US20020015957A1 - Diagnostics and therapeutics for macular degeneration-related disorders - Google Patents

Diagnostics and therapeutics for macular degeneration-related disorders Download PDF

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US20020015957A1
US20020015957A1 US09/845,745 US84574501A US2002015957A1 US 20020015957 A1 US20020015957 A1 US 20020015957A1 US 84574501 A US84574501 A US 84574501A US 2002015957 A1 US2002015957 A1 US 2002015957A1
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complement
macular degeneration
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rpe
activity
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Gregory Hageman
Robert Mullins
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University of Iowa Research Foundation UIRF
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Priority to US09/949,261 priority patent/US20020102581A1/en
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Priority to US10/084,639 priority patent/US7011952B2/en
Priority to US10/419,305 priority patent/US7351524B2/en
Priority to US11/205,370 priority patent/US7344846B2/en
Priority to US11/443,696 priority patent/US20060263819A1/en
Priority to US11/827,822 priority patent/US20070274921A1/en
Priority to US12/026,420 priority patent/US7682804B2/en
Priority to US12/889,311 priority patent/US20110182908A1/en
Priority to US15/897,609 priority patent/US20180335436A1/en
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    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
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    • A61P27/00—Drugs for disorders of the senses
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    • C12Q1/6876—Nucleic acid products used in the analysis of nucleic acids, e.g. primers or probes
    • C12Q1/6883—Nucleic acid products used in the analysis of nucleic acids, e.g. primers or probes for diseases caused by alterations of genetic material
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
    • G01N33/00—Investigating or analysing materials by specific methods not covered by groups G01N1/00 - G01N31/00
    • G01N33/48—Biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Haemocytometers
    • G01N33/50—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing
    • G01N33/53—Immunoassay; Biospecific binding assay; Materials therefor
    • G01N33/564—Immunoassay; Biospecific binding assay; Materials therefor for pre-existing immune complex or autoimmune disease, i.e. systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid factors or complement components C1-C9
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
    • G01N33/00—Investigating or analysing materials by specific methods not covered by groups G01N1/00 - G01N31/00
    • G01N33/48—Biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Haemocytometers
    • G01N33/50—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing
    • G01N33/68—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing involving proteins, peptides or amino acids
    • G01N33/6893—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing involving proteins, peptides or amino acids related to diseases not provided for elsewhere
    • G01N33/6896—Neurological disorders, e.g. Alzheimer's disease
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K38/00—Medicinal preparations containing peptides
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    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K47/00—Medicinal preparations characterised by the non-active ingredients used, e.g. carriers or inert additives; Targeting or modifying agents chemically bound to the active ingredient
    • A61K47/46—Ingredients of undetermined constitution or reaction products thereof, e.g. skin, bone, milk, cotton fibre, eggshell, oxgall or plant extracts
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K51/00—Preparations containing radioactive substances for use in therapy or testing in vivo
    • A61K51/02—Preparations containing radioactive substances for use in therapy or testing in vivo characterised by the carrier, i.e. characterised by the agent or material covalently linked or complexing the radioactive nucleus
    • A61K51/04—Organic compounds
    • A61K51/08—Peptides, e.g. proteins, carriers being peptides, polyamino acids, proteins
    • A61K51/10—Antibodies or immunoglobulins; Fragments thereof, the carrier being an antibody, an immunoglobulin or a fragment thereof, e.g. a camelised human single domain antibody or the Fc fragment of an antibody
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    • C12Q2600/00—Oligonucleotides characterized by their use
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    • G01N2333/47—Assays involving proteins of known structure or function as defined in the subgroups
    • G01N2333/4701—Details
    • G01N2333/4716—Complement proteins, e.g. anaphylatoxin, C3a, C5a
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
    • G01N2800/00—Detection or diagnosis of diseases
    • G01N2800/16—Ophthalmology
    • G01N2800/164—Retinal disorders, e.g. retinopathy

Definitions

  • the invention relates in general to therapeutics and diagnostics for macular degeneration-related disorders or diseases.
  • the invention finds application in the biomedical sciences.
  • Macular degeneration is a clinical term that is used to describe a variety of diseases that are all characterized by a progressive loss of central vision associated with abnormalities of Bruch's membrane, the neural retina and the retinal pigment epithelium. These disorders include very common conditions that affect older subjects (age-related macular degeneration or AMD) as well as rarer, earlier-onset dystrophies that in some cases can be detected in the first decade of life.
  • AMD age-related macular degeneration
  • maculopathies include North Carolina macular dystrophy (Small, et al., 1993), Sorsby's fundus dystrophy (Capon, et al., 1989), Stargardt's disease (Parodi, 1994), pattern dystrophy (Marmor and Byers, 1977), Best disease (Stone, et al., 1992), dominant drusen (Deutman and Jansen, 1970), and radial drusen (“malattia leventinese”) (Heon, et al., 1996).
  • Drusen causes a lateral stretching of the RPE monolayer and physical displacement of the RPE from its immediate vascular supply, the choriocapillaris. This displacement creates a physical barrier that may impede normal metabolite and waste diffusion between the choriocapillaris and the retina.
  • the complement system consists of a group of globulins in the serum of humans (Hood, L. E. et al. 1984, Immunology, 2d Edition, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., Menlo Park, Calif., p. 339; See also, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,087,120 and 5,808,109).
  • Complement activation plays an important role in the mediation of immune and allergic reactions (Rapp, H. J. and Borsos, T., 1970, Molecular Basis of Complement Action, Appleton-Century-Crofts (Meredith), N.Y.).
  • complement components leads to the generation of a group of factors, including chemotactic peptides that mediate the inflammation associated with complement-dependent diseases.
  • the activities mediated by activated complement proteins include lysis of target cells, chemotaxis, opsonization, stimulation of vascular and other smooth muscle cells, degranulation of mast cells, increased permeability of small blood vessels, directed migration of leukocytes, and activation of B lymphocytes, macrophages and neutrophils (Eisen, H. N., 1974, Immunology, Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., Hagerstown, Md., p. 512).
  • complement activation There are three major pathways of complement activation. First, the “classical pathway,” which is activated by antibody/antigen binding. Second, the “lectin pathway” or “collecting pathway,” is activated by the binding of acute phase reactant mannose-binding protein (MBP; or mannose-binding lectin, MBL) to a complex carbohydrate. Third, the “alternative pathway,” which involves the recognition of certain polysaccharides (e.g., on microbial surface) and is activated by the presence of a specific substrate called C3bB, a complex of complement proteins. See, e.g., Cooper, Adv Immunol, 37(-HD-):151-216, 1985; Fearon & Austen, J. Exp. Med.
  • the major classical pathway components are designated C1q, C1r, C1s, C4, C2, C3, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9.
  • the main alternative pathway components are designated Factor B, Factor D, Properdin, H and I.
  • the lectin pathway components also include MASP-1 and MASP-2 (Thiel et al., Nature, 386:506-10, 1997). It is also known that more than one pathway can be involved in a single disease process, as in Alzheimer's disease (Akiyama et al., Neurobiol Aging, 21:383-421 2000).
  • Initiation of the classical pathway begins with antibody binding to a specific antigen.
  • C1q binds the altered Fe region of IgG or IgM that has bound antigen.
  • C1r activates C1s which initiates the activation unit by cleaving a peptide from both C4 and C2.
  • C1 s thus cleaves C4 into C4a and C4b and C2 into C2a and C2b.
  • C2a binds to C4b forming C4b2a.
  • C4b2a the C3 convertase, is a proteolytic enzyme. It cleaves C3 into C3b, which may bind to the activating surface, and C3a which is released into the fluid phase.
  • C3 convertase has the ability to cleave many C3 molecules. This could result in the deposition of a large number of C3b molecules on the activating surface. However, due to the labile nature of C3b, very few molecules actually bind. C4b2a3b, the C5 convertase, is formed when C3 is cleaved. C5 convertase, also an enzyme, can cleave many C5 molecules into C5a and C5b.
  • the alternative pathway provides natural, non-immune defense against microbial infections. In addition, this pathway amplifies antibody-antigen reactions.
  • Alternative pathway recognition occurs in the presence of C3b and an activating substance such as bacterial lipoprotein, surfaces of certain parasites, yeasts, viruses and other foreign body surfaces, such as biomaterials.
  • C3b originates from classical pathway activation and/or from natural spontaneous hydrolysis of C3.
  • the resulting C3b binds to the surface of the activating substance.
  • Factor B binds to the C3b which is bound to the activating surface.
  • Factor D then cleaves B, releasing the Ba fragment and forming C3bBb. Properdin stabilizes the C3bBb complex and protects it from decay.
  • C3bBbP is the alternative pathway convertase. It also has the ability to cleave many C3 molecules. Cleavage of C3 results in the formation of C3bBb3b, the C5 convertase. This enzyme is also stabilized by P to form C3bBb3bP. C5 convertase can cleave many molecules of C5 into C5a and C5b.
  • MBL Binding of MBL to carbohydrates triggers the lectin pathway.
  • MBL is structurally related to the complement C1, C1q, and seems to activate the complement system through an associated serine protease known as MASP-1 or p100, which is similar to C1r and C1s of the classical pathway.
  • MBL binds to specific carbohydrate structures found on the surface of a range of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts, parasitic protozoa and viruses, and exhibits antibacterial activity through killing mediated by the terminal, lytic complement components or by promoting phagocytosis.
  • the level of MBL in plasma is genetically determined, and deficiency is associated with frequent infections in childhood, and possibly also in adults.
  • MASP-2 MBL-associated serine protease
  • the membrane attack complex C5b-9 (also termed complement terminal complex, MAC, or SC5b-9) is common to the complement pathways (see, e.g., Morgan, Crit Rev Immunol, 19(3):173-98, 1999). It begins with the cleavage of C5 by C5 convertase generated during either classical or alternative pathway activation. When C5 is cleaved, C5a is released into the fluid phase while C5b attaches to the activating surface at a binding site distinct from that of C3b. One molecule each of C6 and C7 binds to C5b to form a stable trimolecular complex to which C8 binds. Then, up to 6 molecules of C9 can bind to C8 enhancing the effectiveness of the attack complex to induce membrane damage if the activating surface is a microorganism.
  • complement activation is not limited to membrane damage resulting from the attack complex.
  • the active peptides released in the course of complement activation contribute to the immune response by increasing vascular permeability and contraction of smooth muscle, promoting immune adherence, granulocyte and platelet aggregation, enhancing phagocytosis, and directing the migration of neutrophils (PMN) and macrophages to the site of inflammation.
  • PMN neutrophils
  • C3a and C5a The cleavage of C3 and C5 results in the release of two small biologically active peptides, C3a and C5a.
  • the peptides act as anaphylatoxins. They amplify the immune response by causing the release of histamine, slow releasing substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A), and heparin from basophils and mast cells. These substances increase capillary permeability and contraction of smooth muscle resulting in edema and inflammation.
  • C5a is a potent chemotactic factor. This mediator causes the directed migration of leukocytes including dendritic cells and monocytes to the site of inflammation so these leukocytes will phagocytize and clear immune complexes, bacteria and viruses from the system.
  • C3b or C4b deposited on a soluble immune complex or surface permit binding of complement receptors on PMN, macrophages, red blood cells and platelets.
  • C3b and C5b are considered opsonins as their presence results in more effective phagocytosis.
  • New diagnostics and therapeutics for macular degeneration-related disorders are needed. For example, there is currently no reliable biochemical or genetic means in routine use for diagnosing, e.g., AMD. In addition, there is no therapy currently in use that significantly slows the degenerative progression of AMD for the majority of subjects. Current AMD treatment is limited to laser photocoagulation of the subretinal neovascular membranes that occur in 10-15% of affected subjects. The latter may halt the progression of the disease but does not reverse the dysfunction, repair the damage, or improve vision.
  • the present inventions provides methods for diagnosing, or identifying a predisposition to the development of, a macular degeneration-related disorder in a subject by detecting in a biological sample from the subject an abnormal activity or an abnormal level of at least one complement pathway associated molecule, or an abnormal cellular activity mediated by the complement pathway.
  • the subject is free of complement related diseases other than macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • the detecting step also includes detecting at least one macular degeneration-associated genetic marker, drusen-associated phenotypic marker, or drusen-associated genotypic marker in the subject.
  • the detecting step further examines the subject with an ophthalmologic procedure.
  • the further examining step detects damages to the choriocapillaris of said subject.
  • Macular degeneration-related disorders that can be diagnosed with methods of the present invention include age-related macular disorder (AMD), North Carolina macular dystrophy, Sorsby's fundus dystrophy, Stargardt's disease, pattern dystrophy, Best disease, dominant drusen, and malattia leventinese.
  • AMD age-related macular disorder
  • Other diseases or disorders include retinal detachment, chorioretinal degenerations, retinal degenerations, photoreceptor degenerations, RPE degenerations, mucopolysaccharidoses, rod-cone dystrophies, cone-rod dystrophies, and cone degenerations.
  • Samples from the subject that can be used for the diagnostics of the present invention include eye fluid, urine, blood plasma, serum, or whole blood.
  • the diagnosis is directed to a serum autoantibody.
  • the autoantibody specifically binds to a complement pathway associated molecule, a RPE protein, a choroid protein (include proteins of the Bruch's membrane), a retina protein, circulating molecules or autoantigens that bind to these ocular tissues, or a neoantigen.
