JP2017527091A - Electrical output generation system and method - Google Patents

Abstract

(I) at least one reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos; (ii) a source of H2O catalyst or H2O catalyst; a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; a source and atom of H2O catalyst or H2O catalyst Comprising at least two components selected from: a reactant that forms a source of hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants that initiate atomic hydrogen catalysis; and a material that causes the fuel to be highly conductive. A chemical feel mixture, (iii) a fuel injection system such as a railgun shot injector, (iv) an energy gain by forming hydrino from a bright light plasma and a low voltage to initiate a high reaction rate of the hydrino reaction, high An electrical power source providing a short burst of repetitive current electrical energy and at least one set of confining fuel. (Vi) a product recovery system, such as at least one of a gravity recovery system and an extended plasma railgun recovery system, (vi) a blast furnace, a source of hydrogen and a source of H2O, a dripper and a water bath forming a fuel pellet or shot And a fuel pelletizer or shot maker including an agitator for supplying shots into the injector, (vii) a concentrating solar thermal power generation system including a plurality of ultraviolet (UV) photoelectric cells and a plurality of photovoltaic cells and a UV window A solid or liquid fuel-plasma-electric power source that provides at least one of electrical and thermal power, including a power converter that can convert the high power light output of the cell to electricity.

Description

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is incorporated by reference in US Provisional Application No. 62/004883, filed May 29, 2014; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 016,540, filed June 24, 2014; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 021,699, filed July 7, 2014; July 11, 2014 US provisional application No. 62 / 023,586 filed on July 20, 2014; US provisional application number 62 / 026,698 filed on July 20, 2014; US provisional application filed on August 14, 2014 No. 62 / 037,152; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 041,026, filed August 22, 2014; US Provisional Application No. 62/058, filed October 2, 2014, 844; 2014 US Provisional Application No. 62 / 068,59, filed October 24; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 083,029, filed November 24, 2014; filed December 4, 2014 US Provisional Application No. 62 / 087,234; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 092,230 filed on December 15, 2014; US Provisional Application No. 62 filed on February 6, 2015 No. 62 / 113,211; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 141,079 filed on March 31, 2015; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 149,501 filed on April 17, 2015; Claims the benefit of US Provisional Application No. 62 / 159,230, filed May 9, 2015; US Provisional Application No. 62 / 165,340, filed May 22, 2015; But all of them are here Incorporated is irradiation.

  The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and more particularly to systems, devices, and methods for power generation. More particularly, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation devices and systems, as well as related methods, which include optical power, plasma, and thermal power. ) And optical-electric power converter, plasma-electric power converter, photon-electric power converter, or photon-electric power converter , Thermal to electrical power converter (thermal to electrical power co) The electric power is produced via the nverter. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosure may be used to generate optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and / or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters. Systems, apparatus, and methods that use ignition of water or water-based fuel sources are described. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in this disclosure.

  Power generation can take many forms using power from plasma. The successful commercialization of the plasma may be due to a power generation system that can efficiently form the plasma and capture the power of the generated plasma.

  A plasma may be formed during ignition of a particular fuel. These fuels can include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of depleted atoms is formed and high optical power may be released. The high optical power of the plasma can be utilized by the electrical converter of the present disclosure. The ions and excited atoms can recombine and can undergo electronic relaxation to emit optical power. Optical power can be converted into electricity with photovoltaic technology.

  Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system. The power generation system is configured to deliver a plurality of electrodes configured to deliver power to the fuel to ignite the fuel and generate plasma; and to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes And a source of electrical power provided; and at least one photovoltaic power converter arranged to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

In one embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy. This power system
At least one vessel capable of pressures below atmospheric pressure;
A shot containing a reactant, where the reactant is
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O;
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and
d) including at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;
At least one shot injection system including at least one augmented railgun;
Here, the augmented railgun includes a magnet that generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail and a separate electric current-carrying rail, and the circuit between the rails is connected to the rail. Open until closed by contact with the shot;
At least one ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a light-emitting plasma and a thermal-emitting plasma, wherein the at least one ignition system comprises:
a) at least one set of electrodes to confine the shot; and
b) a source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high current electrical energy;
Here, the at least one electrode forms an open circuit, which is closed by the shot injection to cause high current to flow to achieve ignition, and The source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high current electrical energy is
A voltage selected to cause high AC, DC, and AC-DC mixed current in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA;
DC or peak AC current within at least one range of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² density;
The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, where the voltage is given by applying a desired current to the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material;
The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one range of about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and
An AC frequency is within at least one range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz;
Augmented plasma railgun recovery system and vector-crossed current component of ignition electrodes and at least one magnet that provides a magnetic field A system for recovering a reaction product of a reactant comprising at least one of gravity;
Regenerating additional reactants from the reaction products and forming a molten reactant, a blast furnace, a system for adding H ₂ and H ₂ O to the molten reactants, a melt dripper, And at least one regeneration system for forming additional shots including a pelletizer including a water reservoir for forming the shots;
Where the additional reactant is
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O,
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
d) comprising at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix; and
Photovoltaic converter, photoelectron converter, plasma dynamic converter, thermoelectric converter, thermoelectric converter engine, thermoelectric converter engine, thermoelectric converter engine At least one output system or power converter of light and heat output to electrical and / or thermal power, including at least one or more of a group of cycle engines and heat engines and a heater With at least one;
including.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy. The power system is
At least one vessel capable of a pressure below atmospheric pressure;
A shot comprising a reactant comprising at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water;
At least one shot injection system including at least one augmented railgun, wherein the augmented railgun includes a magnet that generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rails and a separate electrically flowing rail And the circuit between the rails is open until the rails are closed by contact of the shot with the rails;
At least one ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and an exothermic plasma, wherein the at least one ignition system comprises:
a) at least one set of electrodes confining the shot; and
b) a source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high current electrical energy;
Here, at least one of the set of electrodes is separated to form an open circuit, the open circuit is closed by shot injection to cause high current to flow to achieve ignition, and high The source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of current electrical energy is
At least one of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2,000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² DC or peak AC current density within range;
The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, where the voltage is given by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample by the desired current;
The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one range of about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and the AC frequency is about 0.1 Hz Within at least one range of from 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz;
Augmented plasma railgun recovery system and vector-crossed current component of ignition electrodes and at least one magnet that provides a magnetic field A system for recovering a reaction product of a reactant comprising at least one of gravity;
Regenerating additional reactants from the reaction products and forming a molten reactant, a blast furnace, a system for adding H ₂ and H ₂ O to the molten reactants, a melt dripper, And at least one regeneration system for forming additional shots including a pelletizer including a water reservoir for forming the shots;
Wherein the additional reactant comprises at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water;
Photovoltaic cells include at least one compound selected from Group III nitrides, GaAlN, GaN, and InGaN, and include an output system or power converter including a concentrating ultraviolet photovoltaic converter At least one of
including.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy. The power system is
At least one tank;
A shot containing a reactant, where the reactant is
e) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent H ₂ O;
f) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O,
g) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
h) including at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;
At least one shot injection system;
A shot ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and an exothermic plasma;
A system for recovering the reaction product of the reactants;
At least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the reaction product and forming additional shots;
Where the additional reactant is
e) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent H ₂ O;
f) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O,
g) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
h) including at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and
At least one output system or power converter of light and heat output to electrical and / or thermal power;
including.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy. The power system comprises at least one tank;
A slurry containing the reactants, wherein the reactants are
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O,
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
d) including at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;
At least one of a slurry injection system including a rotating roller electrode including a rotary slurry pump;
At least one of a slurry ignition system that causes the shot to form a luminescent plasma;
A system for recovering the reaction product of the reactants;
At least one regeneration system that regenerates additional reactants from the reaction product and forms additional slurry;
Where the additional reactant is
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O,
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and
At least one output system or power converter of light and heat output to electrical and / or thermal power;
including.

  Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system. The power generation system includes a plurality of electrodes configured to deliver power to the fuel to ignite the fuel and generate a plasma; and deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes. And a source of electrical power configured to receive and at least a plurality of plasma photons a photovoltaic power converter arranged to receive the plasma photons.

In one embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to a power system that generates at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy. The power system is
At least one tank;
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;
A reactant comprising
Of at least one set of electrodes for confining hydrino reactants;
A source of electrical power to deliver short bursts of high current electrical energy;
A reloading system;
At least one system for regenerating the initial reactant from the reaction product; and
At least one plasma dynamic converter or at least one photovoltaic converter;
including.

  In an exemplary embodiment, a method for generating electrical power includes supplying fuel to a region between a plurality of electrodes; and energizing the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma. And converting a plurality of plasma photons into electrical power with a photovoltaic power converter; and outputting at least a portion of the electrical power.

  In another exemplary embodiment, a method for generating electrical power includes supplying fuel to a region between a plurality of electrodes; and a plurality of to ignite the fuel to form a plasma. Energizing a plurality of electrodes; converting a plurality of plasma photons into thermal power with a photovoltaic power converter; and outputting at least a portion of the electrical power Absent.

In one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method for generating power includes delivering a quantity of fuel to a fuel loading region where a fuel loading region is located within the plurality of electrodes. Igniting the fuel by passing a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² through the fuel by applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to generate at least one of plasma, light, and heat; Receiving at least a portion of the light in a photovoltaic power converter; converting the light into a different form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; and Outputting different forms of power.

In one additional embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a water arc plasma power system. The water arc plasma power system includes at least one closed reaction vessel; a reactant comprising at least one of a source of H ₂ O and H ₂ O; at least one set of electrodes A source of electrical power to deliver an initial high breakdown voltage of H ₂ O and to provide a subsequent high current; and a heat exchanger system; Wherein the power system generates arc plasma, light, and thermal energy, and further includes at least one photovoltaic power converter;

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation systems. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² or about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; Generated by a fuel loading region configured to receive solid fuel, and configured to deliver electrical power to the solid fuel to generate plasma; and the reaction Heat-to-electric power converter, photovoltaic power converter, and plasma power converter arranged to receive at least a portion of heat, photons (photons) and / or plasma At least one of (plasma power converter). Another embodiment relates to a power generation system. The power generation system includes: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel filling region disposed between the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive a conductive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes is a conductive fuel Is configured to apply a current to a sufficiently conductive fuel to ignite and to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power; conductive into the fuel filling region A delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter for converting plasma photons into a power form or a non-thermal form including thermal or electrical power At least one of a thermal to electric converter for converting to the power of Mu A further embodiment relates to a method for generating power. The method includes delivering a quantity of fuel to the fuel filling region where the fuel filling region is located within the plurality of electrodes; and at least one of plasma, light, and heat Igniting the fuel by passing a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² through the fuel by applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to generate one; Receiving a portion; converting the light into a different form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; and outputting the different form of power.

Additional embodiments relate to power generation systems. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround the fuel and are electrically A delivery source for moving the fuel; electrically connected to a power source, configured to receive current to ignite the fuel; and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; And a photovoltaic power power converter configured to convert the plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power. Additional provided in the present disclosure is a power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² ; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least deliver fuel Partially enclosed, electrically connected to an electrical power source, configured to receive current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery for moving the fuel A mechanism; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert the plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power.

Another embodiment relates to a power generation system. The power generation system includes a spaced apart electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm ² ; and at least one of the plurality of electrodes includes a compression mechanism. The plurality of electrodes disposed; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, so that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is the fuel filling Oriented to the fuel loading region and the plurality of electrodes being electrically connected to the electrical power source to power the fuel received in the fuel fill region to ignite the fuel A fuel filling area A delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the plasma, and a plasma power converter configured to convert the plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power. Another embodiment of the present disclosure relates to one power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² ; and a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of the electrodes includes a compression mechanism A fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by a plurality of electrodes, so that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel filling region; The plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuel received in the fuel fill region to ignite the fuel; A delivery mechanism for moving the fuel in; and the plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel is non-plasma Including; form and configured plasma power converter to convert the (non-plasma form) power.

Embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system. The power generation system includes: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel filling region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are disposed in the fuel filling region A delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel filling region; and converting photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-photon form power A photovoltaic power converter configured to: a removal system for removing a byproduct of the ignited fuel; and a recycled byproduct of the ignited fuel being recycled Functionally coupled to a removal system to recycle to a different fuel (operab ly coupled) playback system. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system. The power generation system is electrically connected to the electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² or at least about 5,000 kW; A plurality of spaced apart electrodes; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes includes: Configured to power the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel fill region;
A delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel fill region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-photon form of power. Certain embodiments further include one or more of output power terminals functionally coupled to the photovoltaic power converter; and at least one parameter associated with the power generation system. A sensor configured to measure; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² or at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced electrodes; Wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surrounds the fuel, is electrically connected to the electrical power source, is configured to receive current to ignite the fuel, and the plurality of electrodes At least one is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic device configured to convert photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into different forms of power. A power converter and;

An additional embodiment of the present disclosure relates to one power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² or at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality electrically connected to the electrical power source Electrodes spaced apart from each other;
A fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes ignite fuel when received within the fuel filling region; Configured to supply power to the fuel; and a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel filling region; and configured to convert a plurality of photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-photon form of power. A photovoltaic power converter; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and to control at least one process associated with the power generation system A configured controller; A further embodiment relates to one power generation system. The power generation system is configured to receive at least about 2,000 A / cm ² of electrical power source; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; and fuel A fuel-filled region, wherein the fuel-filled region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes are for igniting the fuel when received in the fuel-filled region Configured to supply power to the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel filling region; configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form of power A plasma power converter; and a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and A controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system.

Particular embodiments of the present disclosure relate to one power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm ² ; and a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source And a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes receive fuel when received in the fuel filling region. Configured to power the fuel to ignite and the pressure in the fuel filling region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel filling region; And a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from fuel ignition to non-plasma form of power; Including. Some embodiments include one or more of the following additional features. They may be that the photovoltaic power converter may be placed in a vacuum cell; the photovoltaic power converter may be an antireflection coating, an optical impedance matching coating, or Cleaning, which may include at least one of a protective coating; a photovoltaic power converter configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter; • may be functionally coupled to a cleaning system; a photovoltaic power converter is connected to an optical filter ( may include an optical filter; a photovoltaic power converter may include a monocrystalline cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string / ribbon silicon cell; (String / ribbon silicon cell), multi-junction cell, homojunction cell, heterojunction cell, pin device (pi-n device), thin film A thin-film cell, a dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell and / or the photovoltaic power converter may include a multi-junction cell, where the multi-junction cell is an inverted cell, Including at least one of an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, and a cell containing a Group III-V semiconductor material; .

  An additional exemplary embodiment relates to a system configured to generate power. The system is configured to receive a fuel supply configured to supply fuel; a power supply configured to supply electrical power; and the fuel and its electrical power. At least one gear, wherein the at least one gear selectively provides electrical power to a local region around the gear for igniting fuel in the local region. Including; In some embodiments, the system may further have one or more of the following features. They are that the fuel may contain powder; at least one gear may contain two gears; at least one gear has a lower conductivity than the first material and the first material Including a second material, wherein the first material may be electrically coupled to the local region; and the local region is adjacent to at least one of the gear gap and the teeth What you might do; Other embodiments may use a support member instead of a gear, and other embodiments may use a support member and gear. Some embodiments relate to a method of generating electrical power. The method includes supplying fuel to a roller or gear; rotating the roller or gear to localize at least some of the fuel locally in the roller or gear region; and local to generate energy. Supplying current to the rollers or gears to ignite the fuel left in the chamber; and converting at least some of the energy generated by the ignition to electrical power. In some embodiments, rotating the roller or gear may include rotating the first roller or gear and the roller or second gear, and supplying the current comprises first step Supplying current to the roller or gear and the roller or second gear.

Another embodiment relates to a power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm ² ; a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; and for receiving fuel A fuel filling region, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes power the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region. And the pressure in the fuel filling region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel filling region; and the plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel A photovoltaic power converter configured to convert to power in a non-plasma form.

A further embodiment relates to one power generation system. The power generation system includes an outlet port connected to a vacuum pump; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a water-based system consisting mostly of H ₂ O A fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power; And a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of arc plasma and thermal power to electrical power. The disclosed power generation system also includes an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A / cm ² ; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; water consisting mostly of H ₂ O A fuel fill region configured to receive a base fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power. And a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of arc plasma and thermal power into electrical power. In one embodiment, the power converter includes an optical power to electricity photovoltaic converter.

An additional embodiment relates to a method for generating power. The method includes loading a fuel into a fuel filling region that includes a plurality of electrodes; the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power. Applying a current of about 2,000 A / cm ² ; passing an arc plasma through the photovoltaic converter to generate electrical power and thermo-electric to generate electrical power Performing at least one of passing thermal power through the converter; and outputting at least a portion of the generated electrical power. Further disclosed is a power generation system, the power generation system comprising at least about 5,000 kW electrical power source; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source, wherein the plurality The electrodes are configured to deliver electrical power to a water-based fuel consisting mostly of H ₂ O to generate thermal power; and convert at least a portion of the thermal power to electrical power A heat exchanger configured to: and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert at least a portion of the light to electrical power. In addition, another embodiment relates to a power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source, wherein the plurality of electrodes At least one includes a compression mechanism; a fuel filling region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting mostly of H ₂ O, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes The compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel filling region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and the fuel filling region to ignite the fuel Configured to supply power to a water-based fuel received therein; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into its fuel filling region; And a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of fuel into non-plasma form of power.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate some embodiments of the present disclosure and illustrate the principles of the present disclosure. Works with this description. The drawings include the following.

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a plasma dynamic converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator illustrating a photovoltaic converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2B is a schematic diagram of an arc H ₂ O plasma cell power generator illustrating a photovoltaic converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2C is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator illustrating an optical distribution and photovoltaic converter system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2C1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing optical distribution and photovoltaic converter systems and auxiliary system elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2C2 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the ignition system and auxiliary system elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2C3 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a louver fan according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2D is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an applicator wheel according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2E is a diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the perspective interior of a photovoltaic converter and optical distribution including semitransparent mirrors and photovoltaic cells, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. FIG. 2F is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator illustrating a mirrored ignition system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the placement of motors, pumps, and other components outside the region that houses the roller electrodes, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2G1 shows a fuel recirculation system showing the placement of motors, pumps, and other components outside the area that houses the roller electrodes, and with a louver fan, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator further shown. FIG. 2G1a is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of a gas distribution duct and a rinsing line with jets of a fuel recirculation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1b is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a duct of a fuel recirculation system with a perforated window gas diffuser according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1c is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of a duct blower and gas distribution ducts of a fuel recirculation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1d is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of a V-shaped screen on the wall of a slurry trough according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1d1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of a pivoting bus bar ignition system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1e is a schematic diagram of a piezoelectric actuator system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1e1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of a fuel powder injection and ignition system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1e2 shows an SF-CIHT cell showing details of a fuel powder injection and ignition system with a blower and cyclone separator fuel recirculation-regeneration system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. -It is the schematic of a power generator. FIG. 2G1e3 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of a fuel powder injection and ignition system with a blower and cyclone separator fuel recirculation-regeneration system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1e4 is a schematic view of a transmissive or translucent type photoelectron cell according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1e5 is a schematic diagram of a reflective or opaque type optoelectronic cell according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2G1e6 is a schematic diagram of a reflective or opaque type of optoelectronic cell including a grid anode or collector according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. H1 shows a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied by two transporters, an augmented plasma railgun and a gravity recovery system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a plasma railgun and gravity recovery systems, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system. FIG. FIG. H2 illustrates a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied by two transporters, an enhanced plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a cell according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a photovoltaic converter system (showing details of the ignition system and its power supply). FIG. H3 is a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied by two transporters, an increased plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a cell according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a photovoltaic converter system (showing details of ignition system and photovoltaic converter). FIG. FIG. H4 shows a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied by two transporters, an augmented plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a cell according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a photovoltaic converter system (showing details of ignition and injection system, ignition product recovery system, and pelletizer forming shot fuel). FIG.

FIG. I1 illustrates a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied directly from a pelletizer, an enhanced plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing two drawings of a photovoltaic converter system. FIG. FIG. 12 illustrates a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied directly from a pelletizer, an enhanced plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a photovoltaic converter system. FIG. FIG. 13 illustrates a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied directly from the pelletizer, an augmented plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and according to embodiments of the present disclosure. 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a photovoltaic converter system (showing details of railgun system and ignition system and photovoltaic converter system). FIG. FIG. 14 illustrates a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied directly from the pelletizer, an enhanced plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and 1 is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a photovoltaic converter system (showing details of mechanical agitator, ignition system, ignition product recovery system, and pelletizer forming shot fuel). . FIG. 15 illustrates a cell capable of maintaining a vacuum, an ignition system with a railgun shot injection system supplied directly from the pelletizer, an augmented plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and according to embodiments of the present disclosure. Schematic of SF-CIHT cell power generator showing photovoltaic converter system (shows details of ignition system with water jet agitator, ignition system, ignition product recovery system, and pelletizer forming shot fuel) It is.

FIG. 2J is a schematic diagram of a thermal power system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 3 shows that H ₂ and H ₂ absorbed from the gas treatment of the silver melt before dripping into a water reservoir showing an average optical power of 172 kW in the ultraviolet spectral region according to essentially all fuel embodiments. 2 is an absolute spectrum in the 120 nm to 450 nm region of ignition of an 80 mg shot of silver containing O. FIG. 4 is a Parr 1341 calorimeter setup used for energy balance determination. FIG. 5 shows a glowing, glowing, expanded plasma formed from a high current explosion of solid fuel Cu + CuO + H ₂ O taken at 6500 frames per second.

FIG. 6 shows that the temporary full width half maximum intensity measured for the solid fuel Cu + H ₂ O ignition event of the solid fuel Cu + H ₂ O was 0.7 ms. Indicated. FIG. 7 shows Raman spectra obtained on In metal foils exposed to product gas from a series of solid fuel ignitions under argon, each containing 100 mg Cu mixed with 30 mg deionized water. Using a Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman spectrometer and a 780 nm laser, the spectrum is a free digit of H ₂ (1/4) (0.2414 eV) with 4 significant figures. A matched inverse Raman effect peak at 1982 cm ⁻¹ was shown. FIG. 8 shows a Raman spectrum recorded on an In metal foil exposed to product gas from an argon atmosphere ignition of 50 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ sealed in a DSC pan. Using a thermo scientific DXR smart Raman spectrometer and a 780 nm laser, the spectrum showed an H ₂ (1/4) inverse Raman effect peak at 1988 cm ⁻¹ . FIG. 9 shows a DSC pan using a Horiba Jobin Yvon Labram Aramis 325 nm laser (Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS 325 nm laser) with a 1200 grating over a range of Raman shifts of 8000-19,000 cm ⁻¹ . Raman mode second order photoluminescence spectrum of KOH-KCl (1: 1 wt%) getter exposed to product gas of ignition of 100 mg Cu solid fuel sample with 30 mg deionized water sealed to Indicates. FIG. 10 shows a plot comparison between theoretical energy and allocation given in Table 16 for the observed Raman spectra.

FIGS. 11A-B show XPS spectra recorded on indium metal foil exposed to gas from a continuous argon atmosphere ignition of 30 mg deionized water + solid fuel 100 mg Cu sealed in a DSC pan. . (A) A survey spectrum showing only the peaks of the elements In, C, O, and a trace amount of K. (B) High resolution spectrum showing a peak at 498.5 eV assigned to H ₂ (1/4) where other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of any other corresponding major element peak. 12A-B shows KOH-KCl (1: 1 wt%) exposed to gas from a continuous argon atmosphere ignition of 85 mg Ti of solid fuel mixed with 30 mg deionized water sealed in a DSC pan. ) Shows the XPS spectrum recorded on the getter. (A) Survey spectrum showing only the peaks of the elements K, C, O, N, and a trace amount of I. (B) High resolution spectrum showing the peak at 496 eV assigned to H ₂ (1/4) where other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of any other corresponding major element peak. FIGS. 13A-B show solid fuel sealed in aluminum DSC pan 50 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ + KOH + KCl (2: 1: 1 wt.) + 15 mg H ₂ O argon atmosphere exposed to internal KOH exposed to ignition gas -Shows XPS spectra recorded on KCl (1: 1 wt%) getter. (A) Survey spectrum showing that only the peaks of the elements K, Cu, Cl, Si, Al, C, O, and a trace amount of F were present. (B) High resolution spectrum showing the peak at 496 eV assigned to H ₂ (1/4) where other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of any other corresponding major element peak. FIG. 14 is an experimental setup for a high voltage pulsed discharge cell. The source emits its light spectrum through an entrance aperture that passes through the slit with the spectrum dispersed from the grazing incidence grating on the CCD detection system. FIG. 15 is a photograph of a light source for high-voltage pulse discharge.

FIG. 16 is an experimental setup for ignition of a solid conductive fuel sample and recording of strong plasma emission. The plasma expands into the vacuum chamber and becomes optically thin. The source emits its light spectrum through an entrance aperture that passes through the slit with the spectrum dispersed from the grazing incidence grating on the CCD detection system. FIGS. 17A and 17B are transmission curves of filters for EUV light that blocks visible light. (A) Al filter (150 nm thickness) with cut-off for short wavelengths at ˜17 nm. (B) Zr filter (150 nm thickness) with high transmission at the predicted H (1/4) transition cutoff 10.1 nm. 18A-D are emission spectra (2.5-45 nm) including 1000 superpositions of an electron beam initiated high voltage pulsed gas discharge in helium or hydrogen. Only known helium and oxygen ion lines were observed with helium in the absence of continuum. Continuum radiation was observed only for hydrogen independent of the number of electrode, grating, spectrometer, or superposition of CCD images. (A) Using a CfA EUV grazing incidence spectrometer with helium and hydrogen plasma maintained on a Mo electrode and a BLP 600 line / mm grating (BLP 600 lines / mm grating) Recorded luminescence. (B) Luminescence recorded using a helium and hydrogen plasma maintained on a Ta electrode and a CfA EUV grazing incidence spectrometer with a BLP 600 line / mm grating. (C) Helium and hydrogen plasma maintained at the W electrode and luminescence recorded using a CfA EUV grazing incidence spectrometer with a CfA 1200 line / mm grating. (D) Helium and hydrogen plasma maintained at the W electrode and luminescence recorded using a CfA EUV grazing incidence spectrometer with a BLP 600 line / mm grating. FIG. 19 shows in a helium-hydrogen mixture with a W electrode recorded by an EUV grazing incidence spectrometer using a 600 line / mm grating and 1000 overlay showing that continuum radiation increased in intensity with increasing hydrogen pressure. FIG. 5 is an emission spectrum (5-50 nm) of a high voltage pulse discharge started with an electron beam. 20A-D are emission spectra (5-40 nm) consisting of 1000 superpositions of an electron beam initiated high voltage pulse gas discharge in hydrogen with and without an Al filter. Continuum radiation was not observed from Al and Mg anodes. (A) Hydrogen plasma maintained at Al anode. (B) Hydrogen maintained at Al anode with spectrum recorded with Al filter. (C) Hydrogen plasma maintained at the Mg anode. (D) Hydrogen plasma maintained at Mg anode with spectrum recorded with Al filter.

FIGS. 21A-B show high-speed photographs of a glowing luminescent expanded plasma formed from a low-voltage, high-current explosion of a solid fuel. (A) Cu + CuO + H ₂ O photographed at 6500 frames per _second . The white-blue color indicates a large amount of UV emission from a black body with a temperature of 5500-6000 K, equivalent to that of the sun. (B) Cu taken at 17,791 frames per second with a VI waveform showing plasma at a time, with no electrical input power (indicated by a yellow vertical line) and no chemical reaction possible 55.9 mg Ag (10 at%) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O (13 wt%) coated on (87 wt%). The plasma lasted for 21.9 ms, where the input power was zero at 1.275 ms. The peak reaction voltage measured at the welder connection to the bus bar was about 20V and the corresponding voltage at the other end near the fuel was <15V. FIG. 22 shows a pair of conductivity probes spaced 1.5875 cm apart, with plasma conductivity as a function of time following 100 mg solid fuel + 30 mg H ₂ O sealed in a DSC pan. Indicates the rate. The time delay between the pair of conductivity probes was measured to be 42 μs corresponding to a plasma expansion rate of 378 m / s averaged over 343 m / s over multiple measurements. Figure 23 is compared to the spectrum of the solar radiation at the earth's surface, DSC both low voltage high of of _{H 2} O Cu + 30 mg of _{H 2} O and 100mg of Ti + 30 mg of 100mg of the sealed solid fuel in the pan Fig. 5 shows the intensity of the visible light spectrum of a plasma formed by current ignition-normalized superposition. The superposition shows that all sources emit about 5000-6000 K of blackbody radiation, but the solidbody blackbody emission (before normalization) is approximately 50 more than sunlight on the Earth's surface. The strength is over 1,000 times. FIG. 24 shows the photodiode signal as a function of time capturing the light emission evolution following a 100 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O ignition event of solid fuel sealed in a DSC pan. The temporary full width at half maximum light intensity measured with a high-speed photodiode was 0.5 ms. FIG. 25 shows the visible light spectrum of the plasma formed by low voltage high current ignition of solid fuel sealed with paraffin wax in a DSC pan taken 427 cm from the explosion. This source also similar to the spectrum of the _{H 2} O-based solid fuel and solar shown in FIG. 23, emits black body radiation of approximately 5000-6000 K.

FIGS. 26A-B show high-resolution visible light spectra in the spectral region of H-balmer α-rays measured using a Joban Yvon Horiba 1250M spectrometer with a 20 μm slit. (A) The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the 632.8 nm HeNe laser line was 0.07 mm, which confirmed high spectral resolution. (B) FWHM of Ballmer α-rays from emission of solid fuel 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O ignited sealed in DSC pan, corresponding to an electron density of 3.96 × 10 ²³ / m ³ It was 22.6 cm. The line was shifted by +1.2 mm. The plasma was almost completely ionized at a black body temperature of 6000 K. The width of the Balmer alpha line from the emission of the solid fuel 100 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O ignited sealed in the DSC pan is more than 24 ° corresponding to a 100% ionized plasma at a black body temperature of at least 5000K. The measurement was not possible due to the extremely large and excessive width. FIG. 27 shows a 5 s time span to collect all of the light energy from a 0.5 ms light emission pulse of an ignited 100 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O solid fuel sealed in a DSC pan. Figure 2 shows a light energy density spectrum (350 nm to 1000 nm) measured with an Ocean Optics spectrometer by time integration of the power density spectrum taken in The energy density obtained by integrating the energy density spectrum was 5.86 J / m ² recorded at a distance of 353.6 cm. FIG. 28 shows that only known oxygen and nitrogen lines and zero order peaks were observed in the absence of continuum, showing an EUV grazing incidence spectrometer with an Al filter and 600 lines / mm. FIG. 6 shows a calibration emission spectrum (0-45 nm) of a high voltage pulse discharge in air (100 mTorr) with W electrode recorded using. FIG. 29 shows the plasma emission emission of a conductive NiOOH pellet ignited with a high current source with AC peak voltage of less than 15V recorded, with two Al filters alone and additionally with a crystal filter. The spectrum (0-45 nm) is shown. Only EUV passes through the Al filter and EUV light is blocked by the quartz filter. A strong EUV continuum with secondary ion emission was observed in the 17 to 45 nm region with a characteristic Al notch filter at 10 to 17 nm as shown in FIG. 17A. The EUV spectrum (0-45 nm) and the peak with an intensity of zero order were completely cut by a quartz filter to confirm that the solid fuel plasma emission was EUV. FIG. 30 shows conductive Ag (10%)-Cu / BaI ignited with a high current source with an AC peak voltage lower than 15 V recorded with two Al filters with superimposed extensions to this detail. shows a ₂ 2H ₂ O fuel 3mm pellets plasma emission of the emission spectrum (0-45nm). A strong EUV continuum with secondary ion emission was observed in the 17 to 45 nm region with a characteristic Al notch filter at 10 to 17 nm as shown in FIG. 17A.

