereas the T to L point transition is between about 1.65 eV and about 2.29 eV.
• the wire diameter In order to minimize the percentage of high-energy photons absorbed in the lower energy band-gap, the wire diameter must be small enough so that the absorption above the energy of the larger band-gap is dominated by the higher energy band. This enhancement of the higher energy band absorption will ensure that photons having energies greater than the larger of the two band-gaps will be absorbed into the high-energy band rather than the lower energy band, where the excess energy will be lost to radiation. [0040] Electrons (or holes) that are more than one mean free path away from the surface will not "see" the surface, and therefore will not experience the mixing of bulk states. The absorption coefficient will therefore simply be the bulk value at distances greater than a mean free path away from the surface.
• the effective absorption coefficient can be approximated by a weighted sum of the surface and bulk absorption coefficients.
• the estimated effective absorption coefficient is found by the integral
• the wire diameter required to sufficiently enhance the optical absorption from the high-energy band can be determined by equation (9).
• the mean free path of the higher order band, the absorption (related by the coupling) of the higher energy band in bulk, and possibly the mixing of the two states at an interface are usually unknown. Therefore, the wire diameter threshold will most likely need to be determined experimentally with guidance from theory.
• the direction of nano-wire 134 must also be carefully chosen.
• the direction of nano-wire 134 refers to the crystallographic orientation of nano-wire 134 along its major axis (i.e., length).
• the absorption of the larger energy band transition should be much stronger than the absorption coefficients of the two smaller energy band transitions when the absorption coefficients of the different band transitions overlap.
• the F-point valence band to L-point conduction band electronic transition needs to be enhanced.
• the F-point is ⁇ 000> in the Brillouin zone, whereas the L-point is four fold degenerate with electron pockets in the ⁇ 1 1 1>, ⁇ -l 1 1>, ⁇ 1-1 1>, and ⁇ 1 1-1> crystallographic directions.
• the surface normal In order for the surface of the nano-wire 334 to break the symmetry requirements of this transition, the surface normal must be parallel to a vector in the direction of the difference between the directions of the two high symmetry points.
• the nano-wire 334 direction must be perpendicular to either the ⁇ 111>, ⁇ -l l l>, ⁇ 1- 1 1>, or the ⁇ 1 1-1> crystallographic directions.
• h + k + l 0
• -h + k + l 0
• the nano- wire 334 should not be perpendicular to the direction of the difference between the F- point and the ⁇ -point so as to not enhance the electronic transition from the F-point valence band to the ⁇ -point intermediate band.
• the nano-wire 340 should not be perpendicular to the ⁇ 100>, ⁇ 010>, and ⁇ 001> crystallographic directions, which corresponds to the case where h ⁇ 0 , k ⁇ 0 , and / ⁇ 0 .
• Equation (10a) expresses the condition that the wire axis direction is perpendicular to the direction of the difference between the valence and conduction bands.
• Equation (10b) expresses the condition that the wire axis direction is not perpendicular to the difference between the valence and intermediate bands.
• Equation (10c) shows that, given equations (10a) and (10b), the axis direction of nano-wire 334 must also not be perpendicular to the difference of the valence and intermediate bands.
• silicon nano-wire directions that meet these requirements include the ⁇ 1-21 >, ⁇ 21 1>, ⁇ 121>, and ⁇ 1 12> directions. It should be noted that only one of the four F-point to L-point transitions are enhanced for a given wire direction.
• the invention explores a mechanism for enhancing the coupling of indirect transitions by forming a material with a large surface area.
• the enhancement is due to the breakdown of the orthogonality assumption routinely used to derive the E vs. k diagrams.
• the dimensions required to observe this effect are determined by the mean free path, unlike quantum effects, which are determined by the minimum of the mean free path and the de Broglie wavelength. Hence, this effect does not necessarily require nanostructured materials with dimensions as small as that required for quantum confinement effects.
• a model of this mechanism shows that when either the initial or the final state is a sine and the other state is a cosine, the number of atoms in the direction of a surface is odd, and one electronic state is at the zone boundary and the other state is at the zone center, the coupling between the bands is enhanced.
• the enhancement is only for photons having a component of the electric field perpendicular to the surface and those electronic transitions in which the direction of the surface allows for coupling.
• the enhancement is maximized for initial and final
• an intermediate band-gap solar cell shown in FIG. Ic.
• the device includes nano-wires 340 aligned in the ⁇ 121> direction.
• Nano-wires 340 comprise silicon.
• direction is perpendicular to the direction of the difference between the valence and conduction bands.
• Equation (10b) expresses the condition that the wire axis direction is not perpendicular to the difference between the valence and intermediate bands.
• Equation (10c) shows that, given equations (10a) and (10b), the axis direction of nano-wire 334 must also not be perpendicular to the difference of the valence and intermediate bands.