  • the abnormal activity to be detected is an abnormal level of a complement-pathway molecules.
  • the abnormal level to be detected is the level of complement pathway associated molecule such as haptoglobin, Ig kappa chain, Ig lambda chain, or Ig gamma chain.
  • the abnormal level to be detected is the expression level of clusterin, C6 or C5b-9 complex.
  • the abnormal activity of complement system to be detected is a variant form of a nucleic acid encoding a complement pathway associated protein.
  • the nucleic acid can be a mRNA, cDNA, or genomic DNA.
  • the variant nucleic acid can have a point mutation, a frameshift mutation, or a deletion relative to the wild type nucleic acid.
  • the variant nucleic acid is detected by measuring levels of complement pathway associated molecule or complement activities in urine, blood plasma, serum, whole blood sample, or eye fluid from the subject.
  • the complement activities are detected by a hemolysis assay, T cell proliferative assay, or an immunological assay.
  • the present invention also provides methods for treating or preventing the development of a macular degeneration in a subject suffering from or at risk of developing a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • the methods comprise administering to the subject an effective amount of a therapeutic agent which modulates an activity or level of at least one complement pathway associated molecule, or a cellular activity mediated by the complement pathway.
  • the subject has a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • the subject is at risk of developing a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • the subject is free of complement-related diseases other than macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • the diseases or disorders that can be treated with the methods of the present invention include age-related macular disorder, North Carolina macular dystrophy, Sorsby's fundus dystrophy, Stargardt's disease, pattern dystrophy, Best disease, dominant drusen, and malattia leventinese. They also include retinal detachment, chorioretinal degenerations, retinal degenerations, photoreceptor degenerations, RPE degenerations, mucopolysaccharidoses, rod-cone dystrophies, cone-rod dystrophies, and cone degenerations.
  • the therapeutic agent modulates level of a complement pathway associated molecule.
  • the complement pathway associated molecule whose level is to be modulated is anaphylatoxin C3a, anaphylatoxin C5a, C6, clusterin, haptoglobin, Ig kappa chain, Ig lambda chain, or Ig gamma chain.
  • the agent modulates protein level of said complement pathway associated molecule. Some methods further comprise detecting the level with urine, blood plasma, serum, whole blood, or eye fluid from the subject.
  • the therapeutic agents modulates an enzymatic activity of a complement protein or a complement pathway associated molecule.
  • the enzymatic activity to be modulated is catalysis of conversion of C3 into C3a and C3b, conversion of C5 into C5a and C5b, or cleavage of Factor B into Ba and Bb.
  • Some methods further comprise detecting the enzymatic activity by a hemolytic assay or an immunological assay.
  • the enzymatic activity is detected with urine, blood plasma, serum, whole blood, or eye fluid from the subject.
  • the therapeutic agents modulates a cellular activity responsive to or mediated by the activated complement system.
  • the cellular activity to be modulated is cell lysis.
  • Some methods further comprise detecting the cellular activity by, e.g., a hemolysis assay.
  • the cellular activity is detected with urine, blood plasma, serum, whole blood, or eye fluid from the subject.
  • FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of the retina and choroid, as seen in (A) histologic section, and (B) retinal neurons shown diagrammatically.
  • A amacrine cells
  • B bipolar cells
  • BM Bruch's membrane
  • C cone cells
  • CC choriocapillaris
  • ELM external limiting membrane
  • G ganglion cells
  • GCL ganglion cell layer
  • H horizontal cells
  • ILM inner limiting membrane
  • INL internal nuclear layer
  • IPM interphotoreceptor matrix
  • IS inner segments of rods and cones
  • IPL internal plexiform layer
  • NFL nerve fiber layer
  • ONL outer nuclear layer
  • OPL outer plexiform layer
  • OS outer segments of rods and cones
  • PE pigment epithelium
  • PRL photoreceptor layer
  • PT photorecptor cell terminals
  • R rod cells
  • ST stroma vascularis of choroid.
  • FIG. 2 shows distribution and intensity of C5b-9 in the RPE-choroid of human donor eyes.
  • FIG. 3 shows capture ELISA measurements of C5b-9 levels in cytosolic and membrane fractions of isolated human RPE cells from four human donor eyes.
  • FIG. 4 shows capture ELISA measurements of C5b-9 levels in cytosolic and membrane fractions of human chorioids from 5 donors.
  • the membrane-associated fractions consistently exhibit the highest levels of C5b-9 in these preparations, indicating that a significant proportion of complexes are inserted into plasma membranes of resident and/or transient choroidal cells.
  • FIG. 5 provides confirmation of capture ELISA results using standard ELISA methodology. Tissues from the following 5 donors (2 of them with AMD) were employed in these experiments: 364-00 78 CM 409-00 10 CF 457-00 89 CF AMD 243-00 80 CF 239-00 80 CF AMD with CNV (choroidal neovascularization)
  • the present invention provides methods for diagnosis of macular degeneration-related disorders, and for prevention and treatment of such disorders.
  • the invention is predicated in part on the discovery that the complement system is locally active, especially at the RPE-choroid interface in macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • the methods work by detecting an abnormal activity or level associated with at least one complement pathway associated molecule.
  • the presence of abnormal complement activity or abnormal levels in a biological sample from a subject can be indicative of the existence of, or a predisposition to developing, various macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • Such disorders or disease include, e.g., age-related macular disorder (AMD), North Carolina macular dystrophy, Sorsby's fundus dystrophy, Stargardt's disease, pattern dystrophy, Best disease, dominant drusen, and malattia leventinese.
  • AMD age-related macular disorder
  • Other macular degeneration-related ocular diseases that can be diagnosed or treated with the methods include, e.g., retinal detachment, chorioretinal degenerations, retinal degenerations, photoreceptor degenerations, RPE degenerations, mucopolysaccharidoses, rod-cone dystrophies, cone-rod dystrophies, and cone degenerations.
  • the methods are suitable for large scale screening of a population of subjects for the presence of these macular degeneration-related disorders, optionally, in conjunction with additional biochemical and/or genetic markers of other disorders that may reside in the subjects.
  • the methods are also suitable for monitoring subjects who have previously been diagnosed with a macular degeneration-related disorder, particularly their response to treatment.
  • Methods of analyzing abnormal complement activities or abnormal levels can be performed in combination, optionally in further combination with detecting other genetic, phenotypic, or genotypic markers correlated with macular degeneration-related disorders or drusen-associated diseases, as described by WO 00/52479.
  • analysis of phenotypic markers can be combined with polymorphic analysis of genes encoding complement pathway molecules for polymorphisms correlated with the macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • agent includes any substance, molecule, element, compound, entity, or a combination thereof. It includes, but is not limited to, e.g., protein, oligopeptide, small organic molecule, polysaccharide, polynucleotide, and the like. It can be a natural product, a synthetic compound, or a chemical compound, or a combination of two or more substances. Unless otherwise specified, the terms “agent”, “substance”, and “compound” can be used interchangeably.
  • agonist is an agent that enhances or upregulates (e.g., potentiates or supplements) the production or activity of a gene product.
  • An agonist can also be a compound which increases the interaction of a gene product, molecule or cell with another gene product, molecule or cell, e.g., of a gene product with another homologous or heterologous gene product, or of a gene product with its receptor.
  • a preferred agonist is a compound which enhances or increases binding or activation of a transcription factor to an upstream region of a gene and thereby activates the gene.
  • Any agent that activates gene expression, e.g., by increasing RNA or protein synthesis or decreasing RNA or protein turnover, or gene product activity may be an agonist whether the agent acts directly on the gene or gene product or acts indirectly, e.g., upstream in the gene regulation pathway.
  • Agonists may be RNAs, peptides, antibodies and small molecules, or a combination thereof.
  • the term “antagonist” is an agent that downregulates (e.g., suppresses or inhibits) the production or activity of a gene product.
  • Such an antagonist can be an agent which inhibits or decreases the interaction between a gene product, molecule or cell and another gene product, molecule or cell.
  • a preferred antagonist is a compound which inhibits or decreases binding or activation of a transcription factor to an upstream region of a gene and thereby blocks activation of the gene.
  • Any agent that inhibits gene expression or gene product activity may be an antagonist whether the agent acts directly on the gene or gene product or acts indirectly, e.g., upstream in the gene regulation pathway.
  • An antagonist can also be a compound that downregulates expression of a gene or which reduces the amount of gene product present, e.g., by decreasing RNA or protein synthesis or increasing RNA or protein turnover.
  • Antagonists may be RNAs, peptides, antibodies and small molecules, or a combination thereof.
  • antibody or “immunoglobulin” is used to include intact antibodies and binding fragments thereof. Typically, fragments compete with the intact antibody from which they were derived for specific binding to an antigen fragments including separate heavy chains, light chains Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)2, Fabc, and Fv. Fragments are produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or by enzymatic or chemical separation of intact immunoglobulins.
  • antibody also includes one or more immunoglobulin chain that are chemically conjugated to, or expressed as, fusion proteins with other proteins.
  • antibody also includes bispecific antibody. A bispecific or bifunctional antibody is an artificial hybrid antibody having two different heavy/light chain pairs and two different binding sites.
  • Bispecific antibodies can be produced by a variety of methods including fusion of hybridomas or linking of Fab′ fragments. See, e.g., Songsivilai & Lachmann, Clin. Exp. Immunol. 79:315-321 (1990); Kostelny et al., J. Immunol. 148, 1547-1553 (1992).
  • antisense molecules include antisense or sense oligonucleotides comprising a single-stranded nucleic acid sequence (either RNA or DNA) capable of binding to target mRNA (sense) or DNA (antisense) sequences for a specific protein (e.g., a complement pathway molecule).
  • a specific protein e.g., a complement pathway molecule.
  • the ability to derive an antisense or a sense oligonucleotide, based upon a cDNA sequence encoding a given protein is described in, e.g., Stein and Cohen (Cancer Res. 48:2659, 1988) and van der Krol et al. (BioTechniques 6:958, 1988).
  • complement activity broadly encompasses the biochemical and physiological activities associated with the complement system, individual complement pathway associated molecules, as well as genes encoding these molecules. Therefore, complement activities include, e.g., structure and expression of a gene encoding a complement pathway molecule, biochemical activity (e.g., enzymatic or regulatory) of a complement pathway molecule, cellular activities that initiate or result from activation of the complement system, and presence of serum autoantibodies against complement pathway molecules.
  • complement components or “complement proteins” refers to the molecules that are involved in activation of the complement system.
  • the classical pathway components include, e.g., C1q, C1r, C1s, C4, C2, C3, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, and C5b-9 complex (membrane attack complex: MAC).
  • the alternative pathway components include, e.g., Factor B, Factor D, Properdin, H and I.
  • the main lectin pathway component is mannose-binding protein (MBP).
  • complement pathway associated molecules refers to the various molecules that play a role in complement activation and the downstream cellular activities mediated by, responsive to, or triggered by the activated complement system.
  • complement pathways i.e., molecules that directly or indirectly triggers the activation of complement system
  • molecules that are produced or play a role during complement activation e.g., complement proteins/enzymes such as C3, C5, C5b-9, Factor B, MASP-1, and MASP-2
  • complement receptors or inhibitors e.g., clusterin, vitronectin, CR1, or CD59
  • molecules regulated or triggered by the activated complement system e.g., membrane attack complex-inhibitory factor, MACIF; see, e.g., Sugita et al., J Biochem, 106:589-92, 1989).
  • MACIF membrane attack complex-inhibitory factor
  • complement pathway associated molecules also include, e.g., C3/C5 convertase regulators (RCA) such as complement receptor type 1 (also termed CR1 or CD35), complement receptor type 2 (also termed CR2 or CD21), membrane cofactor protein (MCP or CD46), and C4bBP; MAC regulators such as vitronectin, clusterin (also termed “SP40, 40”), CRP, CD59, and homologous restriction factor (HRF); immunoglobulin chains such as Ig kappa, Ig lambda, or Ig gamma); C1 inhibitor; and other proteins such as CR3, CR4 (CD11 b/18), and DAF (CD 55).
  • C3/C5 convertase regulators such as complement receptor type 1 (also termed CR1 or CD35), complement receptor type 2 (also termed CR2 or CD21), membrane cofactor protein (MCP or CD46), and C4bBP
  • MAC regulators such as vitronectin, clusterin (also termed “SP40
  • a “detectable label” refers to an atom (e.g., radionuclide), molecule (e.g., fluorescein), or complex, that is or can be used to detect (e.g., due to a physical or chemical property) the presence of another molecule.
  • label also refers to covalently bound or otherwise associated molecules (e.g., a biomolecule such as an enzyme) that act on a substrate to produce a detectable atom, molecule or complex.
  • Detectable labels suitable for use in the present invention include any composition detectable by spectroscopic, photochemical, biochemical, immunochemical, electrical, optical, chemical means and the like.
  • drusen refers to deposits that accumulate between the RPE basal lamina and the inner collagenous layer of Bruch's membrane (see, e.g., van der Schaft et al., Ophthalmol. 99: 278-86, 1992; Spraul et al. Arch. Ophthalmol. 115: 267-73, 1997; and Mullins et al., Histochemical comparison of ocular “drusen” in monkey and human , In M. LaVail, J. Hollyfield, and R. Anderson (Eds.), in Degenerative Retinal Diseases (pp. 1-10). New York: Plenum Press, 1997).