FIG. 31 shows conductive Ag (10%)-Cu / BaI ignited with a high current source with an AC peak voltage lower than 15 V recorded with two Al filters with superimposed extensions to this detail. shows a ₂ 2H ₂ O fuel 3mm pellets plasma emission of the emission spectrum (0-45nm). A strong EUV continuum with secondary ion emission has a 10.1 nm cutoff as predicted by equations (230) and (233) transmitted by the zirconium filter as shown in FIG. 17B. Observed. FIG. 32 shows paraffin wax in a conductive DSC pan ignited with a high current source with only two Al filters, and additionally with a crystal filter, with a recorded AC peak voltage below 15V. The emission spectrum (0-45 nm) of the plasma emission of what was sealed is shown. A zero order EUV peak was observed. The zero order peak was completely cut with a quartz filter to confirm that the solid fuel plasma emission was EUV. FIG. 33 shows the plasma emission emission of conductive NiOOH pellets ignited with a high current source with AC peak voltage lower than 15V recorded, with only two Al filters and additionally with a quartz filter. The spectrum (0-45 nm) is shown. Abnormally strong zero-order peaks and EUV continuum were observed by large slit width of 100 μm and large emission EUV photon scattering (photon scattering). The emission is 2.32 × 10 ⁷ photon counts (photon counts) corresponding to the total distance-and-solid-angle-corrected energy of 148 J of EUV radiation. (Photon counts)). The EUV spectrum (0-45 nm) and the zero order peak were completely cut with a quartz filter to confirm that the solid fuel plasma emission was EUV. FIG. 34 seals in a conductive Al DSC pan ignited with a high current source with only two Al filters, and additionally with a crystal filter, with a recorded AC peak voltage below 15V. 2 shows the emission spectrum (0-45 nm) of the plasma emission of 5 mg of the energetic substance NH ₄ NO ₃ . An unusually strong zero order peak and EUV continuum were observed as shown by comparison with H ₂ pinch discharge emission (below trace). Its emission corresponded to a total distance of 125 J of EUV radiation—and a solid angle—corrected energy (total distance-and-solid-angle-corrected energy). FIG. 35 shows the presence of He / H = 10 ⁻⁵ , showing the Lyman absorption series of He II and H I at 22.8 nm (228 Å) and 91.2 nm (912 Å), respectively. And a typical model of the EUV continuum spectrum of a white dwarf photosphere using a number of and a temperature of 50,000 K. M.M. A. Barstow and J.H. B. From Holberg's “Ultraviolet Astronomy”, Cambridge Astronomical Physics Series 37, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2003).

FIG. Stix's "Sun" Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1991) Figure 9.5, page 321, from the prominence (top), the quiet sun-center (middle), and on the sun rim 1 shows the average extreme ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun of Skylab (Harvard College Observatory spectrometer) recorded in the corona above the solar limb (bottom). In the spectrum of the quiet sun center, the 91.2 nm continuum to longer wavelengths is prominent and is observed despite attenuation by corona gas. The continuum was greatly reduced in prominence and corona, where the H concentration was greatly reduced and absent, respectively. Luminescence and continuum from chromospheric lines or severely attenuated in the corona. The strongest lines in the corona spectrum and to a lower degree of saliency are due to absorption of high energy continuum radiation rather than thermal excitation, Ne VIII, Mg X, or Si XII doublets. ) Of ionized ions such as). E. M.M. Reeves, E.E. C. M.M. Huber, G.G. J. et al. From Timothy's "Polar UV Wavelength Spectrometer at the Apollo telescope mount", Applied Optics 16 (1977) 837-848. FIG. 37 shows a dark matter ring in a cluster of galaxies. This composite image of the Hubble Space Telescope shows a dim “ring” of dark matter in the galaxy cluster Cl 0024 + 17. The ring is one of the strongest evidences to date for the existence of a previously unknown substance, dark matter, spreading in the universe. NASA / ESA, M.M. J. et al. Jee and H.C. Courtesy of Ford (John Hopkins University) (November 2004).

  Disclosed herein is a catalytic system that releases energy from atomic hydrogen that forms a lower energy state, where the electron shell is closer to the nucleus. The released power is utilized for power generation, and additionally new hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physics and the catalyst needs to receive energy from hydrogen to undergo the corresponding energy release transition.

Classical physics gives closed-form solutions of hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, and predicts corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Using Maxwell's equations, the structure of the electron was derived as a boundary value problem, where the electron is constrained that electrons bound to the n = 1 state cannot radiate energy, and during the transition Contains the current of a time-varying electromagnetic field source. The reaction predicted by the solution of H atoms is from a stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst that can receive energy to form hydrogen in a lower energy state than previously thought possible, Includes resonating non-radiative energy transfer. In particular, classical physics specifies that atomic hydrogen supplies a reaction with a net enthalpy of integer multiples of the atomic hydrogen potential energy, where E _h = 27.2 eV, where E _h is 1 Hartley. It is predicted that it may be catalyzed by the following atoms, excimers, ions, and diatomic hydrides. Specific species (eg, He ⁺ , Ar ⁺ , Sr ⁺ , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H, which can be identified based on known electron energy levels (levels) ₂ O, nH (n = integer)) is required to be present in atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction is a continuous emission of q · 13.6 eV or to H to form hydrogen atoms lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to the fractional principal quantum number and the unusually hot excited state of H. A non-radiative energy transfer followed by a q · 13.6 eV transfer of
That is, in the formula for the main energy level (levels) of the hydrogen atom:
E _n = − (e ² / (n ² 8πε ₀ a _H )) = − (13.598 eV / n ² )
(1)
n = 1, 2, 3, ... (2)
It is.
Where a _H is the Bohr radius (52.947 pm) for the hydrogen atom, e is the magnitude of the electron charge, and ε ₀ is the dielectric constant of the vacuum, but the fractional quantum The numbers are as follows:
n = 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,..., 1 / p (3)
This fractional quantum number replaces the well-known parameter of n = integer in the Rydberg equation for excited state hydrogen and represents a lower energy state hydrogen atom called “hydrinos”. And, similar to an excited state with an analytical solution of Maxwell's equation, a hydrino atom also consists of electrons, protons, and photons (photons). However, the latter electric field increases the binding corresponding to the desorption of energy rather than reducing the central field by absorption of energy as in the excited state, and the resulting photon-electron interaction of hydrinos. The action is stable rather than radioactive.

The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the n = 1 / integer state of hydrogen are non-radioactive, but the transition between two non-radioactive states, for example, n = 1 to n = 1/2, This is possible via non-radioactive energy transfer.
Hydrogen is a special case of the stable state given by equations (1) and (3), where the corresponding radius of hydrogen or hydrino atoms is given by:
r = a _H / p (4)
m · 27.2eV (5)
Here, p = 1, 2, 3,... For energy conservation, energy must be transferred from hydrogen atoms to the catalyst in the following units:
m · 27.2eV (5)
Then, the radius transits to a _H / (m + p). Catalytic reactions involve two steps of energy release, which are non-radioactive energy transfer to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release, but with a corresponding stable final state. The radius decreases until. It is believed that the rate of catalysis increases when the net enthalpy of reaction matches closer to m · 27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysis with a net enthalpy of m · 27.2 eV of reaction within ± 10%, more preferably within ± 5%, is reasonable for most applications. In the case of hydrino atom catalysis to lower energy states, the enthalpy of reaction of m · 27.2 eV (equation (5)) is relativistically corrected by the same factor as the hydrino atom potential energy.

Thus, the overall reaction is given by:
m · 27.2 eV + Cat ^{q +} + H [a _H / p]
^{→ Cat (q + r) +} + re - + H * [a H / (m + p)]
+ M · 27.2 eV (6)
H ^* [a _H / (m + p)]
→ H [a _H / (m + p)] + [(m + p) ² −p ² ] · 13.6 eV
-M · 27.2 eV (7)
Cat ^{(q + r) +} + re ⁻ → Cat ^{q +} + m · 27.2 eV (8)
The overall reaction is then given by:
H [a _H / p]
→ H [a _H / (m + p)] + [(m + p) ² −p ² ] · 13.6 eV (9)
Here, q, r, m, and p are integers. H ^* [a _H / (m + p)] has a central field equivalent to the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and (m + p) times that of the proton, and H [a _H / (M + p)] is the corresponding stable state with a radius of 1 / (m + p) that of H. Since the electrons are subjected to radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of this distance 1 / (m + p), the energy is either characteristic light emission or third body. It is released as the kinetic energy of the body (body-body kinetic energy). The emission has an edge where it extends to [(p + m) ² −p ² −2 m] · 13.6 eV or 91.2 / [(p + m) ² −p ² −2 m] nm and longer wavelengths. It may be in the form of extreme ultraviolet continuous radiation (form). In addition to radiation, resonant kinetic energy transfer may occur to form fast H (fast H). The subsequent excitation of these fast H (n = 1) atoms by collisions with the background H ₂ followed by the emission of the corresponding H (n = 3) fast atoms causes the alpha emission of the broadened ballmer. Give rise to Instead, fast H is a direct product of H or hydrino that functions as a catalyst, where the reception of resonant energy transfer is viewed as potential energy rather than ionization energy. The conservation of energy gives a kinetic energy proton corresponding to half of the potential energy in the former case and essentially gives a catalytic ion in the latter case. Fast proton H-recombination radiation results in broad-baller alpha emission that is unbalanced against the hot hydrogen inventory, consistent with the excess power balance.

  In this disclosure, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, reaction of hydrogen to form hydrino, and hydrino formation reaction are all represented by formula (1) and Reference is made to a reaction like that of the formula (6-9) of the catalyst defined by the formula (5) with the atom H to form a hydrogen state with the energy level given by (3). Corresponding terms such as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixtures, catalyst mixtures, reactants for hydrino formation, lower energy hydrogen or reactants that form or produce hydrinos are also represented by formula (1) and Used interchangeably when referring to a reaction mixture that catalyzes H to a hydrino state or H state with an energy level given by (3).

The catalytic lower energy hydrogen transition of the present disclosure is a form of an endothermic chemical reaction of integer m of potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen of 27.2 eV that accepts energy from atom H to cause the transition. May be in The endothermic catalytic reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (eg, m = 3 for Li → Li ²⁺ ), and further, the initial binding May include a concerted reaction of bond cleavage (eg, m = 2 for NaH → Na ²⁺ + H) with the ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of its partners. He ⁺ meets the catalyst criteria, which is a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV since it ionizes at 54.417 eV, which is 2 · 27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also function as an integer multiple of 27.2 eV enthalpy. The hydrogen atom H (1 / p) p = 1, 2, 3,... 137 can undergo a further transition to the lower energy state given by equations (1) and (3), Here, the transition of one atom is catalyzed by one or more additional H atoms that resonate and non-radiatively accept m · 27.2 eV in a concomitant reverse change in its potential energy. Affected. The general formula for the transition from H (1 / p) to H (1 / (m + p)) induced by the resonance transfer from m · 27.2 eV to H (1 / p ′) is as follows: Given.
H (1 / p ′) + H (1 / p)
→ H + H (1 / (m + p)) + [2 pm+m ² −p ′ ² +1] · 13.6 eV
(10)

A hydrogen atom may function as a catalyst, where m = 1, m = 2, and m = 3 for one, two, and three atoms, respectively, for one another Behave as. The ratio to the diatomic catalyst, 2H, may be high when an unusually fast H collides with a molecule to form 2H, where the two atoms are resonantly and nonradiatively Accepts 54.4 eV from the third hydrogen atom of the collision partner. By the same mechanism, two hot H ₂ collisions produce 3H that acts as a 3 · 27.2 eV catalyst for the fourth. EUV continuum at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm, anomalous (> 100 eV) baller alpha broadening, highly excited H state, product gas H ₂ (1/4), and large energy release Is observed consistent with the prediction.

H (1/4) is a preferred hydrino state based on the selection rule for its formation and its multipolarization. Thus, in the case where H (1/3) is formed, the transition to H (1/4) may occur rapidly catalyzed by H according to equation (10). Similarly, H (1/4) is the preferred state for catalyst energy equal to or greater than 81.6 eV corresponding to m = 3 in equation (5). In this case, the energy transfer to the catalyst is 81.6 eV forming the H ^* (1/4) intermediate of formula (7) as well as an integer multiple of 27.2 eV from the decay of the intermediate. Including. For example, 108.8 catalyst having the enthalpy of eV is, 122.4 eV of ^H * (1/4) ^H by accepting 27.2 eV as well as 81.6 eV from decay energy * (1/4 ) May form. The remaining decay energy of 95.2 eV is released to the surroundings to form the preferred state of H (1/4) that reacts to form H ₂ (1/4).

A reasonable catalyst can therefore provide a net positive enthalpy of reaction of m · 27.2 eV. That is, the catalyst resonates, accepts non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atoms, and releases energy to the surroundings to affect electronic transitions to fractional quantum energy levels. As a result of non-radiative energy transfer, hydrogen atoms become unstable and achieve a lower energy non-radiative state with the main energy levels given by equations (1) and (3). Until more energy is emitted. In this way, catalysis releases energy from hydrogen atoms with a balanced decrease in the size of the hydrogen atoms of r _n = na _H , where n is given by equation (3). For example, catalysis of H (n = 1) from H (n = 1/4) emits 204 eV, and the hydrogen radius decreases from _{a H} to (1/4) · _{a H.}

The catalyst product, H (1 / p), may also react with electrons to form hydrino hydride ion H ⁻ (1 / p), or two H (1 / p) corresponding May react to form the molecule hydrino H ₂ (1 / p). In particular, the catalyst product, H (1 / p), may also react with electrons to form a new hydride ion H ⁻ (1 / p) with a binding energy E _B as follows:
Where p = integer> 1, s = 1/2,
Where is Planck's constant bar, mu ₀ is the permeability of vacuum, m _e is the electron mass, mu _e is, m _p is the mass of the proton, a ₀ is the radius of the Bohr,
The reduced electron mass and the ion radius given by
It is. From equation (11), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride ion is 0.75418 eV, and the experimental value is 608.299 ± 0.15 cm ⁻¹ (0.75418 eV). The binding energy of hydrino hydride ions may be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

The high field shifted NMR peak has an increase in the diamagnetic shielding of protons and is a direct evidence for the lower energy state of the hydrogen at the Son's time with a reduced radius relative to normal hydride ions. . This shift is given by the sum of the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons and the photon field of size p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)) as
Here, the first term is applied to H ⁻ with p = 1, p = integer> 1 with respect to H− (1 / p), and α is a fine structure constant. The predicted hydrino hydride peaks are very high field shifts relative to normal hydrides. In one embodiment, the peak is in the high magnetic field of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of normal H ⁻ , H, H ₂ , or H ⁺ alone or including a compound. The shift is 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15. -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31,- It may be greater than at least one of 32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of absolute shift relative to the naked proton is ± 5 ppm, ± 10 ppm, ± 20 ppm, ± 30 ppm, ± 40, where the TMS shift is about −31.5 relative to the naked proton. ppm, ± 50 ppm, ± 60 ppm, ± 70 ppm, ± 80 ppm, ± 90 ppm, and within at least one approximate range of ^{± 100 ppm, - (p29.9 +} p 2 2.74) ppm ( (12)). Range of absolute shift for bare protons, 99% from about 0.1%, from 1% to 50%, and in the at least one approximate range of 1% to 10%, - (p29.9 ⁺ p 2 1.59 × 10 ⁻³ ) ppm (Formula (12)). In another embodiment, the presence of a molecule in a solid matrix such as a hydroxide matrix such as NaOH or KOH, or the presence of a hydrino species such as a hydride ion, hydrino atom, can serve as a matrix proton. Shift high magnetic field. Matrix protons such as those of NaOH or KOU may exchange. In one example, the shift may cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS. NMR determinations may include magic angle rotation ¹ H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS ¹ H NMR).

H (1 / p) may react with protons and the two H (1 / p) form H ₂ (1 / p) ⁺ and H ₂ (1 / p), respectively. May react. Hydrogen molecular ions and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies were solved from the Laplacian in elliptical coordinates with non-radiative limitations.

Total energy E _T of the hydrogen molecular ion with a central field at each focal + pe molecular orbital spheroid prolate are as follows.
Here, p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass. Total energy E _T of the hydrogen molecular ion with a central field at each focal + pe molecular orbital spheroid prolate are as follows.

The bond dissociation energy, E _D , of the hydrogen molecule H ₂ (1 / p) is the difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E _T.
E _D = E (2H (1 / p)) − E _T (16)
here,
E (2H (1 / p)) = − p ² 27.20 eV (17)
It is.
E _D is given by Equation (16-17) and (15).
E _D = −p ² 27.20 eV-E _T
= -P ² 27.20 eV
− (− P ² 31.351 eV-p ³ 0.326469 eV)
= P ² 4.151 eV + p ³ 0.326469 eV
(18)

H ₂ (1 / p) may be identifiable by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where, in addition to ionized electrons, the ionized products are those containing two protons and electrons, hydrogen It may be at least one of the possibilities such as (H) atoms, hydrino atoms, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and H ₂ (1 / p) ⁺ , where the energy is shifted by the matrix It may be.

Catalysis—NMR of the product gas provides the most reliable test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H ₂ (1 / p). In general, the ¹ H NMR resonance of H ₂ (1 / p) is predicted to be a higher magnetic field than that of H ₂ due to the fractional radius in elliptical coordinates, where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus. . The predicted shift for H ₂ (1 / p), ΔB _T / B, is given by the sum of the photon field of magnitude p and the diamagnetic contribution of the two electrons (Mills GUTCP equation (11.415-11. 416)).
Here, the first term is applied to of _{H 2} p = _1, for the H 2 (1 / p), which is p = integer> 1. The resonance shift of the absolute H ₂ gas phase of the −28.0 ppm experiment is in good agreement with the predicted absolute gas phase shift of −28.01 ppm. The predicted molecular hydrino peaks are very high field shifts relative to normal H ₂ . The NMR shift for TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of normal H ⁻ , H, H ₂ , or H ⁺ alone or including compounds. The shift is 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15. -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31,- It may be greater than at least one of 32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of absolute shift relative to the naked proton is ± 5 ppm, ± 10 ppm, ± 20 ppm, ± 30 ppm, ± 30, where the TMS shift is about −31.5 ppm relative to the naked proton. Within at least one approximate range of 40 ppm, ± 50 ppm, ± 60 ppm, ± 70 ppm, ± 80 ppm, ± 90 ppm, and ± 100 ppm, − (p28.01 + p ² 2.56) ppm (formula (20)). Range of absolute shift for bare protons, from about 0.1% to 99%, from 1% to 50%, and in the at least one approximate range of 10% from ^{1%, - (p28.01 + p} 2 1.49 × 10 ⁻³ ) ppm (Formula (20)).

The vibration energy, E _vib , for the transition from ν = 0 to ν = 1 of the hydrogen type molecule H ₂ (1 / p) is as follows.
E _vib = p ² 0.515902 eV (21)
Here, p is an integer.

The energy of rotation, E _rot , for the transition from J to J + 1 of the hydrogen type molecule H ₂ (1 / p) is as follows:
Here, p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Rotational-vibration emission of H ₂ (1/4) was observed on the electron beam excited molecules in the gas and was trapped in the solid matrix.

The p ² dependence of the rotational energy is due to the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia I.
The internuclear distance 2c ′ for H ₂ (1 / p) is as follows.

At least one of the H ₂ (1 / p) rotational and vibrational energy may be measured by at least one of electron beam excited emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Absent. H ₂ (1 / p) may be trapped in the matrix for measurement, as in at least one of the MOH, MX, and M ₂ CO ₃ (M = alkali i; X = halide) matrices. .

I. Catalytic He ⁺ , Ar ⁺ , Sr ⁺ , Li, K, NaH, nH (n = integer), and H ₂ O have a chemistry with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the atomic hydrogen potential energy of 27.2 eV. Or physical processes-they are expected to function as catalysts because they meet the catalyst criteria. In particular, the catalyst system is supplied by ionization of t electrons from atoms to each continuum energy level, so that the total ionization energy of t electrons is about m · 27.2 eV, where m Is an integer. Furthermore, further catalyst transitions are such that H (1/2) is initially formed: n = 1/2 → 1/3, 1/3 → 1/4, 1/4 → 1/5, etc. May happen as in the case. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos autocatalyze, as in a process called disproportionation, where H or H (1 / p) is replaced with another H or H (1 / p ′) (p May be equal to p ′).

Hydrogen and hydrino may function as catalysts. The hydrogen atom H (1 / p) p = 1, 2, 3,... 137 can undergo a transition to a lower energy state given by equations (1) and (3), where A transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second that accepts m · 27.2 eV both resonantly and non-radiatively, with the opposite change occurring simultaneously in its potential energy. The general formula for the transition from H (1 / p) to H (1 / (m + p)) induced by the resonance transfer of m · 27.2 eV to H (1 / p ′) is Represented by In this way, hydrogen atoms may function as catalysts, where m = 1, m = 2, and m = 3 for one, two, and three atoms, respectively, Act as a catalyst for things. The rate for two or three atomic catalysts will be appreciable only when the H density is high. However, high H density is not uncommon. The allowed high hydrogen atom concentration of 2H or 3H, acting as an energy acceptor for the third or fourth, is a multiple unit on the surface of the sun and stars due to the temperature and gravity driven density. It may be achieved under some circumstances, such as on a metal surface supporting a molecular layer and in a highly dissociated plasma, in particular a pinch hydrogen plasma. In addition, the three-body H interaction is easily achieved where two H atoms occur in hot H and H ₂ collisions. This event can generally occur in a plasma with a large population of very fast H. This is evidenced by the extraordinary intensity of atomic H emission. In such cases, energy transfer can occur from one hydrogen atom to two others within sufficient proximity, typically several angstroms, via multipole coupling. Then, the reaction between the three hydrogen atoms, in which two atoms accept 54.4 eV from the third hydrogen atom so that 2H functions as a catalyst, both resonantly and non-radiatively, Is given as follows.
54.4 eV + 2H + H
→ 2H _fast ⁺ + 2e ⁻ + H ^* [a _{H /} 3] + 54.4 eV (24)
_{^{H * [a H / 3]}} → H [a H /3]+54.4eV (25)
2H _fast ⁺ + 2e ⁻ → 2H + 54.4 eV (26)

The overall reaction is as follows.
H → H [a _H / 3] + [3 ² −1 ² ] · 13.6 eV (27)
Where H ^* [a _H / 3] has a radius of hydrogen atoms, and the central field is equal to three times that of protons, and H [a _H / 3] is one of that of H A corresponding stable state with a radius of / 3. As electrons undergo radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius of 1/3 of this distance, the energy is released as three-body kinetic energy or as characteristic light emission.

In another H-atom catalyzed reaction involving a direct transition to the [a _H / 4] state, the two hot H ₂ molecules have a 3 · 27.2 eV catalyst with 3 H atoms versus the fourth. Collide and dissociate to function as. And the reaction between the four hydrogen atoms is given as follows, where the three atoms accept 81.6 eV from the fourth hydrogen resonantly and non-radiatively so that 3H functions as a catalyst: It is done.
81.6eV + 3H + H
→ 3H _fast ⁺ + 3e ⁻ + H ^* [a _H /4]+81.6 eV (28)
_{^{H * [a H / 4]}} → H [a H /4]+122.4eV (29)
3H _fast ⁺ + 3e ⁻ → 3H + 81.6 eV (30)

The overall reaction is as follows.
H → H [a _H / 4] + [4 ² −1 ² ] · 13.6 eV (31)

The H ^* [a _H / 4] intermediate of formula (28) predicts that the extreme ultraviolet continuous emission band has a short wavelength cutoff at 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) and extends to longer wavelengths. The This continuous band was confirmed experimentally.
In general, with the acceptance of m · 27.2 eV, the transition from H to H [a _H / (p = m + 1)] is given by the energy given by
And a continuous band with a short wavelength cutoff.
A series of 10.1 nm, 22.8 nm, and 91.2 nm continuums of hydrogen emission were experimentally observed in interstellar matter, the sun and white dwarfs.

The potential energy of H ₂ O is 81.6 eV (formula (43)) [Mills GUT]. And by the same mechanism, nascent H ₂ O molecules (not hydrogen bound to a solid, liquid, or gas state) may function as a catalyst (Equations (44-47)). The continuum emission band going to 10.1 nm and longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted transition of H to lower energy, called the so-called “hydrino” state, is blacklight power ink (BLP). First observed only from a pulse-pinch hydrogen discharge. Continuum radiation in the 10-30 nm region, matched with the expected transition from H to hydrino state, comprises a pulsed oxide comprising a metal oxide that is thermodynamically favorable to undergo H reduction to form an HOH catalyst. Observed only from a pinch hydrogen discharge, however, those that are not advantageous are that the tested low melting point metal forms a metal ion plasma with a strong short wavelength continuum in a more powerful plasma source. Despite being very advantageous, it did not show any continuum.

  Instead, the resonant kinetic energy transfer that forms the fast H may occur in accord with the observation of the very Balmer alpha broadening corresponding to the high kinetic energy H. Energy transfer to the two Hs also causes pumping of the catalytically activated state, and fast H is typically in accordance with equations (24), (28), and (47) and resonant kinetic energy transfer. Generated directly as given by:

II. Where hydrino p is an integer greater than 1, preferably 2 to 137,
Binding energy = 13.6 eV / (1 / p) ² (34)
A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by is a product of the H catalytic reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as ionization energy, is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by equation (34) will be referred to hereinafter as a “hydrino atom” or “hydrino”. a _H is the radius of the ordinary hydrogen atom, where p is an integer, designation for a hydrino of radius _a H / p is H _[a H / p]. A hydrogen atom with radius a _H is hereinafter referred to as “ordinary hydrogen atom” or “ordinary hydrogen atom”. Normal atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

Hydrino is where m is an integer
m · 27.2eV (35)
It is formed by the reaction of a normal hydrogen atom with a reasonable catalyst having the net enthalpy of reaction. The rate of catalysis is increased when the net enthalpy of the reaction matches closer to m · 27.2 eV. Catalysis with a net enthalpy of reaction within ± 10%, preferably within ± 5% of m · 27.2 eV has been found to be reasonable for most applications.

This catalysis releases energy from hydrogen atoms with a balanced reduction in the size of the hydrogen atoms: r _n = na _H. For example, catalysis from H (n = 1) to H (n = 1/2) releases 40.8 eV and the hydrogen radius decreases from a _H to (1/2) a _H . Where m is an integer, the catalyst system is supplied by ionization of t electrons from the atoms to each continuum energy level such that the total ionization energy of t electrons is approximately m · 27.2 eV. As a power source, the energy emitted during catalysis is much greater than the energy lost to the catalyst. The energy released is greater than conventional chemical reactions. For example, hydrogen and oxygen gas undergo combustion to form water.
H ₂ (g) + (1/2) O ₂ (g) → H ₂ O (l) (36)
The known enthalpy of water formation is ΔH _f = −286 kJ / mole or 1.48 eV per hydrogen atom. In contrast, each normal hydrogen atom that undergoes catalysis (n = 1) releases a net 40.8 eV. Furthermore, catalyst transitions may occur: n = 1/2 → 1/3, 1/3 → 1/4, 1/4 → 1/5, and so on. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos autocatalyst in a process called disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. However, hydrino catalysis should have a higher reaction rate than that of inorganic ion catalysts due to a better match of enthalpy to m · 27.2 eV.

III. Where the hydrino catalyst and hydrino product m are integers to produce hydrino (thus t-electrons are ionized from atoms or ions), provide a net enthalpy of reaction of about m · 27.2 eV. The elutriation catalysts that can be given are given in Table 1. The atom or ion given in the first column is ionized to provide the net enthalpy of the m · 27.2 eV reaction given in the tenth column, where m is given in the eleventh column. The The electrons that participate in ionization are given an ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy). The ionization potential of the _nth electron of an atom or ion is designated IP _n and is given by the CRC. That is, for ^{example, Li + 5.39172eV →→ Li + +} e - and ^{Li + + 75.6402eV → Li 2+ +} e - a. The first ionization potential, IP ₁ = 5.39172 eV, and the second ionization potential, IP ₂ = 75.6402 eV, are given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for Li double ionization is 81.0319 eV as given in the tenth column, and in equation (5) as given in the eleventh column, m = 3 is there.

The hydrino hydride of the present disclosure is a reaction of an electron source with hydrino, where n = 1 / p and p is an integer greater than 1 and is a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about 13.6 eV / n ^2. Can be formed. A hydrino hydride is represented by H ⁻ (n = 1 / p) or H ⁻ (1 / p).
H [a _H / p] + e ⁻ → H ⁻ (n = 1 / p) (37)
H [a _H / p] + e ⁻ → H ⁻ (1 / p) (38)

  Hydrino hydrides are distinguished from ordinary hydrides containing two electrons with a binding energy of about 0.8 eV and ordinary hydrogen nuclei. The latter is hereinafter referred to as “ordinary hydride ions” or “ordinary hydride ions”. Hydrino hydride ions include two indistinguishable electrons at binding energies and hydrogen nuclei containing protium, deuterium, or tritium according to equations (39) and (40).

The binding energy of hydrino hydride ions can be expressed by the following equation:
Where p is an integer greater than 1, s = 1/2, π is pi,
Is converted Planck constant, mu ₀ is the permeability of vacuum, m _e is the electron mass, mu _e the m _p is the mass of the proton
Is the reduced electron mass given by, a _H is the radius of the hydrogen atom, a ₀ is the Bohr radius, and e is the elementary charge.
The radius is given as:

The binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion, H ⁻ (n = 1 / p), is shown in Table 2 as a function of p, where p is an integer.

According to the present disclosure, the formula (39) is less for p = 24 (H ⁻ ), but greater than the normal hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) bond up to 23 for p = 2. ) And (40) hydrino hydride ions (H ⁻ ) having the binding energy are provided. For p = 2 to p = 24 in equations (39) and (40), the hydride ion binding energies are 3,6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, respectively. 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56 .8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV. A typical composition comprising novel hydride ions is also provided therein.

  Exemplary compounds are also supplied, including one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other compounds. Such compounds are termed “hydrino hydride compounds”.

Common hydrogen species are: (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV (“ordinary hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom (“ordinary hydrogen atom”), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen Molecule, 15.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule”); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule ion”); and (e) H ₃ ⁺ , 22.6 eV (“ordinary three” Characterized by the binding energy of hydrogen molecular ions "). Here, with respect to the hydrogen form (forms), “ordinary” and “ordinary” are synonymous.

According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, the compound is in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times 13.6 eV / (1 / p) ² where (a) p is an integer from 2 to 137. A hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about 13.6 eV / (1 / p) ² ; (b) in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times the binding energy, where p is an integer from 2 to 24 About like
Ion (H ⁻ ) having a binding energy of: (c) H ₄ ⁺ (1 / p); (d) p is an integer from 2 to 137, about 22.6 / (1 / p) ² eV A trihydrino molecular ion having a binding energy of about 22.6 / (1 / p) ² eV, such as in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times the H ₃ ⁺ (1 / p); (e) about 15.3 / (1 / p) ² eV such that p is an integer from 2 to 137, such as in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times about 15.3 / (1 / p) ² eV. A dihydrino molecular ion having a binding energy of: (f) p is an integer, preferably 2 to 137, about 0.9 to 1.1 times about 16.3 / (1 / p) ² eV It is increased, such as, approximately, such as in the range of 16.3 / (1 / p) dihydrino molecular ion with a binding energy of 2 ^eV Wherein at least one of the hydrogen species if energy is provided.

According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, the compound is: (a) a is an integer;
There is a conversion Planck constant, m _e is the electron mass, C is the speed of light in vacuum, the μ is converted nucleus mass, of about 0.9 of the total energy E _T 1.1 times the About like in range
Total energy dihydrino molecular ion with a; a and (b) p is an integer, a ₀ is the radius of Bohr, approximately as in the range of about 0.9 1.1 times the E _T
And including at least one hydrogen species of increased binding energy such as a dihydrino molecule having a total energy of

According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where the compound includes a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound may further be proton, normal H ₂ ⁺ , or onboard H ₃ ⁺ One or more cations.

A method is provided herein for preparing a compound comprising at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as “hydrino hydride compounds”. The method produces hydrogen atoms of increased binding energy with a binding energy of about 13.6 eV / (1 / p) ² where p is an integer, preferably 2 to 137, so that m is Reacting the atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about (m / 2) · 27 eV, an integer greater than 1 and preferably less than 400. A further product of catalysis is energy. The hydrogen atoms with increased binding energy can react with the electron source to produce hydrogen ions with increased binding energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen ions can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

The new hydrogen compound of the substance is
(A) at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased hydrogen energy of increased binding energy”),
(I) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the binding energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species such that the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or not observed, because it is negative
Having binding energy, and
(B) It may contain at least one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds”.

  In this context, “other elements” means elements other than hydrogen species with increased binding energy. In this way, the other element can be a normal hydrogen species or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other elements and the hydrogen species with increased binding energy are neutral. In another group of compounds, other elements and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged so that the other elements balance the charge to form a neutral compound. ) The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordination bonds and the latter is characterized by ionic bonds.

In addition, the novel compounds and molecular ions provided are
(A) at least one neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased hydrogen energy of increased binding energy”),
(I) greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or Because it is negative, it is greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species such that the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or not observed,
All energy, and
(B) It may contain at least one other element.

  The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energy for removing all of the electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species of the present disclosure have a total energy that is greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. A hydrogen species with increased total energy according to the present disclosure also has a first that is less than the first electronic binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species in some embodiments of the hydrogen species with increased total energy. Although it may have an electronic binding energy, it is referred to as a “hydrogen species with increased binding energy”. For example, the hydride ions of equations (39) and (40) for p = 24 have a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of normal hydride ions, while the equation for p = 24 The total energy of (39) and (40) hydride ions is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydride ions.