• silicon nano-wire directions that meet these requirements include the ⁇ 1-21>, ⁇ 21 1>, ⁇ 121>, and ⁇ 1 12> directions. It should be noted that only one of the four F-point to L-point transitions are enhanced for a given wire direction.
• the invention explores a mechanism for enhancing the coupling of indirect transitions by forming a material with a large surface area.
• the enhancement is due to the breakdown of the orthogonality assumption routinely used to derive the E vs. k diagrams.
• the dimensions required to observe this effect are determined by the mean free path, unlike quantum effects, which are determined by the minimum of the mean free path and the de Broglie wavelength. Hence, this effect does not necessarily require nanostructured materials with dimensions as small as that required for quantum confinement effects.
• a model of this mechanism shows that when either the initial or the final state is a sine and the other state is a cosine, the number of atoms in the direction of a surface is odd, and one electronic state is at the zone boundary and the other state is at the zone center, the coupling between the bands is enhanced.
• the enhancement is only for photons having a component of the electric field perpendicular to the surface and those electronic transitions in which the direction of the surface allows for coupling.
• the enhancement is maximized for initial and final
• the enhancement of absorption due to the mixing of states is then applied to photovoltaics.
• an intermediate band-gap solar cell shown in FIG. Ic.
• the device includes nano-wires 340 aligned in the ⁇ 121> direction. Nano-wires 340 comprise silicon.
• Bismuth is a narrow band gap semi-metal with a very unusual band structure, which is shown in FIG. 2b.
• the T point valence band crosses the Fermi energy (Ep) so the band edge is above the Fermi energy leaving lots of empty electron states (holes).
• the L point valence band edge is below the Fermi energy and is therefore mostly filled with electrons. Because both of these states are curved in the same direction (as opposed to a valence and conduction band pairs), the joint density of states is large. Furthermore, because there is a hole pocket at the T point and an electron pocket at the L point, many electrons can be excited from the L point valence band to the T point valence band. In bulk bismuth, however, this transition, which is predicted to be around 0.13 eV at room temperature, is indirect and weak.
• the strong coupling between the L and T points may be used as a method to produce a mid IR detector or emitter. Only the strong absorption was measured in bismuth nano-wires, whereas the luminescence and photo conductance has not yet been investigated. However, it is likely that bismuth nano-wires will also
• the 16 luminesce as a result of the L to T electronic transition and be useful in light emitting applications.
• the emission energy is expected near the 0.12 eV (10 ⁇ m) absorption peak, which is an important wavelength for environmental monitoring.
• the device In order to create vacancies at the lower energy state (L-point valence band), however, the device will likely have to be pumped to excite electrons from the L point valence band to the L point conduction band.
• Nano-wires have been previously made by electrochemically filling porous anodic alumina and a pressure injection technique. Because the absorption peak at 0.12 eV has been observed for nano-wires with a diameter as large as 200 nm, and because the wire diameter distribution can be large, easier fabrication techniques could be used.
• Anodic alumina templates for example, can be purchased with pore sizes between 200 and 50 nm.
• standard lithography techniques could be used to make arrays of bismuth nano-wires.
• arrays of nano-wires aligned in a specific direction, with a transparent top conductive contact 332 and a conductive back contact 336, are within the scope of the invention.
• Example 2 Red emitter using silicon nano-wires that utilize the effect of interface mixing
• Example 3 Intermediate band solar cell using silicon nano- wires utilizing interface mixing
• a wire in the ⁇ 1 1-2> direction would couple the F to L points and not the F to X points.
• the coupling strength increases.
• Nano-particles having a nano-dimension of about 5 nm and smaller have been previously found to be needed for photoluminescence.
• the nano-particles consisted of doped samples in which dopants were separated by a distance of about 5 nm. It is possible that the dopants scattered the electrons and thus effectively shielded the electrons from the interface.
• the critical diameter could be increased to make fabrication easier. If the diameter does indeed need to be near 6 nm, other fabrication techniques, such as using metallic nano-dots as a mask and etching the silicon with a reactive ion etch,
• Zinc is a metal with a rather complicated electronic band structure.
• the relevant bands are shown in FIG. 3. Based on the band diagram shown in FIG. 3, the transition between the T conduction band to L point conduction band in nanostructured zinc would be expected to exhibit strong absorption and luminescence due to interface mixing. As in bismuth, both the initial and final states are curved in the same direction, thus forming a large density of states. Also like in bismuth, one of the bands crosses the Fermi energy (E F ) making lots of states available for this electronic exciton. In the case of zinc, the T point conduction band crosses the Fermi energy, which leaves the band edge full of electrons. The L-point conduction band is above the Fermi energy and is thus full of empty states for the electrons to be excited into.
• E F Fermi energy
• the pockets are in the F and L point, so the interface needs to be in the ⁇ 1 11> direction.
• the energy of this transition is about 3 eV.

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