  • Hard drusen are small distinct deposits comprising homogeneous eosinophilic material and are usually round or hemispherical, without sloped borders. Soft drusen are larger, usually not homogeneous, and typically contain inclusions and spherical profiles. Some drusen may be calcified.
  • the term “diffuse drusen,” or “basal linear deposit,” is used to describe amorphous material which forms a layer between the inner collagenous layer of Bruch's membrane and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). This material can appear similar to soft drusen histologically, with the exception that it is not mounded.
  • drusen-associated disease refers to any disease in which formation of drusen or drusen-like extracellular disease plaque takes place, and for which drusen or drusen-like extracellular disease plaque causes or contributes thereto or represent a sign thereof.
  • Drusen-associated disease or disorder primarily includes macular degeneration-related disorders wherein drusen is present. But it also encompasses non-ocular age-related diseases with extracellular disease plaques such as amyloidosis, elastosis, dense deposit disease, and/or atherosclerosis.
  • the term also includes glomerulonephritis (e.g., membranous and post-streptococcal/segmental which have associated ocular drusen).
  • epitopes or “antigenic determinant” refers to a site on an antigen to which B and/or T cells respond.
  • B-cell epitopes can be formed both from contiguous amino acids or noncontiguous amino acids juxtaposed by tertiary folding of a protein. Epitopes formed from contiguous amino acids are typically retained on exposure to denaturing solvents whereas epitopes formed by tertiary folding are typically lost on treatment with denaturing solvents.
  • An epitope typically includes at least 3, and more usually, at least 5 or 8-10 amino acids in a unique spatial conformation. Methods of determining spatial conformation of epitopes include, for example, x-ray crystallography and 2-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance.
  • T-cells recognize continuous epitopes of about nine amino acids for CD8 cells or about 13-15 amino acids for CD4 cells.
  • T cells that recognize the epitope can be identified by in vitro assays that measure antigen-dependent proliferation, as determined by 3H-thymidine incorporation by primed T cells in response to an epitope (Burke et al., J. Inf. Dis. 170, 1110-19 (1994)), by antigen-dependent killing (cytotoxic T lymphocyte assay, Tigges et al., J. Immunol. 156, 3901-3910) or by cytokine secretion.
  • fusion protein refers to a composite polypeptide, i.e., a single contiguous amino acid sequence, made up of two (or more) distinct, heterologous polypeptides which are not normally fused together in a single amino acid sequence.
  • a fusion protein can include a single amino acid sequence that contains two entirely distinct amino acid sequences or two similar or identical polypeptide sequences, provided that these sequences are not normally found together in the same configuration in a single amino acid sequence found in nature.
  • Fusion proteins can generally be prepared using either recombinant nucleic acid methods, i.e., as a result of transcription and translation of a recombinant gene fusion product, which fusion comprises a segment encoding a polypeptide of the invention and a segment encoding a heterologous polypeptide, or by chemical synthesis methods well known in the art.
  • macular degeneration-related disorder refers to any of a number of conditions in which the retinal macula degenerates or becomes dysfunctional, e.g., as a consequence of decreased growth of cells of the macula, increased death or rearrangement of the cells of the macula (e.g., RPE cells), loss of normal biological function, or a combination of these events.
  • Macular degeneration results in the loss of integrity of the histoarchitecture of the cells and/or extracellular matrix of the normal macula and/or the loss of function of the cells of the macula.
  • macular degeneration-related disorder examples include AMD, North Carolina macular dystrophy, Sorsby's fundus dystrophy, Stargardt's disease, pattern dystrophy, Best disease, dominant drusen, and malattia leventinese (radial drusen).
  • AMD North Carolina macular dystrophy
  • Sorsby's fundus dystrophy Stargardt's disease
  • pattern dystrophy Best disease
  • dominant drusen radial drusen
  • malattia leventinese radial drusen
  • macular degeneration-related disorder also broadly includes any condition which alters or damages the integrity or function of the macula (e.g., damage to the RPE or Bruch's membrane).
  • the term encompasses retinal detachment, chorioretinal degenerations, retinal degenerations, photoreceptor degenerations, RPE degenerations, mucopolysaccharidoses, rod-cone dystrophies, cone-rod dystrophies and cone degenerations.
  • modulation refers to both upregulation (i.e., activation or stimulation (e.g., by agonizing or potentiating) and downregulation (i.e., inhibition or suppression (e.g., by antagonizing, decreasing or inhibiting)) of an activity or a biological process (e.g., complement process).
  • upregulation i.e., activation or stimulation (e.g., by agonizing or potentiating) and downregulation (i.e., inhibition or suppression (e.g., by antagonizing, decreasing or inhibiting)
  • a biological process e.g., complement process.
  • “Modulates” or “alters” is intended to describe both the upregulation or downregulation of a process.
  • a process which is upregulated by a certain stimulant may be inhibited by an antagonist to that stimulant.
  • a process that is downregulated by a certain stimulant may be inhibited by an antagonist to that stimulant.
  • each nucleic acid and peptide consists of essentially random nucleotides and amino acids, respectively. Since generally these random peptides (or nucleic acids, discussed below) are chemically synthesized, they may incorporate any nucleotide or amino acid at any position.
  • the synthetic process can be designed to generate randomized proteins or nucleic acids, to allow the formation of all or most of the possible combinations over the length of the sequence, thus forming a library of randomized proteinaceous test agents.
  • the library can be fully randomized, with no sequence preferences or constants at any position.
  • Specific binding between two entities means an affinity of at least 10 6 , 10 7 , 10 8 , 10 9 M-1, or 10 10 M-1. Affinities greater than 10 8 M-1 are preferred.
  • a “subject” includes both humans and other animals (particularly mammals) and other organisms that receive either prophylactic or therapeutic treatment.
  • test agent as used herein describes any molecule, e.g., protein, oligopeptide, small organic molecule, polysaccharide, polynucleotide, etc., that can be screened for their capability of directly or indirectly altering the bioactivities of a complement pathway molecule.
  • a “variant” refers to a polypeptide amino acid sequence that is altered by one or more amino acid residues relative to the wild type sequence, or a polynucleotide sequence that is altered by one or more nucleotide residue relative to the wild type sequence.
  • the term “analog” can be used interchangeably with “variant”.
  • a variant can be an allelic variant, a species variant, or an induced variant.
  • the variant can have “conservative” changes, wherein a substituted amino acid has similar structural or chemical properties (e.g., replacement of leucine with isoleucine).
  • a variant can have “nonconservative” changes (e.g., replacement of glycine with tryptophan).
  • Analogous minor variations can also include amino acid deletions or insertions, or both.
  • Guidance in determining which amino acid residues can be substituted, inserted, or deleted without abolishing biological or immunological activity can be found using computer programs well known in the art, for example, LASERGENETM software.
  • complement C5b-9 complex also termed the terminal complex or the membrane attack complex (MAC) plays an important role in cell death by inducing membrane permeability damages.
  • MAC membrane attack complex
  • the present inventor has discovered that the complement process is associated with the development of drusen and the etiology of macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • Numerous complement pathway proteins including the MAC are found to be associated with drusen, Bruch's membrane, the basal surface of the RPE, and/or the sub-RPE space by immunohistochemical and biochemical studies (Tables 1 and 2).
  • drusen composition has revealed the presence of components of the complement system, such as complements 3, 5 and 9, C5b-9 terminal complexes, and C-reactive protein (CRP; a serum protein that plays a role in complement activation and immunomodulation; Volanakis, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 389:235-50; 1982; and Kilpatricket al., J. Immunol., 134: 3364, 1985).
  • CRP C-reactive protein
  • the present inventor also discovered that other molecules which are involved in the complement process are also present in drusen, e.g., regulators of complement system including CR1 (Ng et al., Clin Exp Immunol.
  • Additional complement pathway-associated molecules localized in Bruch's membrane and/or drusen include C3d, C6, C7, C8, C9, Factor D, Factor H, Factor I, Factor B, clusterin, and mannose binding protein. Further, some complement pathway-associated molecules such as CD21, CD35, CD55/decay accelerating factor, and CD59/protectin, are present in the basal surface of the RPE.
  • complement pathway molecules e.g., complement 6, clusterin
  • immune system-associated molecules including Ig mu, lambda, J, and kappa chains
  • Another indicator of abnormal complement activity is the presence or increased levels of autoantibodies against various macular degeneration-associated autoantigens.
  • Some autoantibodies have been detected in the sera of AMD subjects (Guerne et al., Ophthalmology, 1991. 98: 602-7; Penfold et al., Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol., 1990. 228: 270-4).
  • Further macular degeneration-associated autoantigens identified by the present inventors include complement pathway molecules and various proteins from RPE, choroid, and retina. As discussed in the Examples, autoantibodies against these macular degeneration-associated autoantigens were found in serum of patients with macular degeneration-related disorders (e.g., AMD and Malattia Leventinese).
  • autoantibodies against complement pathway associated molecules include autoantibodies against vitronectin (Example 10).
  • autoantibodies against RPE, choroid, or retina proteins include autoantibodies against ⁇ crystallin (A2, A3, A4, and S), calreticulin, 14-3-3 protein epsilon, serotransferrin, albumin, keratin, pyruvate carboxylase, villin 2 (Example 11), as well as a number of other proteins (Example 12).
  • macular degeneration-related disorders e.g., AMD
  • specific genetic loci that cause macular degeneration-related disorders e.g., AMD
  • AMD can be identified by further analysis and identification of the various macular degeneration-associated antoantigens.
  • the present inventors also discovered that a number of messengers for the complement pathway associated molecules detected in drusen and Bruch's membrane are produced locally by specific ocular cells (see, e.g., Examples 3 and 4). These molecules include, e.g., complements 3, 5 and 9, CRP, immunoglobulin lambda and kappa light chains, Factor X, HLA-DR, apolipoprotein A, apolipoprotein E, amyloid A, and vitronectin.
  • C3 and C5 are synthesized by the RPE as are APP, clusterin, and Factor H.
  • the present inventor has also discovered that there is a strong correlation between intensity and distribution of complement components (e.g., C5b-9 complex) in the RPE-choroid (especially in the interface) and AMD (see, e.g., Example 2).
  • complement components e.g., C5b-9 complex
  • AMD e.g., adenosine-phosphate
  • C5b-9 complexes were associated with RPE and choroidal cell membranes, as compared to older, age-matched donors without a diagnosis of AMD (2 of 10 donors).
  • C5b-9 complexes are associated with RPE and choroidal cell membranes
  • these data indicate that the choriocapillaris of AMD subjects can be under more rigorous attack than that of individuals without AMD.
  • the distribution of immunoreactive C5b-9 and detectable levels of C5b-9 in the samples from AMD donors indicate that complement pathway inhibitors such as clusterin, vitronectin CD56 and CD55 may fail to suppress the terminal pathway, thereby permitting formation of MAC.
  • Complement-mediated damage to the choriocapillaris can lead to abnormal responses by the choroid (e.g., inflammation, cytokine secretion, neovascularization) and/or choriocapillaris cell death. These events, in turn, can lead to further dysfunction and death of surrounding cells, including the RPE and choroid, and the biogenesis of drusen. Indeed, the present inventors have discovered that MAC is inserted into the cell membranes of both choroidal and RPE cells (see, e.g., Examples 2 and 3). Similar processes are also active in other diseases, including atherosclerosis and Alzheimer disease.
  • the present invention provides methods for diagnosing, or determining a predisposition to development of, a macular degeneration-related disorder by detecting abnormal levels or abnormal activities of complement pathway associated molecules, or abnormal cellular activities associated with complement pathways.
  • the complement pathway-associated molecules include initiators of complement pathways, i.e., any molecule which directly or indirectly triggers the activation of complement system through any of the three complement pathways, such as autoantigens, autoantibodies, immune complexes, or MBL.
  • complement proteins/enzymes e.g., C3, C5, C5b-9, Factor B, MASP-1, and MASP-2
  • receptors or inhibitors e.g., vitronectin, CR1, and vitronectin
  • the complement pathway associated molecules that can be diagnosed with methods of the present invention also include molecules that regulated by the activated complement system (e.g., MACIF).
  • Cellular activities regulated by the activated complement system include, e.g., cell damage resulting from the C5b-9 attack complex, vascular permeability changes, contraction and migration of smooth muscle cells, T cell proliferation, immune adherence, aggregation of dendritic cells, monocytes, granulocyte and platelet, phagocytosis, migration and activation of neutrophils (PMN) and macrophages.
  • the diagnostic methods of the present invention encompass detection of abnormality in any of these complement pathway associated molecules or cellular activities. Further, the diagnostic methods of the present invention are also directed to detecting abnormal levels of activities of molecules that are directly up-regulated or down-regulated by the complement system.
  • a diagnostic test works by comparing a measured level of at least one complement pathway molecule (expression level or a biochemical activity) in a subject with a baseline level determined in a control population of subjects unaffected by a macular degeneration-related disorder. If the measured level does not differ significantly from baselines levels in a control population, the outcome of the diagnostic test is considered negative. On the other hand, if there is a significant departure between the measured level in a subject and baseline levels in unaffected subjects, it signals a positive outcome of the diagnostic test, and the subject is considered to have an abnormal level or activity of that complement pathway molecule.