In addition, the novel compounds and molecular ions provided are
(A) a plurality of neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased hydrogen energy of increased binding energy”),
(I) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the binding energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or Greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species such that the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or not observed, because it is negative
Having binding energy, and
(B) Optionally (optionally) one other element can be included. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds”.

  The increased binding energy hydrogen species comprises one or more hydrino atoms, one or more compounds comprising at least one of electrons, hydrino atoms, said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least It can be formed by reacting with other atoms, molecules, or ions other than one, increased binding energy hydrogen species.

In addition, the novel compounds and molecular ions provided are
(A) a plurality of neutral, positive or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased hydrogen energy of increased binding energy”),
(I) greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or Because it is negative, it is greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species such that the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or not observed,
All energy, and
(B) Optionally (optionally) one other element can be included. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds”.

  In one example, provided compounds are (a) lower for p = 24 but greater than the binding energy of normal hydrides for p = 2 to 23, and A hydride ion ("increased bond energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion") with a bond energy (approximately 0.8 eV) according to (40); (b) than the bond energy of a normal hydrogen atom A hydrogen atom having a large bond energy (about 13.6 eV) (“hydrogen atom with increased bond energy” or “hydrino”); (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first bond energy greater than about 15.3 eV ( "Hydrogen molecule with increased binding energy" or "bihydrino"); and (d) a molecular hydrogen ion having a first binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV "Molecular hydrogen ions of increased binding energy" or "two hydrino molecular ion"); comprises at least one of the hydrogen species increased binding energy is selected from. In the present disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds are also referred to as lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrino contains increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently lower energy hydrogen.

IV. Additional MH-type catalysts and reactions In general, where m is an integer, from the atom M to the t The MH type hydrogen catalyst to produce hydrinos fed by MH bond breaking with the ionization of is given in Table 3A. Each MH catalyst is given in the first column and the corresponding MH bond energy is given in the second column. The atom M of the MH species given in the first column is ionized to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of m · 27.2 eV with the addition of the binding energy in the second column. The enthalpy of the catalyst is given in the eighth column, where m is given in the ninth column. The electrons that participate in ionization are given with an ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy). For example, the binding energy of NaH, 1.9245 eV, is given in the second column. The ionization potential of the n-th electronic atom or ion is designated by IP _n, and given by CRC. That is, for ^{example, Na + 5.13908eV → Na + +} e - and ^{Ne + + 47.2864eV → Na 2+ +} e - a. The first ionization potential, IP ₁ = 5.13908 eV, and the second ionization potential, IP ₂ = 47.2864 eV, are given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of the reaction for NaH bond breakage and Na double ionization is m = 2 in equation (35) as given in column 9 and 54.35 eV as given in column 8. It is. The binding energy of BaH is 1.98991 eV, and IP ₁ , IP ₂ , and IP ₃ are 5.2117 eV, 100.00390 eV, and 37.3 eV, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for BaH bond breakage and Ba triple ionization is m = 2 in equation (35) as given in the ninth column and 54. as given in the eighth column. 5 eV. The binding energy of SrH is 1.70 eV, and IP ₁ , IP ₂ , IP ₃ , IP ₄ , and IP ₅ are 5.69484 eV, 11.03013 eV, 42.89 eV, 57 eV, and 71.V, respectively. 6 eV. The net enthalpy of the reaction for SrH bond breakage and Sr to Sr ⁵⁺ ionization is m = 7 in equation (35) as given in the ninth column and as given in the eighth column 190 eV.

In another embodiment, where m is an integer, the sum of the MH and A electron affinity (EA) difference, the MH binding energy, and the ionization energy of the t electron from M is about m · 27.2 eV. MH ^- type for producing hydrinos provided by breakage of MH bonds, each with continuous energy level plus ionization of t electrons from M atoms, transfer of electrons to acceptor A The hydrogen catalysts are given in Table 3B. The electron affinity of each MH ^- catalyst, acceptor A, MH, the electron affinity of A, and the MH binding energy are given in the first, second and fourth columns, respectively. The electron of the corresponding atom M of MH participating in ionization is given in the following column along with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy) and the corresponding integer m is given in the last column. For example, the electron affinity of OH and H is 1.82765 eV and 0.7542 eV, respectively, and thus the electron transfer energy is 1.07345 eV as given in the fifth column. The binding energy of OH is 4.4556 eV as given in the sixth column. The ionization potential of the second electron atom or ion, represented by IP _n. It may, for ^{example, O + 13.61806eV → O + +} e - and ^{O + + 35.11730eV → O 2+ +} e - a. The first ionization potential, IP ₁ = 13.661806 eV, and the second ionization potential, IP ₂ = 35.111730 eV, are given in the seventh and eighth columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of electron transfer reaction, OH bond breaking, and double ionization of O is m = 2 in equation (35) as given in column 12 and as given in column 11. 54.27 eV. In another embodiment, the catalyst in which H forms hydrino is provided by the ionization of negative ions, so that the sum of the ionization energies of the EA plus one or more electrons is m is an integer. However, it is about m · 27.2 eV. Instead, the ionization energy of the electron transfer energy plus one or more electrons is about m · 27.2 eV, where m is an integer, so that the first electron of the negative ion is at least one more Electron ionization follows, but may be transferred to the acceptor.
The electron acceptor may be H.

In another embodiment, an MH ⁺ type hydrogen catalyst for producing hydrinos has an electron transfer energy that includes the difference in ionization energy of MH and A, the combined MH energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from M. The MH ⁺ type hydrogen catalyst for producing hydrinos is the transfer of electrons from donor A, which may be negatively charged, so that the sum is m · 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. , MH bond breaking, and ionization of t electrons from each atom M to continuous energy levels.

  In one embodiment, the catalyst is an atom, positively or negatively charged ion, positively or negatively charged molecular ion, molecule, excimer, compound, or any combination thereof, where m = 1, 3,... Is in an excited state or a ground state that can accept energy of m · 27.2 eV (formula (5)). The rate of catalysis increases as the net enthalpy of the reaction is matched closer to m · 27.2 eV. Catalysts with a net enthalpy of reaction within ± 10%, preferably within ± 5% of m · 27.2 eV have been found to be reasonable for most applications. In the case of hydrino atom catalysis to lower energy states, the enthalpy of reaction of m · 27.2 eV (Eq. (5)) is relativistically corrected by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino atom. In one embodiment, the catalyst accepts energy from atomic hydrogen both resonantly and non-radiatively. In one embodiment, the accepted energy reduces the magnitude of the catalyst potential energy by an approximate amount transferred from atomic hydrogen. Preserving the kinetic energy of the initially bonded electrons may result in energetic ions or electrons. At least one atom H is at least one other where the acceptor's 27.2 eV potential energy may be rodded by 27.2 eV or transfer from the catalyzed donor H atom. In contrast, it functions as a catalyst. The kinetic energy of the acceptor catalyst H may be stored as fast protons or electrons. In addition, the intermediate state (equation (7)) formed in the catalyzed H decays with the emission of continuous energy in the form of induced kinetic energy or radiation in the third body. These energy releases may result in current flow in the disclosed CIHT cells.

In one embodiment, at least one of the molecules or positively or negatively charged molecular ions is at a magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ions by about m · 27.2 eV. It functions as a catalyst that accepts about m · 27.2 eV from atom H with a reduction. For example, the potential energy of H ₂ O given in Mills' GUTCP is as follows.

Molecules that accept m · 27.2 eV from the atom H with the same energy and a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule may function as a catalyst. For example, the catalysis reaction (m = 3) related to the potential energy of H ₂ O is as follows.
81.6 eV + H ₂ O + H [a _H ]
→ 2H _fast ⁺ + O ⁻ + e ⁻ + H ^* [a _H /4]+81.6 eV (44)
H ^* [a _H / 4] → H [a _H /4]+122.4 eV (45)
2H _fast ⁺ + O ⁻ + e ⁻ → H ₂ O + 81.6 eV (46)

And the total reaction is as follows.
H [a _H ] → H [a _H /4]+81.6 eV + 122.4 eV (47)
Where H ^* [a _H / 4] has a central field equal to four times that of protons and the radius of the hydrogen atom, and H [a _H / 4] is ¼ that of H A corresponding stable state with a radius. As electrons undergo a radial acceleration from the radius of hydrogen atoms to a radius of 1/4 of this distance, energy is released as kinetic energy of the third body or as characteristic light emission. Based on a 10% energy change in the heat of evaporation going from 0 ° C. ice to 100 ° C. water, the average number of H bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6. Thus, in one embodiment, H ₂ O must be chemically formed as an isolated molecule with reasonable activation energy in order to function as a catalyst to form hydrinos. . In one example, the H ₂ O catalyst is nascent H ₂ O.

In one example, at least one of nH, O, nO, O ₂ , OH, and H ₂ O (n = integer) may function as a catalyst. The product of H and OH as a catalyst may be H (1/5) where the enthalpy of the catalyst is about 108.8 eV. The product of the reaction of H and H ₂ O as a catalyst may be H (1/4). The hydrino product may also react to a lower state. The product of H (1/4) and H as a catalyst may be H (1/5) where the enthalpy of the catalyst is about 27.2 eV. The product of H (1/4) and OH as the catalyst may be H (1/6), where the enthalpy of the catalyst is about 54.4 eV. The product of H (1/5) and H as catalyst may be H (1/6), where the enthalpy of the catalyst is about 27.2 eV.

In addition, OH may function as a catalyst because the potential energy of OH is:

  The difference in energy between p = 1 and p = 2 in the H state is 40.8 eV. In this way, OH may accept about 40.8 eV from H, which functions as a catalyst to form H (1/2).

Similar to H ₂ O, the potential energy of the amide functional group NH ₂ provided in Mills GUTCP is −78.77719 eV. From the CRC, the ΔH for the NH ₂ reaction to form KNH ₂ calculated from each corresponding ΔH _f is (−128.9-184.9) kJ / mole = −313.8 kJ / mole (3.25 eV). ). From the CRC, ΔH for the reaction of NH ₂ to form NaNH ₂ calculated from each corresponding ΔH _f is (−123.8-184.9) kJ / mole = −308.7 kJ / mole (3.20 eV). ). From the CRC, the ΔH for the reaction of NH ₂ to form LiNH ₂ calculated from each corresponding ΔH _f is (−179.5-184.9) kJ / mole = −364.4 kJ / mole (3.78 eV). ). The net enthalpies that may be received by alkali metal amides MNH ₂ (M = K, Na, Li) that function as H catalysts to form hydrinos are about 82.03 eV, 81.98 eV, and 82.56 eV, respectively. (M = 3 in Formula (5)), which corresponds to the sum of the energy for forming an amide from the amide group and the potential energy of the amide group. Hydrino products such as molecular hydrinos may cause high field matrix shifts observed by means such as MAS NMR.

Similar to H ₂ O, the potential energy of the H ₂ S functional group given in Mills GUTCP is −72.81 eV. This potential energy rod also excludes the energy associated with 3p shell hybridization. The hybrid energy of 7.49 eV is given by the total energy of the shell, which is the ratio of the hydride orbit radius and the initial atomic orbit radius. In addition, the energy change of the S3p shell is included in the catalyst energy change to form two S—H bonds of 1.10 eV. Thus, the net enthalpy of the H ₂ S catalyst is 81.40 eV (m = 3 in equation (5)). H ₂ S catalyst, the following reactions, may be formed from MHS (M = alkali).
_{2MHS → M 2 S + H 2} S (49)

The reaction of the reversible, may form H _{2 S} in the active catalyst state where the H transition state to the to the product H _{2 S} which may be catalyzed hydrino. The reaction mixture may include a source of atomic H and reactants that form H ₂ S. Hydrino products such as molecular hydrinos may cause high field matrix shifts observed by means such as MAS NMR. unknown.

In addition, atomic oxygen is a special atom with two unpaired electrons at the same radius, equal to the Bohr radius of atomic hydrogen. When the atom H functions as a catalyst, 27.2 eV of energy is received such that the kinetic energy of each ionized H that functions as a catalyst relative to the others is 13.6 eV. Similarly, each of the two electrons of O seems to be 80.4 eV as given in Table 3 for the net enthalpy for the OH bond breakage of OH with ionization followed by two unpaired electrons. Can be ionized at 13.6 eV of kinetic energy transferred to O ions. During ionization of OH- to OH, the energy matching for further reaction to O2 + 2e- and H (1/4) is such that the released energy of 204 eV contributes to the electrical power of the CIHT cell. May happen.
80.4 eV + OH + H [a _H / p] → O _fast ²⁺ (50)
+ 2e ⁻ + H [a _H / (p + 3)] + [(p + 3) ² −p ² ] · 13.6 eV
O _fast ²⁺ + 2e ⁻ → O + 80.4 eV (51)

The overall reaction is as follows.
H [a _H / p] →
H [a _H / (p + 3)] + [(p + 3) ² −p ² ] · 13.6 eV (52)
Here, m = 3 in equation (5). Kinetic energy can also be stored in hot electrons. The observation of the H inversion distribution in the water vapor plasma is evidence of this mechanism. Hydrino products such as molecular hydrinos may cause high field side matrix shifts observed by means such as MAS NMR. Other methods of identifying molecular hydrino products such as FTIR, Raman, and XPS are given in this disclosure.

In embodiments where oxygen or a compound containing oxygen participates in the oxidation or reduction reaction, O ₂ functions as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The binding energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of the oxygen atoms are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. Reactions: O ₂ → O + O ²⁺ , O ₂ → O + O ³⁺ , and 2O → 2O ⁺ provide a net enthalpy of about 2, 4 and 1 times each E _h and by accepting these energies Including catalysis to form hydrinos by receiving these energies from H so as to cause the formation of hydrinos.

In certain examples, the molecular hydrino product is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm ⁻¹ . The peak is enhanced by using a conductive material containing a particle size or roughness characteristic corresponding to that of the Raman laser wavelength that supports surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) to show the IRE peak.

VI. Chemical Reactors The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of catalysis depend on the cell type but are power and optionally plasma and light. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a “hydrogen reactor” or “hydrogen cell”. The hydrogen reactor includes a cell for making hydrinos. Cells for making hydrinos may be in the form of chemical reactors such as gas discharge cells, plasma torch cells, or microwave power cells, and electrochemical cells. Typical examples of cells for making hydrinos may be in the form of liquid fuel cells (cells), solid fuel cells (cells), heterogeneous fuel cells (cells), CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT cells. Absent. Each of these cells comprises (i) an atomic hydrogen source; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or a mixture thereof to form hydrinos; and (Iii) a tank for reacting hydrogen and a catalyst for making hydrinos. The term “hydrogen”, as used herein and considered by this disclosure, includes not only protium ( ¹ H) but also deuterium ( ² H) and tritium ( ³ H) unless otherwise specified. Including. Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are given in this chemical reactor section. Examples of reaction mixtures with H ₂ O as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are given within this disclosure. Other catalysts, such as those given in Tables 1 and 3, may function to form hydrogen species and compounds with increased binding energy. A typical MH type catalyst in Table 3A is NaH. Reactions and conditions, reactants, reaction wt%, might H ₂ pressure, and the parameters such as the reaction temperature is adjusted from these typical cases. Reasonable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Although hydrinos and molecular hydrinos are shown to be products of the reactants of the present disclosure by a predicted continuous emission band that is an integer multiple of 13.6 eV, otherwise unexpectedly high H kinetic energy is Measured by Doppler line broadening of H line, H line inversion, plasma formation without breakdown field, and unusually long afterglow duration of the plasma reported by Mills' previous publications. Data such as those for CIHT cells and solid fuels have been independently demonstrated by other researchers elsewhere. The formation of hydrinos with the cells of the present disclosure can also be achieved with a continuous output over a long duration that was multiple times the electrical input, often exceeding the input by a factor greater than 10 without another alternative source. It was also confirmed by the electrical energy that was present. The predicted molecule hydrino H ₂ (1/4) is described in R.C. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. et al. He, J. et al. Lotoski, “Catalyst-induced hydrino transition (CIHT) electrochemical cell”, International Journal of Energy Research, (2013), and R.S. Mills, J.M. Lotoski, J. et al. Kong, G Chu, J. et al. He, J. et al. Trevey, “High Power Density Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell” (2014), and as reported in Mills' previous publications, the energy transferred to the third body H ToF-SIMS peak with arrival time before m / e = 1 peak corresponding to H with kinetic energy of about 204 eV consistent with the predicted energy release from to H (1/4), 500 eV H XPS showed the expected total binding energy is of ₂ (1/4), _{H 2,} a quantum number p = 4 or 16 of the square of the rotational energy of the rotation of _H 2 (1/4) of 1950cm ^-1 FTIR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy showing energy, predicted rotation and vibration of H ₂ (1/4) with quantum number p = 4 or 16 of the square of H ₂ energy Electron beam-excited emission spectrum and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy showing the spectrum of H ₂ (M 2 is complexed in the getter matrix as a peak of m / e = M + n 2 where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer. 1/4) ESI-ToFMS and ToF-SIMS, identified as solid fuel and CIHT cell products by MASH NMR showing matrix peak with predicted high field cis of about -4.4 ppm It was.

Using both the water flow calorimeter and the Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), hydrino formation is maximized by a factor of 60 by the disclosed cells, such as those containing solid fuel that generates heat power. It was confirmed by observation of thermal energy from hydrino-forming solid fuel exceeding theoretical energy. MAS H NMR showed an expected H ₂ (1/4) high field matrix shift of about −4.4 ppm. The Raman peak starting at 1950 cm ⁻¹ matched the free space rotational energy (0.2414 eV) of H ₂ (1/4). These results are in the earlier published literature of Mills and in R.A. Mills, J.M. Lotoski, W.M. Good, J.M. He, “Solid Fuel Forming HOH Catalyst”, (2014), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel reaction forms H ₂ O and H as products or intermediate reaction products. H ₂ O may function as a catalyst to form hydrinos. The reactant includes at least one oxidizing agent and a reducing agent, and the reaction includes at least one oxidation-reduction reaction. The reducing agent may include a metal such as an alkali metal. The reaction mixture further includes a hydrogen source and a H ₂ O source, optionally including carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitride such as TiCN, or nitrile. The support may comprise a metal powder. In one example, the hydrogen support includes a Mo or Mo alloy such as those in the present disclosure such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCu, and MoCo. In one embodiment, the oxidation of the support (support) is to maintain a reducing atmosphere, such as an H ₂ atmosphere, as known by those skilled in the art, to select a non-oxidizing reaction temperature and conditions, And other methods such as selecting other components of the reaction mixture that do not oxidize the support. The H source may be selected from the group of alkaline hydrides, alkaline earth hydrides, transition hydrides, internal transition hydrides, rare earth hydrides, and hydrides of the present disclosure. The source of hydrogen may be a hydrogen gas that may further comprise a dissociator such as those of the present disclosure such as a noble metal on a support such as carbon or alumina and others of the present disclosure. Absent. Sources of water may include hydroxide complexes such as those of Al, Zn, Sn, Cr, Sb, and Pb or compounds that dehydrate such things as hydroxide. The source of water may include a hydrogen source and an oxygen source. The oxygen source may include a compound that includes oxygen. Typical compounds or molecules are O ₂ , alkali or alkaline earth oxides, peroxides, or superoxides, TeO ₂ , SeO ₂ , PO ₂ , P ₂ O ₅ , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , M _2. SO ₄ , MHSO ₄ , CO ₂ , M ₂ S ₂ O ₈ , MMnO ₄ , M ₂ Mn ₂ O ₄ , MxHyPO ₄ (x, y = integer), POBr ₂ , MClO ₄ , MNO ₃ , NO, N ₂ O , NO ₂ , N ₂ O ₃ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , and O ₂ (M = alkali, and alkaline earth or other cations may replace M). Other typical _{reactants, Li, LiH, L1NO 3,} LiNO, LiNO 2, Li 3 N, Li 2 NH, LiNH 2, LiX, NH 3, LiBH 4, LiAlH 4, Li 3 AlH 6, LiOH, Li ₂ S, LiHS, LiFeSi, Li ₂ CO ₃ , LiHCO ₃ , Li ₂ SO ₄ , LiHSO ₄ , Li ₃ PO ₄ , Li ₂ HPO ₄ , LiH ₂ PO ₄ , Li ₂ MoO ₄ , LiNbO ₃ , Li ₂ B ₄ O ₇ (lithium tetraborate), LiBO ₂ , Li ₂ WO ₄ , LiAlCl ₄ , LiGaCl ₄ , Li ₂ CrO ₄ , Li ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , Li ₂ TiO ₃ , LiZrO ₃ , LiAlO ₂ , LiCoO ₂ , _{LiGaO 2, Li 2 GeO 3,} LiMn 2 O 4, Li 4 SiO 4, Li 2 Si _{3, LiTaO 3, LiCuCl 4,} LiPdCl 4, LiVO 3, LiIO 3, LiBrO 3, LiXO 3 (X = F, Br, Cl, I), LiFeO 2, LiIO 4, LiBrO 4, LiIO 4, LiXO 4 (X _{= F, Br, Cl, I} ), LiScO n, LiTiO n, LiVO n, LiCrO n, LiCr 2 O n, LiMn 2 O n, LiFeO n, LiCoO n, LiNiO n, LiNi 2 O n, LiCuO n, and LiZnO _n (n = 1, 2, 3, or 4), oxyanion, oxyanion of strong acid, oxidizing agent, V ₂ O ₃ , I ₂ O ₅ , MnO ₂ , Re ₂ O ₇ , CrO ₃ , RuO _{2 , AgO, PdO, PdO 2,} PtO, PtO 2, and _NH 4 X (X is given in the CRC Molecule oxidizing agent, such as nitrate or other appropriate anion), and a reagent selected from the group of reducing agents. Another alkali metal or cation may replace Li. Additional sources of _{oxygen, MCoO 2, MGaO 2, M} 2 GeO 3, MMn 2 O 4, M 4 SiO 4, M 2 SiO 3, MTaO 3, MVO 3, MIO 3, MFeO 2, MIO 4, MClO _{4, MSeO n, MTiO n,} MVO n, MCrO n, MCr 2 O n, MMn 2 O n, MFeO n, MCoO n, MNiO n, MNi 2 O n, MCuO n, and MZnO _n, (M is an alkali, n = 1, 2, 3, or 4), oxyanion, oxyanion of strong acid, oxidizing agent, V ₂ O ₃ , I ₂ O ₅ , MnO ₂ , Re ₂ O ₇ , CrO ₃ , RuO ₂ , AgO, PdO _{, PdO 2, PtO, PtO 2} , I 2 O 4, I 2 O 5, 1 2 O 9, SO 2, SO 3, CO 2, N 2 O, NO, NO 2, N 2 O ₃ , molecular oxidation such as N ₂ O ₄ , N ₂ O ₅ , Cl ₂ O, Cl ₂ O ₃ , Cl ₂ O ₆ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , PO ₂ , P ₂ O ₃ , and P ₂ O ₅ May be selected from a group of agents. The reactants may be in any desired ratio to form hydrinos. A typical reaction mixture is a mixture of 0.33 g LiH, 1.7 g LiNO ₃ , and 1 g MgH ₂ and 4 g activated carbon powder. Another exemplary reaction mixture is an explosive such as KNO ₃ (75 wt%), coniferous charcoal (which may include the formation of C ₇ H ₄ O) (15 wt%), and S (10 wt%); KNO ₃ (70.5 wt%) and coniferous charcoal (29.5 wt%) or their ratio within the range of about 1-30 wt%. The source of hydrogen may be charcoal that includes C ₇ H ₄ O formation.

In one example, the reaction mixture may include reactants that form nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and H ₂ O, but the latter functions as a hydrino catalyst for the H formed in the reaction. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture is a peroxyl such as nitrate, sulfate, perchlorate, peroxide such as hydrogen peroxide, acetone peroxide (TATP), or diacetone-diperoxide (DADP). compound (these are also particularly O ₂ or another oxygen source (nitro compounds such as nitrocellulose (APNC)) may serve as a source of H in addition), other compounds containing oxygen or oxygen or oxyanion compounds May include. The reaction mixture may comprise hydrogen, carbon, hydrocarbons, functional groups or sources of functional groups comprising at least two from oxygen combined with nitrogen, or sources of compounds or potentials. The reactants may contain nitrates, nitrites, nitro groups, and nitroamines. Nitrate may include metals such as alkali nitrates, ammonium nitrate, or alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, internal transition metal, or rare earth metal, or Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb nitrate Other nitrates known to those skilled in the art may be included. Nitro groups may include functional groups of organic compounds such as nitroethane, nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene, or similar compounds known to those skilled in the art. A typical reaction mixture includes NH ₄ NO ₃ and a kerosene that may contain a carbon source with a long hydrocarbon chain (C _n H _{2n + 2} ) such as heated oil, diesel fuel, molasses or oxygen such as sugar. Or a carbon source such as nitro or charcoal dust such as nitromethane. The H source may include NH ₄ , hydrocarbons such as fuel oil, or sugar. Here the H bond to carbon provides a controlled release of H. H release may be due to free radical reactions. C may react with O to release H and form carbon-oxygen compounds (eg, CO, CO ₂ , and formate). In one example, one compound may include the ability to form nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and H ₂ O. Nitramine containing hydrocarbon functionality is cyclotrimethylenetrinitroamine, commonly referred to as cyclonite, or by code designation RDX. Other exemplary compounds that may function as at least one of H2O catalyst source and H source, such as at least one source of H source and O source, are ammonium nitrate (AN), black powder (75% KNO3 + 15% charcoal + 10% S), ammonium nitrate / fuel oil (ANFO) (94.3% AN + 5.7% fuel oil), erythritol tetranitrate, trinitrotoluene (TNT), amatol (80% TNT + 20% AN), tetritol (70 % Tetril + 30% TNT), tetril (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (C7H5N5O8)), C-4 (91% RDX), C-3 (RDX) Based) Material B (composition B) (63% RDX + 36% TNT), nitroglycerin, RDX (cyclotrimethylene trinitramine), Semtex (94.3% PETN + 5.7% RDX), PETN (tetranitric acid) Pentaerythritol (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), HMX or octogen (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1) , 3, 5, 7-tetrazocine)), HNIW (CL-20) (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12-hexanitro-2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 -Hexaazai soultitan (2,4,6,8,10,12-hexatro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexazaisowurtzitane)), DDF, (4,4'-dinitro-3, 3'-diazenofurozan (4,4'-dinitro-3,3'-diazenofuroxan), heptanitrocubane, octanitrocubane, 2,4,6-tris- (trinitromethyl) l, 3,5-triazine (2,4,6-trismethyl) -1,3,5-triazine, TATNB (1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, 3,5-triazide-2,4,6- Trinitrobenzene (1,3,5-trinitrobe nzene ,, 3,5-triazido-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene), trinitroanaline, TNP (2,4,6-trinitrophenol or picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol or picric) acid)), D explosive (ammonium picrate), methyl picrate, ethyl picrate, ethyl chloride, (2-chloro-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene) picrate (picrate chloride) 2-chloro-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene)), trinitrocresol, lead stiffinate , 4,6-trinitroresorcinolate, C6HN3O8Pb) (lead 2,4,6-trinitroresorcinate, C6HN3O8Pb), TATB (avian aminotrinitrobenzene) (triaminotrinitrobenzene), methyl nitrate, nitroglycol (nitroglycol) mannitol hexanitrate, ethylenedinitramine, nitroguanidine, tetranitroglycuril, nitrocellulose and urea nitrate methylene peroxide, diamine nitrate It is at least one selected from the group of (hexamethyle triperoxide diamond) (HMTD). The ratio of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen can be any desired ratio. In one example of a reaction mixture of ammonium nitrate (AN) and fuel oil (FO) known as ammonium nitrate / fuel oil (ANFO), reasonable equivalents that give a balanced reaction are about 94.3 wt% AN and 5. Although 7 wt% FO, FO may be excessive. A typical balanced reaction of AN and nitromethane is as follows.
3NH ₄ NO ₃ + 2CH ₃ NO ₂ → 4N ₂ + 2CO ₂ + 9H ₂ O (80)
Here, some of the H is also converted to lower energy hydrogen species such as H ⁻ (1 / p) and H ₂ (1 / p), such as p = 4. In one embodiment, hydrogen, nitrogen, and the molar ratio of oxygen is the same as in RDX having formula _{C 3 H 6 N 6 O 6} .

In one embodiment, the energetics may include hydrides such as alkali metal hydrides, alkaline earth metal hydrides, transition metal hydrides, internal transition metal hydrides, and rare earth metal hydrides or atoms such as H2 gas. Increased by using an additional source of hydrogen and a dissociator such as Ni, Nb, or a noble metal on a support such as carbon, carbide, boride, or nitride or silica or alumina. It is done. The reaction mixture may perform a shock wave or compression during the reaction to form atomic H and H ₂ O catalysts to increase the reaction rate to form hydrinos. The reaction mixture may include at least one reactant to increase heat during the reaction to form H and H ₂ O catalysts. The reaction mixture may include an oxygen source such as air that may be dispersed between the solid fuel granules or granules. For example, AN granules may contain about 20% air. The reaction mixture may further comprise a photosensitizer such as glass beads with air. In an exemplary embodiment, a powdered metal such as Al is added to increase the rate of reaction and heat. For example, Al metal endings may be added to ANFO. Other reaction mixtures include pyrotechnic materials that also have a catalyst source, such as H ₂ O, and an H source. In one embodiment, hydrino formation has a high activation energy that can be supplied by an energetic reaction such as that of energetic or pyrotechnic materials, but hydrino formation is responsible for the self-heating of the reaction mixture. Contribute. Instead, the activation energy can be supplied by an electrochemical reaction such as that of a CIHT cell with a high equivalent temperature corresponding to 11,600 K / eV.

  Another exemplary reaction mixture is H2 gas that is within a pressure range of about 0.01 atm to 100 atm, a nitrate such as an alkali nitrate such as NO3, and Pt / C, Pd / C, Pt / Al2O3, or Hydrogen dissociator such as Pd / Al2O3. The mixture may further comprise carbon, such as graphite or grade GTA Grafoil (Union Carbide). The reaction ratio can be any desired, such as about 1 to 10% Pt or Pd on carbon, with the balance being balance carbon, about 0.1 to 10 wt% mixture mixed with about 50 wt% nitrate. might exist. However, the ratio can be varied by a factor of about 5 to 10 in the exemplary embodiment. In the case where carbon is used as the support, the temperature is maintained below that resulting in a C reaction forming a carbonate-like compound such as an alkali carbonate. In one embodiment, the temperature is maintained within a range such as about 50 ° C.-300 ° C. to about 100 ° C.-250 ° C. so that NH 3 is formed with respect to N 2.

  Reactants and regeneration reactions and systems are described in this disclosure or PCT / US08 / 61455 hydrogen catalyzed reactors filed PCT / US08 / 61455 on 4/24/2008, PCT / US09 / 052072 filed PCT / 7/29/2009. Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalytic Reactor, PCT / US10 / 27828 Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalytic Power System filed PCT / US10 / 27828 on 3/18/2010, PCT / US11 / 28889 Electrochemical Hydrogen PCT filed on 3/17/2011 Catalytic power systems, PCT / US12 / 31369 H2O-based hydrogen catalytic power systems filed on 3/30/2012, applications like PCT / US13 / 041938 CIHT power system filed on 5/21/13 ("Mills pre-filing") (This is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. It may include those my previous U.S. patent applications that).

In one example, the reaction may include nitrogen oxides such as N ₂ O, NO ₂ , or NO, rather than nitrate. Instead, gas is also added to the reaction mixture. NO, NO2, and N2O, and alkali nitrates can be generated by known industrial methods, such as by the Haber method followed by the Ostwald method. In one embodiment, a typical sequence of steps is as follows.

Specifically, the Harbor process may be used to generate NH ₃ from N ₂ and H ₂ at high temperatures and pressures using a catalyst such as α-iron that contains some oxide. . The Ostwald process can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO, NO ₂ and N ₂ O with a catalyst such as a high temperature platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst. In one embodiment, the product is at least one of ammonia and an alkaline compound. NO ₂ may be formed from NH ₃ by oxidation. NO ₂ is dissolved in water to form nitric acid that reacts with alkaline compounds such as M ₂ O, MOH, M ₂ CO ₃ , or MHCO ₃ to form M nitrate where M is alkaline. It may be.