  • a departure is considered significant if the measured value falls outside the range typically observed in unaffected subjects due to inherent variation between subjects and experimental error. For example, in some methods, a departure can be considered significant if a measured level does not fall within the mean plus one standard deviation of levels in a control population. Typically, a significant departure occurs if the difference between the measured level and baseline levels is at least 20%, 30%, or 40%. Preferably, the difference is by at least 50% or 60%. More preferably, the difference is more than at least 70% or 80%. Most preferably, the difference is by at least 90%. The extent of departure between a measured value and a baseline value in a control population also provides an indicator of the probable accuracy of the diagnosis, and/or of the severity of the disease being suffered by the subject.
  • tissue samples from a subject can be used for the detection, e.g., samples obtained from any organ, tissue, or cells, as well as blood, urine, or other bodily fluids (e.g., eye fluid),.
  • a preferred sample is eye fluid.
  • a preferred tissue sample is whole blood and products derived therefrom, such as plasma and serum.
  • Blood samples can be obtained from blood-spot taken from, for example, a Guthrie card.
  • Other sources of tissue samples are skin, hair, urine, saliva, semen, feces, sweat, milk, amniotic fluid, liver, heart, muscle, kidney and other body organs.
  • Others sources of tissue are cell lines propagated from primary cells from a subject. Tissue samples are typically lysed to release the protein and/or nucleic acid content of cells within the samples. The protein or nucleic acid fraction from such crude lysates can then be subject to partial or complete purification before analysis.
  • multiple diagnostic tests for multiple markers are performed on the same subject. Typically, multiple tests are performed on different aliquots of the same biological sample. However, multiple assays can also be performed on separate samples from the same tissue source, or on multiple samples from different tissue sources. For example, a test for one marker can be performed on a plasma sample, and a test for a second marker on a whole blood sample. In some methods, multiple samples are obtained from the same subject at different time points. In such methods, the multiple samples are typically from the same tissue, for example, all serum.
  • the present invention provides methods for detecting abnormal levels of complement pathway associated molecules that are indicative of the presence or a predisposition to development of a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • Either abnormal levels of complement pathway-associated proteins or abnormal levels of mRNAs encoding the complement pathway-associated proteins can be detected.
  • abnormal levels of complement proteins e.g., C6, C3, C5, C6
  • other complement pathway molecules e.g., clusterin, CRP, or Ig chains
  • Either abnormal mRNA levels or abnormal protein levels can be detected.
  • the abnormal expression can be either upregulation or downregulation.
  • levels of the complement components or split products generated in the activation of the alternative or classical pathway can be measured as described, e.g., in Buyon et al., Arthritis Rheum, 35:1028-37, 1992 (e.g., plasma levels of Ba, Bb, SC5b-9, and C4d); Langlois et al., J Allergy Clin Immunol, 83:11-6, 1989 (serum levels of C3a, C4a, C5a, C1rC1s-C1-inhibitor complex, and terminal C complex C5b-9), and Caraher et al., J Endocrinol, 162:143-53, 1999.
  • RNAs encoding complement pathway molecules there are a number of methods available for detecting abnormal levels in a biological sample from a subject. Nucleic acids obtained from a biological sample of the subject can be amplified first. Amplification techniques are known to those of skill in the art and include, but are not limited to cloning, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), polymerase chain reaction of specific alleles (ASA), ligase chain reaction (LCR), nested polymerase chain reaction, self sustained sequence replication (Guatelli, J. C. et al., 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1874-1878), transcriptional amplification system (Kwoh, D. Y.
  • the present invention provides methods for diagnosing, or determining a predisposition to development of, a macular degeneration-related disorder by detecting a variant form of at least one nucleic acid molecule encoding a complement pathway associated molecule or an autoantigen (e.g., RPE proteins, choroidal proteins, retinal proteins, or autoantigens from other tissues that bind to the ocular tissues).
  • the nucleic acids can be, e.g., genomic DNA, cDNA, or mRNA.
  • the variant nucleic acid can have point mutations, frameshift mutations, or deletions.
  • the variant nucleic acid can have the wild-type sequence except for a single nucleotide polymorphism.
  • a variety of means are currently available for detecting variant genes or nucleic acids. For example, many methods are available for detecting specific alleles at human polymorphic loci. For example, single nucleotide polymorphism in complement pathway genes can be detected as described, e.g., in Mundy et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,127; Cohen et al., French Patent 2,650,840; and WO91/02087). Additional procedures for assaying polymorphic sites in DNA have been described in Komher, J. S. et al., Nucl. Acids. Res. 17:7779-7784 (1989); Sokolov, B. P., Nucl. Acids Res.
  • RNA/RNA or RNA/DNA or DNA/DNA heteroduplexes can be detected as described, e.g., in Myers, et al., Science 230:1242, 1985.
  • sequencing reactions can be used to directly sequence the allele.
  • Exemplary sequencing reactions include those based on techniques developed by Maxim and Gilbert ((1977) Proc. Natl Acad Sci USA 74:560) or Sanger (Sanger et al (1977) Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci USA 74:5463).
  • any of a variety of automated sequencing procedures can be utilized when performing the subject assays (see, for example Biotechniques (1995) 19:448), including sequencing by mass spectrometry (see, for example PCT publication WO 94/16101; Cohen et al. (1996) Adv Chromatogr 36:127-162; and Griffin et al. (1993) Appl Biochem Biotechnol 38:147-159).
  • any cell type or tissue can be utilized to obtain nucleic acid samples for use in the diagnostics described herein.
  • a DNA sample is obtained from blood, a bodily fluid (e.g., secretion from the eye), urine, or saliva.
  • samples obtained from the eyes are preferred because test results obtained from a sample from the eye evidence that an abnormal expression or activity is likely due to an ocular dysfunction, e.g., macular degeneration, thereby providing a more rapid and accurate diagnostic test for macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • nucleic acid tests can be performed on dry samples (e.g. hair or skin).
  • the diagnostic methods can also be performed in situ directly upon tissue sections (fixed and/or frozen) of subject tissue obtained from biopsies or resections, such that no nucleic acid purification is necessary.
  • Nucleic acid reagents may be used as probes and/or primers for such in situ procedures (see, e.g., Nuovo et al., 1992, PCR in situ hybridization: protocols and applications, Raven Press, NY).
  • profiles may also be assessed in such detection schemes. Fingerprint profiles may be generated as described.
  • the present invention also provides kits for detecting a predisposition for developing a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • This kit may contain one or more oligonucleotides, including 5′ and 3′ oligonucleotides that hybridize 5′ and 3′ to at least one complement pathway molecule.
  • the assay kits and diagnostic methods can also employ labeled oligonucleotides to allow ease of identification in the assays. Examples of labels which may be employed include radio-labels, enzymes, fluorescent compounds, streptavidin, avidin, biotin, magnetic moieties, metal binding moieties, antigen or antibody moieties, and the like.
  • the present invention also provides methods for diagnosing, or determining a predisposition to developing a macular degeneration-related disorder by detecting an abnormal bioactivity of the complement system.
  • the abnormal activities to be detected can be that which triggers the activation of each of the three complement pathways.
  • the abnormal activity can also be that of individual molecules which are produced during activation of the three complement pathways.
  • the abnormal complement activities to be detected can also be any of the cellular activities displayed by the activated complement system.
  • abnormal complement activities to be detected with the present invention encompass, e.g., increased or decreased enzymatic or regulatory function of a complement pathway protein such as C3a, C5a, C5b-9 complex, vitronectin, or CR1, serum presence or increased level of autoantibodies against complement component, abnormal cellular activities mediated by activated complement system such as lysis of target cells (e.g., RPE and choroidal cells), chemotaxis, opsonization, stimulation of vascular and other smooth muscle cells, degranulation of mast cells, increased permeability of small blood vessels, initiation of inflammatory processes, directed migration and activation of leukocytes, and activation of B lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.
  • a complement pathway protein such as C3a, C5a, C5b-9 complex, vitronectin, or CR1
  • abnormal cellular activities mediated by activated complement system such as lysis of target cells (e.g., RPE and choroidal cells), chemot
  • abnormality refers to a difference between that activity detected in a biological sample (e.g., blood) from a test subject and the average value of the activity detected in a population of control subjects without macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • a biological sample e.g., blood
  • the difference is by at least 20%, 30%, or 40%. More preferably, the difference is more than at least 50%, 60%, 70%, or 80%. Most preferably, the difference is by at least 90%.
  • complement activity can be monitored by (i) measurement of inhibition of complement-mediated lysis of red blood cells (hemolysis); (ii) measurement of ability to inhibit cleavage of C3 or C5; and (iii) inhibition of alternative pathway mediated hemolysis.
  • hemolytic assays see, e.g., Baatrup et al., Ann Rheum Dis, 51:892-7, 1992
  • immunological assays see, e.g., Auda et al., Rheumatol Int, 10:185-9, 1990.
  • the hemolytic techniques measure the functional capacity of the entire sequence-either the classical or alternative pathway.
  • Immunological techniques measure the protein concentration of a specific complement component or split product.
  • T cell proliferation assay Chain et al., J Immunol Methods, 99:221-8, 1987
  • DTH delayed type hypersensitivity
  • the hemolytic complement measurement is applicable to detect deficiencies and functional disorders of complement proteins, e.g., in the blood of a subject, since it is based on the function of complement to induce cell lysis, which requires a complete range of functional complement proteins.
  • the so-called CH50 method which determines classical pathway activation, and the AP50 method for the alternative pathway have been extended by using specific isolated complement proteins instead of whole serum, while the highly diluted test sample contains the unknown concentration of the limiting complement component. By this method a more detailed measurement of the complement system can be performed, indicating which component is deficient.
  • Immunologic techniques employ polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies against the different epitopes of the various complement components (e.g., C3, C4 an C5) to detect, e.g., the split products of complement components (see, e.g., Hugli et al., Immunoassays Clinical Laboratory Techniques 443-460, 1980; Gorski et al., J Immunol Meth 47: 61-73, 1981; Linder et al., J Immunol Meth 47: 49-59, 1981; and Burger et al., J Immunol 141: 553-558, 1988). Binding of the antibody with the split product in competition with a known concentration of labeled split product could then be measured.
  • Various assays such as radio-immunoassays, ELISA's, and radial diffusion assays are available to detect complement split products.
  • the immunologic techniques provide a high sensitivity to detect complement activation, since they allow measurement of split-product formation in blood from a test subject and control subjects with or without macular degeneration-related disorders. Accordingly, in some methods of the present invention, diagnosis of a macular degeneration-related disorder is obtained by measurement of abnormal complement activation through quantification of the soluble split products of complement components (e.g., C3a, C4a, C5a, and the C5b-9 terminal complex) in blood plasma from a test subjects.
  • complement components e.g., C3a, C4a, C5a, and the C5b-9 terminal complex
  • the measurements can be performed as described, e.g., in Chenoweth et al., N Engl J Med 304: 497-502, 1981; and Bhakdi et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 737: 343-372, 1983.
  • Preferably, only the complement activation formed in vivo is measured. This can be accomplished by collecting a biological sample from the subject (e.g., serum) in medium containing inhibitors of the complement system, and subsequently measuring complement activation (e.g., quantification of the split products) in the sample.
  • the present invention provides methods for diagnosing, or determining a predisposition to development of, a macular degeneration-related disorder by detecting autoantibodies against macular degeneration-associated autoantigens.
  • the diagnostic methods of the present invention are also directed to detecting in a subject circulating immune complexes that can also be indicative of a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • autoantibodies against various macular degeneration-associated autoantigens were found in serum from subjects with macular degeneration-related disorders.
  • Such autoantigens include complement pathway molecules and various autoantigens from RPE, choroid, and retina.
  • diagnosis can be directed to serum autoantibodies against macular degeneration-associated autoantigens such as vitronectin, ⁇ crystallin, calreticulin, serotransferrin, keratin, pyruvate carboxylase, C1, and villin 2.
  • a blood sample e.g., serum
  • serum e.g., serum
  • the sample is examined for specific binding to any autoantigens from the ocular tissues (e.g., RPE, choroid) using proteins extracted from the ocuclar tissues.
  • proteins extracted from ocular tissues from non-human animals (e.g., rat) or from deceased human beings can be used to screen for autoantibodies against ocular autoantigens in a serum from the subject.
  • the diagnosis also include detection of autoantibodies against neoantigens.
  • Neoantigens are antigens resulting from modification and/or crosslinking of existing molecules by various processes such as oxidation. Examples of neoantigens include neoantigens associated with oxidized LDL in atherosclerosis (Reaven et al., Adv Exp Med Biol, 366(-HD-):113-28, 1994; Kita et al., Ann N Y Acad Sci, 902(-HD-):95-100, 2000), or oxidation-derived complex in other diseases (Ratnoff et al., Am J Reprod Immunol, 34:72-9 1995; and Debrock et al., FEBS Lett, 376:243-6, 1995). Further, detection of autoantibodies against autoantigens from other tissues can be indicative of a systemic nature of that macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • a number of biochemical or immunochemical techniques can be readily employed to detect autoantibodies in a biological sample from a subject.
  • techinques routinely praticed in the art such as immunoprecipitation or radioimmune assays are suitable for detecting autoantibodies in a serum sample.
  • Various other methods for detection of autoantibodies against complement proteins or complement regulatory proteins have been described in the art. For example, Pinter et al. described detection of autoantibodies against two complement regulatory molecules expressed in the membrane of human cells (CD46 and CD59) in sera from subjects with multiple sclerosis (J Neurovirol, 6 Suppl 2:S42-6, 2000). Strife et al.
  • a number of assays are routinely practiced to detect circulating immune complexes in a subject, e.g., as described in Tomimori-Yamashita et al., Lepr Rev, 70(3):261-71, 1999 (antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay); Krapf et al., J Clin Lab Immunol, 21(4):183-7, 1986 (fluorescence linked immunosorbent assay); Kazeem et al., East Afr Med J, 67(6):396-403, 1990 (laser immunonephelometry); and Rodrick et al., J Clin Lab Immunol, 7(3):193-8, 1982 (Protein A-glass fiber filter assay, PA-GFF, and polyethylene glycol insolubilization assay). Each of these well known assays can be employed to detect circulating immune complexes for the methods of the present invention.
  • the subject is, at minimum, identified as being susceptible to or at risk of a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • the subject is then typically subject to further tests or screening.
  • the additional tests or screening can include examination of the function or physical integrity of an ocular tissue of the subject's eyes (e.g., choriocapillaris) by one of the ophthalmologic procedures described below.
  • the additional tests or screening can also include analyses of additional complement pathway molecules that have not already been tested.
  • the additional tests can also include examination of the presence of macular degeneration-associated genetic markers, drusen-associated phenotypic markers, or drusen-associated genotypic markers that often correlate with macular degeneration-related disorders, as discussed below.
  • Macular degeneration-associated genetic markers are genetic loci which are shown to be correlated with a risk of developing a macular degeneration-related disorder. Such markers have been described, e.g., in WO 00/52479, and include, e.g., 1p21-q13, for recessive Stargardt's disease or fundus flavi maculatus (Allikmets et al. Science 277:1805-1807, 1997); 1q25-q31, for recessive AMD (Klein et al., Arch. Ophthalnol.
  • 17p for dominant areolar choroidal dystrophy (Lotery, A. J. et al., Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37:1124, 1996); 17p13-p12, for dominant cone dystrophy, progressive (Small et al., Am. J. Ophthalmol. 121:13-18, 1996); 17q, for cone rod dystrophy (Klystra, J. A. et al., Can. J. Ophthalmol. 28:79-80, 1993); 18q21.1-q21.3, for cone-rod dystrophy, de Grouchy syndrome (Manhant, S. et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 57:A96, 1995; Warburg, M.
  • Drusen-associated phenotypic or genotypic markers that correlate with macular degeneration-related disorders or drusen associated disorders have been described in WO 00/52479.
  • drusen-associated phenotypic markers include: RPE dysfunction and/or death, immune mediated events, dendritic cell activation, migration and differentiation, extrusion of the dendritic cell process into the sub RPE space (e.g. by detecting the presence or level of a dendritic cell marker such as CD68, CD1a and S100), the presence of geographic atrophy or disciform scars, the presence of choroidal neovascularization and/or choroidal fibrosis, especially in the macula.
  • drusen-associated genotypic markers include mutant genes and/or a distinct pattern of differential gene expression.
  • Genes expressed by dysfunctional and/or dying RPE cells include: HLA-DR, CD68, vitronectin, apolipoprotein E, clusterin and S-100.
  • Genes expressed by choroidal and RPE cells in AMD include heat shock protein 70, death protein, proteasome, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, cathepsins, and death adaptor protein RAIDD.
  • Other markers involved in immune mediated events associated with drusen formation include: autoantibodies (e.g.
  • drusen directed against drusen, RPE and/or retina components
  • leukocytes include: immunoglobulins, amyloid A, amyloid P component, HLA-DR, fibrinogen, Factor X, prothrombin, C reactive protein (CRP) apolipoprotein A, apolipoprotein E, antichymotrypsin, thrombospondin, and vitronectin.
  • CRP C reactive protein
  • Markers of drusen associated dendritic cells include: CD1a, CD4, CD14, CD68, CD83, CD86, and CD45, PECAM, MMP14, ubiquitin, and FGF.
  • Important dendritic cell-associated accessory molecules that participate in T cell recognition include ICAM-1, LFA1, LFA3, and B7, IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, TNF ⁇ , GM-CSF and heat shock proteins.
  • Markers associated with dendritic cell expression include: colony stimulating factor, TNF ⁇ , and IL-1.
  • Markers associated with dendritic cell proliferation include: GM-CSF, IL-4, IL-3, SCF, FLT-3 and TNF ⁇ .
  • Markers associated with dendritic cell differentiation include IL-10, M-CSF, IL-6 and IL-4.
  • Markers of fibrosis include: a decrease in BIG H3, increase in ⁇ 1-integrin, increase in collagen (e.g. collagen 6 ⁇ 2 and collagen 6 ⁇ 3), increase in elastin, and an increase in human metallo elastase (HME).
  • the other phenotypic or genotypic markers can be detected with assays described above, e.g., detection of the identity, expression level, or activities of the gene, mRNA transcript, or encoded protein. Some markers can also be detected by one or more ophthalmologic procedures, such as fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA), indocyanine green angiography (ICG), fundus ophthalmoscopy or photography (FP), electroretinogram (ERG), electrooculogram (EOG), visual fields, scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO), visual acuity measurements, dark adaptation measurements or other standard method. Ophthalmologic procedures have been used to evaluate patients with various macular degeneration-related disorders. For example, Spraul et al.
  • Further tests or screening can also include monitoring for clinical symptoms of a macular degeneration-related disorder, which include presence of drusen, retinal pigmentary changes, and includes early stages of degeneration of the macula in which vision has not been significantly affected (“dry” macular degeneration), atrophic macular degeneration, and exudative disease in which neovascularization is prevalent (“wet” macular degeneration). Further screening can also include analyses of family history for related family members with macular degeneration-related disorders, and/or genetic analyses of polymorphisms associated with macular degeneration-related disorders (as described above). As a result of one or more of these additional tests, the initial diagnosis based on abnormal complement activities or expression levels can be confirmed (or otherwise), and the particular type of macular degeneration-related disorder affecting a subject can be identified.
  • the present invention provides methods for treating or preventing macular degeneration-related disorders in a subject by administering to the subject therapeutic agents that modulate activity of the complement system.
  • Detrimental nonspecific activation of the complement system, or unfavorable activation by the alternative pathway, can be prevented or treated by therapeutic agents of the invention.
  • the choriocapillaris was implicated as a target of MAC attack in AMD patients, and MAC is present in choroidal and RPE cell membranes.
  • therapeutic agents are directed to prevention or alleviation of damages to the choriocapillaris and/or RPE caused by the C5b-9 complex.
  • the treatment is directed to inhibition of the formation of the C5b-9 membrane-attack complex using, e.g., inhibitors such as vitronectin or clusterin, or a monoclonal antibody to the complement component C8 alpha subunit (see, e.g., Abraha et al., A; Biochem J, 264:933-6, 1989).
  • inhibitors such as vitronectin or clusterin
  • a monoclonal antibody to the complement component C8 alpha subunit see, e.g., Abraha et al., A; Biochem J, 264:933-6, 1989.
  • the therapeutics of the present invention are directed to complement pathway associated molecules as well as cellular activities regulated by the activated complement system.
  • targets of the therapeutic agents of the present invention can include any of the initiators of complement pathways (e.g., autoantibodies), molecules produced during complement activation, molecules produced or differentially regulated as a result of complement activation, regulators of complement pathways, and molecules regulated by the activated complement system (e.g., MACIF).
  • the therapeutic agents can also be used to modulate cellular activities (biologic or immune functions) directly or indirectly mediated by the complement system.
  • the therapeutic agents of the invention can be directed to cellular activities such as lysis of target cells, chemotaxis, opsonization, stimulation of vascular cells, degranulation of mast cells, increased permeability of small blood vessels, directed migration of leukocytes, and activation of B lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils.
  • cellular activities such as lysis of target cells, chemotaxis, opsonization, stimulation of vascular cells, degranulation of mast cells, increased permeability of small blood vessels, directed migration of leukocytes, and activation of B lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, monocytes, and neutrophils.
  • cellular functions can be either antagonized or agonized with therapeutic agents of the present invention.
  • Subjects amenable to treatment include those who are presently asymptomatic but who are at risk of developing a symptomatic macular degeneration-related disorder at a later time.
  • human individuals include those having relatives who have experienced such a disease, and those whose risk is determined by analysis of genetic or biochemical markers, by biochemical methods, or by other assays such as T cell proliferation assay (as described above).
  • Complement related diseases or disorders have been described in the art, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No. 6,169,068.
  • complement related diseases include: neurological disorders, multiple sclerosis, stroke, Guillain Barre Syndrome, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson's disease, disorders of inappropriate or undesirable complement activation, hemodialysis complications, hyperacute allograft rejection, xenograft rejection, interleukin-2 induced toxicity during IL-2 therapy, inflammatory disorders, inflammation of autoimmune diseases, Crohn's disease, adult respiratory distress syndrome, thermal injury including burns or frostbite, post-ischemic reperfusion conditions, myocardial infarction, balloon angioplasty, post-pump syndrome in cardiopulmonary bypass or renal bypass, hemodialysis, renal ischemia, mesenteric artery reperfusion after acrotic reconstruction, infectious disease or sepsis, immune complex disorders and autoimmune diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), SLE nephritis, proliferative nephritis, hemolytic anemia, and myasthenia gravis
  • lung disease and disorders such as dyspnea, hemoptysis, ARDS, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, pulmonary embolisms and infarcts, pneumonia, fibrogenic dust diseases, inert dusts and minerals (e.g., silicon, coal dust, beryllium, and asbestos), pulmonary fibrosis, organic dust diseases, chemical injury (due to irritant gasses and chemicals, e.g., chlorine, phosgene, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, and hydrochloric acid), smoke injury, thermal injury (e.g., burn, freeze), asthma, allergy, bronchoconstriction, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, parasitic diseases, Goodpasture's Syndrome, pulmonary vasculitis, and immune complex-associated inflammation.
  • COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  • emphysema pulmonary embolisms and infarcts
  • pneumonia fibrogenic
  • a biochemical marker can be any of those described in the previous sections, such as an abnormal activity or abnormal level of, or an autoantibody against, a complement pathway molecule. If such a marker is detected, treatment should usually begin shortly thereafter. If likelihood of developing a macular degeneration-related disorder is based on relatives having the disease or detection of a genetic marker, treatment can also be administered shortly after identification of these risk factors, or shortly after diagnosis. Alternatively, an individual found to possess a genetic marker can be left untreated but subjected to regular monitoring for biochemical or symptomatic changes without treatment. The decision whether to treat immediately or to monitor symptoms depends in part on the extent of risk predicted by the various other marker(s) found in the subject.
  • treatment is typically continued at intervals for a period of a week, a month, three months, six months or a year.
  • treatment is administered for up to the rest of a subject's life. Treatment can generally be stopped if a biochemical risk marker disappears.
  • ocular diseases e.g., AMD
  • other age-related diseases such as amyloidosis, elastosis, dense deposit disease, and atherosclerosis
  • subjects with other types of macular degeneration-related disorders e.g., membranous and post-streptococcal/segmental glomerulonephritis can also be treated with the presently claimed methods.
  • the second principal application of the methods lies in monitoring the condition of subjects receiving treatment for a macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • a successful treatment outcome is indicated by return of complement pathway associated activity, such as expression level, biochemical activity (e.g., enzymatic activity of a complement component), or serum autoantibodies against complement pathway molecules, from abnormal levels to or toward normal levels.
  • complement pathway associated activity such as expression level, biochemical activity (e.g., enzymatic activity of a complement component), or serum autoantibodies against complement pathway molecules, from abnormal levels to or toward normal levels.
  • such methods measure an initial value for the level of abnormal activity (e.g., abnormal presence of an autoantibody, abnormal level of complement pathway molecule) before the subject has received treatment. Repeat measurements are then made over a period of time. If the initial level is elevated relative to the mean level in a control population, a significant reduction in level in subsequent measurements indicates a positive treatment outcome.
  • the initial level of an measure marker is reduced relative to the mean in a control population, a significant increase in measured levels relative to the initial level signals a positive treatment outcome.
  • Subsequently measured levels are considered to have changed significantly relative to initial levels if a subsequent measured level differs by more than one standard deviation from the mean of repeat measurements of the initial level. If monitoring reveals a positive treatment outcome, the same treatment regime can be continued, or replaced with a treatment regime with a lower dosage. If monitoring reveals a negative treatment outcome, the previous treatment regime is typically modified, either by using a different therapeutic agent or increasing the dosage of the previous agent.
  • the subjects can be treated with a combination of different therapeutic agents of the present invention.
  • the treatment can also proceed in conjunction with other known methods of treating macular degeneration-related disorders, e.g., antibiotic treatment as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,218,368.
  • immunosuppression could provide therapeutic effects in subjects suffering from, or at risk of developing, macular degeneration-related disorders (e.g., by inhibiting or ameliorating autoimmune responses).
  • subjects to be treated with therapeutic agents of the present invention can also be administered with immunosuppressive agents such as cyclosporine.
  • Immunosuppressive agents are agents capable of suppressing immune responses. These agents include cytotoxic drugs, corticosteriods, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), specific T-lymphocyte immunosuppressants, and antibodies or fragments thereof (see Physicians' Desk Reference, 53rd edition, Medical Economics Company Inc., Montvale, N.J. (1999).