In one embodiment, reaction of an oxygen source such as MNO ₃ (M = alkali) to form an H ₂ O catalyst, (ii) formation of atomic H from a source such as H ₂ , (iii) formation of hydrino At least one of the reactions may occur on or by a conventional catalyst such as a noble metal such as Pt that may be heated. The heated catalyst may include hot filaments. The filament may comprise a hot Pt filament. A source of oxygen such as MNO ₃ may be at least partially in a gaseous state. A source of oxygen, such as O ₃ , may be in an open board that is heated to release gaseous MNO ₃ . The heating may have a heater like a hot filament. In one exemplary embodiment, MNO ₃ is placed in a quartz boat and a Pt filament surrounds the boat to function as a heater. The vapor pressure of MNO ₃ may be maintained within a pressure range of about 0.1 Torr to 1000 Torr or about 1 Torr to 100 Torr. The hydrogen source may be gaseous hydrogen maintained within a pressure range of about 1 Torr to 100 atm, about 10 Torr to 10 atm, or about 100 Torr to 1 atm. The filament also functions to dissociate hydrogen gas that may be supplied to the cell through the gas line. The cell may also include a vacuum line. The cell reaction may result in atomic H and H ₂ O catalysts that react to form hydrinos. The reaction may be maintained in a vessel that can maintain at least one of vacuum, ambient pressure, or pressure above atmospheric pressure. Products such as NH3 and MOH may be removed from the cell and regenerated. In one exemplary embodiment, MNO ₃ reacts with a hydrogen source to form NH ₃ and H ₂ O catalysts that are regenerated as a separate step by oxidation or in a separate reaction vessel. In one embodiment, a hydrogen source such as H ₂ gas is generated from water either thermally or by electrolysis. Typical thermal methods include iron oxide cycles, cerium (IV) oxide-cerium (III) oxide cycles, zinc-zinc oxide cycles, sulfur-iodine cycles, copper-chlorine cycles and hybrid sulfur cycles, and the like. Others known to vendors. A typical cell reaction to form a H ₂ O catalyst that reacts further with H to form hydrino is as follows.
KNO ₃ + 9 / 2H ₂ → K + NH ₃ + 3H ₂ O (82)
KNO ₃ + 5H ₂ → KH + NH ₃ + 3H ₂ O (83)
KNO ₃ + 4H ₂ → KOH + NH ₃ + 2H ₂ O (84)
KNO ₃ + C + 2H ₂ → KOH + NH ₃ + CO ₂ (85)
2KNO ₃ + C + 3H ₂ → K ₂ CO ₃ + 1 / 2N ₂ + 3H ₂ O (86)

A typical regeneration reaction to form nitrogen oxides is given by equation (81). Products such as K, KH, KOH, and K ₂ CO ₃ may be reacted with nitric acid formed by adding nitrogen oxides to water to form KNO ₂ or KNO ₃ . Additional reasonable exemplary reactions for forming at least one of H ₂ O catalyst and H ₂ are given in Tables 4, 5 and 6.

The reactants that form the H ₂ O catalyst may include a source of O, such as a source of H and an O species. The source of O species may include a mixture of compounds containing O or at least one of compounds, air, O ₂ . Compounds containing oxygen may contain oxidants. The compound containing oxygen may include at least one of an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, a peroxide, and a superoxide. Reasonable typical metal oxides include alkaline oxides such as Li ₂ O, Na ₂ O, and K ₂ O, alkaline earth oxides such as MgO, CaO, SrO, and BaO, NiO, Ni _2. Transition metal oxides such as O ₃ , FeO, Fe ₂ O ₃ , and CoO, and internal transition metals and rare earth metal oxides, and Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi Semimetals such as those of Se, Te, and Te or those of other metals, and mixtures thereof and other elements including oxygen. Oxides, alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition and oxide anions such as those of the present disclosure, such as cationic and metal oxide anions such as rare earth metal cations, _{and, ΜΜ '2χ O 3χ + 1} , or MM ′ _2x O ₄ , (M = alkaline earth, M ′ = transition metal (eg, Fe or Ni or Mn), x = integer), and Μ ₂ Μ ′ _{2 Χ} O _{3χ + 1} , or Μ ₂ Μ ′ _{2 Χ} O ₄ , (M = alkali, M ′ = transition metal (eg, Fe or Ni or Mn), x = integer), Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se , And those of semimetals and other metals, such as those of Te. Reasonable typical oxyhydroxides are AlO (OH), ScO (OH), YO (OH), VO (OH), CrO (OH), MnO (OH) (α-MnO (OH) groutite and γ-MnΟ (ΟΗ) hydromanganese ore), FeO (OH), CoO (OH), NiO (OH), RhO (OH), GaO (OH), InO (OH), Ni _1/2 Co _1/2 O (OH), and N _1/3 Co _1/3 Mn _1/3 O (OH). Reasonable typical hydroxides are those of metals such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb , Those of metalloids such as As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te and other metals, and mixtures thereof. Reasonable complex ion hydroxides are Li ₂ Zn (OH) ₄ , Na ₂ Zn (OH) ₄ , Li ₂ Sn (OH) ₄ , Na ₂ Sn (OH) ₄ , Li ₂ Pb (OH) ₄ , Na ₂ Pb (OH) ₄ , LiSb (OH) ₄ , NaSb (OH) ₄ , LiAl (OH) ₄ , NaAl (OH) ₄ , LiCr (OH) ₄ , NaCr (OH) ₄ , Li ₂ Sn (OH) ₆ , And Na ₂ Sn (OH) ₆ . Additional typical reasonable hydroxides include Co (OH) ₂ , Zn (OH) ₂ , Ni (OH) ₂ , other transition metal hydroxides, Cd (OH) ₂ , Sn (OH) ₂ , And at least one from Pb (OH). Reasonable typical peroxides are H ₂ O ₂ , those of organic compounds, and M ₂ O ₂ , such as Li ₂ O ₂ , Na ₂ O ₂ , K ₂ O ₂ , where M is an alkali metal. Those of metals such as, those of other ionic peroxides such as those of alkaline earth peroxides such as Ca, Sr or Ba, those of other positive metals such as those of lanthanides, and Zn Covalent metal peroxides such as those of Cd, Cd, and Hg. Reasonable Typical superoxide _{is NaO 2, KO 2, RbO 2} , and CsO _2, they _MO 2 (M is an alkali metal) and alkaline earth metal ultrafine metal oxides such as. In one embodiment, the fixed fuel includes a hydrogen source such as alkaline peroxides and hydrides, hydrocarbons, or hydrogen storage metals such as BH ₃ NH ₃ . Reaction mixtures include alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, and alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals And sources of oxygen and water such as rare earth metals and compounds containing at least one of oxyanions such as carbonates such as Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, and others including others of the present disclosure May contain hydroxides such as those of other elements, which form oxides. Other suitable compounds including oxygen include aluminate, tungstate, zirconate, titanate, phosphate, carbonate, nitrate, chromate, dichromate, and manganate, oxidation At least one of the groups, oxyhydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, silicates, titanates, tungstates, and other groups of oxyanion compounds of the present disclosure. One typical reaction of carbonate and hydroxide is as follows.
Ca (OH) ₂ + Li ₂ CO ₃ → CaO + H ₂ O + Li ₂ O + CO ₂ (87)

In another embodiment, the oxygen _{source, NO 2, NO, N 2} O, CO 2, P 2 O 3, P 2 O 5, and immediately form a gas, such as SO _2, or is the gaseous . Reduced oxide products from the formation of H ₂ O catalysts such as C, N, NH ₃ , P, or S are combusted with oxygen or their sources as given in earlier applications of Mills. Cells that may be converted back to oxide again by heat may generate excess heat that may be used for heating applications, or the heat may be like Rankine or Brayton systems. May be converted to electricity by means. The cell may generate excess heat that may be used for heating applications, or the heat may be converted to electricity by means such as a Rankine or Brayton system. Alternatively, the cell may be used to synthesize lower energy hydrogen species, such as molecular hydrino and hydrino hydride ions and corresponding compounds.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture that forms hydrinos for at least one of the generation of energy and the generation of lower energy hydrogen species is at least one of O and H, such as those of the present disclosure, such as an H ₂ O catalyst. Including a source of catalyst including one and a source of atomic hydrogen. The reaction mixture may be an acid such as H ₂ SO ₃ , H ₂ SO ₄ , H ₂ CO ₃ , HNO ₂ , HNO ₃ , HClO ₄ , H ₃ PO ₃ , and H ₃ PO ₄ , or an acid anhydride or It may further contain an acid such as an acid anhydride. The latter is at least one of the group of SO ₂ , SO ₃ , CO ₂ , NO ₂ , N ₂ O ₃ , N ₂ O ₅ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , PO ₂ , P ₂ O ₃ , and P ₂ O ₅ . May include. The reaction mixture can be M ₂ O (M = alkali), Μ′O (M ′ = alkaline earth), ZnO, or other transition metal oxide, CdO, CoO, SnO, AgO, HgO, or Al ₂ O _3. And at least one of a base and a basic anhydride. Further typical anhydrides are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc. , Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and H ₂ O stable metals such as In. The anhydride may be an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal oxide, and the hydrous compound may include a hydroxide. The reaction mixture may include oxyhydroxides such as FeOOH, NiOOH, or CoOOH. The reaction mixture may include at least one of a source of H ₂ O and H ₂ O. H ₂ O may be reversibly formed by hydration and dehydration reactions in the presence of atomic hydrogen. A typical reaction to form a H ₂ O catalyst is as follows.
Mg (OH) ₂ → MgO + H ₂ O (88)
2LiOH → Li ₂ O + H ₂ O (89)
H ₂ CO ₃ → CO ₂ + H ₂ O (90)
2FeOOH → Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ O (91)

In one example, the H ₂ O catalyst is P ₄ O ₁₀ . Ultraphosphates such as and cyclic metaphosphates such as [(PO ₃ ) _n ] ⁿ with n ≧ 3, long chain metaphosphates such as [(PO ₃ ) _n ] ⁿ , [P _n O _{3n + 1} ] A mixture forming a condensed phosphate such as at least one of polyphosphates such as ^{(n + 2)} -and Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se And those of cations such as those of semimetals and other metals such as those of Te, and cations including metals such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals Formed by dehydration of at least one compound containing phosphate, such as dihydrogen phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, and phosphate salts. A typical reaction is as follows. A typical reaction is as follows.

The reactant of the dehydration reaction may include R (Ni), which may include at least one of Al (OH) ₃ and Al ₂ O ₃ . The reactants are H _{2 as} well as metals M such as those of the present disclosure, such as alkali metals, metal hydrides MH, metal hydrides such as those of the present disclosure such as alkali hydroxides and intrinsic hydrogen. A source of hydrogen such as A typical reaction is as follows.
2Al (OH) ₃ + → Al ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ O (94)
Al ₂ O ₃ + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO ₂ + H ₂ O (95)
3MH + Al (OH) ₃ + → M ₃ Al + 3H ₂ O (96)
MoCu + 2MOH + 4O ₂ → M ₂ MoO ₄ + CuO + H ₂ O
(M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) (97)

The reaction product may include an alloy. R-Ni may be regenerated by rehydration. The reaction mixture and dehydration reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst may include and contain oxyhydroxides such as those of the present disclosure as provided in the following exemplary reaction.
3Co (OH) ₂ → 2CoOOH + Co + 2H ₂ O (98)

Atomic hydrogen may be formed from H ₂ gas by dissociation. The hydrogen dissociator may be one of those of the present disclosure, such as R—Ni, or Ni on carbon or Al ₂ O ₃ , or a noble metal on a support (support) such as Pt, or Pd, or It may be a transition metal. Instead, atomic H may be from H permeation through membranes such as those of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the cell includes a membrane, such as a ceramic membrane, that selectively diffuses H ₂ through itself, preventing H ₂ O diffusion. In one embodiment, at least one of H ₂ and atoms H is supplied to the cell by electrolysis of an electrolyte that includes a source of hydrogen, such as a water soluble or molten electrolyte that includes H ₂ O. In one example, the H ₂ O catalyst is chemically formed by dehydration of acid or base to an anhydrous form. In one embodiment, the reaction to form the catalyst H ₂ O and hydrino propagates by changing at least one of cell pH or activity, temperature, and pressure, but the pressure changes by changing temperature. It may be. The activity of species such as acids, bases, or anhydrides may be altered by adding salts known to those skilled in the art. In one example, the reaction mixture may include a material such as carbon that may or may absorb a gas such as H ₂ or a source of acid anhydride gas in a reaction that forms a hydrino. The reactants may be in any desired concentration and ratio. The reaction mixture may be melted or may contain a water soluble slurry.

In another example, the source of H ₂ O catalyst is a reaction between an acid and a base, such as a reaction between hydrohalic acid, sulfuric acid, dissipation, and nitrous acid, and at least one of the bases. Other reasonable acid _{reactant, H 2 SO 4, HCl,} HX (X- _{halogen), H 3 PO 4, HClO} 4, HNO 3, HNO, HNO 2, H 2 S, H 2 CO 3, H 2 MoO ₄ , HNbO ₃ , H ₂ B ₄ O ₇ (tetraboric acid M), HBO ₂ , H ₂ WO ₄ , H ₂ CrO ₄ , H ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , H ₂ TiO ₃ , HZrO ₃ , MAlO ₂ , HMn ₂ O ₄ , HIO ₃ , HIO ₄ , HClO ₄ , or an aqueous solution of an organic acid such as formic acid or acetic acid. Suitable typical bases are alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, or rare earth metals, or hydroxides, oxyhydroxides containing Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb, or It is an oxide.

In one embodiment, the reactants react with a base or acid anhydride, respectively, to form a H ₂ O catalyst, and an acid anion and a basic anhydride cation or acid anhydride, respectively. It may contain a compound of a product anion and a base cation. A typical reaction of base NaOH with acidic anhydride SiO ₂ is as follows.
_{4NaOH + SiO 2 → Na 4 SiO} 4 + 2H 2 O (99)
Here, the dehydration reaction of the corresponding acid is as follows.
H ₄ SiO ₄ → 2H ₂ O + SiO ₂ (100)

Other reasonable typical anhydrides are Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. It may contain elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures such as one from the group. Corresponding _{oxide, MoO 2, TiO 2, ZrO} 2, SiO 2, Al 2 O 3, NiO, Ni 2 O 3, FeO, Fe 2 O 3, TaO 2, Ta 2 O 5, VO, VO 2, V ₂ O ₃ , V ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O ₅ , SeO ₂ , SeO ₃ , TeO ₂ , TeO ₃ , WO ₂ , WO ₃ , Cr ₃ O ₄ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , CrO ₂ , CrO ₃ , MnO, Mn ₃ O ₄ , Mn ₂ O ₃ , MnO ₂ , Mn ₂ O ₇ , HfO ₂ , Co ₂ O ₃ , CoO, Co ₃ O ₄ , Co ₂ O ₃ , and It may contain at least one of MgO. In one exemplary embodiment, a base, such as _Li 2 O, and _{H 2} O, such as _{M 2} O, it may form the corresponding basic oxides, such as LiOH, MOH It may contain a hydroxide, such as an alkali hydroxide, such as (M = alkali). Basic oxides may react with anhydrous oxides to form product oxides. In one typical reaction of LiOH with anhydride oxide with release of H ₂ O, the product oxide compound is Li ₂ MoO ₃ , or Li ₂ MoO ₄ , Li ₂ TiO ₃ , Li ₂ ZrO _3. , Li ₂ SiO ₃ , LiAlO ₂ , LiNiO ₂ , LiFeO ₂ , LiTaO ₃ , LiVO ₃ , Li ₂ B ₄ O ₇ , Li ₂ NbO ₃ , Li ₂ SeO ₃ , Li ₃ PO ₄ , Li ₂ SeO ₄ , Li ₂ TeO ₃ , Li ₂ TeO ₄ , Li ₂ WO ₄ , Li ₂ CrO ₄ , Li ₂ Cr ₂ O ₇ , Li ₂ MnO ₄ , Li ₂ HfO ₃ , LiCoO ₂ , and MgO. Other reasonable typical oxides are As ₂ O ₃ , As ₂ O ₅ , Sb ₂ O ₃ , Sb ₂ O ₄ , Sb ₂ O ₅ , Bi ₂ O ₃ , SO ₂ , SO ₃ , CO ₂ , NO ₂ , N ₂ O ₃ , N ₂ O ₅ , Cl ₂ O ₇ , PO ₂ , P ₂ O ₃ , and P ₂ O ₅ , and at least one of other similar oxide groups known to those skilled in the art It is. Another example is given by equation (91). A reasonable reaction of the metal oxide is as follows.
2LiOH + NiO → Li ₂ NiO ₂ + H ₂ O (101)
3LiOH + NiO → LiNiO ₂ + H ₂ O + Li ₂ O + 1 / 2H ₂ (102)
4LiOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ → 2Li ₂ NiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O + 1 / 2O ₂ (103)
2LiOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ → 2LiNiO ₂ + H ₂ O (104)

Other transition metals such as Fe, Cr, and Ti, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te Semimetals or other metals may replace Ni and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, Rb, and Cs may replace K. In one embodiment, oxide is may contain Mo, during the reaction to form H 2 _O, H _{2 O} catalyst and H nascent, those which further react to form hydrino May form. A typical solid fuel reaction and possible oxide formation pathways are as follows.
3MoO ₂ + 4LiOH → 2Li ₂ MoO ₄ + Mo + 2H ₂ Ο (105)
2MoO ₂ + 4LiOH → 2Li ₂ MoO ₄ + 2H ₂ (106)
O ²⁻ → 1 / 2O ₂ + 2e ⁻ (107)
2H ₂ O + 2e ⁻ → 2OH ⁻ + H ₂ (108)
2H ₂ O + 2e ⁻ → 2OH ⁻ + H + H (1/4) (109)
Mo ⁴⁺ + 4e ⁻ → Mo (110)

The reaction may further include a dissociator such as Pd / Al ₂ O ₃ and a hydrogen source such as hydrogen gas. The hydrogen may be any of protium, deuterium, or tritium, or combinations thereof. The reaction that forms the H ₂ O catalyst may involve the reaction of two hydroxides to form water. Hydroxide reactions may have different oxidation states such as those of transition metal or alkaline earth hydroxide and alkali metal hydroxide reactions. The reaction mixture and reaction may further include and contain H ₂ from the source as provided in the following typical reaction.
LiOH + 2Co (OH) ₂ + 1 / 2H ₂
→ LiCoO ₂ + 3H ₂ O + Co (111)

The reaction mixture and reaction may further include and contain a metal M, such as an alkaline earth metal or alkali metal, as provided in the following typical reaction.
M + LiOH + Co (OH) ₂ → LiCoO ₂ + H ₂ O + MH (112)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a metal hydroxide and a metal oxide that may function as a source of H and optionally another H source, where the metal oxide is Fe, for example. Such a metal can have multiple oxidation states so that it undergoes an oxidation-reduction reaction during the reaction of forming H ₂ O to function as a catalyst that reacts with H to form hydrino. An example is FeO, but during the reaction forming the catalyst, Fe ²⁺ can undergo oxidation and become Fe ³⁺ . A typical reaction is as follows.
FeO + 3LiOH
→ H ₂ O + LiFeO ₂ + H (1 / p) + Li ₂ O (113)

In one embodiment, at least one reactant such as a metal oxide, hydroxide, or oxyhydroxide functions as an oxidant, but a metal atom such as Fe, Ni, Mo, or Mn is May be in a higher oxidation state than another possible oxidation state. The reaction forming the catalyst and hydrino may cause the atoms to undergo reduction to at least one lower oxidation state. A typical reaction of the metal oxide, hydroxide, and oxyhydroxide that forms the H ₂ O catalyst is as follows.
_{2KOH + NiO → K 2 NiO 2} + H 2 O (114)
3KOH + NiO → KNiO ₂ + H ₂ O + K ₂ O + 1 / 2H ₂ (115)
2KOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ → 2KNiO ₂ + H ₂ O (116)
4KOH + Ni ₂ O ₃ → 2K ₂ NiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O + 1 / 2O ₂ (117)
2KOH + Ni (OH) ₂ → K ₂ NiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O (118)
2LiOH + MoO ₃ → Li ₂ MoO ₄ + H ₂ O (119)
3KOH + Ni (OH) ₂
→ KNiO ₂ + 2H ₂ O + K ₂ O + 1 / 2H ₂ (120)
_{2KOH + 2NiOOH → K 2 NiO 2} + 2H 2 O + NiO + l / 2O 2
(121)
KOH + NiOOH → KNiO ₂ + H ₂ O (122)
2NaOH + Fe ₂ O ₃ → 2NaFeO ₂ + H ₂ O (123)

Other transition metals such as Ni, Fe, Cr, and Ti, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, and AL, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te Such semimetals or other metals may replace Ni or Fe, and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs may replace K or Na. In one example, the reaction mixture is Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, It includes at least one of H ₂ O stable metal hydroxides and oxides such as Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. Additionally, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen, such as H ₂ gas, and optionally includes a dissociator, such as a noble metal on a support. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is a transition metal halide such as bromide such as FeBr ₂ and an oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or metal that forms oxides and H ₂ O. At least one mixture. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a mixture of at least one of a metal oxide, a hydroxide, and an oxyhydroxide, such as at least one of transition metal oxides such as Ni2O3 and H2O. Including.

A typical reaction of acid HCl with basic anhydride NiO is as follows.
2HCl + NiO → H ₂ O + NiCl ₂ (124)
Here, the dehydration reaction of the corresponding base is as follows.
Ni (OH) ₂ → H ₂ O + NiO (125)

The reactants may include at least one of a Lewis acid or base and a Bronsted-Lowry acid or base. The reaction mixture and reaction may further comprise and contain an oxygen containing compound, but the oxygen containing compound and acid react to form water as provided in the following typical reaction.
2HX + POX ₃ → H ₂ O + PX ₅ (126)
(X = halogen). Compounds similar to POX ₃ are as reasonable as those with P substituted by S. Other reasonable typical anhydrides are Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb, or a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, or oxide containing an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, or internal transition metal, such as one from the group May include oxides of elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures that are soluble in acids such as Corresponding _{oxide, MoO 2, TiO 2, ZrO} 2, SiO 2, Al 2 O 3, NiO, FeO, or _{Fe 2 O 3, TaO 2,} Ta 2 O 5, VO, VO 2, V 2 O 3 , V ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O ₅ , SeO ₂ , SeO ₃ , TeO ₂ , TeO ₃ , WO ₂ , WO ₃ , Cr ₃ O ₄ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , CrO ₂ , CrO ₃ , MnO, Μn ₃ O ₄ , Mn ₂ O ₃ , MnO ₂ , Mn ₂ O ₇ , HfO ₂ , Co ₂ O ₃ , CoO, Co ₃ O ₄ , Co ₂ O ₃ , and MgO unknown. Other reasonable typical oxides are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag. , Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In one example, the acid comprises a hydrohalic acid and the product is an oxide metal halide and H ₂ O. The reaction mixture further includes a source of hydrogen, such as H ₂ gas, and a dissociator, such as Pt / C, where the H and H ₂ O catalysts react to form hydrinos.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel, H ₂ containing hydroxide or oxide is reduced to dissociating agent and H _{2 O} as source of H ₂ or H ₂ gas and Pt / C as the permeable membrane O Contains a source of catalyst. The oxide or hydroxide metal may form a metal hydride that functions as a source of H. A typical reaction of alkali hydroxides and oxides such as LiOH and Li2O is as follows.
LiOH + H ₂ → H ₂ O + LiH (127)
Li ₂ O + H ₂ → LiOH + LiH (128)

The reaction mixture is Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Metal oxides or hydroxides that undergo hydrogen reduction to H ₂ O, such as those of Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In, and H ₂ A source of hydrogen such as a gas and a dissociator such as Pt / C may be included.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture, H ₂ source such as dissociating agent and H ₂ gas, such as Pt / C, and peroxide compounds such as decomposing H ₂ O ₂ to H 2 _O catalyst And other products containing oxygen, such as O ₂ . Some of the degradation organisms such as H ₂ and O ₂ react to form H ₂ O catalysts as well.

In one example, the reaction to form H ₂ O as a catalyst includes an organic dehydration reaction such as that of an alcohol such as a polyhydric alcohol such as a aldehyde and a sugar to H ₂ O. In one example, the dehydration reaction involves the release of H ₂ O from terminal alcohols that form aldehydes. Terminal alcohols may contain sugars or derivatives thereof that release H ₂ O that may function as a catalyst. Typical alcohols that are reasonable are meso-erythritol, galactitol or dulcitol, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). A typical reaction mixture includes a sugar + hydrogen dissociator such as Pd / Al ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ . Instead, the reaction involves the dehydration of a metal salt such as one with at least one hydrating water. In one embodiment, the dehydration _includes of _{H 2} O loss of functioning as a catalyst of hydrates, such as salt hydrates and hydrated ions such as BaI 2 _2H 2 O and EuBr ₂ nH ₂ O.

In one example, the reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst comprises an oxygen containing compound such as CO, an oxyanion such as MNO ₃ (M = alkali), NiO, Ni ₂ O ₃ , Fe ₂ O ₃ , Or metal oxides such as SnO, hydroxides such as Co (OH) ₂ , oxyhydroxides such as FeOOH, CoOOH, and NiOOH, and compounds, oxyanions, oxides, hydroxides, oxy Hydrogen reduction of hydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, and other compositions containing oxygen such as those of the present disclosure that are hydrogen that can be reduced to H ₂ O. Exemplary compounds containing oxygen or _{oxyanion, SOCl 2, Na 2 S 2} O 3, NaMnO 4, POBr 3, K 2 S 2 O 8, CO, CO 2, NO, NO 2, P 2 O 5, _{N 2 O 5, N 2 O} , SO 2, I 2 O 5, NaClO 2, NaClO, K 2 SO 4, and a KHSO _4. The source of hydrogen for hydrogen reduction may be at least one of hydrides such as H ₂ gas and metal hydrides such as those of the present disclosure. The reaction mixture further includes a reducing agent that may form ions or compounds containing oxygen. The cation of the oxyanion forms a product compound that contains another anion such as a halide, other chalcogenides, phosphides, other oxyanions, nitrides, silicides, arsenides, or other anions of the present disclosure. Might do. A typical reaction is as follows.
4NaNO ₃ (c) + 5MgH ₂ (c)
→ 5MgO (c) + 4NaOH (c)
+ 3H ₂ O (l) + 2N ₂ (g) (129)
P ₂ O ₅ (c) + 6NaH (c)
→ 2Na ₃ PO ₄ (c) + 3H ₂ O (g) (130)
NaClO ₄ (c) + 2MgH ₂ (c)
→ 2MgO (c) + NaCl (c)
+ 2H ₂ O (l) (131)
KHSO ₄ + 4H ₂ → KSH + 4H ₂ O (132)
_{K 2 SO 4 + 4H 2 →} 2KOH + 2H 2 O + H 2 S (133)
LiNO ₃ + 4H ₂ → LiNH ₂ + 3H ₂ O (134)
GeO ₂ + 2H ₂ → Ge + 2H ₂ O (135)
CO ₂ + H ₂ → C + 2H ₂ O (136)
PbO ₂ + 2H ₂ → 2H ₂ O + Pb (137)
_{V 2 O 5 + 5H 2 →} 2V + 5H 2 O (138)
Co (OH) ₂ + H ₂ → Co + 2H ₂ O (139)
Fe ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ → 2Fe + 3H ₂ O (140)
3Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ → 2Fe ₃ O ₄ + H ₂ O (141)
Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ → 2FeO + H ₂ O (142)
Ni ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ → 2Ni + 3H ₂ O (143)
3Ni ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ → 2Ni ₃ O ₄ + H ₂ O (144)
Ni ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ → 2NiO + H ₂ O (145)
3FeOOH + 1 / 2H ₂ → Fe ₃ O ₄ + 2H ₂ O (146)
3ΝiΟΟΗ + 1 / 2H ₂ → Ni ₃ O ₄ + 2H ₂ O (147)
3CoOOH + 1 / 2H ₂ → Co ₃ O ₄ + 2H ₂ O (148)
FeOOH + 1 / 2H ₂ → FeO + H ₂ O (149)
NiOOH + 1 / 2H ₂ → NiO + H ₂ O (150)
CoOOH + 1 / 2H ₂ → CoO + H ₂ O (151)
SnO + H ₂ → Sn + H ₂ O (152)

The reaction mixture may include oxygen or a source of oxygen, such as a compound containing oxygen, and an anion or a source of anion, where the reaction that forms the H ₂ O catalyst is oxygen to form H ₂ O. from a source that reacts with, the option to H _2, the anion - containing oxygen exchange reaction. A typical reaction is as follows.
_{2NaOH + H 2 + S → Na} 2 S + 2H 2 O (153)
_{2NaOH + H 2 + Te → Na} 2 Te + 2H 2 O (154)
_{2NaOH + H 2 + Se → Na} 2 Se + 2H 2 O (155)
LiOH + NH ₃ → LiNH ₂ + H ₂ O (156)

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an exchange reaction between chalcogenides such as one between reactants comprising O and S. A typical chalcogenide reactant, such as tetrahedral ammonium tetrathiomolybdate, contains a ([MoS ₄ ] ²⁻ ) anion.
→ [NH ₄ ] ₂ [MoS ₄ ] + 4H ₂ O (157)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen, a compound that includes oxygen, and at least one element that can form an alloy with at least one element of the reaction mixture. The reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst may include an oxygen exchange reaction of the compound containing oxygen and an element capable of forming an alloy with the cation of the oxygen compound, wherein the oxygen comprises H ₂ O. Reacts with hydrogen from the source to form. A typical reaction is as follows.
NaOH + 1 / 2H ₂ + Pd → NaPb + H ₂ O (158)
NaOH + 1 / 2H ₂ + Bi → NaBi + H ₂ O (159)
NaOH + 1 / 2H ₂ + 2Cd → Cd ₂ Na + H ₂ O (160)
NaOH + 1 / 2H ₂ + 4Ga → Ga ₄ Na + H ₂ O (161)
NaOH + 1 / 2H ₂ + Sn → NaSn + H ₂ O (162)
NaAlH ₄ + Al (OH) ₃ + 5Ni
→ NaAlO ₂ + Ni ₅ Al + H ₂ O + 5 / 2H ₂ (163)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a reducing agent such as a metal that forms oxygen and an oxygen-containing compound such as an oxyoxide. The reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst includes the reaction of an oxyhydroxide comprising a metal formed from H ₂ O and a metal oxide. A typical reaction is as follows.
2MnOOH + Sn → 2MnO + SnO + H ₂ O (164)
4MnOOH + Sn → 4MnO + SnO ₂ + 2H ₂ O (165)
2MnOOH + Zn → 2MnO + ZnO + H ₂ O (166)

In one example, the reaction mixture includes a compound that includes oxygen, such as a hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, and at least one other compound that includes a different anion such as another element or halide. . The reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst may include the reaction of a hydroxide with an element or other compound, but the anion or element may form a hydroxide to form an anion or another compound of the element. Exchanged. Anions may include halides. A typical reaction is as follows.
_{2NaOH + NiCl 2 + H 2 →} 2NaCl + 2H 2 O + Ni (167)
_{2NaOH + I 2 + H 2 →} 2NaI + 2H 2 O (168)
_{2NaOH + XeF 2 + H 2 →} 2NaF + 2H 2 O + Xe (169)
BiX ₃ (X = halogen) + 4Bi (OH) ₃
→ 3ΒiΟΧ + Bi ₂ O ₃ + 6H ₂ O (170)

The hydroxide and halide compounds may be selected so that the reaction to form H ₂ O and another halide is thermoreversible. In one example, the general exchange reaction is as follows.
NaOH + 1 / 2H ₂ + 1 / yM _x Cl _{y
= NaCl + 6H 2 O + x} / yM (171)
Here, typical compounds M _x Cl _y are AlCl ₃ , BeCl ₂ , HfCl ₄ , KAgCl ₂ , MnCl ₂ , NaAlCl ₄ , ScCl ₃ , TiCl ₂ , TiCl ₃ , UCl ₃ , UCl ₄ , ZrCl ₄ , EuCl ₄ . ₃ , GdCl ₃ , MgCl ₂ , NdCl ₃ , and YCl ₃ . The reaction of formula (171), such as in the range of about 100 ° C. to 2000 ° C., has at least one of enthalpy and free energy of about 0 kJ at elevated temperatures and is reversible. The reversible temperature is calculated from the corresponding thermodynamic parameters of each reaction. Typical temperature range, NaCl-ScCl ₃ at about _800K-900K, NaCl-TiCl ₂ at about 300K-400K, NaCl-UCl ₃ at about 600K-800K, NaCl-UCl ₄ at about 250K-300K, about 250K- NaCl-ZrCl ₄ at 300K, NaCl-MgCl ₂ at about 900K-1300K, NaCl-EuCl ₃ at about 900 K-1000 K, a NaCl-YCl ₃ at about> NaCl-NdCl ₃ in 1000 K, and about> 1000 K.

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture is a metal oxide such as an alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, transition metal oxide, internal transition metal oxide, and rare earth metal oxide, and Al, Ga. Metalloid and other metals such as those of In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, Li ₂ O ₂ , Na ₂ O ₂ , and K ₂ O ₂ peroxides such as _M 2 _O 2 (M is an alkali metal) such as, and _{NaO 2, KO 2, RbO 2} , and CsO _2, (where M alkali metal) _MO 2, such as superoxide, such as And oxides such as alkaline earth metal superoxide and a source of hydrogen. The ionic peroxide further includes those of Ca, Sr, or Ba. The reaction that forms the H ₂ O catalyst may include hydrogen reduction of the oxide, peroxide, or superoxide to form H ₂ O. A typical reaction is as follows.
Na ₂ O + 2H ₂ → 2NaH + H ₂ O (172)
Li ₂ O ₂ + H ₂ → Li ₂ O + H ₂ O (173)
KO ₂ + 3 / 2H ₂ → KOH + H ₂ O (174)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may include other compounds containing flammable hydrogen such as metal amides or sources of hydrogen and those of the present disclosure and alkali metal hydrides, alkaline earth metal hydrides, transition metal hydrogens. including products, inner transition metal hydride, and at least one horn hydride such as rare earth metal hydride, at least one source of hydrogen, such as the H _2, and, a source of oxygen, such as O _2, the. The reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst may involve the oxidation of H ₂ , a hydride, or a hydrogen compound such as a metal amide to form H ₂ O. A typical reaction is as follows.
2NaH + O ₂ → Na ₂ O + H ₂ O (175)
H ₂ + 1 / 2O ₂ → H ₂ O (176)
LiNH ₂ + 2O ₂ → LiNO ₃ + H ₂ O (177)
2LiNH ₂ + 3 / 2O ₂ → 2LiOH + H ₂ O + N ₂ (178)

In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen. The reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst may include the decomposition of at least one of a source of oxygen and a source of hydrogen to form H ₂ O. A typical reaction is as follows.
NH ₄ O ₃ → N ₂ O + 2H ₂ O (179)
_{４ 4} Ν O ₃ → N ₂ +1/2 O ₂ + 2H ₂ O (180)
_{Η 2 O 2 → 1 / 2O} 2 + H 2 O (181)
H ₂ O ₂ + H ₂ → 2H ₂ O (182)

The reaction mixture disclosed in this chemical reactor section further comprises a source of hydrogen to form hydrinos. The source may be a source of atomic hydrogen such as H ₂ gas and a hydrogen dissociator, or a metal hydride such as a metal hydride and dissociator of the present disclosure. The source of hydrogen providing atomic hydrogen may be a hydrogen containing compound such as a hydroxide or oxyhydroxide. The H that reacts to form the hydrino may be nascent H formed by the reaction of one or more reactants, wherein at least one of the hydroxide and oxide reactions A source of hydrogen such as The reaction may also form a H ₂ O catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide may comprise the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide such as FeOOH can be dehydrated to supply an H ₂ O catalyst, and nascent H for hydrino reaction can be supplied during dehydration.
4FeOOH
→ H ₂ O + Fe ₂ O ₃ + 2FeO + O ₂ + 2H (1/4) (183)
Here, the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to hydrino. Other typical reaction, NaFeO ₂ + _{H 2} O such as alkali the metal oxides is their oxides or oxy-hydroxides and hydroxides, such as NaOH + FeOOH or _Fe 2 _{O 3} to form a Here, nascent H formed during the reaction may form hydrinos, and H ₂ O functions as a catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide may comprise the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide such as FeOOH can be dehydrated to supply an H ₂ O catalyst, and nascent H for hydrino reaction can be supplied during dehydration.
4FeOOH
→ H ₂ O + Fe ₂ O ₃ + 2FeO + O ₂ + 2H (1/4) (184)
Here, the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to hydrino.
Other typical reaction, NaFeO ₂ + _{H 2} O such as alkali the metal oxides is their oxides or oxy-hydroxides and hydroxides, such as NaOH + FeOOH or _Fe 2 _{O 3} to form a Here, nascent H formed during the reaction may form hydrinos, and H ₂ O functions as a catalyst. The hydroxide ions are both reduced and oxidized in forming H ₂ O and oxide ions. Oxide ions may react with H ₂ O to form OH ⁻ . The same path may be obtained with a hydroxide-halide exchange reaction, but with the following formula:
2M (OH) ₂ + 2M′X ₂
→ H ₂ O + 2MX ₂ + 2Μ'O + 1 / 2O ₂
+ 2H (1/4) (185)
Here, typical M and M ′ metals are alkaline earth metals and transition metals, respectively, of Cu (OH) ₂ + FeBr ₂ , Cu (OH) ₂ + CuBr ₂ , or Co (OH) ₂ + CuBr ₂ . It ’s like that. In one example, the solid fuel may include a metal hydroxide and a metal halide, but at least one metal is Fe. At least one of H ₂ O and H ₂ may be added to regenerate the reactants. In one embodiment, M and M ′ are alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Group 13 elements, Group 14 elements, Group 15 elements, and Group 16 elements, and other cations of halides or hydroxides such as those of the present disclosure may be selected. A typical reaction that forms at least one of HOH catalyst, nascent H, and hydrino is as follows.
4MOH + 4M'X
→ H ₂ O + 2M ′ ₂ O + M ₂ O + 2MX + X ₂
+ 2H (1/4) (186)

  In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of a halide compound and a hydroxide such as those of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the halide may function to facilitate at least one of the maintenance and formation of at least one of the nascent HOH catalyst and H. In one example, the mixture may function to reduce the melting point of the reaction mixture.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a mixture of Mg (OH) ₂ + CuBr ₂ . The product CuBr may be sublimed to form a CuBr condensation product that is separated from non-volatile MgO. CuBr, in order to form a CuBr _2, Shirezu may react with Br ₂ and,, MgO, in order to form a Mg _{(OH) 2,} may react with _{H 2} O. Mg (OH) ₂ may combine with CuBr ₂ to form a regenerated solid fuel.

The acid-base reaction is another approach to H ₂ O catalyst. In this way, the thermochemical reaction is similar to the electrochemical reaction that forms hydrinos. Typical halide and hydroxide mixtures are those of Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo, and Cd, and Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe , Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and metal halides and hydroxides with low water reactivity A mixture of In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprises of H _{2 O} which may function as at least one source of catalyst and H, such as of H _{2 O} nascent. The water may be in the form of a hydrate that decomposes or otherwise reacts during the reaction.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises an inorganic compound to form a H of H _{2 O} and nascent nascent and H _{2 O} reaction mixture. Inorganic compounds may include halides such as metal halides that react with H ₂ O. The reaction product may be at least one of hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, and hydrate. Other products may include anions containing halogens and oxygen, such as XO ⁻ , XO ₂ ⁻ , XO ₃ ⁻ , and XO ₄ ⁻ (X = halogen). The product may also be at least one of halogen gas and reduced cations. Halides include alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi. , C, Si, Ge, and B, and other elements that form halides, may be metal halides. The metal or element additionally forms at least one of hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, hydrate, and XO ⁻ , XO ₂ ⁻ , XO _3. ^-, and XO 4 _- ^(X = halogen), it may be intended to form a compound having the anion containing a halogen and oxygen, such as. Reasonable typical metals and elements include alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P , As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B. A typical reaction is as follows. A typical reaction is as follows.
5MX ₂ + 7H ₂ O
→ MXOH + M (OH) ₂ + MO + M ₂ O ₃ + 11H (1/4)
+ 9 / 2X ₂ (187)
Here, M is a metal such as a transition metal such as Cu, and X is a halogen such as Cl.

In one example, H ₂ O functions as a catalyst that is maintained at a low concentration to provide nascent H ₂ O. In one embodiment, the low concentration is achieved by the dispersion of H ₂ O molecules in another material such as a solid, liquid, or gas. H ₂ O molecules may be diluted to the limit of the nascent molecule isolated. The material also includes a source of H. The material may include an ionic compound such as alkali halides, such as potassium halide, such as transition metal halides or KCl as CuBr _2. Low concentrations to form nascent H may also be achieved dynamically where H ₂ O is formed by the reaction. Product H ₂ O may be removed at a rate relative to the rate of formation resulting in a steady state low concentration to supply at least one of nascent H and nascent HOH. Reactions that form H ₂ O may include dehydration, combustion, acid-base reactions, and others such as those of the present disclosure. H ₂ O may be removed by such means as evaporation and condensation. A typical reactant is FeOOH to form H ₂ O and iron oxide, but nascent H is also formed in a further reaction from hydrino. Other typical reaction mixtures are at least one of Fe ₂ O ₃ + (NaOH and H ₂ ) and at least one of FeOOH + (NaOH and H ₂ ). The reaction mixture may be maintained at an elevated temperature, such as in the range of 100 ° C to 600 ° C. The H ₂ O product may be removed by condensation of vapor in the reactor cold spot, such as a gas line maintained below 100 ° C. In another embodiment, a compound or mixture such as H ₂ O that is absorbed or dispersed in a lattice such as that of an ionic compound such as an alkali halide such as potassium halide such as KCl. Materials containing H ₂ O as part of or inclusion may be incident upon energetic particle bombardment. The particles may include at least one of photons, ions, and electrons. The particles may include a beam such as an electron beam. Bombing may provide at least one of activation of reactions that form H ₂ O catalyst, H, and hydrino. In examples of SF-CIHT cells, the H ₂ O content may be high. H ₂ O may be ignited to form hydrinos at high speed with high current.

The reaction mixture may further include a support, such as a highly electrically conductive surface area support. Reasonable typical supports are borides and carbides such as TiC and WC, carbon, Ni mesh, Ni cermet, metal screens such as Ni, metal powders such as R-Ni or Ni. Such as those of the present disclosure. The support may include a dissociator such as Pd / C or Pd / C. The reactants may be in any desired molar ratio. In one embodiment, the stoichiometry is adapted to favor completion of the reaction to supply H to form hydrinos and to form H ₂ O catalysts. The reaction temperature may be in any desired range, such as in the range from ambient temperature to 1500 ° C. The pressure range may be any desired within the range of about 0.01 Torr to 500 atm. These reactions include a PCT / US08 / 61455 hydrogen catalyzed reactor filed PCT on 4/24/2008, a PCT / US09 / 052072 PCT filed PCT / US09 / 052072 filed on 7/29/2009, 3 PCT / US10 / 27828 heterogeneous hydrogen catalyst power system filed on PCT / 18/2010, PCT / US11 / 28889 electrochemical hydrogen catalyst power system filed on 3/17/2011, 3/30 / PCT / US12 / 31369 H ₂ O-based hydrogen catalytic power system filed in 2012, PCT / US13 / 041938 CIHT power system filed on 5/21/13, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety In earlier applications of Mills, such as By the method, it is at least one of reproduction and reversible. The reaction to form H ₂ O may be reversible by changing reaction conditions such as pressure and temperature to allow reverse reactions that consume H ₂ O to occur, as is known by those skilled in the art. Absent. For example, the H ₂ O pressure may be increased in the reverse reaction to reconstitute the reactant from the product by rehydration. In other cases, the hydrogen-reduction product may be regenerated by oxidation, such as by reaction with at least one of H ₂ O and oxygen. In one embodiment, the reverse reaction product may be removed from the reaction so that the reverse or regeneration reaction proceeds. The reverse reaction may be advantageous even if it is not advantageous based on equilibrium thermodynamics by removing at least one reverse reaction product.
In one exemplary embodiment, the regenerated reactant (reverse or regenerated reaction product) comprises a hydroxide such as an alkali hydroxide. The hydroxide may be removed by methods such as solvation or sublimation. In the latter case, the alkali hydroxide sublimates unchanged at a temperature in the range of about 350 ° C to 400 ° C. The response may be maintained in the power plan system of Mills' earlier application. Thermal energy from the power generating cell may provide heat to at least one other cell that undergoes regeneration as previously disclosed. Instead, the equilibrium between the reaction to form the H ₂ O catalyst and the reverse regeneration reaction is such that the water wall temperature of the system design with a temperature gradient due to the coolant in a selected area of the cell, as previously disclosed. It can be shifted by changing.

In one example, the halide and oxide may undergo an exchange reaction. The products of the exchange reaction may be separated from each other. The exchange reaction may be performed by heating the product mixture. Separation may be driven by at least one of applying a vacuum and heating. In one exemplary embodiment, CaBr 2 and CuO may undergo an exchange reaction by heating to a high temperature, such as in the range of about 700 ° C. to 900 ° C. to form CuBr 2 and CaO. Any other reasonable temperature range may be used, such as within the range of about 100 ° C to 2000 ° C. CuBr ₂ may be separated and recovered by sublimation, which may be achieved by applying heat and low pressure. CuBr ₂ might form a separate bands. CuBr ₂ may be reacted with H ₂ O to form Ca (OH) ₂ .

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a source of singlet oxygen. A typical reaction for generating singlet oxygen is as follows.
NaOCl + H ₂ O ₂ → O ₂ + NaCl + H ₂ O (188)

In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a Fenton reaction reagent or source, such as H ₂ O ₂ .

In one example, lower energy hydrogen species and compounds are synthesized using a catalyst comprising at least one of O and H, such as H ₂ O. M may be an alkali and another metal such as an alkaline earth, the compound has a corresponding stoichiometric ratio, H is a hydrino such as a hydrino hydride, and X is Where an anion such as a halide, the reaction mixture for synthesizing a typical lower energy hydride MHX is a source of X and M such as an alkali halide such as KCl, and an alkali metal. Metal reductants, Ni screens or hydrogen dissociators such as Ni such as R-Ni and optionally a support such as carbon, H ₂ gas and MH which may replace M A source of hydrogen, such as at least one of a metal hydride, and a source of oxygen, such as a compound or metal oxide containing oxygen. Reasonable typical metal oxides are Fe ₂ O ₃ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , and NiO. The reaction temperature may be maintained within the range of about 200 ° C to 1500 ° C, or about 400 ° C to 800 ° C. The reactants may be in any desired ratio. The reaction mixture that forms KHCl may include K, Ni screen, KCl, hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe ₂ O ₃ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , and NiO. Typical weights and conditions are molar amounts equal to K from metal oxides such as 1.6 g K, 20 g KCl, 40 g Ni screen, 1.5 g Fe ₂ O ₃ and 1.5 g NiO. Oxygen, 1 atm H ₂ , and a reaction temperature of about 550-600 ° C. The reaction forms an H ₂ O catalyst by reaction of O and H from the metal oxide, and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrino hydride ions and hydrinos that form the product KHCl. The reaction mixture that forms KHI may include K, R—Ni, KI, hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe ₂ O ₃ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , and NiO. Typical weights and conditions include metal oxides such as 1 g K, 20 g KI, 15 g R—Ni 2800, 1 g Fe ₂ O ₃ and 1 g NiO in a molar amount of oxygen equal to K, 1 atm. H ₂ and a reaction temperature of about 450-500 ° C. The reaction forms a H ₂ O catalyst by reaction of O and H from the metal oxide, and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrino hydrides and hydrinos that form the product KHI. In one embodiment, at least one product of a CIHT cell, SF-CIHT cell, solid fuel, or chemical cell is H ₂ (1/4) causing a high field side H NMR matrix shift. In one embodiment, the presence of hydrino species such as hydrino molecules or atoms in a solid matrix such as a hydroxide matrix such as NaOH or KOH causes the matrix protons to shift to higher magnetic fields. Matrix protons such as those of NaOH or KOH may be exchanged. In one embodiment, the shift may cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS.

In one example, the regeneration reaction of a hydroxide and halide compound mixture such as Cu (OH) ₂ + CuBr ₂ may be due to the addition of at least one of H ₂ and H ₂ O. Products such as halides and oxides may be separated by halide sublimation. In one example, H ₂ O is added to the reaction mixture under heated conditions to cause hydroxides and halides such as CuBr ₂ and Cu (OH) ₂ to form reaction products. May be. In one embodiment, regeneration may be achieved by thermal cycling steps. In one example, a halide such as CuBr ₂ is soluble in H ₂ O, whereas a hydroxide such as Cu (OH) ₂ is insoluble. Regenerated compounds may be separated by filtering or precipitation. Since thermal energy may be from the reaction, the chemical species may dry out. Heat may be recovered (recovered) from expelling water vapor. The recovery may be, for example, by generating electricity using a turbine and generator, or by using steam directly for heating, or by a heat exchanger. In one example, regeneration of Cu (OH) ₂ from CuO is achieved by using H ₂ O that splits the catalyst. Reasonable catalysts are CuAlO ₂ formed by sintering Pt / Al ₂ O ₃ and CuO and Al ₂ O ₃ , cobalt-phosphate, cobalt-borate, cobalt methyl borate ( cobalt methyl borate), nickel borate, RuO ₂ , LaMnO ₃ , SrTiO ₃ , TiO ₂ , and noble metals on supports such as WO ₃ . One typical method of forming a H ₂ O split catalyst is about 0, at a pH of 9.2, with a potential of 0.92 and 1.15 V (relative to a normal hydrogen electrode), respectively. Controlled electrolysis of Co ²⁺ and Ni ²⁺ solutions in 1M potassium phosphate-borate electrolyte. A typical thermally reversible solid fuel cycle is as follows.
T 100 2CuBr ₂ + Ca (OH) _{2
→ 2CuO + 2CaBr 2 + H 2} O (189)
T 730 CaBr ₂ + 2H ₂ O → Ca (OH) ₂ + 2HBr (190)
T 100 CuO + 2HBr → CuBr ₂ + H ₂ O (191)

T 100 2CuBr ₂ + Cu (OH) _{2
→ 2CuO + 2CaBr 2 + H 2} O (192)
T 730 CuBr ₂ + 2H ₂ O → Cu (OH) ₂ + 2HBr (193)
T 100 CuO + 2HBr → CuBr ₂ + H ₂ O (194)

In one embodiment, a solid having at least one of reactants and products as one or more H ₂ or H ₂ O, and H ₂ O as a product and at least one of H ₂ as a reactant. The fuel reaction mixture is such that the maximum free energy of any conventional reaction is about zero in the range of -500 to +500 kJ / mole of the limiting reagent or preferably in the range of -100 to +100 kJ / mole of the limiting reagent. Selected. The reactant and product mixture has the lowest temperature and free energy at which the reaction is reversible so as to obtain regeneration or steady power for a duration longer than the reaction time without maintaining the mixture and temperature. It may be maintained at one or more of the optimum temperatures to be about zero. The temperature may be within the range of optimum conditions of about +/− 500 ° C. or about +/− 100 ° C. A typical mixture and reaction temperature is a stoichiometric mixture of Fe, Fe ₂ O ₃ , H ₂ , and H ₂ O at 800K, and a stoichiometry of Sn, SnO, H ₂ , and H ₂ O at 800K. It is a theoretical mixture.

In one embodiment, an alkali metal such as K or Li and at least one of nH (n = integer), OH, O, 2O, O ₂ , and H ₂ O functions as a catalyst, but H The source of is at least one of a metal hydride such as MH and a reaction of at least one of metal M and metal hydride MH with a source of H to form H. One product may be oxidized M, such as oxide or hydroxide. The reaction that produces at least one of atomic hydrogen and a catalyst may be an electron transfer reaction or an oxidation-reduction reaction. The reaction mixture includes not only the support of the present disclosure (support) such as carbon, but also electrically conductive supports such as others, carbides, borides, and carbonitrides, and their dissociators ( Support) and an H ₂ dissociator, such as those of the present disclosure such as Ni screen or R-Ni, may further comprise at least one of H ₂ Typical redox of Mo or MH is as follows.
4MH + Fe ₂ O ₃
→ + H ₂ O + H (1 / p) + M ₂ O + MOH + 2Fe + M (195)
Here, at least one of H ₂ O and M may function as a catalyst to form H (1 / p). The reaction mixture may further comprise a getter for hydrinos such as a compound such as a salt such as a halide salt such as an alkali halide salt such as KCl or KI. The product may be MHX (M = metal such as alkali, X is a counter ion such as halogen, and H is a hydrino species). Other hydrino catalysts may replace M such as those of the present disclosure, such as those in Table 1.

In one embodiment, the source of oxygen is a compound having a heat of formation similar to that of water so that the oxygen exchange reaction between the reduced product of the oxygen source compound and hydrogen occurs with minimal energy release. It is. Reasonable source of oxygen _{compounds, CdO, CuO, ZnO, SO} 2, SeO 2, and TeO _2, is. When the source of H ₂ O catalyst is MnO _x , AlO _x , and SiO _x , others such as metal oxides may also undergo a dehydration reaction. In one embodiment, the oxide layer oxygen source may cover a source of hydrogen such as a metal hydride such as palladium hydride. The H ₂ O catalyst that further reacts to form hydrino and the reaction to form atom H are initiated by heating an oxide-coated hydrogen source such as a palladium hydride coated with a metal oxide. It may be. Palladium hydride is produced by a hydrogen impermeable layer such as a gold film layer that causes the released hydrogen to selectively migrate to an oxygen source such as an oxide layer such as a metal oxide. It may be coated on the other side of it. In one embodiment, the reaction to form the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reaction include an oxygen exchange reaction between the oxygen source compound and hydrogen and an oxygen exchange reaction between water and the reduced oxygen source compound, respectively. . Reasonable reduced oxygen sources are Cd, Cu, Zn, S, Se, and Te. In one example, oxygen exchange reactions may include those used to thermally form hydrogen gas. Typical thermal methods include iron oxide cycles, cerium (IV) oxide-cerium (III) oxide cycles, zinc-zinc oxide cycles, sulfur-iodine cycles, copper-chlorine cycles and hybrid sulfur cycles, and the like. Others known to vendors. In one embodiment, regeneration reactions such as hydrino catalyst forming reactions and oxygen exchange reactions occur simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. Conditions such as temperature and pressure may be controlled to achieve reaction simultaneity. Instead, the product may be removed and regenerated in at least one other separate tank, as provided in Mills' previous applications and this disclosure. It may occur under conditions that are different from the reaction conditions that form the power.

In one example, the NH ₂ group of the amide, such as LiNH ₂ , functions as a catalyst, but its potential energy is about 81.6 eV, corresponding to m = 3 in equation (5). Similar to the reversible H ₂ O removal or addition reaction between the acid or base to the anhydride and vice versa, the reversible reaction between the amide and the imide or nitride forms an hydrino to form the hydrino. This results in the formation of an NH ₂ catalyst that reacts further with. The reversible reaction between amides and at least one of imides and nitrides may also function as a source of hydrogen, such as atomic hydrogen.

In one embodiment, hydrino species such as molecular hydrino or hydrino hydride ions are synthesized by reaction of at least one of OH and H ₂ O catalyst and H. Hydrino species include metals such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, and Te, LaNi ₅ Metal hydrides such as H ₆ and others of the present disclosure, water soluble hydroxides such as alkaline hydroxides such as KOH from 0.1M to saturated concentrations, carbon, Pt / C, steam carbon , Carbon black, carbides, borides, or nitride supports, and may be produced by at least two from the group of oxygen. A reasonable exemplary reaction mixture for forming a hydrino species such as a molecular hydrino is as follows. (1) Co PtC KOH (saturated) O _{2 present} / absent; (2) Zn or Sn + LaNi ₅ H ₆ + KOH (saturated), (3) Co, Sn, Sb, or Zn + O ₂ + CB + KOH (saturated), (4) Al CB KOH (saturated), (5) Sn Ni-coated graphite KOH (saturated) O _{2 present} / absent, (6) Sn + SC or CB + KOH (saturated) + O ₂ , (7) Zn Pt / C KOH (saturated) O ₂ , (8) Zn R—Ni KOH (saturated) O ₂ , (9) Sn LaNi ₅ H ₆ KOH (saturated) O ₂ , (10) Sb LaNi ₅ H ₆ KOH (saturated) O ₂ , (11) Co, Sn , Zn, Pb, or Sb + KOH (aqueous saturated _{solution) + K 2 CO 3 + CB} -SA, and ₍₁₂₎ LiNH 2 LiBr and LiH or Li and _{H 2} or a source thereof and optional Hydrogen dissociating agents such as to Ni or R-Ni. The additional reaction mixture includes a molten hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, a source of oxygen, and a hydrogen dissociator. A reasonable exemplary reaction mixture for forming a hydrino species such as a molecular hydrino is as follows. _{(1) Ni (H 2)} LiOH-LiBr air or _{O 2, (2) Ni (} H 2) NaOH-NaBr air or _{O 2,} and _{(3) Ni (H 2)} KOH-NaBr air or _O 2.

In one embodiment, at least one product of a chemical SF-CIHT and CIHT cell reaction to form hydrino is a hydrino such as H ₂ (1 / p) that forms a complex with an inorganic compound. Or a compound containing a lower energy hydrogen species. The compounds may include oxyanion compounds such as alkali or alkaline earth carbonates or hydroxides or other such compounds of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the product comprises at least one of M ₂ CO ₃ .H ₂ (1/4) and MOH.H ₂ (1/4) (M = alkali or other cation of the present disclosure) complex. Including. The product is ToF as a series of ions in the positive spectrum containing M (M ₂ CO 3 · H _z (1/4)) _n ⁺ ) and M (KOH · H ₂ (1/4)) _n ⁺ , respectively. -May be specified by SIMS, where n is an integer, and integer and integer p> 1 may be replaced by 4. In one example, a compound containing silicon and oxygen, such as SiO ₂ or quartz, may function as a getter for H ₂ (1/4). Getters for H ₂ (1/4) include transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, internal transition metals, rare earth metals, metal combinations, alloys such as Mo alloys such as MoCu, and those of the present disclosure. May contain such hydrogen storage materials.

Lower energy hydrides synthesized by the methods of the present disclosure may have the formula MH, MH ₂ , or M ₂ H ₂ , where M is an alkali cation and H is an increased binding energy hydride. An ion or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MH _n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, H is a hydride ion with increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a neutral atom such as a halogen atom, a molecule, or a monovalent negatively charged anion such as a halogen anion. , And H are hydride ions with increased binding energy or hydrogen atoms with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalently negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. It is. The compound may have the formula MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a divalent negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M2HX, where M is an alkali cation, X is a monovalently negatively charged anion, and H is a hydride ion with increased binding energy or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. is there. The compound, but may have a formula MHn, n is an integer, M is a hydrogen content H _n of alkali cations and compounds containing hydrogen species of at least one increased binding energy. The compound, but may have a formula M2Hn, n is an integer, M is a hydrogen content H _n of alkali cations and compounds containing hydrogen species of at least one increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M2XHn, where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and the compound's hydrogen content H _n is at least one increased bond Includes energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula M ₂ X ₂ H _n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound H _n Contains at least one hydrogen species of increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula M2X3H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalently negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. It is. The compound may have the formula M ₂ XH _n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a divalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound is at least Contains one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula Μ ₂ XX′H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, X ′ is a divalent negatively charged anion, and H is An increased bond energy hydride ion or an increased bond energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MM′Hn, where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M ′ is an alkali metal cation, and the compound's hydrogen content H _n is increased by at least one Containing hydrogen species with the binding energy The compound may have the formula MM′XH _n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M ′ is an alkali metal cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and The hydrogen content H _n includes at least one hydrogen species with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula MM′XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M ′ is an alkali metal cation, X is a divalent negatively charged anion, and H is a hydride of increased binding energy. An ion or a hydrogen atom with increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula ΜΜ'ΧΧ'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M 'is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are monovalent negatively charged anions, and H is increased. Bond energy hydride ions or increased bond energy hydrogen atoms. The compound may have the formula MXX'Hn, where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent or divalent negatively charged anion, and X 'is a metal Alternatively, the hydrogen content Hn of the metalloid, transition element, internal transition element, or rare earth element, and compound includes at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MHn, where n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, internal transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound is at least one increased binding energy. Of hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MXH _n , where n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali cation or alkaline earth cation, X is another such as a transition element, an internal transition element, or a rare earth cation. One cation and the hydrogen content H _n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound, but may have a formula [KH _m KCO _{3] n,} hydrogen content H _n of m and n are each an integer, and compounds containing a hydrogen species of at least one increased binding energy. The compound of the formula ^{_{[KH m KNO 3] n +}} nX - might have a, m and n are each an integer, X is an anion negatively charged monovalent, and hydrogen content _{H m} of the compound of at least Contains one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound of the formula ^{_{[KH m KNO 3] n +}} nX - might have a, m and n are each an integer, X is an anion negatively charged monovalent, and hydrogen content _{H m} of the compound of at least Contains one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula [KHKNO3] _n , where n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula [KHKOH] _n , where n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound comprising an anion or cation may have the formula [MH _m M′X] _n , where m and n are each an integer, M and M ′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, and X is a monovalent or divalent charged anions negatively, and the hydrogen content H _m of compounds containing hydrogen species of at least one increased binding energy. The compound containing an anionic or cationic the formula ^{_{MH m M'X '] n + nX}} - might have a, m and n are each integers, M and M · each alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X · contains a monovalent or divalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H _m of the compound contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. Anions may include one of them of the present disclosure. Reasonable typical monovalent negatively charged anions are halide ions, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, or nitrate ions. Reasonable typical divalent negatively charged anions are carbonate ions, oxides, or sulfate ions.

In one embodiment, the increased binding energy hydride or mixture is a hydrino molecule, hydrino hydride ion, hydrino atom, etc. embedded in a lattice such as a metal or crystal lattice such as an ionic lattice. At least one of the low energy hydrogen species. In one embodiment, the lattice is non-reactive with lower energy hydrogen species. The matrix may be aprotic as in the case of embedded hydrino hydride ions. The compound or mixture is H (1 / p), H ₂ (1 / p), and H ⁻ (1 / p) embedded in a salt lattice such as an alkali or alkaline earth salt such as a halide. May contain at least one of Typical alkali halides are KCl and KI. The salt may be free of any H ₂ O in the case of embedded H ⁻ (1 / p). Other reasonable salt lattices include those of this disclosure. Lower energy hydrogen species may be formed by the catalytic reaction of hydrogen with aprotic catalysts such as those in Table 1.

  The compounds of the present disclosure are preferably greater than 0.1 atomic percent. More preferably, the compound is more than 1 atomic percent pure. Even more preferably, the compound is more than 10 atomic percent pure. Most preferably, the compound is more than 50 atomic percent pure. In another example, the compound is more than 90 atomic percent pure. In another example, the compound is more than 95 atomic percent pure.

In another embodiment of a chemical reactor that forms a hydrino, the cell that forms the hydrino and releases power as thermal power includes a combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, a rocket engine, or a gas turbine.
The reaction mixture includes a source of oxygen and a source of hydrogen to generate a catalyst and hydrino. The source of the catalyst may be at least one of a species containing hydrogen and one containing oxygen. Seed or further reaction products, ^H, such as O and _{H 2, H, H +,} O 2, O 3, O 3 +, O 3 -, O, O +, H 2 O, H 3 O + , OH, OH ⁺ , OH ⁻ , HOOH, OOH ⁻ , O ⁻ , O ²⁻ , O ₂ ⁻ , and O ₂ ²⁻ , may be at least one of the species. The catalyst may contain hydrogen species such as H ₂ O or oxygen. In another embodiment, the catalyst comprises at least one of nH, nO (n = integer), O2, OH, and H2O catalyst. A source of hydrogen, such as a source of hydrogen atoms, may include a hydrogen-containing fuel, such as H ₂ gas or a hydrocarbon. Hydrogen atoms may be generated by the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons during hydrocarbon combustion. The reaction mixture may further comprise a hydrogen dissociator, such as those of the present disclosure, and the H atoms may also be formed by a hydrogen dissociator. The source of oxygen may further include O ₂ from the air. The reactant may further comprise H ₂ O that may function as at least one source of H and O. In one embodiment, the water serves as at least one additional source of oxygen and hydrogen that may be supplied by thermal decomposition of H ₂ O in the cell. Water can be dissociated into hydrogen atoms either catalytically or thermally on the surface, such as a cylinder or piston head. The surface may include materials for dissociating water into hydrogen and oxygen. Water dissociation materials include transition elements or internal transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated carbon (carbon), or Cs intercalated carbon (graphite) elements, compounds, alloys, or mixtures may be included. Hydrogen and oxygen sources may be drawn through corresponding ports or intakes such as intake valves or manifolds. The product may be exhausted through an exhaust port or outlet. Flow may be controlled by controlling the rate of inhalation and exhalation through each port.

In one embodiment, hydrinos are formed by heating a source of hydrogen and a source of catalyst, such as the solid fuel of the present disclosure. The heating may be at least one of thermal heating and vibration heating. Experimentally, Raman spectroscopy confirms that hydrinos are formed by ball milling solid fuels such as halide and hydroxide mixtures such as mixtures containing alkali metals such as Li. For example, the inverse Raman effect peak is observed at 2308 cm ⁻¹ from ball milled LiOH + LiI and LiOH + LiF. Thus, typical mixtures are LiOH + LiI or LiF. In one embodiment, at least one of thermal and vibrational heating is achieved by a fast reaction. In this case, the additional energy reaction is supplied by forming hydrinos.