  • Immunosuppressive treatment is typically continued at intervals for a period of a week, a month, three months, six months or a year. In some patients, treatment is administered for up to the rest of a patient's life. Treatment can generally be stopped if a biochemical risk marker disappears. Treatment can sometimes be temporarily discontinued if the subject is infected with a pathogen for which a full immune response is needed for clearance.
  • the present invention provides methods for treating or preventing the development of macular degeneration-related disorders by modulating levels of complement pathway molecules.
  • Levels of either mRNAs encoding the complement pathway associated proteins or levels of the complement pathway-associated proteins can be modulated.
  • the therapeutics are inhibitors of the expression of one or more complement components, e.g., complement 3, complement C5, or C5b-9 terminal complexes.
  • therapeutics are agents which alter the gene expression of factors that regulate the expression of one or more complement components.
  • therapeutics are agents which alter the gene expression of complement pathway molecules that regulate complement activity or activation, e.g., CR1, CR2, vitronectin, or clusterin.
  • Alteration of the above-noted gene expressions can be accomplished by a number of regimes, such as (i) modulation of mRNA synthesis, (ii) modulation of RNA turnover or degradation, (iii) modulation of translation of mRNA into protein, (iv) modulation of protein processing or transport, (v) modulation of formation of protein complex of the complement system (e.g., C3 convertase, C5 convertase, or the terminal complex C5b-9) by blocking inter- or intra-molecular binding necessary for the formation; and (vi) modulation of the concentration of complement pathway molecules, e.g., by targeting and destroying complement components in situ (e.g., using enzyme-antibody techniques).
  • regimes such as (i) modulation of mRNA synthesis, (ii) modulation of RNA turnover or degradation, (iii) modulation of translation of mRNA into protein, (iv) modulation of protein processing or transport, (v) modulation of formation of protein complex of the complement system (e.
  • the therapeutics of the invention relate to antisense therapy.
  • a therapy functions by inhibiting expression of that protein, e.g., by inhibiting transcription and/or translation (see, e.g., Stanley et al., Basic Principles of Antisense Therapeutics, Springer-Verlag, N.Y., p. 3, July 1998).
  • the binding can be by conventional base pair complementarity, or, for example, in the case of binding to DNA duplexes, through specific interactions in the major groove of the double helix.
  • the therapeutic agents utilize zinc finger motif which can be selected to bind diverse nucleic acid sequences (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,140,466).
  • therapeutic agents which activate or repress a target nucleic acid expression can be expressed as fusions with zinc finger motifs.
  • Such fusion proteins are useful for inhibiting, activating or enhancing gene expression from a zinc finger-nucleotide binding motif containing promoter or other transcriptional control element, as well as a structural gene or RNA sequence.
  • the present invention provides methods of treatment or prevention of macular degeneration-related disorders by administering therapeutic agent which modulate bioactivities of the complement pathway molecules or cellular activities mediated by the activated complement system.
  • therapeutic agent which modulate bioactivities of the complement pathway molecules or cellular activities mediated by the activated complement system.
  • methods for administering therapeutic agents to modulate complement activities in a subject have also been described in the art.
  • U.S. Pat. No. 5,472,939 describes modulation of complement mediated activities by administering to a subject CR1 or its fragment which inhibits C3 convertase activity or C5 convertase activity.
  • Various therapeutic agents are suitable for the present invention. Some agents are known in the art to be able to modulate the activities of complement components (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,808,109). Many agents have been reported to diminish complement-mediated activity. Such agents include: amino acids (Takada, Y. et al. Immunology 1978, 34, 509); phosphonate esters (Becker, L. Biochem. Biophy. Acta 1967, 147, 289); polyanionic substances (Conrow, R. B. et al. J. Med. Chem. 1980, 23, 242); sulfonyl fluorides (Hansch, C.; Yoshimoto, M. J. Med. Chem.
  • K-76 a fungal metabolite from Stachybotrys
  • Both K-76 and K-76 COOH have been shown to inhibit complement mainly at the C5 step (Hong et al., J. Immunol. 122: 2418, 1979; Miyazaki et al., Microbiol. Immunol. 24: 1091, 1980), and to prevent the generation of a chemotactic factor from normal human complement (Bumpers et al., Lab. Clinc. Med. 102: 421, 1983).
  • K-76 or K-76 COOH has also been reported to inhibit the C3b inactivator system of complement (Hong et al., J. Immunol. 127: 104-108, 1981).
  • Other suitable agents for practicing methods of the present invention include griseofulvin (Weinberg, in Principles of Medicinal Chemistry, 2d Ed., Foye, W. O., ed., Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa., p. 813, 1981), isopannarin (Djura et al., Aust. J. Chem.36: 1057, 1983), and metabolites of Siphonodictyon coralli-phagum (Sullivan et al., Tetrahedron 37: 979, 1981).
  • novel therapeutics specifically directed to these autoantigens can be designed and produced, e.g., by computed-aided methods (see, e.g., Topper et al., Clin Orthop, -HD-(256):39-43, 1990).
  • macular degeneration-associated autoantigens and autoantibodies underscores how these molecules can activate the complement system and subsequent damages to the ocular tissues (e.g., choriocapillaris in RPE/choroid interface).
  • the complement system can be activated, e.g., by antigen-antibody complexes formed by the autoantigens and autoantibodies through the classic pathway.
  • they can also activate the complement system through the other pathways, as demonstrated by the present inventors (see, e.g., Example 6).
  • identification of the macular degeneration-related autoantigens provides another means of treating or preventing macular degeneration through induction in a subject of tolerance to the specific macular degeneration-related autoantigen.
  • Induction of immunological tolerance is a therapeutic or preventive method in which a lack of immune responses to certain antigens is achieved. Induction of tolerance against a given antigen can be performed as described, e.g., in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,153,203, 6,103,235, and 5,951,984.
  • immunogenic or tolerogenic depends on the dose, physical form and route of administration of antigen. High or low doses of an antigen often lead to immunotolerance, whereas intermediate doses may be immunogenic. Monomeric forms of antigen are usually tolerogenic, whereas high molecular weight aggregates are likely to be immunogenic. Oral, nasal, gastric or intravenous injection of antigen frequently leads to tolerance, whereas intradermal or intramuscular challenge especially in the presence of adjuvants favors an immunogenic response.
  • Identification of macular degeneration-related autoantigens also provide means for further understanding the genetic nature of macular degeneration-related disorders. Similar to many other diseases, mutations in the genes which encode the macular degeneration-associated autoantigens (e.g., complement pathway associated proteins, or the RPE autoantigens) can be the genetic cause of macular degeneration-related disorders. For example, a number of diseases are due to deficiencies in proteins associated with the complement pathway, and the deficiency is often due to mutations in the complement protein.
  • macular degeneration-associated autoantigens e.g., complement pathway associated proteins, or the RPE autoantigens
  • SLE like symptoms point mutation in C1q
  • hereditary angioedema mutantations and polymorphisms in C1q inhibitor
  • membranoproliferative C3
  • glomerulonephritis C3
  • partial lipodystrophy C3
  • SLE frameshift in C4a
  • predisposition to Neisseria C6: stop codon insertion leading to truncated gene product
  • meningitis and Neisseria infection Feractor P (Properdin): point mutations; X-linked
  • autosomal recessive atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome Factor H: point mutations
  • aplastic anemia and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria PNH
  • CD59 deletion in codon 16, also single base pair mutations
  • PNH aplastic anemia and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
  • the specific autoantigens identified can be subject to further analysis.
  • the identity and sequence information of the autoantigens can be revealed by standard amino acid sequencing procedures (e.g., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel, F. M. et al., 1999, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York) as well as other methods for protein identification (e.g., matrix assisted-laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry, as disclosed in Example 11).
  • Polynucleotide primers can be generated and used to clone the genes which encode these autoantigens with standard techniques routinely practiced in molecular biology (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning A Laboratory Manual, 3rd Ed., 2000, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press). The nucleotide sequences of such autoantigens can thus be obtained. The sequences can be compared with the DNA sequences from the genomic databases (e.g., GenBank). Any mutation or polymorphism identified in the autoantigen-encoding sequence relative to a wild type sequence would indicate that the corresponding gene is a likely candidate which causes the macular degeneration-related disorder.
  • genomic databases e.g., GenBank
  • the present invention provides methods for prevention or treatment of diseases or disorders associated with abnormal complement activity by administering therapeutic agents that modulate complement activity.
  • therapeutic agents that modulate complement activity can also be obtained by screening test agents with high throughput screening techniques.
  • Test agents that can be screened with include polypeptides, beta-turn mimetics, polysaccharides, phospholipids, hormones, prostaglandins, steroids, aromatic compounds, heterocyclic compounds, benzodiazepines, oligomeric N-substituted glycines, oligocarbamates, polypeptides, saccharides, fatty acids, steroids, purines, pyrimidines, derivatives, structural analogs or combinations thereof.
  • test compounds are organic. Some test compounds are synthetic molecules, and others natural molecules.
  • Test agents are obtained from a wide variety of sources including libraries of synthetic or natural compounds.
  • Combinatorial libraries can be produced for many types of compound that can be synthesized in a step-by-step fashion.
  • Large combinatorial libraries of compounds can be constructed by the encoded synthetic libraries (ESL) method described in WO 95/12608, WO 93/06121, WO 94/08051, WO 95/35503 and WO 95/30642.
  • Peptide libraries can also be generated by phage display methods (see, e.g., Devlin, WO 91/18980).
  • Libraries of natural compounds in the form of bacterial, fungal, plant and animal extracts can be obtained from commercial sources or collected in the field.
  • Known pharmacological agents can be subject to directed or random chemical modifications, such as acylation, alkylation, esterification, amidification to produce structural analogs.
  • Combinatorial libraries of peptides or other compounds can be fully randomized, with no sequence preferences or constants at any position.
  • the library can be biased, i.e., some positions within the sequence are either held constant, or are selected from a limited number of possibilities.
  • the nucleotides or amino acid residues are randomized within a defined class, for example, of hydrophobic amino acids, hydrophilic residues, sterically biased (either small or large) residues, towards the creation of cysteines, for cross-linking, prolines for SH-3 domains, serines, threonines, tyrosines or histidines for phosphorylation sites, or to purines.
  • the test agents can be naturally occurring proteins or their fragments.
  • the test agents can also be peptides, e.g., peptides of from about 5 to about 30 amino acids, with from about 5 to about 20 amino acids being preferred, and from about 7 to about 15 being particularly preferred.
  • the peptides can be digests of naturally occurring proteins, random peptides, or “biased” random peptides.
  • the test agents can also be nucleic acids.
  • Nucleic acid test agents can be naturally occurring nucleic acids, random nucleic acids, or “biased” random nucleic acids. For example, digests of prokaryotic or eukaryotic genomes can be similarly used as described above for proteins.
  • Test agents to be screened can also be generated based on structural studies of a target complement pathway molecule. Such structural studies allow the identification of test agents that are more likely to bind to the target molecule.
  • the three-dimensional structure of a complement pathway molecules can be studied in a number of ways, e.g., crystal structure and molecular modeling. Methods of studying protein structures using x-ray crystallography are well known in the literature. See Physical Bio-chemistry, Van Holde, K. E. (Prentice-Hall, New Jersey 1971), pp. 221-239, and Physical Chemistry with Applications to the Life Sciences, D. Eisenberg & D. C. Crothers (Benjamin Cummings, Menlo Park 1979).
  • Therapeutic agents of the present invention also include antibodies that specifically bind to the various complement pathway molecules (e.g., C5b). Such antibodies can be monoclonal or polyclonal, and many are described in the art. In addition, methods for producing antibodies are well known in the art. For example, the production of non-human monoclonal antibodies, e.g., murine or rat, can be accomplished by, for example, immunizing the animal with a given complement component protein or an antigenic fragment thereof (See Harlow & Lane, Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor New York). Such an immunogen can be obtained from a natural source, by peptides synthesis or by recombinant expression.
  • C5b complement pathway molecules
  • Humanized forms of mouse antibodies can be generated by linking the CDR regions of non-human antibodies to human constant regions by recombinant DNA techniques. See Queen et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86, 10029-10033 (1989) and WO 90/07861. Human antibodies can be obtained using phage-display methods. See, e.g., Dower et al., WO 91/17271; McCafferty et al., WO 92/01047. In these methods, libraries of phage are produced in which members display different antibodies on their outer surfaces. Antibodies are usually displayed as Fv or Fab fragments. Phage displaying antibodies with a desired specificity are selected by affinity enrichment to the complement protein or antigenic fragment.
  • Human antibodies against a complement pathway molecule can also be produced from non-human transgenic mammals having transgenes encoding at least a segment of the human immunoglobulin locus and an inactivated endogenous immunoglobulin locus. See, e.g., Lonberg et al., WO93/12227 (1993); Kucherlapati, WO 91/10741 (1991). Human antibodies can be selected by competitive binding experiments, or otherwise, to have the same epitope specificity as a particular mouse antibody. Such antibodies are particularly likely to share the useful functional properties of the mouse antibodies. Human polyclonal antibodies can also be provided in the form of serum from humans immunized with an immunogenic agent. Optionally, such polyclonal antibodies can be concentrated by affinity purification using the complement component or an antigenic fragment as an affinity reagent.