VII. Solid Fuel Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell and Power Converter In one embodiment, a power system that generates at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy includes at least one tank and (a A reactant comprising:) at least one of a catalyst or catalyst source comprising nascent H ₂ O; (b) at least one of atomic hydrogen or an atomic hydrogen source; and (c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix. At least one set of electrodes confining the hydrino reactant, an electrical power source for delivering a short burst of high current electrical energy, a refill system, and at least regenerating the initial reactant from the reaction product One system and PDC, photovoltaic converter, and at least one heat-electric power At least one plasma such as Nbata - power system including at least one of the converter to the electric from direct plasma, such as an electric converter. In one further embodiment, the vessel is capable of at least one pressure, atmospheric pressure, higher than atmospheric pressure, and lower than atmospheric pressure. In certain embodiments, the regeneration system can include at least one of a hydrated, thermal, electrochemical system. In another embodiment, at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter is a plasma dynamic power converter, (vector E) × (vector B) direct converter (E x B direct converter), Magnetohydrodynamic power converter, magnetic mirror magnetopower converter, charge drift converter (on a verge) ( Includes Post or Venetian Blind power converter, gyrotron, photon bunching microwave power converter, and at least one photoelectric converter from ic to electr be able to. In one further embodiment, the at least one heat-electric converter is a heat engine, steam engine, steam turbine, generator, gas turbine and generator, Rankine cycle engine, Brayton cycle engine, Stirling engine. , A thermoelectric power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Converters may be given to Mills 'previous publications and Mills' previous applications.

In one embodiment, H ₂ O is ignited to form hydrinos with high energy release in at least one formation of thermal, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) power. ("Ignition" in this disclosure means a very high reaction rate from H to hydrino that may be manifested as a burst, pulse or other form of high power release.) H ₂ O is about 2000A May contain fuel that may be ignited by high current adaptations such as one in the range of 1 to 100,000 A. This may be achieved by applying a high voltage, such as about 5,000 to 100,000 V, to initially form a highly conductive plasma such as an arc. Alternatively, high currents may be passed through a compound or mixture containing H ₂ O, where the conductivity of the resulting fuel, such as a solid fuel, is high. (In this disclosure, solid fuel or energetic material is used to mean a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst, such as H and HOH, that reacts further to form hydrinos. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may be gaseous, liquid, solid, slurry, sol-gel, solution, mixture, gaseous suspension, pneumatic flow, and others known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the solid fuel with very low resistance comprises a reaction mixture comprising H ₂ O. The low resistance may be due to the conductor component of the reaction mixture. In an embodiment, the resistance of the fixed fuel, 100 [Omega about ^{10 -9 Ω, 10 -8 Ω 10Ω} from, ¹⁰ 1 [Omega from ^-3 Ω, ^{10 -4} Ω from ^{10 -1} Omega, and from ^{10 -4 Ω 10 -} It is at least one in the range of ² Ω. In another embodiment, the high resistance fuel comprises H ₂ O containing a trace or a small mole percent of the added compound or material. In the latter case, a high current may be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing a breakdown (breakdown) that creates a highly conductive state such as an arc or arc plasma.

In one embodiment, the reactant can comprise the catalyst source, catalyst, atomic hydrogen source, and a conductive matrix and H _{2 O} source, such as to form at least one of the atomic hydrogen. In one further embodiment, the reactants comprising of _{H 2} O source of the bulk _H 2 O, bulk _{H 2} O other states, at least one _{of H 2} O to the formation and release the bound _{H 2} O reaction At least one of the compound (s) subject to one. In addition, bond _{H 2} O include compounds which interact with _{H 2} O, the _{H 2} O is absorbed _H 2 O, combined _H 2 O, physisorbed _H 2 O, and hydrated In at least one state of water. In an embodiment, the reactant undergoes at least one of bulk H ₂ O, absorbed H ₂ O, bound H ₂ O, physisorbed H ₂ O, and release of water of hydration 1 or Further compounds or materials and conductors can be included and can have H ₂ O as a reaction product. In other embodiments, at least one of the nascent H ₂ O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen is a) at least one source of H ₂ O; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and (c) at least one At least one of two hydrogen sources;

In additional examples, the catalyst source, the catalyst, the atomic hydrogen source, and the reactant that forms at least one of the atomic hydrogen are with at least one of a source of H ₂ O and H ₂ O; O ₂ , H ₂ O , OHOH, HOOH ⁻ , peroxide ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H ₂ , halide, oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, compound containing oxygen, (halide, oxide, oxy A hydrated compound (selected from at least one group of hydroxides, hydroxides, compounds containing oxygen) and a conductive matrix. In certain embodiments, the oxyhydroxide comprises at least one from the group of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH. And the oxide comprises at least one from the group of CuO, Cu ₂ O, CoO, Co ₂ O ₃ , CO ₃ O ₄ , FeO, Fe ₂ O ₃ , NiO, and Ni ₂ O ₃ . And the hydroxide is at least from the group of Cu (OH) ₂ , Co (OH) ₂ , Co (OH) ₃ , Fe (OH) ₂ , Fe (OH) ₃ , and Ni (OH) ₂ And the oxygen-containing compound may be sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromic acid, Lorin, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate and _{periodate, MXO 3, MXO 4 (M} = Li, Na, K, Rb, metals such as alkali metals, such as Cs X = F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li ₂ O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO ₄ , ZnO, _{MgO, CaO, MoO 2, TiO} 2, ZrO 2, SiO 2, Al 2 O 3, NiO, FeO, Fe 2 O 3, TaO 2, Ta 2 O 5, VO, VO 2, V 2 O 3, V 2 O ₅ , P ₂ O ₃ , P ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O ₅ , SeO ₂ , SeO ₃ , TeO ₂ , TeO ₃ , WO ₂ , WO ₃ , Cr ₃ O ₄ , C r ₂ O ₃ , CrO ₂ , CrO ₃ , CoO, Co ₂ O ₃ , CO ₃ O ₄ , FeO, Fe ₂ O ₃ , NiO, Ni ₂ O ₃ , rare earth oxide, CeO ₂ , La ₂ O ₃ , oxy Can include at least one from the group of hydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and conductive The matrix can comprise at least one from the group of metal powder, carbon, carbide, bromide, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.

In an embodiment, the reactant can include a mixture of a metal, its metal oxide, and H ₂ O, but the reaction of the metal with H ₂ O is not thermodynamically advantageous. In other examples, the reactants can include a mixture of metal, metal halide, and H ₂ O, but the reaction of the metal with H ₂ O is not thermodynamically advantageous. In additional examples, the reactants can include a mixture of transition metals, alkaline earth metal halides, and H2O, but the reaction of the metal with H2O is not thermodynamically advantageous. And in a further embodiment, the reactants can include a mixture of conductors, hydrous materials, and H ₂ O. In an embodiment, the conductor can include metal powder or carbon powder, but the reaction of the metal or carbon with H ₂ O is not thermodynamically advantageous. In the examples, the water-containing material is lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnalite such as KMgCl 3 · 6 (H ₂ O), iron (III) ammonium citrate, Potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, concentrated sulfuric acid, concentrated phosphoric acid, cellulose fiber, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemicals, salt, desiccant, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate , Calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salts. In one embodiment, the power system can include a mixture of conductor, hydrated material, and H ₂ O, with a relative molar amount of (metal / conductor), (hydrated material), (H ₂ O). Ranges from about (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000); (0.00001 to 10,000), (0.00001 to 10,000), (0.00001 to (10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0,01 to 100) (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), Less At least one. In some embodiments, metals with thermodynamically unfavorable reactions with H ₂ O are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, It can be at least one of the group of Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. . In additional examples, the reactants can be regenerated by the addition of H ₂ O.

In a further embodiment, the reactant can include a mixture of a metal, its metal oxide, and H ₂ O, which is capable of H ₂ reduction at temperatures below 1000 ° C. is there. In other examples, the reactants are oxides that are not easily reduced with H ₂ and mild heat, metals with oxides that can be reduced to metals with H ₂ at temperatures below 1000 ° C., and H _2. A mixture of O. can be included. In examples, metals with oxides that can be reduced to metals with H ₂ at temperatures below 1000 ° C. are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, At least one of the group of Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In It can be. In an embodiment, the metal oxides that are not easily reduced with H ₂ and mild heat include at least one of alumina, alkaline earth oxides, and rare earth oxides.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel can include carbon or activated carbon and H ₂ O, but the mixture is regenerated by rehydration with the addition of H ₂ O. In further examples, the reactants can include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound. In an embodiment, the current of the source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high current electrical energy is sufficient to cause the hydrino reactant to undergo a reaction that forms hydrino at a very high rate. is there. In an embodiment, a source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high current electrical energy includes at least one of the following: Current in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA, 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A Voltage selected to cause high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixing with a DC or peak AC current density that is within at least one range of / cm ² and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, which is given by applying the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample to the desired current, and the DC or peak AC voltage is approximately Selected from 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50kV It shirezu be a in at least one range that then,, AC frequency is not be from about 0.1 Hz 10 GHz, 1 MHz from 1 Hz, the 10 Hz 100kHz, and in the range of 100 Hz 10 kHz, the. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from about 0.001 mΩ to 100 MΩ, 0.1 Ω to 1 MΩ, and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ, and activity to form hydrinos A reasonable load conductivity per electrode area is about 10 ⁻¹⁰ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁶ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻⁵ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁶ Ω ⁻¹ cm ^{−. 2} , 10 ⁻⁴ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁵ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻³ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁴ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻² Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² At least one range selected from 10 ³ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻¹ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ² Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , and 1 Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 Ω ⁻¹ cm ^−2. Is in.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel is electrically conductive. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel portion, pellet, or aliquot is about 10 ⁻⁹ Ω to 100 Ω, 10 ⁻⁸ Ω to 10 Ω, 10 ⁻³ Ω to 1 Ω, 10 ⁻³ Ω to 10 ⁻¹ Ω, and It is at least one in the range of 10 ⁻³ Ω to 10 ⁻² Ω. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of high current. Hydrino catalysis, such as hydrino catalysis, may be initiated by a low voltage, high current flow through a conductive fuel. The energy release may be very high and may form a shock wave. In one embodiment, the voltage is high AC, DC, or AC-DC causing ignition such as high current in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. Selected to cause mixing. Current density, pressed 1,000,000A ^/ cm 2 pellets from 100A / cm ² of the fuel may include, such as pellets, 1000A / cm ² from 100,000 A / cm ^2, and 2000A / cm ² To at least one range of 50,000 A / cm ² . The DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 100 kV V, 0.1 V to 1 kV, 0.1 V to 100 V, and 0.1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be within at least one range selected from about 10 ⁻⁶ s to 10 s, 10 ⁻⁵ s to 1 s, 10 ⁻⁴ s to 0.1 s, and 10 ⁻³ s to 0.01 s. unknown.

In one example, the solid fuel or energetic material may include a H ₂ O source or H ₂ O. The mole% content of H ₂ O is about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100 %, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10% It may be. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of high current. Selected to cause high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current (within at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA). The DC or peak AC current density is at least 1 of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² . May be one. In one embodiment, the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material. The resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from about 0.001 mΩ to 100 MΩ, 0.1 Ω to 1 MΩ, and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ. Reasonable load conductivity per electrode area active to form hydrinos is from about 10 ⁻¹⁰ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁶ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻⁵ Ω ⁻¹ cm ^−2. 10 ⁶ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻⁴ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁵ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻³ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁴ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻² From Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ³ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻¹ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ² Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , and 1 Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² Within at least one selected range. In one embodiment, the voltage is as low as <10V in the typical case where the resistance provided by applying the resistance of the fixed fuel or energetic sample to the desired current is on the order of 1 mΩ. In the typical case where the resistance is on the order of 1 mΩ, the voltage is as low as <10V. In one typical case of essentially pure H ₂ O, where the resistance is essentially infinite, the voltage applied to achieve high current for ignition appears to be about 5 kV or higher. High above the breakdown voltage of H ₂ O. In an embodiment, the DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In one embodiment, the DC voltage is discharged to create a plasma containing ionized H ₂ O, but the current is underdamped and oscillates as it decays.

  In one embodiment, the high current pulse is achieved with the discharge of a capacitor, such as a supercapacitor, which may be connected in at least one manner in series and parallel to achieve the desired voltage and current, Is regulated by circuit elements such as DC or a transformer such as a constant voltage transformer known to those skilled in the art. The capacitor is charged by an electrical source such as grid power, generator, fuel cell (cell), or battery (battery). In one embodiment, the battery supplies current. In one embodiment, reasonable frequency, voltage, and current waveforms may be achieved with power that regulates the output of the capacitor or battery.

The solid fuel or energetic material reacts to form H ₂ O, such as a support or conductor or conductive matrix such as metal, carbon, or carbide, and H ₂ O or those of the present disclosure. it may include of H _{2 O} source, such as a compound or coupled H _{2 O} the release compound. The solid fuel may include H ₂ O, materials or compounds that interact with H ₂ O, and conductors. H 2 _O may exist in a state other than bulk H _{2 O,} such as bonded or absorbed H _{2 O,} such as water or physisorption of H _{2 O} hydration. Alternatively, H ₂ O may be present as bulk H ₂ O in the state of a highly conductive mixture or made highly conductive by application of a reasonable voltage. Solid fuel, H 2 _O and, carbon or metal powder to provide a compound or material and high conductivity such as oxides such as metal oxides to facilitate the possibility of HOH catalyst facilitates the H form May include compounds or materials such as Typical solid fuels, Oyobi the R-Ni alone, with additives such as those of the transition metals and Al, Shirezu also contain, R-Ni is hydrated _Al 2 _{O 3,} and Al (OH ) Release H and HOH by decomposition of ₃ . Reasonable typical solid fuels are oxyhydroxides such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and metal powders And a conductive matrix, such as at least one of carbon powder, and optionally H ₂ O. The solid fuel is a transition metal hydroxide, such as at least one of Cu (OH) ₂ , Co (OH) ₂ , Fe (OH) ₂ , and Ni (OH) ₂ , such as Al (OH) ₃ It may include a hydroxide such as aluminum hydroxide, a conductor such as at least one of carbon powder and metal powder, and optionally H ₂ O. The solid fuel comprises at least one oxide such as at least one of transition metal oxides such as CuO, Cu ₂ O, NiO, Ni ₂ O ₃ , FeO, and Fe ₂ O ₃ , and carbon powder. And at least one conductor such as a metal powder, and H ₂ O. Solid fuel, at least one of halides, such as metal halides, such as alkaline earth metal halides such as MgCl _2, at least one such conductor carbon powder and metal powder, and the H _{2 O} May include. The solid fuel is a mixture of solid fuels such as those comprising at least two from halides such as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, oxides, and metal halides, and at least one conductor or conductive matrix. , And H ₂ O. The conductor is solid fuel, R-Ni, metal powder such as transition metal powder, Ni or Co cermet, carbon or carbide or other conductor, or conductive support or conductive matrix. May include at least one of a metal screen coated with one or more of the other components of the reaction mixture including those known to. In one embodiment, the at least one conductor of the H ₂ O based solid fuel comprises a metal such as a metal powder such as at least one of transition metals such as Cu, Al, and Ag.

In one example, the solid fuel includes carbon such as activated carbon and H ₂ O. In cases where ignition occurs to form a plasma in a vacuum or under an inert atmosphere, plasma-to-electricity generation continues and the carbon condensed from the plasma is rehydrated to re-form solids in the regeneration cycle. May be. The solid fuel may include at least one of a mixture of acidic, basic, or neutral H ₂ O and activated carbon, charcoal, black coal, and metal powder. In one embodiment, the metal of the carbon-metal mixture is at least partially non-reactive with H ₂ O. Reasonable metals that are at least partially stable to reaction with H ₂ O are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd. , Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The mixture may be regenerated by rehydration with the addition of H ₂ O.

In one embodiment, the basic required reactants are an H source, an O source, and a good conductor matrix that allows high currents to pass through the material during ignition. Solid fuel or energetic material may be contained in a sealed vessel such as a sealed metal vessel such as a sealed aluminum vessel. Solid fuel or energetic material is achieved by a short burst of low voltage, high current electrical energy and confinement between two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder It may be reacted by low voltage, high current pulses such as those produced by spot welders. The 60 Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20 V RMS and the current may be about 10,000 to 40,000 A / cm ² .

Typical energetic materials and conditions are TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, SmOOH, Νi _{2 ３ 3} H ₂ Ο, La ₂ O ₃ H _At least one of ₂ O, and Na ₂ SO ₄ H ₂ O, coated on a Ni mesh screen in slurry and dry state, and with currents up to about 60 Hz, 8 V RMS, and 40,000 A / cm ² It receives electrical pulses.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes H ₂ O and a dispersant and a dissociator that forms nascent H ₂ O and H. Reasonable typical dispersants and dissociators are compounds that form halides such as metal halides such as transition metal halides such as bromides such as FeBr ₂ , hydrides such as CuBr ₂ , etc. And compounds such as halides and oxides with metals that allow multiple oxidation states. Others are CoO, CO ₂ O ₃ , CO ₃ O ₄ , CoOOH, Co (OH) ₂ , Co (OH) ₃ , NiO, Ni ₂ O ₃ , NiOOH, Ni (OH) ₂ , FeO, Fe _2. Hydroxides or oxyhydroxides or oxides such as those of transition elements such as O ₃ , FeOOH, Fe (OH) ₃ , CuO, Cu ₂ O, CuOOH, and Cu (OH) ₂ . In other embodiments, the transition metal is replaced by others such as alkali, alkaline earth, internal transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Group 13 and Group 14 metals. Reasonable examples are La ₂ O ₃ , CeO ₂ , and LaX ₃ (X = halogen). In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes H ₂ O as a hydrate of an inorganic compound such as an oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or halide. Other reasonable hydrates are sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromic acid, pyrophosphate, persulfate, hypochlorite, chlorite, chlorate Perchlorate, hypobromite, bromite, bromate, perchlorate, hypoiodite, iodite, iodate, periodate, bisulfate, Metal compounds of the present disclosure such as hydrogen or dihydrogen phosphate, other metal compounds with oxyanions, and at least one of the group of metal halides. The molar ratio of dissociator and dispersant, such as a metal oxide or halogenated compound, is whatever is desired to cause an ignition event. Reasonable moles of at least one compound per mole of H ₂ O are about 0.000001 to 100,000, 0.00001 to 10,000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5. The solid fuel or energetic substance, whose ratio is defined by (number of moles of compound / number of moles of H ₂ O) in the range of at least one of 1 to 1, is a metal powder such as transition metal powder, Ni or It may further include conductors or conductive matrices, such as Co cermet, carbon powder, or carbide or other conductors, or conductive supports or conductive matrices known to those skilled in the art. Reasonable ratios of moles of hydrated compound comprising H ₂ O and at least one compound to moles of conductor are from about 0.000001 to 100,000, 0.00001 to 10,000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 The ratio is defined as (number of moles of hydrated compound / number of moles of conductor) within at least one range from to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1.

In one example, the reactants are regenerated from the product by the addition of H ₂ O. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a conductive matrix suitable for the high current constant voltage of the present disclosure that flows through the hydrated material to result in H ₂ O and ignition. The conductive matrix material is at least a metal surface, metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitride such as TiCN, another one of the present disclosure or one known to those skilled in the art. 1 may be included. The addition of H ₂ O to form a solid fuel or energetic material or regenerate it from the product may be continuous or intermittent.

The solid fuel or energy material is a conductive matrix and at least one of its oxides such as those selected from Ag, Fe, Cu, Ni, or Co and corresponding metal oxides and metals such as transition metals And a mixture of oxides such as and a mixture of H2O. H ₂ O may be in the hydrated oxide. In other embodiments, the metal / metal oxide reactant comprises a metal that is less reactive with water and the corresponding oxide can be easily reduced to that metal, or a metal that is not oxidizable during the hydrino reaction. Reasonable typical metals with low H ₂ O reactivity are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru. , Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, and Cr. The metal may be converted to an oxide during the reaction. The oxide product corresponding to the metal reactant may be regenerated to the original metal by hydrogen reduction by methods and systems known to those skilled in the art. Hydrogen reduction may be at an elevated temperature. Hydrogen may be supplied by electrolysis of H ₂ O. In another embodiment, the metal is regenerated from the oxide by electrolysis, such as electrolysis in molten salt, or by reduction with a reducing material, such as a more oxygen active metal, carbon reduction. Formation of the metal from the oxide may be accomplished by methods and systems known to those skilled in the art. The molar amount of metal to metal oxide to H ₂ O is any desired that results in ignition when subjected to an electrical low voltage high current pulse as provided in this disclosure. Reasonable relative molar ratio ranges for (metal), (metal oxide), (H ₂ O) are about (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0 .001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0,01 to 100); (0.1 To 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a mixture of a conductive matrix, a metal halide or second metal halide corresponding to the first metal and the first metal, and H ₂ O. H ₂ O may be in the form of a hydrated halide. The second metal halide may be more stable than the first metal halide. In one example, the first metal is less reactive with H ₂ O corresponding to an oxide that can be reduced to the metal, or the metal is not oxidizable during the hydrino reaction. Reasonable typical metals with low H ₂ O reactivity are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru. , Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, and Cr. The molar amount of metal to metal halide to H ₂ O may be any desired that results in ignition when receiving an electrical high current constant voltage pulse as provided in this disclosure. Reasonable ranges for the relative molar amounts of (metal), (metal halide), (H ₂ O) are about (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000). ); (0.00001 to 10,000), (000001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100) (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); At least one of (1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1) That. The solid fuel or energetic material may include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

In one example, the solid fuel or energetic material may include a conductor such as the present disclosure, such as metal or carbon, a hydrous material, and H ₂ O. Reasonable Typical moisture material, lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, carnallite, iron citrate III ammonium such as potassium _{phosphate, KMgCl 3 · 6 (H 2} O), Potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulose fiber (like cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizer chemicals, salts (Including salt) and a wide variety of others known to those skilled in the art and desiccants such as silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (generally zeolites) or deliquescence such as zinc chloride Materials, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and many more In becomes deliquescent salts are those that are known to those skilled in the art. Reasonable ranges for the relative molar amounts of (metal), (hydrous material), (H ₂ O) are about (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000). (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0,001 to 100); (0,01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0,01 to 100); (0, At least one of (1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1) Is The solid fuel or energetic material may include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

  In one typical energetic material, 0.05 ml (50 mg) of H 2 O is stamped with an aluminum DSC pan (aluminum crucible 30 μl, D: 6.7 × 3 (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D: 6, 7, Added to 20 mg or Co3O4 or CuO, sealed in non-hermetic (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409). Then, using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder, ignition was performed at a current between about 15,000 and 25,000 A at about 8 V RMS. Large energy bursts were observed and the samples evaporated, each with energetic, highly ionized, expanded plasma. Another typical solid fuel that was similarly ignited and had similar results included Cu (42.6 mg) + CuO (14.2 mg) + H2O (16.3 mg), Aluminum DSC pan (71.1 mg) (Aluminum crucible 30 μl, D: 6.7.7 × 3 (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D: 6, 7, stamped, airtight (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409) ).

In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a nascent H ₂ O catalyst and a H source. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is conductive or includes a conductive matrix material so that the nascent H 2 O catalyst and H source mixture is conductive. The source of the nascent H ₂ O catalyst and at least one source of the H source is a mixture or compound of materials and compounds containing at least O and H. The material or compound containing O is at least one of an oxide, a hydroxide, and an oxyhydroxide, such as an alkali, an alkaline earth, a transition metal, an internal transition metal, a rare earth metal, and thirteenth and fourteenth. Group metal oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides. Materials or compounds containing O are sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, and periodic acid Salt, MXO ₃ , MXO ₄ (M = metal such as alkali metal such as Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, X = F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, Copper magnesium oxide, Li ₂ O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO ₄ , ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO ₂ , TiO ₂ , ZrO ₂ , SiO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , NiO , FeO, Fe ₂ O ₃ , TaO ₂ , Ta ₂ O ₅ , VO, VO ₂ , V ₂ O ₃ , V ₂ O ₅ , P ₂ O ₃ , P ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O ₅ Rare earth oxides such as SeO ₂ , SeO ₃ , TeO ₂ , TeO ₃ , WO ₂ , WO ₃ , Cr ₃ O ₄ , Cr ₂ O ₃ , CrO ₂ , CrO ₃ , CeO ₂ , or La ₂ O ₃ , Oxyhydroxides such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH. Typical H sources include H ₂ O, hydrated compounds with bound or absorbed H ₂ O, hydroxide, oxyhydroxide or hydrogen sulfate, hydrogen or dihydrogen phosphate, and It is a hydrocarbon. The conductive matrix material may be metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. The conductors of the present disclosure are in different embodiments in different physical forms, such as those known to those skilled in the art in bulk, particles, powders, fine powders, and other forms, such as solid fuels or energy containing mixtures with conductors It may be what makes the material conductive.

A typical solid fuel or energetic material includes at least one of H ₂ O and a conductive matrix. In one exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel includes H ₂ O and a metal conductor. It is a wire metal such as Fe, and Fe metal powder and Fe compound states such as iron hydroxide, iron oxide, iron oxyhydroxide, and iron halide. The latter might be replaced of H _{2 O,} such as hydrates which functions as H 2 _O source. Other metals can be any Fe, such as bulk, sheet, screen, mesh, wire, particulate, powder, fine powder, and solid, liquid, and gaseous states, compounds and physical forms such as metals. Might replace. The conductor may be at least one of bulk carbon, fine carbon, carbon powder, carbon aerogel, carbon nanotube, activated carbon, GRAPHIUM, KOH activated carbon or nanotube, carbide derived carbide, carbon fiber cloth, and fullerene. It may contain carbon in one or more physical forms. A reasonable typical solid fuel or energetic material is as follows. CuBr ₂ + H ₂ O + conductive matrix; Cu (OH) ₂ + FeBr ₂ + conductive matrix such as carbon or metal powder; conductive matrix such as FeOOH + carbon or metal powder; Cu (OH) Br + carbon or metal powder A conductive matrix such as: AlOOH or Al (OH) ₃ + Al powder (additional H ₂ supplied to the reaction to form hydrinos by reaction of Al with H ₂ O formed from the decomposition of AlOOH or Al (OH) ₃ ; is the); H _{2 O} (dispersing agent in the nano-particles such as the H _{2 O} and steam activated fullerenes and carbon nano-ch- part in metallized zeolite, wet hydrophobic, such as carbon will be used for the _{material); NH 4 NO 3 + H} 2 O + NiAl alloy _powder; LiNH 2 + LiN O ₃ + Ti _{powder; LiNH 2 + LiNO 3 + Pt} / Ti; LiNH 2 + NH 4 NO 3 + Ti _{powder; BH 3 NH 3 + NH 4} NO 3; BH 3 NH 3 + CO 2, SO 2, NO 2, nitrates, carbonates, sulfates Same for salts; LiH + NH ₄ NO ₃ + transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH ₄ NO ₃ + transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or other oxidizable metal; NH ₄ NO ₃ + R—Ni ; _P 2 involves each hydroxides _{O 5} present _disclosure, LiNO 3, LiClO ₄ and _S 2 _{O 8} + conductive matrix; and, hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, hydrogen storage material (the present disclosure 1 also including more than that), a hydrogen source such as diesel fuel, _and, CO 2, sO _2, or other acid anhydrides such as NO ₂ and an electron acceptor such as _P 2 _{O 5} Oxygen source might be.

The solid fuel or energetic material that forms the hydrino may include at least one of highly reactive or energetic materials such as NH ₄ NO ₃ , tritonal, RDX, PETN, and others of the present disclosure. . Solid fuels or energetic substances can additionally include conductors, conductive matrices, conductive materials such as metal powders, carbon, carbon powder, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides such as TiCN, nitriles, diesel Includes hydrocarbons such as fuel, oxyhydroxides, hydroxides, oxides, and H2O. In an exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is a highly reactive or energetic material such as NH ₄ NO ₃ , tritonal, RDX, and Al or transition metal powders. A conductive matrix such as at least one of a metallic powder and a carbon powder. As provided in this disclosure, solid fuels or energetic materials may react at high currents. In certain embodiments, the solid fuel or energetic material further comprises a sensitizer such as a glass microsphere.

A. Plasma dynamic converter (PDC)
The mass of positively charged ions in the plasma is at least 1800 times that of electrons, and the cyclotron orbit is 1800 times larger. This result allows the electrons to be magnetically trapped on the magnetic field lines where the electrons may drift. Charge separation may occur with the supply of voltage to the plasma dynamic converter.

B. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter
B. Charge separation based on the formation of ion mass flow in a crossed magnetic field is well known as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power conversion. Positive and negative ions undergo a Lorentz direction in the opposite direction and are received at the corresponding MHD electrode to affect the voltage between them. A typical MHD method of forming ion mass flow is to seed ions through a nozzle that creates a fast flow through a crossed magnetic field with a set of intersecting MHD electrodes for a deflecting field that receives bent ions. The expanded high-pressure gas is expanded. In the present disclosure, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric pressure, but not necessarily, and directional mass flow may be achieved by reaction of solid fuels to form a highly ionized radially expanding plasma. unknown.

C. Electromagnetic direct (cross field or drift) converter, (vector E) x (vector B) direct converter Magnetic and charged center drift of the charged particle in the cross field is a partial With isolated (vector E) x (vector B) electrodes, it may be used to collect and separate charges. Plasma expansion may not be necessary because the device extracts particle energy perpendicular to the guide field. The performance of an idealized (vector E) x (vector B) converter is the first difference of ions and electrons, the source of charge separation, and the opposite (vector E) x relative to the cross-field direction. (Vector B) Depends on the voltage generation at the electrode. ∇ (vector B) drift recovery may also be used independently or in combination with (vector E) x (vector B) recovery.

D. Charge Drift Converters Timofev and Glagolev, [A. V. Timofev, A scheme for direct conversion of plasma thermal energy into electrical energy light, Sov. J. et al. Plasma Phys. Vol. 4, no. 4, July-August, (1978), pp. 464-468, V.D. M.M. Glagolev, and A.M. V. Timofev, 涛 Direct Conversion of thermal into the electrical energy a drakong system, Plasma Phys. Rep. Vol. 19, no. 12, December (1993), pp. 745-749] relies on charge injection into drifting isolated positive ions to extract power from the plasma. This charge drift converter is a source of magnetic flux B (vector B) with field lines curvature, and the original of magnetic flux B (vector B). Includes a magnetic field gradient in a direction transverse to the direction, in both cases the drifting negatively and positively charged ions are planes or magnetic fields in which B (vector B) has a curvature. In the opposite direction perpendicular to the plane formed by the direction of the magnetic field gradient and B (vector B), in each case, the separated ions are moved relative to the plane with a concomitant decrease in the thermal energy of the ions. Opposite to each other Electrons are received at one charge drift converter electrode and positive ions are received at the other, where the mobility of the ions is much higher than that of the electrons As it is small, the electron injection can be performed directly or by boiling away from the heated charge drift converter electrode.Power loss is small, without significant cost in power balance .

E. Blasting or ignition events are considered when the catalytic reaction of H that forms magnetically confined hydrinos accelerates to a very high rate. In one embodiment, the plasma generated from the blast or ignition event is an expanded plasma. In this case, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is a reasonable conversion system and method. Instead, in one embodiment, the plasma is confined. In this case, the conversions are plasma dynamic converter, magnetohydrodynamic converter, electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) converter, (vector E) x (vector B) direct converter, and charge drift converter. It may be achieved by at least one of the converters (charge drift converter). In this case, in addition to the balance of the plant including the SF-CIHT cell and the plasma to ignition, refill, fuel handling, and electric power conversion system, the power generation system further includes a plasma confinement system. including. Confinement may be achieved with a magnetic field such as a solenoid field. The magnet is a compressor that may be powered by the power output of a hydrino-based power generator and a corresponding cryogenic management system including at least one of a cryopump, a radiant baffle, a liquid nitrogen dewar, and a liquid helium dewar (Cryogenetic management system) may include at least one of a superconducting magnet, cooled water, at least one of uncooled electromagnets and permanent magnet. The magnet may be an open coil such as a Helmholtz coil. The plasma may be confined within a magnetic bottle and with other systems and methods known to those skilled in the art.

  Two magnetic mirrors or more may form a magnetic bottle that confines the plasma formed by the catalytic reaction of H to form hydrinos. The theory of confinement is given in my previous application. For example, Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And Power Converter, PCT / US02 / 06955, filled 3/7/02 (short version), PCT / US02 / 06945 filled 3/7 cer um ber um ber um ber US / 469,913 filed 9/5/03, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Ions created in the bottle in the central region will spiral along the axis, but will be reflected by the magnetic mirror at each end. Larger energy ions with high velocity components parallel to the desired axis will escape at the end of the bin. Thus, in one embodiment, the bottle may generate an essentially linear flow of ions from the end of the magnetic bottle to the magnetohydrodynamic converter. Since electrons may be preferentially confined due to the lower mass compared to positive ions, the voltage is developed in the plasma dynamic embodiment of the present disclosure. Power flows between the anode in contact with the confined electrons and the cathode, such as the wall of the confinement vessel that collects positive ions. Power may be dissipated with an external load.

F. Solid fuel catalyst induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT)
The chemical reactants of the present invention may refer to solid fuels or energetic materials or both. Solid fuels contain energetic materials when conditions are created and maintained to cause very high reaction kinetics to form hydrinos. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of high current. In one embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, the reactants that form hydrinos are exposed to a constant voltage high current high power pulse that causes a very fast reaction rate and energy release. The velocity may be sufficient to create a shock wave. In an exemplary embodiment, the 60 Hz voltage is less than the 15V peak, the current is between the 10,000 A / cm ² and 50,000 A / cm ² peaks, and the power is 150,000 W / cm ² and 750 1,000 W / cm ² . Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers are about 1/100 to 100 times those parameters are reasonable. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of high current. Selected to cause high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current (within at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA). The DC or peak AC current density is at least 1 of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² . May be one. The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one range selected from about 0.1V to 1000V, 0.1V to 100V, 0.1V to 15V, and 1V to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be within at least one range selected from about 10 ⁻⁶ s to 10 s, 10 ⁻⁵ s to 1 s, 10 ⁻⁴ s to 0.1 s, and 10 ⁻³ s to 0.01 s. unknown.

  During the catalytic reaction of H to hydrino, electrons are ionized from the HOH catalyst by the energy transferred from the catalyzed H to HOH. The catalytic reaction steps are: (1) Atomic hydrogen reacts with an energy acceptor called a catalyst, where energy is received from the atomic hydrogen by accepting energy to positive ions and ionization. (2) then release the energy so that the negative electrons of H generate electricity or heat, depending on the design of the system, A step of falling into a lower shell closer to a positive proton so as to form a smaller hydrogen atom, hydrino, Reform the catalytic reaction for another cycle with the release of energy Therefore, a step, regain their lost electrons. The high current of the SF-CIHT cell counters the limiting effect of charge accumulation from the catalyst that loses its electrons, resulting in a terribly high reaction rate. These electrons (step 2) are conducted at high circuit currents applied so that the catalytic reaction is not self-limited by charge accumulation. High currents may also cause electron stimulated transitions or electron stimulated cascades, but one or more current electrons form hydrogen (H) atom electrons as hydrinos. Increase the speed of undergoing transitions. High currents may result in dramatic decay or dramatic hydrino reaction rates. The plasma power produced by hydrinos may be converted directly into electricity.

  Blasts are produced by fast kinetics that in turn cause enormous electron ionization. In an embodiment, using at least one dedicated plasma-to-electric converter, such as at least one of MHD, PDC, and (vector E) x (vector B) direct converter, the plasma is powered by solid fuel. Gives the electrical power converted from the ignition. Details of these and other plasma-to-electric power converters can be given in previous publications, for example R.C. M.M. Mayo, R.A. L. Mills, M.M. Nansteel, “Direct Plasmaconversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity”, IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, October, Vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 2066-2073, R.C. M.M. Mayo, R.A. L. Mills, M.M. Nantel, “On the Potential of Direct and MHD Conversion of Power from a Novel Plasma Source to Electric Powered Trumped Power Application, 30, no. 4, pp. 1568-1578; M.M. Mayo, R.A. L. Mills, “Direct Plasmaconversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity for Microdistributed Power Applications, 200th Annual Power Power.”, 40th Annual Power Power. 1-4, (“Mills Prior Plasma Power Publications Publications”), earlier applications such as “Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And Power Converter”, PCT / US02 / 063, 7/02, 7/02 , PCT / US02 / 06945 filled 3/7/02 (long version), US case number 10/469, 913 filled 9/5/03; 010608 file ed 4/8/04, US / 10 / 552,585 filled 10/12/15; and "Hydrogen Power, Plasma, and Reactor for Easing, and Power Conversion", PCT / US02 / 35872 filled 11/8/02, US / 10 / 494,571 filled 5/6/04 ("Mills Prior Plasma Power Conversion Publications"), incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

  Plasma energy converted to electricity is dissipated in an external circuit. As calculated and experimentally shown in Mills' previous plasma power conversion issue, a return of more than 50% of plasma energy to electricity can be achieved. Not only plasma but also heat is produced by each SF-CIHT cell. Heat is used directly using converters known by those skilled in the art such as steam engines or steam or gas turbines and generators, heat engines such as Rankine or Brayton cycle engines, or Stirling engines, or Converted to mechanical or electrical power. For power conversion, each SF CIHT cell is not only a converter known to those skilled in the art, such as a heat engine, steam or gas turbine system, Stirling engine, or thermoelectric or thermoelectric converter, but also Mills May be connected to any of the thermal energy or plasma to mechanical or electrical power converters described in previous publications. Further plasma converters include plasma dynamic converters, (vector E) x (vector B) direct converters, magnetohydrodynamic power converters, magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converters, charges Drift converter, post or venetian blind power converter, gyrotron, photon bunching microwave power converter (photon bunching microwave power converter) ), And at least one photo electric converter (Photoelectric converter). These are disclosed in a previous publication of Mills. In one embodiment, as given in Mills' previous publication "Thermal Power Conversion", Mills' previous publication "Plasma Power Conversion", and Mills' previous application, the cell is at least one of an internal combustion engine. Includes two cylinders.

The solid fuel catalyst induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell and power converter shown in FIG. 1 is an aliquot of an electrical power source 304 and a solid fuel 303 that delivers a short burst of constant voltage high current electrical energy through the fuel 303. Including at least one SF-CIHT cell 1 with a structural support frame 301a, each having at least 302 electrodes 2 to enclose, pellet, or sample. The current ignites the fuel so as to release energy from forming hydrinos. The power is in the form of thermal power of fuel 303 and highly ionized plasma, which can be directly converted into electricity. (Here, “ignite or form blast” means the establishment of high reaction kinetics due to the high current applied to the fuel) May be sowed to increase duration. In one embodiment, the composition, such as an alkali metal compound such as K ₂ CO ₃ or a compound or element such as an alkali metal, is charged with ions and at least of plasma and solid fuel to seed it. May be added to one. In one embodiment, the plasma includes a source of ion seeding such as an alkali metal compound or alkali metal that maintains conductivity when the plasma cools. A typical source of electrical power to achieve ignition of solid fuel to form a plasma is the Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder (Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot). and EM test model CSS500N10 current surge generator, 8/20 US UP TO 10KA. In one embodiment, the electrical power source 304 is DC and the plasma-to-electric power converter is adapted for a DC magnetic field. Reasonable converters operating with DC magnetic fields are magnetohydrodynamic, plasma dynamic, and (vector E) x (vector B) power converters.

  In one example, a typical solid fuel mixture includes a transition metal powder, its oxide, and H2O. The fine powder may be sprayed pneumatically in the gap formed between the electrodes 302 when they open. In another embodiment, the fuel includes at least one of powder and slurry. The fuel may be injected into a desired region that is confined between the electrodes 302 to be ignited by a high current. To better confine the powder, the electrode 302 may comprise a male-female half that forms a chamber to hold the fuel. In one embodiment, the fuel and electrode 302 may be electrostatically charged oppositely so that the fuel flows into the intra-electrode region and electrostatically adheres to the desired region of each electrode 302, There, the fuel is ignited.

  In one embodiment of a power generator as shown in FIG. 1, the electrode surface 302 may be parallel to the gravitational axis and the solid fuel powder 303 is in an intermittent flow as an overhead hopper 305. The intermittent flow stream timing matches the dimensions of the electrodes 302, they open to receive the flowing powdered fuel 303, and ignite the fuel stream Close to. In another embodiment, the electrodes 302 further include a roller 302a at their ends that are separated by a small gap filled with fuel flow. The electrically conductive fuel 303 completes the circuit between the electrodes 302 and a high current flows through it to ignite the fuel. The fuel stream 303 may be intermittent so that the expanding plasma does not interfere with the flow of the fuel stream.

In another embodiment, the electrode 302 includes a set of gears 302a supported by a structural element 302b. The set of gears may be powered by drive gear motor 302d and rotated by drive gear 302c. In one embodiment, the set of rollers may be rotated by a drive roller 302c powered by a drive roller motor 302d. In one embodiment, the drive roller may include a dressing where the pressure applied to the roller electrode is adjusted. In one embodiment, the electrode bearing comprises a sliding bearing. The electrode bearing may be lubricated with a conductive lubricant such as MoS ₂ or graphite lubricant. The drive gear 302c may further function as a heat sink for each gear 302a, and its heat may be removed by an electrode heat exchanger such as 310, which receives heat from the drive gear 302c. Gears 302a, such as herringbone gears, each include an integer number of n teeth, where fuel flows into the gap or root of the nth tooth, and the fuel between the n-1th tooth is a pair of gears. It is compressed by the (n-1) th tooth. Other geometries or gear functions for the gear are known to those skilled in the art, such as interdigitated polygons or triangles-gears, spiral gears, and helical cutting edges, and are within the scope of this disclosure. It is in. In one embodiment, the desired region of the gear of the electrode 302a, such as the fuel and the root surface, is oppositely electrostatically charged and the fuel is electrostatically desired for one or both electrodes 302a. When the teeth are engaged, the fuel is ignited there. In one embodiment, fuel 303, such as fine powder, is sprayed pneumatically into the desired area of gear 302a. In another embodiment, fuel 303 is injected into a desired region that is confined between electrodes, such as interdigitated regions of the teeth of gear 302a, so that it is ignited at a high current. In one embodiment, the rollers or gears 302a maintain tension with one another by means such as springs that are filled pneumatically or hydraulically. Teeth engagement and compression causes electrical contact between the teeth that are combined through the conductive fuel. In one embodiment, the gears are electrically conductive in each meshing area that contacts the fuel during meshing and are otherwise insulating so that current selectively flows through the fuel. In one embodiment, the gear 2a includes a ceramic gear that is electrically isolated in a region that is not grounded or that is electrically conductive in areas that mesh with each other. Also, the drive gear 302c is electrically isolated or non-conductive without being conductive or grounded. Electrical contact and supply from the electrode 302 to the interdigitated area of the tooth is provided by a brush. A typical brush includes a carbon bar or rod. And it is pushed to contact the gear by a spring, for example. Alternatively, the electrical contact of the electrode 302 from the bus bar to the electrode may be due to at least one of a bushing, slip ring, rotary transformer, and synchro. In one embodiment, the electrical contact from the source of electrical power to the electrode 302 from the bus bar may be due to Hg contact in the sealed reservoir. The connection may include a rotating shaft that is rotatable within an Hg reservoir energized by a bus bar. The rotating shaft may be connected to a roller that contacts the roller electrode 302.

  In another embodiment, electrical contact and supply from the electrodes 302 to the interdigitated areas of the teeth may be provided directly with corresponding gear hubs and bearings. Electrical contact and supply from the electrode 302 to the opposite section of the roller may be supplied directly through the corresponding roller hub and bearing. As shown in FIG. 1, each electrode 302 of a pair of electrodes is centered on each gear and connected to the center of each gear and functions as both a structural element 3022b and an electrode 302, each gear or roller. The gear or roller bearing that connects 302a to its shaft or hub functions as an electrical contact, and the only ground is between the contacting teeth or surfaces of the opposing gear or roller. In one embodiment, the outer portion of each gear or roller rotates around a central hub so that it has more electrical contact through additional bearings with a larger radius. The hub may also function as a large heat sink. The electrode heat exchanger 310 may also stick to the hub to remove heat from the gear or roller. The heat exchanger 310 may be electrically isolated from a hub having a thin layer of insulator, such as a high thermal conductivity electrical insulator such as diamond or diamond-like carbon film. In embodiments where an electrode, such as a gear or roller electrode, is driven directly by at least one motor, the heat exchanger hub may have a slip link with a rotating electrode. The hub heat exchanger and rotating roller or gear electrode interface may have bearings such as plain bearings. The coolant may also be flowed through the shaft to a gear or roller electrode and may flow through a hollow channel in an electrode such as a gear or roller. Gear or roller charging can be timed using switching transistors and computers such as those used in brushless DC electric motors. In one embodiment, the gear or roller is intermittently energized so that a high current flows through the fuel when the gear or roller engages. The flow of fuel is timed to match the delivery of fuel to the gear when the gear meshes or the roller rotates and current is allowed to flow through the fuel. The resulting high current flow causes the fuel to ignite. The fuel may flow continuously through a gear or roller 302a that rotates to push the fuel through the gap. The fuel may flow continuously through a gear or roller 2a that rotates to push the fuel through the gap. The fuel may be ignited continuously as it is rotated to fill the space between the electrodes 302 including the opposing sides of the set of rollers or the meshing areas of the set of gears. In this case, the output power may be stable. In one embodiment, the resulting plasma expands from the side of the gear and flows to the plasma-to-electric converter 306. The plasma expansion flow may be along an axis that is perpendicular to the direction of flow of the fuel stream 303 and parallel to the shaft of each gear. The axial flow may be to a PDC converter or MHD converter as shown in FIG. Further directional flow may be achieved with confinement magnets such as those in magnetic bottle 306d or Helmholtz coils.

The electrodes may be regenerated continuously or intermittently with metal from the solid fuel 303 components. The solid fuel melts during ignition so that something adheres, welds, welds, or alloyes to the surface to replace the electrode 302a of material such as metal that has been corroded or consumed during operation. May contain metal in such a form. The SF-CIHT cell power converter may further include means for repairing the electrode shape, such as the teeth of the gear 302a. The means may include at least one of a cast mold, a grinder, and a milling machine. The gear electrode of the SF-CIHT cell may be repaired continuously by electroplating by means such as EDM electroplating performed in a vacuum or by means such as electrical discharge machining (EDM). Systems and methods for continuous repair of gears or rollers during operation in cell gas or in vacuum, such as cold spray, thermal spraying, or sputtering are known to those skilled in the art.

  In one embodiment, the intermeshing gears are designed to trap excess solid fuel, such as solid fuel powder that is highly conductive. The gear region, such as the mating gear tooth base corresponding to each tooth, at least one of geometric design and selective electrification so that only a portion of the excess fuel will explode. Selected parts may be separated from contact at the gear surface by unselected, non-initiated fuel. The volumetric form of fuel in the mating area may be such that the selected smaller volume has a sufficiently high current allowed for the explosion; the larger volume around which the current may pass Keep the current density below it needed for the explosion. In some embodiments, excess trapped fuel conducts current flowing through a larger area or volume of fuel and is concentrated in a smaller area or volume beyond which the current entrance for the explosion can be exceeded. And explosions occur in selected parts of the fuel with higher current density. In certain embodiments, the selective fuel portion has a lower resistance compared to the geometric design that determines the length of the current path through the portion of the fuel and the portion not selected by selective charging. In some embodiments, the gear geometry causes higher fuel compression than unselected areas where the selected area is in the selected area with lower resistance. As a result, the current density is higher in the selected region and exceeds the explosion threshold. In contrast, the resistor has a higher unselected area. As a result, the current density is below the explosion threshold below the unselected area. In an exemplary embodiment, the selected region includes an hourglass-shaped aliquot pinch of fuel.

  In certain embodiments, opposing electrodes, such as rollers or interdigitating gears, provide initial compression of the fuel to facilitate current flow to the fuel. Then, the blast and magnetic pinch forces associated with the current flow within the trapped fuel direction further compress the fuel to achieve the critical current and pressure density required for ignition. To do. Several distances away from the latter surface occurred within the stratified fuel region. In some embodiments, selective ignition of selective areas may include selective electrification, selective compression, selective pinch and blast front and high blast force selectively applied even as a high current force. Achieved by simple shaping. At least one of the means for achieving selectivity may be due to selective geometry, which achieves critical values for pressure and current in a limited region of fuel far from the gear surface. It may be due to that.

  The surrounding excess, non-explosive fuel absorbs at least some of the conditions that would cause erosion of the gear if they are otherwise directly exposed to conditions that are free of solid fuel while not exploding . Conditions may include exposure to at least one of atmospheric pressure, projectile, plasma, bombardment or high heat on electrons and ions, high pressure or blasting such as that for shock waves. Non-explosive fuel may be connected by a fuel recovery system and may be recirculated. 1 and 2A, the fuel recovery and recirculation system may include a steam concentrator 315, a chute 306a, a product remover / fuel loader 313, a regeneration system 314 and a hopper 305.

  In another embodiment, the gear is moved by a fixed mechanism such as a reciprocating connecting rod that is attacked and by a crankshaft similar to the method of the internal combustion engine piston system. The opposing electrode portions of the gear are rotated into opposing engaged positions, and the opposing electrodes are driven together in compression and motion apart after ignition by a fixed mechanism. The opposing electrodes may be in any desired shape and selectively power to cause at least one of the fuels to experience greater compression in the selected region and greater current density in the selected region. May be supplied. The opposing electrodes may create a hemispherical shell that compresses the fuel with the greatest compression at the center. The highest current density may also be in the center to achieve an entrance selectively for meaning in the central region. The expanded plasma may flow out the open portion of the hemispherical shell. In another embodiment, the opposing electrodes may create an hourglass shape where the selected region may include an hourglass-shaped waist or neck.

  In certain embodiments, the gear can be composed of at least two materials, at least one of which is a conductor. At least one cured material may serve a corrosion resistant purpose when exposed to blast conditions where the blasting may occur near the cured material or may be closed. Highly conductive material may be separated from the blast by a non-explosive solid fuel. The arrangement of at least two types of material prepares for selective electrification of the selected region beyond the unselected region with at least one of the selective compressions. In an exemplary embodiment, the gear fit creates an hourglass or pinched shape. The neck or hourglass-shaped waist may be made of a highly stable or hardened material that may be an insulator such as ceramic. Non-waist or gear spheres can be transitions, internal transitions, rare earth elements, metals such as Group 13, Group 14 and Group 15 metals or alloys of such at least two metals or TiC and WC May contain conductors such as fine carbides. The waist portion may compress the selected area as current may occur during non-waist or ball areas where it concentrates in the waist area. Thereby, the current density is increased in selected areas including the waist so that the explosion threshold is achieved. The waist is protected from damage from blasting by the erosion resistance of the waist material containing the cured material. Non-waist or spherical areas of conductor are in contact with unselected fuel areas where the fuel contained between the blasts and their corresponding gear faces protects these surfaces from erosion by blasting.

An ignition power source that may function as a start-up power source includes at least one of a capacitor, such as a low voltage bank, a high capacitance capacitor that provides a low voltage, and a high current required to achieve ignition. The capacitor circuit may be designed to avoid noise or vibration during discharge to extend the life of the capacitor. The lifetime may be as long as in the range of about 1 to 20 years. The capacitor may be designed to store at least a portion of the power wave reflected in the explosion. The bus bar to the electrode may include layers or other means to offset the bus bar inductance and thus achieve capacitance to reduce or control reactive power after an explosion. Absent. Bus bars range from about 1000 A to 1,000,000 A.M. It may be superconducting to carry large currents such as in the range. The capacitor bank power supply may include circuitry that avoids skin effects during the discharge that prevents current from penetrating most solid fuels. The main circuit uses a capacitor to ignite a solid fuel that is long enough to prevent high frequency discharging, including a high frequency component that prevents the time constant from oscillating or pulsing the current flowing through the sample to ignite it. An LRC circuit may be included for release.

  To suppress any interruption, some power is stored in the capacitor and may optionally be stored in a high current transformer, battery, or other energy storage device. In another embodiment, the electrical output from one cell can deliver a short burst of low voltage high current electrical energy that ignites another cell's fuel. The output electrical power can be further adjusted by an output power conditioner 307 connected by power connectors 308 and 308a. The output power conditioner 307 may include elements such as a battery or super capacitor, a DC-AC (DC / AC) converter or inverter, and power storage such as a transformer. DC power can also be converted to another form of DC power, such as that of higher voltages, but the power can also be converted to AC, or a mixture of DC and AC. The output power can be power adjusted to a desired waveform, such as 60 Hz AC power, and supplied to the load through output terminal 309. In one embodiment, the output conditioner 307 converts from a photovoltaic or thermo-electric converter at the desired frequency and waveform (eg, AC frequency, other than 60 or 50 Hz, which is standard in the United States and Europe, respectively). . Different frequencies to loads designed with different frequencies such as motors for driving, aircraft, ships, household appliances, tools and machinery, electrical heating and spatial conditioning, telecommunications, and picture retro Applied to match. A portion of the power output terminal 309 may be used to power a source of electrical power 304, such as about 5-10 V, 10,000-40,000 A DC power. The PDC power converter may output a low voltage high current DC power that is well adapted to repower the electrode 302 that causes ignition of subsequently supplied fuel. The constant voltage high current output may be supplied to a DC load. The DC may be adjusted with a DC / DC converter. Typical DC loads include electrically rectified motors such as those for drives, aircraft, ships, household appliances, tools, and machines, and DC motors such as DC electronics. In an embodiment with a moving application, the vehicle may be used because the cell phone has distributed generation heritage. Consumers may purchase electrical output through services such as prepared by Uber Technologies for transport. For example, a health care provider may drive and supply power to a customer's location to a consumer generated by a vehicle that has SF-CIHT or SunCell ™ with the current disclosure and The customer may seek power from the provider's pool by cell phone, notebook or computer.

Ignition generates output plasma and thermal power. Plasma power may be converted directly into electricity by the photovoltaic power converter 306. The cell may be operated open to the atmosphere. In 301 examples, the cell 1 can maintain a vacuum or a pressure below atmospheric pressure. The vacuum or pressure below atmospheric pressure is maintained by the vacuum pump 13a so that ions for the expanding plasma of ignition of the solid fuel 303 do not collide with gas at atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, the vacuum or pressure below atmospheric pressure is maintained in a system that includes the plasma generation cell 1 and the connected photovoltaic converter 306. In certain embodiments, the cell 301 may be operated under at least one of a vacuum and a cover gas. The cover gas may include an inert gas such as a noble gas such as argon. If the reaction of nitrogen with a solid fuel that forms a product such as a metal nitride is disadvantageous, the cover gas may contain nitrogen. The cover gas may further include some hydrogen gas to react with oxygen produced from the reaction of H ₂ O to hydrino and oxygen. Hydrogen may react with oxygen from any atmospheric leak to form H ₂ O. If the light is converted into electricity, the cover gas is chosen so that it does not have any undesired absorption of the light produced by the hydrino reaction. The cover gas may also be chosen as a converter of one light spectrum to another desirable spectrum for photovoltaic conversion to electricity.

  The thermal power is at least one of an electrode heat exchanger 310 in which coolant flows through a PDC heat exchanger 318 and an electrode coolant discharge line 312 and an electrode coolant suction line 311, where the coolant flows through a PDC coolant discharge line 320 and a PDC coolant suction line 319. May be extracted by. Other heat exchangers are hydrinos such as a water wall type design to further apply to at least one wall of the bath 301, at least one other wall of the PDC converter, and the back of the electrode 317 of the PDC converter. May be used to receive heat power from the reaction. In one embodiment, the heat exchanger and at least one of the heat exchanger components may include a heat pipe. The heat pipe fluid may include molten salt or metal. Typical metals are cesium, NaK, potassium, sodium, lithium, and silver. These and other heat exchanger designs that cost-effectively and efficiently remove heat from the reaction are known to those skilled in the art. Heat may be transferred to the heat load. In this manner, the power system may include a heater with heat supplied by at least one of a heat exchanger that transfers heat to the heat load or coolant discharge lines 312 and 320 to the heat load. Cooled coolant may be returned by at least one of the coolant suction lines 311 and 319. The heat supplied by at least one of the coolant discharge lines 312 and 320 may flow to a heat engine, steam engine, steam turbine, gas turbine, Rankine cycle engine, Brayton cycle engine, and Stirling engine, This translates into mechanical power such as that of rotation in at least one of shafts, wheels, generators, aircraft turbofans or turboprops, marine propellers, impellers, and rotating shaft machinery. Alternatively, thermal power may flow from at least one of the coolant discharge lines 312 and 320 to those such as those of the present disclosure in a thermal-electric power converter. Typical typical heat-to-electric converters are heat engines, steam engines, steam turbines and generators, gas turbines and generators, Rankine cycle engines, Brayton cycle engines, Stirling engines, thermoelectric power converters And at least one of the group of thermoelectric power converters. The output power from the thermo-electric converter may be used to power the load, and some may power the components of the SF-CIHT cell power generator, such as the electrical power source 304. unknown.

  Ignition of the reactant of fuel 303 produces power and product, which may be in the form of product plasma. In one embodiment, fuel 303 is vaporized partially to substantially into a gaseous physical state such as a plasma during a hydrino reaction blast event. Instead, the plasma emits light to the photovoltaic converter 306 and the recombined plasma forms gaseous atoms and compounds. These are condensed and recovered by vapor condenser 315 and conveyed to regeneration system 314 by product removal fuel filler 313. The apparatus includes a conveyor that connects to the regeneration system 314 and also includes a conveyor that connects to the hopper 305. The vapor condenser 315 and the product removal fuel filling device 313 are similar to a conveyor or pneumatic system such as a vacuum or intake system that collects and moves material, at least one of a helical cutting edge and at least one of an electrostatic recovery system. May include other systems. Solid fuels or products are separated from carrier gases such as argon by systems and methods (eg filtration such as centrifugal jig and dry air shake table separation, cyclone, electrostatic, centrifugal, magnetic separation and density separation) May be.

  Plasma products and regenerated fuel from the regeneration system 314 may be transported onto an electrostatically charged or magnetized conveyor belt 313 where the fuel and product particles are pierced and transported. Regenerated fuel particles may be obtained from the regeneration chamber 314 to the conveyor belt to the pipe 313 above the regeneration chamber for the strong electrostatic or magnetic attraction of the particles. Reasonable systems are known to those skilled in the art. Fuel or product transport may also be achieved using magnetic force. For example, magnetic or energized particles may be transported by a permanent or electromagnet magnetic field. The latter may be triggered in time to cause particles in at least one of the movements along the desired trajectory, may be collected, may be rebounded, and may be trapped Absent.

  The regeneration system 314 may include a closed tub or chamber that allows for an atmospheric overpressure and heat exchanger in the regeneration chamber. Regenerative heat exchange may be associated with a heat source such as at least one of electrode heat exchanger 310 and PDC heat exchanger 318. In one embodiment, the water from the tank source 314a falls on top of the regenerative heat exchanger into steam that processes the plasma product in order for the steam to hydrate it. The steam may be backflowing in a water concentrator 322 with a line 321 from the regeneration chamber 314 to the water tank 314a. As batch regeneration was followed by a cold steam step, hydration may be conducted and condensed and recycled through product remover / fuel loader 313 with H2O recycled to water tank 314a. The solid fuel to be moved is moved toward the hopper 305 to replenish the regeneration chamber 314 with the plasma product through the product remover / fuel loader 313 to begin another cycle.

  In one embodiment, a plasma-to-electric converter 306, such as a magneto hydrodynamic converter, includes a chute or channel 306a for the product to be conveyed to a product removal fuel filling device 313. At least one of the floor of the PDC converter 306, the chute 306a, and the PDC electrode 317 may be sloped to at least partially be product flow by gravity flow. At least one of the floor of the PDC converter 306, the chute 306a, and the PDC electrode 317 may be mechanically shaken or vibrated to support the flow. The flow may be assisted by a shock wave formed by solid fuel ignition. In one embodiment, at least one of the floor of the PDC converter 306, the chute 306a, and the PDC electrode 317 includes a conveyor or mechanical scraper that moves the product from a corresponding direction to the product removal fuel filling device 313. Including.

The hopper 305 may be refilled with fuel regenerated from the regeneration system 314 by the product removal fuel filling device 313. Any of H or _{H 2} O is consumed as in the formation of hydrino, it might be compensated with _{H 2} O from _{H 2} O source 314a. Here, the spent fuel is replenished with H ₂ O from the H ₂ O source 314a and regenerated and returned to the initial reactant or fuel along with H or H ₂ O consumed in the formation of hydrinos. The water source may include a tank, cell, or tank 14a, where the tank 314a is bulk or gaseous H ₂ O, or a material or compound containing H ₂ O, or one or more reactants, forming of _{H 2} O as H ₂ + _{O 2.} Alternatively, the source may include atmospheric water vapor or means for extracting H2O from the atmosphere. It is, for example, a water-containing material such as lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnalite such as KMgCl 3 .6 (H 2 O), iron citrate III ammonium, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizer chemistries Products, salts (including salt) and a wide variety of others known to those skilled in the art and like desiccants such as silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (generally zeolites) or zinc chloride Deliquescent material, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, water It is those known to those skilled in the sodium and many different deliquescent salts.

In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell power generator further includes a vacuum pump 313a that may remove any product oxygen and molecular hydrino gases. In one embodiment, at least one of oxygen and molecular hydrino is recovered in the tank as a commercial product. The pump may further include means known to those skilled in the art for the separation of oxygen and hydrino gas, with selective membranes, valves, sieves, cryofilters, or other means, and additionally H ₂ O vapor may be recovered and H ₂ O may be supplied to the regeneration system 314 and recycled into the regenerated solid fuel. H ₂ gas may be added to the bath chamber to suppress any oxidation of the generator components (eg gear or PDC or MHD electrodes). Hydrogen may undergo combustion with any oxygen present. The generator may further include a recombiner to cause a reaction of H2 and O2 in the shaped water. Alternatively, the plasma may cause a reaction of H ₂ and O ₂ to form H ₂ O. Hydrogen may be supplied by electrolysis of H ₂ O where H ₂ is separated from O ₂ . Separation may be achieved by a selective gas membrane. The gas may be separated using a hydrogen permeable cathode that may be associated with the cell 301.

In one embodiment, fuel 303 includes fine powder that may be formed by ball milling regenerated or reprocessed solid fuel, but regeneration system 314 may be a ball mill, grinder, or field. It may further include other means of making larger particles finer, such as those of known grinding means. A typical solid fuel mixture includes a transition metal, a conductor such as a conductive metal powder such as silver or aluminum powder, its oxide, and H ₂ O. In another embodiment, the fuel 303 may include solid fuel pellets that may be pressed in the regeneration system 314. The solid fuel pellet may further comprise a thin foil of powder metal or another metal, encapsulating the metal oxide and H ₂ O, and optionally the metal powder. . In this case, the regeneration system 314 is the metal foil by means of at least one of heating in vacuum, heating under reduced hydrogen pressure, and electrolysis from an electrolyte such as a molten salt electrolyte. Play. The regeneration system 314 further includes a metal processing system such as a rolling or milling machine that forms foil from the regenerated foil metal stock. The jacket may be formed by a stamping machine or press, but the encapsulated solid fuel is stamped or pressed inward.

In one exemplary embodiment, solid fuel, additional H _2, additional H 2 _O, it is regenerated by thermal regeneration, and at least one such means as provided in the present disclosure of the electrical regeneration . Compared to the input energy to initiate the reaction, such as 100 times in the case of NiOOH (3.22 kJ output, versus 46 J input, given in the typical SF-CIHT cell test results section) Due to the very large energy gain of the hydrino reaction, products such as Ni ₂ O ₃ and NiO can be converted to hydroxides and then as given in this disclosure, and also by those skilled in the art Can be converted into oxyhydroxides not only by chemical reactions but also by electrochemical reactions. In other embodiments, other metals such as Ti, Gd, Co, In, Fe, Ga, Al, Cr, Mo, Cu, Mn, Zn, Sn, and Sm, and the corresponding oxides, hydroxides Products such as those of this disclosure with oxyhydroxides may replace Ni. In another embodiment, the solid fuel includes a metal oxide and a corresponding metal such as H ₂ O and a conductive matrix. The product may be a metal oxide. Solid fuel may be regenerated by hydrogen reduction of a portion of the metal oxide to a metal that is subsequently mixed with the rehydrated oxide. Reasonable metals with mild heating such as below 1000 ° C. and oxides that can be immediately reduced to metal with hydrogen are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises (1) an oxide that is not easily reduced with mild heat and H ₂ , such as at least one of alumina, alkaline earth oxide, and rare earth oxide; ) A metal with an oxide that can be reduced to a metal with H ₂ at a moderate temperature, such as below 1000 ° C., and (3) H ₂ O. A typical fuel is MgO + Cu + H ₂ O. The product mixture of non-reducing oxide and H ₂ reducing oxide is then treated with H ₂ and heated under mild conditions so that only the reducing metal oxide is converted to metal. . This mixture may be hydrated to contain the regenerated solid fuel. A typical fuel is MgO + Cu + H ₂ O, and the product MgO + CuO undergoes H ₂ reduction treatment to produce MgO + Cu, which is hydrated into a solid fuel.