  • Cell-free assays can be used to identify agents which are capable of interacting with a complement pathway molecule and modulating its activity and/or interaction with another molecule. Binding of a test agent to a complement pathway molecule is determined in a reaction mixture. Binding can be assayed by a number of methods including, e.g., labeled in vitro protein-protein binding assays, electrophoretic mobility shift assays, immunoassays for protein binding, functional assays (e.g., phosphorylation assays, etc.). See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos.
  • test agent can be identified by detecting a direct binding to the complement component, e.g., co-immunoprecipitation of with the complement component.
  • the test agent can also be identified by detecting a signal that indicates that the agent binds to the complement component, e.g., fluorescence quenching.
  • Competition assays provide a suitable format for identifying test compounds that specifically bind to a complement pathway molecule.
  • test compounds are screened in competition with a compound already known to bind to the complement pathway molecule.
  • the known complement-binding agent can be a synthetic polypeptide. It can also be an antibody which specifically recognizes the complement pathway molecule. If the test compound inhibits binding of the compound known to bind the complement pathway molecule, then the test compound also binds the complement pathway molecule.
  • RIA solid phase direct or indirect radioimmunoassay
  • EIA solid phase direct or indirect enzyme immunoassay
  • sandwich competition assay see Stahli et al., Methods in Enzymology 9:242-253 (1983)
  • solid phase direct biotin-avidin EIA see Kirkland et al., J. Immunol. 137:3614-3619 (1986)
  • solid phase direct labeled assay solid phase direct labeled sandwich assay
  • solid phase direct labeled sandwich assay see Harlow and Lane, “Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual,” Cold Spring Harbor Press (1988)
  • solid phase direct label RIA using 1-125 label see Morel et al., Mol. Immunol.
  • Antibodies identified by competition assay include antibodies binding to the same epitope as the reference antibody and antibodies binding to an adjacent epitope sufficiently proximal to the epitope bound by the reference antibody for steric hindrance to occur. Usually, when a competing antibody is present in excess, it will inhibit specific binding of a reference antibody to a common antigen by at least 50 or 75%.
  • the screening assays can be either in insoluble or soluble formats.
  • One example of the insoluble assays is to immobilize a given complement pathway molecule, or a fragment thereof, onto a solid phase matrix.
  • the solid phase matrix is then put in contact with test agents for an interval sufficient to allow the test agents to bind.
  • the presence of the agent bound to the solid phase allows identification of the agent.
  • the methods can further include the step of eluting the bound agent from the solid phase matrix, thereby isolating the agent.
  • the test agents are bound to the solid matrix and the complement pathway molecule is then added.
  • Soluble assays include some of the combinatory libraries screening methods and the genetic screening systems described above. Under the soluble assay formats, neither the test agents nor the complement pathway molecule are bound to a solid support. Binding of a complement pathway molecule or fragment thereof to a test agent can be determined by, e.g., changes in fluorescence of either the complement pathway molecule or the test agents, or both. Fluorescence may be intrinsic or conferred by labeling either component with a fluorophor. Binding can be detected by fluorescence polarization.
  • either the complement pathway molecule, the test agent, or a third molecule e.g., an anti-complement antibody
  • labeled entities i.e., covalently attached or linked to a detectable label or group, or cross-linkable group, to facilitate identification, detection and quantification of the polypeptide in a given situation.
  • detectable groups can comprise a detectable polypeptide group, e.g., an assayable enzyme or antibody epitope.
  • the detectable group can be selected from a variety of other detectable groups or labels, such as radiolabels (e.g., 125I, 32 P, 35 S ) or a chemiluminescent or fluorescent group.
  • the detectable group can be a substrate, cofactor, inhibitor or affinity ligand.
  • test compounds with specific binding activity to a given complement pathway molecule identified by such assays are specific to that complement pathway molecule and can be used to modify the activity of only that complement pathway molecule.
  • Other test compounds show specific binding to a plurality of complement pathway molecules and can be used to modulate the activity of all of these complement pathway molecule.
  • An interaction between the test compound and the complement pathway molecule or between the complement pathway molecule and the complement pathway molecule binding partner can also be detected with cell-based assays.
  • a microphysiometer described in McConnell et al. (1992) Science 257:1906 can be used.
  • Cell based assays can also be used to identify compounds which modulate expression of a gene encoding a complement pathway molecule, modulate translation of a mRNA encoding a complement component, or which modulate the stability of the complement pathway protein or its mRNA.
  • a cell which is capable of expressing a complement pathway molecule is incubated with a test compound and the amount of complement pathway molecule produced in the cell medium is measured and compared to that produced from a cell which has not been contacted with the test compound.
  • Compounds which can be tested include small molecules, proteins, and nucleic acids.
  • this assay can be used to determine the efficacy of antisense or ribozymes to genes encoding a complement component.
  • the effect of a test compound on transcription of a gene encoding a complement pathway molecule is determined by transfection experiments using a reporter gene operatively linked to at least a portion of the promoter of a gene encoding a complement pathway molecule.
  • a promoter region of a gene can be isolated, e.g., from a genomic library according to methods known in the art.
  • the reporter gene can be any gene encoding a protein which is readily quantifiable, e.g., the luciferase or CAT gene. Such reporter gene are well known in the art.
  • Therapeutics of the present invention can be formulated in a conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients.
  • the therapeutic agents described above can be formulated for administration by, for example, eye drops, injection, inhalation or insufflation (either through the mouth or the nose) or oral, buccal, parenteral or rectal administration.
  • Treatment can also follow guidance provided in the art.
  • sCR1 soluble complement receptor-1
  • sCR1 soluble complement receptor-1
  • intraocular administration of drugs to treat macular degeneration U.S. Pat. No. 5,632,984
  • treatment of macular edema with topical administration of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors to the eye U.S. Pat. No. 6,046,223 have all been described in the art.
  • the therapeutic agents of the invention can be formulated for a variety of modes of administration, including systemic and topical or localized administration. Techniques and formulations generally can be found in Remmington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Meade Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. The compositions are formulated as sterile, substantially isotonic and in full compliance with all Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) regulations of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. A preferred method of administration is an eye drop. For systemic administration, injection is preferred, including intramuscular, intravenous, intraperitoneal, and subcutaneous.
  • GMP Good Manufacturing Practice
  • Preferred methods of administration include, e.g., choroidal injection, transscleral injection or placing a scleral patch, selective arterial catheterization, intraocular administration including transretinal, subconjunctival bulbar, scleral pocket and scleral cutdown injections.
  • the agent can also be alternatively administered intravascularly, such as intravenously (IV) or intraarterially.
  • IV intravenously
  • choroidal injection and scleral patching the clinician uses a local approach to the eye after initiation of appropriate anesthesia, including painkillers and ophthalmoplegics.
  • a needle containing the therapeutic compound is directed into the subject's choroid or sclera and inserted under sterile conditions.
  • the compound When the needle is properly positioned the compound is injected into either or both of the choroid or sclera.
  • the clinician can choose a sustained release or longer acting formulation.
  • the procedure can be repeated only every several months or several years, depending on the subject's tolerance of the treatment and response.
  • the compounds of the invention can be formulated in liquid solutions, preferably in physiologically compatible buffers such as Hank's solution or Ringer's solution.
  • physiologically compatible buffers such as Hank's solution or Ringer's solution.
  • the compounds can be formulated in solid form and redissolved or suspended immediately prior to use. Lyophilized forms are also included.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions can take the form of, for example, tablets or capsules prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable excipients such as binding agents (e.g., pregelatinized maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose); fillers (e.g., lactose, microcrystalline cellulose or calcium hydrogen phosphate); lubricants (e.g., magnesium stearate, talc or silica); disintegrants (e.g., potato starch or sodium starch glycolate); or wetting agents (e.g., sodium lauryl sulfate).
  • binding agents e.g., pregelatinized maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
  • fillers e.g., lactose, microcrystalline cellulose or calcium hydrogen phosphate
  • lubricants e.g., magnesium stearate, talc or silica
  • disintegrants e.g., potato star
  • Liquid preparations for oral administration can take the form of, for example, solutions, syrups or suspensions, or they can be presented as a dry product for constitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use.
  • Such liquid preparations can be prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable additives such as suspending agents (e.g., sorbitol syrup, cellulose derivatives or hydrogenated edible fats); emulsifying agents (e.g., lecithin or acacia); non-aqueous vehicles (e.g., ationd oil, oily esters, ethyl alcohol or fractionated vegetable oils); and preservatives (e.g., methyl or propyl-p-hydroxybenzoates or sorbic acid).
  • the preparations can also contain buffer salts, flavoring, coloring and sweetening agents as appropriate.
  • the therapeutic can be administered alone or in combination with other molecules known to have a beneficial effect on retinal attachment or damaged retinal tissue, including molecules capable of tissue repair and regeneration and/or inhibiting inflammation.
  • useful cofactors include basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), LaVail et al. (1998), Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39:592-602, ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), LaVail et al. (1998), Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39:592-602, axokine (a mutein of CNTF), LaVail et al. (1998), Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci.
  • bFGF basic fibroblast growth factor
  • CNTF ciliary neurotrophic factor
  • CNTF ciliary neurotrophic factor
  • LaVail et al. 1998
  • axokine a mutein of CNTF
  • LIF leukemia inhibitory factor
  • NT-3 neutrotrophin 3
  • NT-4 neurotrophin-4
  • NEF nerve growth factor
  • prostaglandin E2 La Vail et al. (1998), Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39:581-591, 30 kD survival factor, taurine, and vitamin A.
  • Other useful cofactors include symptom-alleviating cofactors, including antiseptics, antibiotics, antiviral and antifungal agents and analgesics and anesthetics.
  • a therapeutic also can be associated with means for targeting the therapeutics to a desired tissue.
  • a therapeutic agent can be directed to the choriocapillaris which is implicated to be a target of activated complement system (e.g., C5b-9 complex) in AMD patients.
  • Useful targeting molecules can be designed, for example, using the simple chain binding site technology disclosed, e.g., in U.S. Pat. No. 5,091,513.
  • therapeutic agents are aimed to prevention or alleviation of damages to the choriocapillaris caused by the C5b-9 complex.
  • Such effects can be achieved by the various means described above, e.g., inhibiting complement activation, stimulating the functions of the complement pathway inhibitors (e.g., clusterin, vitronectin), or disrupting the complex already form on the choriocapillaris.
  • complement pathway inhibitors e.g., clusterin, vitronectin
  • a gene delivery system for a gene therapeutic can be introduced into a subject by any of a number of methods.
  • a pharmaceutical preparation of the gene delivery system can be introduced systemically, e.g., by intravenous injection, and specific transduction of the protein in the target cells occurs predominantly from specificity of transfection provided by the gene delivery vehicle, cell-type or tissue-type expression due to the transcriptional regulatory sequences controlling expression of the receptor gene, or a combination thereof.
  • initial delivery of the recombinant gene is more limited with introduction into the animal being quite localized.
  • the gene delivery vehicle can be introduced by catheter, See U.S. Pat. 5,328,470, or by stereotactic injection, Chen et al. (1994), Proc.
  • a sequence homologous thereto can be delivered in a gene therapy construct by electroporation using techniques described, Dev et al. (1994), Cancer Treat. Rev. 20:105-115.
  • the pharmaceutical preparation of the gene therapy construct or compound of the invention can consist essentially of the gene delivery system in an acceptable diluent, or can comprise a slow release matrix in which the gene delivery vehicle or compound is imbedded.
  • the pharmaceutical preparation can comprise one or more cells which produce the gene delivery system.
  • compositions can, if desired, be presented in a pack or dispenser device which can contain one or more unit dosage forms containing the active ingredient.
  • the pack can for example comprise metal or plastic foil, such as a blister pack.
  • the pack or dispenser device can be accompanied by instructions for administration.
  • Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such compounds can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the Ld 50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the Ed 50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population).
  • the dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio LD 50 /ED 50 .
  • Compounds which exhibit large therapeutic indices are preferred. While compounds that exhibit toxic side effects may be used, care should be taken to design a delivery system that targets such compounds to the site of affected tissue in order to minimize potential damage to uninfected cells and, thereby, reduce side effects.
  • the data obtained from the cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosage for use in humans.
  • the dosage of such compounds lies preferably within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED 50 with little or no toxicity.
  • the dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized.
  • the therapeutically effective dose can be estimated initially from cell culture assays.
  • a dose may be formulated in animal models to achieve a circulating plasma concentration range that includes the IC, (i.e., the concentration of the test compound which achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms) as determined in cell culture.
  • IC i.e., the concentration of the test compound which achieves a half-maximal inhibition of symptoms
  • levels in plasma may be measured, for example, by high performance liquid chromatography.
  • the practice of the present invention can employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of cell biology, cell culture, molecular biology, transgenic biology, microbiology, recombinant DNA, and immunology, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. Molecular Cloning A Laboratory Manual (1989), 2 nd Ed., ed. by Sambrook, Fritsch and Maniatis, eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Chapters 16 and 17; Hogan et al. (Manipulating the Mouse Embryo: A Laboratory Manual (1986), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; See U.S. Pat. No.
  • Tissues Eyes from the human donor repository and CDD, ranging in age between 45 and 101 years, were processed within four hours of death. Many of these donors had a documented clinical diagnosis of AMD (including donors with geographic atrophy, choroidal neovascularization, and disciform scars in at least one eye) and one donor was diagnosed with cuticular drusen. Human liver was obtained within 2 hours of biopsy. RPE cells were isolated with 2% dispase within 5 hours of death and were grown in Coon's F-12 media with 10% fetal bovine serum.
  • Tissues were fixed for at least two hours in one-half strength Karnovsky fixative (1 ⁇ 2K; 2% formaldehyde and 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 100 mM cacodylate buffer, pH 7.4, containing 0.025% CaCl2) prior to washing 3 ⁇ 10 min. in 100 mM cacodylate buffer.
  • Slides were blocked for 15 min. in 0.01M sodium phosphate (pH 7.4) containing 0.85% NaCl, 1 mM calcium chloride, 1 mM magnesium chloride (PBS/M/C), and 1 mg/ml globulin-free bovine serum albumin (PBS/M/C/BSA). Sections were then rinsed for 10 min.
  • Adjacent sections were reacted with secondary antibody alone, as negative controls. Some sections were pre-treated for 10 min with 0.5% trypsin (Sigma; St. Louis, Mo.), or 0.2-0.02 U/ml chondroitinase ABC (Seikagaku; Rockville, Md.), for use in conjunction with antibodies for collagen type IV or various chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, respectively. Drusen-containing tissues from a minimum of five donor eyes were examined for each antibody.
  • Haptoblobin is a macromolecular glycoprotein which is the major acute phase reactant (Putnam, Haptoglobin, In: The Plasma Proteins, Structure, Function, and Genetic Control, 11, Putnam (ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 1-50, 1975; and Morimatsu et al., J. Biol. Chem., 266:11833-11837, 1991).
  • Reactivities of antibodies with drusen are listed in Table 1 below. In general, all positive antibodies bound to all drusen phenotypes. Controls confirm all antibody reactivities to be specific. In addition, the majority of the antibodies utilized bound to the expected regions of sclera, choroid, RPE, retina, vitreous, and/or other “control” tissues.
  • Drusen associated molecules ANTIGEN SOURCE DRUSEN ⁇ 1 antichymotrypsin Dako + ⁇ 1 antitrypsin Dako ⁇ /+ ⁇ 2 macroglobin Biodesign ⁇ aFGF ⁇ AKS ⁇ Albumin Cappel ⁇ Amyloid A Dako + Amyloid b Dako ⁇ to +/ ⁇ Amyloid P Dako + Amyloid Prec Prot B-M ⁇ Antithrombin III Calb +/ ⁇ Apo A1 Calb ⁇ Apo E Calb + ASPG-1 ⁇ Atrial Natriuretic Factor Chemicon ⁇ ⁇ 2 microglobin B-M +/ ⁇ bFGF ⁇ Basement Membrane Chemicon ⁇ Bovine nas.
  • DRAMs Drusen associated molecules
  • Fibulin 4 Timpl ⁇ /? FnR ⁇ ⁇ Fodrin ⁇ ⁇ Fodrin ⁇ /+ Gangliosides Dev Hyb ⁇ Gelsolin ⁇ GFAP ⁇ Glucose Transporters 1,3,4 ⁇ Glycolipid Dev Hyb ⁇ Glycophorin A, C ⁇ Haptoglobin Dako +/ ⁇ (variable) Heckenlively serum Ag +/ ⁇ Heparan sulfate (MAB) +/ ⁇ (MAC) Kimata ⁇ Hermes ⁇ HLA ABC ⁇ /?
  • HLA DR Various + HNK-1 ⁇ Heat Shock Prot 70 ⁇ HSPG ⁇ Human IgA ⁇ Human IgG +/ ⁇ Hyaluronic Acid ⁇ Ig Kappa chain ⁇ to +/ ⁇ Ig Lambda chain Dako +/ ⁇ to + Integrin ⁇ 2 ⁇ Integrin ⁇ 3 ⁇ Integrin ⁇ 4 ⁇ Integrin ⁇ 5 ⁇ Integrin ⁇ 6 ⁇ Integrin ⁇ 1 ⁇ Integrin ⁇ 2 ⁇ Integrin ⁇ 4 ⁇ Intermediate Filaments ⁇ Interphotoreceptor Matrix ⁇ IRBP ⁇ Keratan sulfate ⁇ Keratin ⁇ Laminin ⁇ LAMP-1 Dev Hyb ⁇ LAMP-2 Dev Hyb ⁇ Link Protein Dev Hyb ⁇ Lipoprotein b ⁇ to +/ ⁇ Melanoma Assoc Ag ⁇ Milk mucin core Ag ⁇ MMPs ⁇ Mitochindrial Ag ⁇ N.S.
  • proteins associated with cellular and humoral immune processes including amyloid A component, amyloid P component, apolipoprotein E, factor X, MHC class II molecules, vitronectin, and complement proteins (C3, C5 and C5b-9 complex) are prevalent among the drusen-associated constituents identified.
  • Other complement components including the terminal complement complex C5b-9 (the membrane attack complex, MAC), are also distributed within Bruch's membrane at the RPE-choroid interface. The presence of widespread terminal C5b-9 complement complexes within Bruch's membrane and drusen indicates that inappropriate complement activation can occur within the sub-RPE space.
  • the abnormal process can have injurious effects on the RPE and/or choroidal cells, promote neovascularization and microangiopathy (including loss of pericytes and hyperplasia of endothelial cells), increase blood vessels permeability and/or promote recruitment of monocytes, thereby contributing to the pathology of AMD.
  • Complement pathway-associated molecules localized to the basal surface of the RPE include CD21, CD35, CD55/decay accelerating factor, and CD59/protectin.
  • Complement pathway-associated molecules localized in Bruch's membrane and/or drusen include C3d, C6, C7, C8, C9, Factor D, Factor H, Factor I, Factor B, SP40, 40 (clusterin), and mannose binding protein, in addition to the previously described complement components C3, C5 and the terminal complement complex C5b-9.
  • Complement pathway components C1q, C1 inhibitor, C2, C3a, C4, C5a, and Factor Ba are present within the choroidal stroma, but do not appear to be major components of drusen or Bruch's membrane. The presence of many of these complement pathway-associated components has been confirmed using ELISA and Western analyses (Table 2).
  • RPE Retinal pigmented epithelium
  • RPE/Ch RPE-choroid complexes
  • Bruch's membrane also reacted with these antibodies in most of the donors evaluated.
  • C5b-9 was observed in the outer collagenous layer of Bruch's membrane, with relatively little labeling of the inner collagenous layer. Sporadic labeling to the basal and lateral aspects of the choriocapillaris was also observed in some younger donors.
  • the distribution of C5b-9 within Bruch's membrane “shifted” toward the inner collagenous layer in individuals of advanced age. In these individuals, C5b-9 was observed on both sides of the elastic lamina or, in some cases, solely within the inner collagenous layer.
  • the antibodies directed against C5b-9 bound intensely to all drusen phenotypes in older individuals, as we have described previously (Mullins et al. FASEB J. 2000). Significantly, intense labeling of the entire choriocapillaris (endothelium, pericytes, and associated extracellular matrix) was observed in donors with AMD (9 of 10 donors), as compared to older, age-matched donors without a diagnosis of AMD (2 of 10 donors) (FIG. 2).
  • Complement-mediated damage to the choriocapillaris may lead to abnormal responses by the choroid (e.g., inflammation, cytokine secretion, neovascularization) and/or choriocapillaris cell death. These events, in turn, may lead to further dysfunction and death of surrounding cells, including the RPE, and the biogenesis of drusen.
  • choroid e.g., inflammation, cytokine secretion, neovascularization
  • choriocapillaris cell death e.g., inflammation, cytokine secretion, neovascularization
  • C5b-9 complexes if they are present in sufficient quantities at the RPE-choroid interface, are likely cause serious damage to RPE and choroidal cells.
  • At least three pathways of complement activation have been described. These include the classical pathway that is activated via immunoglobulin and C1q, the alternative pathway that is activated at cell surfaces, and the lectin pathway in which the acute phase reactant mannose-binding protein (MBP) activates complement activation along the alternative and/or classical pathways.
  • MBP mannose-binding protein
  • C1q an indicator of the classical pathway—is not a major drusen constituent, although it is detected in some drusen.
  • other proteins involved in the classical pathway of complement activation are detected only in the choroid, and not in Bruch's membrane and/or drusen.
  • Factor H a fluid phase regulator of the alternative pathway of complement that functions to prevent amplification of complement activation by accelerating the decay of C3 and C5 convertases and by acting as a cofactor for factor I-mediated cleavage of surface bound C3b—is a major component of all drusen phenotypes. Further activation of the C3 convertase and cleavage of C3 into smaller molecules results the generation of C3b that propagates an amplification loop. An additional cleavage product from this reaction, the C3d molecule, is also found to be present in all drusen phenotypes.
  • Mannose binding protein which is believed to be a potent initiator of the lectin pathway, is also present in all drusen phenotypes, indicating that the lectin pathway can also be operative at the RPE-choroid interface.
  • Subretinal pigment epithelial (RPE) deposits in both types of glomerulonephritis are numerous and indistinguishable, both structurally and compositionally, from drusen in donors with AMD.
  • Glomerulonephritis-associated drusen exhibit sudanophilia, bind filipin, and react with antibodies directed against vitronectin, complement C5 and C5b-9 complexes, TIMP-3, and amyloid P component.
  • Drusen from the membranous GN donor, but not the post-streptococcal GN donor react with peanut agglutinin and antibodies directed against MHC class II antigens and IgG. The ultrastructural characteristics of these deposits were also identical with those of AMD-associated drusen.
  • Protein extracts from an enriched drusen preparation (DR+) obtained by debridement of Bruch's membrane with a #69 Beaver blade and from a control (DR ⁇ ) preparation were prepared using PBS with proteinase inhibitor cocktail and mild detergent. Proteins were separated by molecular weight using 10-20% gradient mini SDS gels (Amresco) and transferred to PVDF membranes for Western blot analysis. PVDF strips with human retinal proteins from 50 normal human retinas were also used for detection of any anti-retinal autoantibodies in the donor sera.
  • Sera from the same eight donors described above were screened. Serum from one AMD donor (#90-98) positively labeled a band in the RPE (both DR+ and DR ⁇ ) and RPE/choroid preparations of approximately 35 kDa. A second band of approximately 60 kDa was labeled weakly only in the DR+ protein extract. Sera from an AAA donor (#189-97) reacted with a protein(s) of approximately 53 kDa. This band labeled in all three protein extracts. There was one band of approximately 64 kDa that this serum sample labeled only in the DR+ sample.
  • Proteins extracted from the neural retinal, isolated RPE cells, and an entire fetal human eye (96 day) were separated by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis followed by either (a) transfer of the separated proteins to PVDF membranes or (b) silver staining of the 2D gel with a modified solution that is compatible with Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry analyses.
  • MALDI Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization
  • Blots were probed with human serum derived from a patient with the early onset macular dystrophy Malattia leventinese, followed by detection of immobilized primary antibodies with alkaline phosphatase-conjugated antibodies directed against human immunoglobulins, and positively labeled spots were matched with the corresponding spots on the silver-stained gels.
  • the presence of antibodies directed against the following proteins can also be determined: type IV collagen, glomerular basement membrane, neutrophils, cytoplasm (c-ANCA, p-ANCA), C3 convertase (C3 nephritic factor), alpha-i anti-trypsin levels (decreased in MPGN), epsilon 4 allele, apolipoprotein E, GFAP, ANA, serum senescent cell antigen, S-100, type 2 plasminogen activator, alpha-1-antichymotrypsin, SP-40, 40, endothelial cell, parietal cell, mitochondria, Jo-1, islet cell, inner ear antigen, epidermolysis Bullosa Acquista, endomysial IgA, cancer antigen 15-3, phospholipid, neuronal nucleus, cardiolipin, and ganglioside.
  • sera from the subject can be reacted with tissue sections derived from donors with and without AMD, followed by a secondary antibody that has been adsorbed against human immunoglobulins.
  • Western blots of retina/RPE/choroid from AMD and non-AMD donors can also be incubated with serum samples to identify specific bands against which autoantibodies react.
  • levels of the following proteins, additional indicators of autoantibody responses, chronic inflammation and/or acute phase responses can be assayed by a clinical diagnostic laboratory.
  • proteins can include Bence Jones protein, serum amyloid A, M components, CRP, mannose binding protein, serum amyloid A, C3a, C5a, other complement proteins, coagulation proteins, fibrinogen, vitronectin, CD25, interleukin 1, interleukin 6, and apolipoprotein E.
  • Serum protein electrophoresis, lymphocyte transformation, sedimentation rate, and spontaneous, whole blood, white cell count can also be measured.
  • Other proteins that provide additional indication of autoantibody responses, chronic inflammation and/or acute phase responses can also be assayed.

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US11/205,370 US7344846B2 (en) 2000-02-22 2005-08-16 Diagnostics and therapeutics for macular degeneration-related disorders
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US12/026,420 US7682804B2 (en) 2000-02-22 2008-02-05 Diagnostics and therapeutics for macular degeneration-related disorders
US12/889,311 US20110182908A1 (en) 2000-02-22 2010-09-23 Diagnostics and Therapeutics for Macular Degeneration-Related Disorders
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US20180335436A1 (en) 2018-11-22
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