  In another embodiment, oxide products such as CuO or AgO are regenerated by heating under at least one condition of vacuum and an inert gas stream. The temperature may be in the range of about 100 ° C to 3000 ° C, 300 ° C to 2000 ° C, 500 ° C to 1200 ° C, and 500 ° C to 1000 ° C. In one embodiment, the regeneration system 314 has a particle size in the range of at least one of about 10 nm to 1 cm, 100 nm to 10 mm, 0.1 um to 1 mm, and 1 um to 100 um (u = micro). The powder may further include at least one of a ball mill and a grinding / polishing mill to powder at least one of the bulk oxide and metal into a powder such as a fine powder.

In another embodiment, the regeneration system may include an electrolysis cell, such as a molten salt electrolysis cell containing metal ions, although the metal of the metal oxide product is well known in the art. It may be coated on the electrolysis cell cathode by electrodeposition using the method and system. The system may further include a mill or grinder to form metal particles of the desired size from the electroplated metal. Metal may be added to other components of the reaction mixture, such as H ₂ O, to form a regenerated solid fuel.

In one embodiment, the cell 301 of FIG. 1 can maintain a vacuum or a pressure below atmospheric pressure. A vacuum or pressure below atmospheric is maintained in the cell 301 by the pump 313a and may also be maintained in the plasma source, the connected plasma-to-electric converter 306 that receives high energy plasma ions from the cell 301. . In one embodiment, the solid fuel consists of a metal that is fairly thermodynamically stable towards reaction with H ₂ O to become an oxidizing metal. In this case, the solid fuel metal does not oxidize during the reaction to form a product. A typical solid fuel comprises a metal, a mixture of oxidizing metal and H ₂ O. Products such as the initial metal and metal oxide mixture may then be removed by the product removal fuel filler 313 and regenerated by the addition of H ₂ O. Reasonable materials with a rather thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with H ₂ O may be selected from the following groups: Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In other embodiments, the solid fuel is an H ₂ O inert metal and at least one of oxyhydroxides that may include the same as H ₂ O, metal oxides, hydroxides, or at least one different metal. Including one.

  In one embodiment, as possible, the method of H2 reduction, reduction and rehydration under vacuum is conducted efficiently and effectively sacrificed to regenerate the crisp and solid fuel. The

In certain embodiments, the solid fuel includes a mixture of hygroscopic materials including H ₂ O and a conductor. Typical fuels are conductors such as transition metals such as Co, Ni, Fe, or Cu, hydrated alkaline earth metal halides such as MgX ₂ (X = F, Cl, Br, I), It is.

  Solid fuels may include compositions such as elements or composites (eg, metals with at least one low melting point, high conductivity and low work function where the work function may be very low at high temperatures) It further includes at least one of a source of H2O and H2O. In some embodiments, the solid fuel includes a conductor such as a melting metal. The high current from the source of electrical output 4 is a hot electron to form a low voltage arc plasma or melts a metal-like conductor to cause thermoelectric emission, and the arc plasma ignites H2O. cause. In one embodiment, the solid fuel is a highly conductive, low melting point composition that exhibits a metal, and it is a low pressure arc plasma, where the fuel is ignited as a result of which fuel H2O is observed. Has a low work function at high temperatures to wake up.

  In certain embodiments, the solid fuel includes a source of H, such as a hydrocarbon, that may be the source of the mH catalyst according to equations (6-9) to form hydrino. A solid fuel may include a conductor (a material that combines a source of hydrogen, such as carbon or other hydrophobic matrix, with a source of hydrogen, such as a hydrocarbon). Solid fuel may be implied by the high current that results in the formation of high concentrations of H, catalyst and reactants that function in form hydrinos.

  The power generator further includes methods and means for variable power output. In one embodiment, the power output of the power generator can be changed or interrupted by the power source 304, and the fuel 303 can be changed or interrupted into the electrode 302 or the roller or gear 302a. It is controlled by controlling the flow rate obtained. The speed of rotation of the roller or gear may also be controlled to control the fuel ignition speed. In one embodiment, output power conditioner 307 includes a power controller 307 that controls an output that may be DC. The power controller may control the rotational speed of the gear, the fuel flow speed, by controlling the gear drive motor 302d, which rotates the gear 302a and rotates the drive gear 302c. Response times based on at least one mechanical or electrical control of firing rate or fuel burning rate may be very fast, such as in the range of 10 ms to 1 us. Power may also be controlled by controlling the connectivity of the converter electrode of the plasma-electric converter. For example, connecting PDC electrodes in series increases the voltage, and connecting converter electrodes in parallel increases the current. Selectively connecting to the set of PDC electrodes 317 at different angles relative to at least one of the plasma propagation direction and the magnetic field direction or changing the angle of the PDC electrodes 317 changes at least one of voltage and current. The power collected is changed.

  As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 2A, power converter 306 includes a photovoltaic or solar cell system. In one embodiment, the output power controller / conditioner 307 receives power from the photovoltaic power converter 306 and generates an electrical output in a manner appropriate for power to cause ignition of the solid fuel 303 at a desired repetition rate. Deliver a little power source 304 to 304 source. In certain embodiments, ignition is automatically triggered by the presence of fuel that sufficiently reduces the resistance between the electrodes to allow ignition. Fuel may be injected into the electrode at a rate to achieve the desired rate of ignition. Further power received and conditioned by the output power controller / conditioner 307 may be the output delivered to the electrical load. Proper integration of the photovoltaic output by the required power of the fuel ignition electrical system, the source and load of the electrical output 304 is an output power controller / conditioner 307 used in the solar industry known to those skilled in the art. May have been achieved. Appropriate solar power conditioner that outputs AC power in the range of the chain store and the voltage suitable for the grid like 120V. In certain embodiments, the electrical output of at least a portion of the photovoltaic converter is a high voltage that reduces transmission losses when delivering power to internal and external loads. The voltage may be in a range of at least one of about 10 V to 5000 V, 100 V to 1000 V, 200 to 500 V, and 300 to 400 V.

  The power controller 307 further includes sensors for input and output parameters such as voltage, current, and power. The signal from the sensor may be supplied to a processor that controls the power generator. At least one of ramp up time, ramp down time, voltage, current, power, waveform, and frequency may be controlled. In some embodiments, the output electricity may be any desired waveform (eg, DC or AC (eg, 60 Hz AC or another frequency different from 60 Hz, which may include new standards for electrical output)). The power generator may include a resistor, such as a shunt resistor, through which excess power than desired or required for the power load may be dissipated. The shunt resistor may be connected to the output power conditioner or power controller 307. The power generator may include a system and an embedded processor that provides remote monitoring that may further have the ability to make the power generator malfunction.

  In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT generator includes a high performance mobile device in at least one of the monitors and controls the generator. High performance mobile devices may further include portals. The portal may facilitate wireless communication to / from the SF-CIHT generator. In certain embodiments, the entrance may serve as a means for at least one of the type and telecommunications content between the transmit and receive networks. A high performance device may include at least one of a highly automated phone and a smart tablet. Services such as the Internet may be provided through the entrance. Typical Internet-like services include IP, search capabilities and other uses of the Internet known to those skilled in the art, GPS, connectivity between networks, social media, network, email, voice or video . Each SF-CIHT entry that the generator may have connected the network via other such entry in the form of interconnectivity. The network may act as a parallel or parallel Internet. Airborne SunCells like those of planes and crushed aircraft may serve as a receiver-transmission line tower. In some embodiments, signals such as content between networks from the SF-CIHT cell entrance may be sent by building wiring that may be based on DC electricity.

  In some embodiments, SF-CIHT cells, such as 1 that have been added to the vehicle or may be portable, are connected via a power conditioner, such as an inverter, to convert DC to AC power. It may be. A power regulator may be used for any application such as auxiliary power. Typical auxiliary power applications include vehicles to stationary power such as vehicles to buildings or plants and vehicles (e.g., vehicles to trucks, trained vehicles and vehicles providing power like vehicles). Vehicle to the ship, which may be conveyed by the vehicle receiving). Typical conveying vehicles are trucks, trains, ships and planes. In some embodiments, the power conditioner may include a reverse car charging station, such as the reverse of a car charging station known in the art. In one embodiment, a DC power source supplied by a mobile SF-CIHT cell, such as one in a vehicle, includes an inverter, such as a charging station, that is opposite to the supply power for stationary applications such as buildings. May be connected via a power adjustment device. In certain embodiments, the vehicle may include a reverse charging station. The vehicle may include a power regulator such as an inverter that outputs power suitable for an external load such as a stationary or auxiliary load. The output from the inverter may be connected via an external load with a matching power cord connected via the load. A typical cord connection to the load is in the building beaker box. In one embodiment, a SunCell, such as one initiated in a vehicle, may output DC power to an external load such as a building that may require DC power. The connection may be by cord. Power transmission may include inductive charging using transmitters in the vehicle and receiver to receive and supply power to an auxiliary load such as a building. The relationship between the power conditioner and the SF-CIHT cell may further include at least one of the electronic keys on the machine to dominate the power flow from the SFSunCell to the power conditioner. Control may also be provided by unit capabilities enabled at the monitoring and control entrance.

In one embodiment, some of the electrical power output at terminal 309 includes an electrical power source 304, a gear (roller) drive motor 302d, a product removal fuel filling device 313, a pump 313a, and a reaction product. Is supplied to at least one of a regeneration system 314 that provides energy and electrical power to propagate a chemical reaction to regenerate the original solid fuel. In one embodiment, some of the heat from at least one of the electrode heat exchanger 310 and the PDC heat exchanger 318 provides energy and thermal power to propagate a chemical reaction that regenerates the original solid fuel from the reaction product. Thus, at least one of the coolant input lines 311 and 319 is input to the solid fuel regeneration system by at least one of the coolant discharge lines 312 and 320 with coolant return circulation. Some of the output power from the thermo-electric converter 306 may be used to power the regeneration system as well as other systems in the SF-CIHT cell generator.

G. Plasma dynamic plasma to electrical power converter Plasma power may be converted to electricity using a plasma dynamic power converter 306 (FIG. 1) based on magnetic space charge separation.
Due to their lower mass for positive ions, electrons are preferably confined to the magnetic flux lines of a magnetized PDC electrode, such as a PDC electrode or a cylindrical PDC electrode, in a magnetic field. In this way, electrons are limited in mobility, but positive ions relatively freely collide with PDC electrodes that are magnetized internally or externally. Both electrons and positive ions can fully collide with non-magnetized PDC electrodes. Plasma dynamic conversion extracts power directly from plasma heat and potential energy and is independent of plasma flow. Instead, power extraction by the PDC drives the current to an external load, thereby extracting the electrical power directly from the stored plasma's thermal energy, so that it is magnetized and immersed in the plasma. A potential difference between non-magnetized PDC electrodes is used. Plasma dynamic conversion (PDC) of thermal plasma energy to electricity is achieved by inserting at least two p-floating conductors directly into the body of the high temperature plasma. One of these conductors is magnetized by an external electromagnetic field or permanent magnet, or is inherently magnetic. The other is non-magnetized. The potential difference arises due to the large difference in charge mobility of heavy positive ions versus light electrons. A voltage is applied across the electrical load.

  In an embodiment, the power system shown in FIG. 1 includes additional internal or external electromagnets or permanent magnets, such as cylindrical PDC electrodes such as pin PDC electrodes. It includes a plurality of originally magnetized and non-magnetized PDC electrodes. A source of uniform magnetic field B (vector B) parallel to each PDC pin electrode 306b may be supplied by an electromagnet, such as by Helmholtz coil 306d. The magnet may be at least one of a permanent magnet, such as a Halbach array magnet, and an uncooled, water-cooled, or superconducting magnet. Typical superconducting magnets may include NbTi, NbSn, or high temperature superconducting materials. Negative voltages from the plurality of anode pin electrodes 306 b are collected by the anode or negative PDC electrode 317. In one embodiment, at least one magnetized PDC pin electrode 306b is parallel to the applied magnetic field B (vector B), but at least one corresponding pair of PDC pin electrodes 306c is B (vector B). Perpendicular to the magnetic field B (vector B) so that it is unmagnetized due to its orientation relative to the direction of. Positive voltage from the plurality of cathode pin electrodes 306c is collected by the cathode or positive PDC electrode 317a. Power can be delivered to the power conditioner / controller through the negative electrode power connector 308 and the positive electrode power connector 308a. In one embodiment, the cell wall may function as a PDC electrode. In one embodiment, the PDC electrode comprises a refractory metal that is stable in a high temperature atmospheric environment, such as high temperature stainless steel and other materials known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the plasma dynamic converter can further confine the plasma and extract a source of more energetic ions, such as a solenoid field source such as a Helmholtz coil 306d or a magnetic bottle to extract electricity. Plasma confinement structure.

In a further embodiment of the power converter, the flow of ions along the z-axis with ν _|| (parallel ν) >> ν _┴ (vertical ν) may enter a compression section containing an increasing axial magnetic field gradient. However, since the component of the electron motion parallel to the direction of the z-axis ν _|| (parallel ν) is adiabatic invariant (ν _┴ (vertical ν)) ² / B = constant, the vertical motion at least partially converted to ν _垂直 (vertical ν). An azimuth current due to ν _┴ (vertical ν) is formed around the z-axis. The current is generated radially in the plane of motion by an axial magnetic field to generate a Hall voltage between the inner and outer ring MHD electrodes of a disk generator magnetohydrodynamic power converter. Be diverted. The voltage may drive current through the electrical load. The plasma power can also be transferred to electricity using E (vector E) × B (vector B) {outer product of vector E and vector B} or using other plasma to the electrical device of the present disclosure. May be converted. In another embodiment, a magnetic field such as that of Helmholtz coil 306d confines the plasma so that it can be converted to electricity by plasma-to-electric converter 306, which may be a plasma dynamic power converter. In one embodiment, the Helmholtz coil includes a magnetic bottle. The PDC converter 306 may be proximal to the plasma source relative to the Helmholtz coil as shown in FIG. For plasma-electric converters that include magnets located outside the cell chamber, the separation wall may include a non-ferrous material such as stainless steel. For example, the side wall of the MHD converter or PDC converter or the wall separating the Helmholtz coil 306 from the vessel 301 containing the plasma may comprise a material such as stainless steel through which the magnetic flux is immediately transmitted. In this embodiment, the magnet is placed externally to provide a magnetic flux that is transverse to magnetize a PDC pin anode that is oriented laterally or laterally in the direction of plasma expansion of the MHD converter.

Each cell may also be extracted from the electrode heat exchanger 310 by inlet and outlet coolant lines 311 and 312 and from the PDC heat exchanger 318 by inlet and outlet coolant lines 319 and 320, respectively. Outputs no thermal power. Thermal power may be used directly as heat or converted to electricity. In an embodiment, the power system further includes a heat-to-electric converter. The conversion involves a conventional Rankine or Brayton power plant, such as a steam plant, such as a boiler, a steam turbine, and a generator or a gas turbine such as an externally heated gas turbine and generator. May be achieved by using. Valid reactants, regeneration reactions and systems, and power plants are disclosed in this disclosure, PCT / US08 / 61455, PCT application filed April 24, 2008, hydrogen catalyzed reactor; PCT application filed July 29, 2009. PCT / US09 / 052072, Heterogeneous hydrogen catalyst reactor; PCT / US10 / 27828, PCT application filed on March 18, 2010; Heterogeneous hydrogen catalyst power system; PCT application filed on March 17, 2011 PCT / US11 / 28889, electrochemical hydrogen catalyst power system; PCT / US12 / 31369, H ₂ O-based electrochemical hydrogen catalyst power system filed on March 30, 2012; and May 2013 US patents such as PCT / US13 / 041938, CIHT power system filed on 21st ; And, R. L. Mills, M.M. Nansteel, W.M. Good, G.G. Zhao, “Design for a Blacklight Power Multi-Cell Thermally Coupled Reactor Based on a Hydrogen Catalyst System”, Int. J. et al. Energy Research, Vol. 36, (2012), 778-788; doi: 10.1002 / er. 1834; L. Mills, G.M. Zhao, W.H. Good, “Continuous Thermal Power System”, Applied Energy, Vol. 88, (2011) 789-798, doi: 10.1016 / j. appenergy. 2011.08.024, and R.A. L. Mills, G.M. Zhao, K .; Akhtar, Z .; Chang, J. et al. He, X. Hu, G.G. Wu, J .; Lotoski, G.M. Chu, “A thermally reversible hydrino catalyst system as a new power source,” Int. J. et al. Green Energy, Vol. 8, (2011), 429-473 ("Mills's previous thermal power conversion publication"). In other embodiments, the power system may be other thermo-electric power converters known to those skilled in the art such as thermoelectric or thermoelectric converters and direct power converters such as other heat engines such as Stirling engines. One of these.

In one embodiment, a 10 MW power generator undergoes the following steps.
1. A pair of fuel that traps about 0.5 g of aliquots of highly conductive solid fuel in a region that engages where low voltage high current is passed through the fuel to cause it to ignite. Flow from the hopper into the gear and / or support member. Ignition releases about 10 kJ of energy per aliquot. The gear consists of 60 teeth and rotates at 1000 RPM so that the firing frequency is 1 kHz corresponding to a power of 10 MW. In one embodiment, the gear is designed such that the fuel powder layer in direct contact with the gear does not carry the critical current density for the explosion, while the bulk region is Carry so that the gear is protected from erosion by blast from fuel ignition.
2. Essentially fully ionized plasma expands from a gear on an axis perpendicular to its gear and enters a magnetohydrodynamic or plasma dynamic power converter where the plasma flow is converted to electricity Is done. Instead, sparkling light is emitted from plasma that is converted to electricity using a photovoltaic power converter.
3. Part of the electricity powers the source of electrical power to the electrodes, and the rest can be applied to the external load following power adjustment by the corresponding unit. The heat removed from the gear hub by the electrode heat exchanger flows to the regeneration system heat exchanger and the rest flows to the external heat load.
4). The plasma gas condenses into a product containing solid fuel without H ₂ O.
5. One helical cutting edge used in the pharmaceutical or food industry carries the product to the regeneration system where it is rehydrated with steam, which is hot in the regeneration system heat exchanger. It is formed by flowing H ₂ O from the H ₂ O reservoir over the coil.
6). The regenerated solid fuel is transported to the hopper by a helical cutting edge to allow continuous use of the fuel with H ₂ O for addition only. Assume that 0.5 g of solid fuel produces 1 kJ of energy. Assuming that the density of the fuel is Cu density, 8.96 g / cm ³ , the volume of fuel per tooth in the meshing area is 0.056 cm ³ . If the conduction depth is 2 mm to achieve high conductivity through the fuel, the fuel base defined by the interdigitation gap of the triangular teeth of each gear is 4 mm, and the gear The width is 0.11 cm ³ /(0.2)(0.4)=1.39 cm 2. In another embodiment, the H ₂ O consumption of a typical 10 MW generator is given as follows:

H ₂ O → H ₂ (1/4) + 1 / 2O ₂ (50 MJ / mole H ₂ O); 10 MJ / s / 50 MJ / mole H ₂ O = 0.2 moles (3.6 g) H ₂ O / s or 13 kg / h = 13 liters / hour. Considering the typical case where recirculated solid fuel with ignition and regeneration at 1 minute and 0.5 g produces 10 kJ, the solid fuel inventory is given by: 10 MJ / s × 0.5 g / 10 kJ = 500 g / s (30 kg / min) and the solid fuel stock is 30 kg or about 3 liters.

H. Arc and high DC, AC, and DC-AC mixed current hydrino plasma cell with optical power photovoltaic conversion In an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, a power system with optical power photovoltaic conversion is May include any of the components disclosed herein with respect to the SF-CIHT cell. For example, certain embodiments include one or more of the following: they may be capable of at least one pressure of atmospheric pressure, higher than atmospheric pressure, and lower than atmospheric pressure. The reactant may include a source of catalyst, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and a source of H ₂ O to form at least one of atomic hydrogen and a conductive matrix; bulk _H 2 O, bulk _{H 2} O other states, _{H 2} containing _{H 2} O was formed and bound _{H 2} O of for releasing one or more of receiving at least one reaction compound, of at least one May include a source of O; bound H ₂ O may include compounds that interact with H ₂ O, where H ₂ O is absorbed H ₂ O, bound H ₂ O, physisorbed H 2 _O, and at least one shaped for hydration water Is; reactants, bulk H _{2 O,} absorbed H _{2 O,} combined H _{2 O,} may undergo physisorbed H _{2 O,} and at least one release hydration water material Or may contain one or more compounds and conductors and may have H ₂ O as a reaction product; at least one of a source of nascent H ₂ O catalyst and a source of atomic hydrogen is a At least one of b) at least one source of H ₂ O, b) at least one source of oxygen, and c) at least one source of hydrogen; catalyst source, catalyst, source of atomic hydrogen And reactants that may form at least one of atomic hydrogen: a) a source of H ₂ O and H ₂ O, b) O ₂ , H ₂ O, HOOH, OOH ⁻ , peroxide ions , Superoxide ions, hydrides, At least one group of H ₂ , halide, oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, compound containing oxygen, hydrous compound, halide, oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, compound containing oxygen A hydrous compound selected from: and c) a conductive matrix; the oxyhydroxide may be TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH , CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and may include at least one from the group of SmOOH; _{oxides, CuO, Cu 2 O, CoO} , Co 2 O 3, Co 3 O 4, FeO, Fe 2 O 3 , Do may include NiO, and _Ni 2 _{O 3,} at least one from the group of ; _Hydroxide, at least one of the _{Cu (OH) 2, Co (} OH) 2, Co (OH) 3, Fe (OH) 2, Fe (OH) 3, and Ni _{(OH) 2,} the group May include. Compounds containing oxygen include sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, and periodate, MXO ₃ , MXO ₄ (M = metal such as alkali metal such as Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X = F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium Oxides, Li ₂ O, alkali metal oxides, alkaline earth metal oxides, CuO, CrO ₄ , ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO ₂ , TiO ₂ , ZrO ₂ , SiO ₂ , Al ₂ O ₃ , NiO, FeO , Fe ₂ O ₃ , TaO ₂ , Ta ₂ O ₅ , VO, VO ₂ , V ₂ O ₃ , V ₂ O ₅ , P ₂ O ₃ , P ₂ O ₅ , B ₂ O ₃ , NbO, NbO ₂ , Nb ₂ O _5, S _{O 2, SeO 3, TeO 2} , TeO 3, WO 2, WO 3, Cr 3 O 4, Cr 2 O 3, CrO 2, CrO 3, CoO, Co 2 O 3, Co 3 O 4, FeO, Fe 2 O ₃ , NiO, Ni ₂ O ₃ , rare earth oxide, CeO ₂ , La ₂ O ₃ , oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, And at least one from the group of MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; and the conductive matrix is from a group of metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. May include at least one of the following:

In further embodiments of the present disclosure, the power system may include at least one of the following: They may include a mixture of the metal, its metal oxide, and H ₂ O, where the reaction of H ₂ O with the metal is not thermodynamically advantageous; , Transition metals, alkaline earth metal halides, and mixtures of H ₂ O, where the reaction of H ₂ O with the metal is not thermodynamically advantageous; the reactant is a conductor, The hygroscopic material and a mixture of H ₂ O may be included; the conductor may include metal powder or carbon powder, where the reaction of H ₂ O with metal or carbon is thermodynamically advantageous. not; hygroscopic material, lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium _phosphate, carnallite, iron (III) citrate ammonium such as _{KMgCl 3 · 6 (H 2 O} ) , Potassium hydroxide Sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated phosphoric acid, cellulose fiber, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemicals, salt, desiccant, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride , Molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and deliquescent salts may include at least one; power system, conductor, hygroscopic May include a mixture of materials, and H ₂ O, where the range of relative molar amounts of (metal), (hygroscopic material), (H ₂ O) is about (0.000001 to 100,000). ), (0.000001 to 100,000), (0.000001 to 100,000); (0.00001 to 10,000), (0.00001 to 10,000), (0.00001 to 10,000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1); Metals with a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with H ₂ O are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, might Cr, and from In croup is at least one; reactants, of _{H 2} O The reactant may include a mixture of the metal, its metal oxide, and H ₂ O, where the metal oxide is H _{2 at} temperatures below 1000 ° C. Reduction is possible. The reactants may include a mixture of H ₂ and oxides that are not easily reduced with mild heat, metals with oxides that can be reduced to metals with H ₂ at temperatures below 1000 ° C., and H ₂ O. unknown. Metals that may have oxides that can be reduced to metals with H ₂ at temperatures below 1000 ° C. are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo , Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. unknown. Oxides that are not easily reduced with H ₂ and mild heat may include at least one of alumina, alkaline earth oxides, and rare earth oxides; solid fuels include carbon or activated carbon and H ₂ O. Here, the club is regenerated by rehydration including the addition of H ₂ O; and the reactant comprises at least one of a slurry, solution, emulsion, composite, and compound. The mole percent content of H ₂ O may be about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%,. 01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 1 %; The current of the source of electrical power may deliver a short burst of high current electrical energy, and the hydrino reactant is very Sufficient to cause the reaction to form hydrinos at a high rate;

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the power system may include at least one of the following: They have a source of electrical power from 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000. DC or peak AC current density within at least one range of A / cm ² , and at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA May deliver a short burst of high current electrical energy that includes at least one of the voltages selected to cause a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current within one range, It is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, and its voltage depends on the desired current applied by the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material. And the DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz; the AC frequency is about 0.1 May be in the range of Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz; the resistance of the sample of solid fuel or energetic material is about 0.001 mΩ to 100 May be within at least one range of MΩ, 0.1 Ω to 1 MΩ, and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ; and Reasonable load per active electrode area to form a Idorino is about ^{10 -10 Ω -1} cm ^-2 from ^{10 6 Ω -1 cm -2, 10} -5 Ω -1 cm -2 from 10 ⁶ Omega ^{- 1} cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻⁴ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁵ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻³ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² to 10 ⁴ Ω ⁻¹ cm ⁻² , 10 ⁻² Ω ⁻¹ cm ^-2 to 10 ³ Ω ^-1 cm ^-2 , 10 ^-1 Ω ^-1 cm ^-2 to 10 ² Ω ^-1 cm ^-2 , and 1 Ω ^-1 cm ^-2 to 10 Ω ^-1 cm ^-2 The regeneration system may include at least one of a hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical system; the photovoltaic power converter may be Photon-includes electric power converter The power system may include a light distribution system or a concentrating photovoltaic device; the photovoltaic power converter may include a photon-thermal power converter; May include a heat-to-electric power converter, concentrating solar power device, tracker, or energy storage device; the power system may be functionally connected to a power grid; power The system may be a stand-alone system; the photovoltaic power converter may include multiple multi-junction photovoltaic cells; the multi-junction photovoltaic cell is a triple-junction photovoltaic cell The photovoltaic power converter may be placed in a vacuum cell; the photovoltaic power The converter may include at least one of an anti-reflection coating, an optical impedance matching coating, or a protective coating; the photovoltaic power converter is adapted to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter A power system may include an optical filter; a photovoltaic power converter may be a single crystal cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell A string / ribbon silicon cell, a multi-junction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a pin device, a thin film cell, a dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell. Photovoltaic power converters contain multi-junction cells where multi-junction The cell includes at least one of an inverted cell, an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, and a cell comprising a Group III-V semiconductor material; May include an output power conditioner operatively connected to the power converter and an output power terminal operatively connected to the output power conditioner; the power system includes an inverter or energy storage device A portion of the power output from the output power terminal may be to an energy storage device, to a component of the power generation system, to multiple electrodes, or to an external load, or May be directed to the grid;

In one embodiment, the CIHT cell includes a hydrino-forming plasma cell, referred to as a hydrino plasma cell, where at least a portion of the optical power is converted to electricity by a photovoltaic converter. The high current may be DC, AC, or a combination thereof. The plasma gas may include at least one of a source of HOH catalyst such as H ₂ O and a source of H. An additional reasonable plasma gas is a mixture of at least one of H ₂ O, a source of H, H ₂ , a source of oxygen, O ₂ , and an inert gas such as a noble gas. The gas pressure may be in a range of at least one of about 0.001 Torr to 100 atm, 1 Torr to 50 atm, and 100 Torr to 10 atm. The voltage may be as high as within at least one range of about 50 V to 100 kV, 1 kV to 50 kV, and 1 kV to 30 kV. The current may be in a range of at least one of about 0.1 mA to 100 A, 1 mA to 50 A, and 1 mA to 10 A. The plasma may include arcs with much higher currents, such as those in at least one range of about 1 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 50 kA, and 1 kA to 20 kA. In one embodiment, a high current accelerates the hydrino reaction rate. In one embodiment, the voltage and current are AC. The drive frequency may be an audible frequency, such as in the range of 3 kHz to 15 kHz. In one embodiment, the frequency is in a range of at least one of about 0.1 Hz to 100 GHz, 100 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 kHz to 10 GHz, 1 MHz to 1 GHz, and 10 MHz to 1 GHz. . At least one electrode conductor exposed to the plasma gas may provide electron heat and field emission to support the arc plasma.

  In one embodiment, the cell includes a high voltage power source that is applied to achieve breakdown in a plasma gas that includes a source of H and a source of HOH catalyst. The plasma gas may include at least one of a source of water vapor, hydrogen, oxygen, and an inert gas such as a noble gas such as argon. High voltage power may include direct current (DC), alternating current (AC), and mixtures thereof. Breakdown in the plasma gas causes the conductivity to increase significantly. The power source can be high current. High currents at voltages below the breakdown voltage are applied to cause H catalysis of H to catalyze hydrinos at high speeds with direct current (DC), alternating current (AC), and May contain a mix of them.

Examples of high current plasma cells include a HOH catalyst and a plasma gas capable of forming H. The plasma gas includes a source of HOH and a source of H, such as H ₂ O and H ₂ gas. The plasma gas may further include additional gases that allow, enhance, or maintain the HOH catalyst and H. Another reasonable gas is a noble gas. The cell includes at least one of at least one of a set of electrodes, at least one antenna, at least one RF coil, and at least one microwave cavity that may include the antenna, and further includes: It includes at least one breakdown power source such as that capable of generating sufficient ion, electron, or voltage energy to cause an electrical breakdown of the gas. The voltage may be within at least one range of about 10 V to 100 kV, 100 V to 50 kV, and 1 kV to 20 kV. The plasma gas may initially be in a liquid state as well as in a gas state. Plasma includes Shirezu may be formed in a solvent that is liquid H _{2 O,} or the liquid H _{2 O.} The gas pressure is about 0.001 Torr to 100 atm, 0.01 Torr to 760 Torr, and 0.1 Torr to 100 Torr. May be within at least one of the ranges. The cell may include at least one secondary source of power that provides high current once breakdown is achieved. High current may also be supplied by a breakdown power source. Each of the power sources may be DC or AC. The range of any frequency may be within at least one of about 0.1 Hz to 100 GHz, 100 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 kHz to 10 GHz, 1 MHz to 1 GHz, and 10 MHz to 1 GHz. unknown. The high current may be in the range of at least one of about 1 A to 100 kA, 10 A to 100 kA, 1000 A to 100 kA, 10 kA to 50 kA. The high discharge current density is from 0.1 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 10 A / cm ² to 1,000, It may be in the range of at least one of 000 A / cm ² , 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , and 1 kA / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² . In one embodiment, at least one of the breakdown and secondary high current power sources may be applied intermittently. Intermittent frequencies are approximately 0.001 Hz to 1 GHz, 0.01 Hz to 100 MHz, 0.1 Hz to 10 MHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, and 10 Hz to 100 kHz. May be within at least one of the following ranges. The duty cycle may be in a range of at least one of about 0.001% to 99.9%, 1% to 99%, and 10% to 90%. In one embodiment, including an AC power source such as RF and a DC power source, the DC power source is separated from the AC power source by at least one capacitor. In one embodiment, a source of H to form a hydrino, such as at least one of H ₂ and H ₂ O, maintains a hydrino element relative to the output power, ie, the hydrino power element provides input electrical power. Is supplied to the cell at a rate that gives a desired cell gain like that.

In one embodiment, the plasma gas is replaced by liquid H ₂ O that may be pure or may include a solution of an aqueous salt such as brine. The solution is incident with AC excitation or microwave excitation such as high frequency radiation such as RF. An excited medium containing H ₂ O, such as brine, may be placed between the RF transmitter and receiver. The RF transmitter or antenna receives RF power from an RF generator that can generate an RF signal of power and frequency that can be absorbed by a medium containing H ₂ O. The cell and excitation parameters may be one of those of this disclosure. In one embodiment, the RF frequency may be in the range of about 1 MHz to 20 MHz. The RF excitation source may further include a matching circuit or tuning circuit to match the impedance of the load to the transmitter. The metal particles may be suspended in H ₂ O or saline. The incident power is about 0.1 W / cm ² to 100 kW / cm ² , 0.5 W / cm ² to 10 kW so as to cause an arc in the plasma due to the interaction of incident radiation with the metal particles. / Cm ² , and may be as high as within at least one range of 0.5 W / cm ² to 1 kW / cm ² . The size of the metal particles may be adjusted to optimize arc formation. A reasonable particle size is in the range of about 0.1 μm to 10 mm. The arc carries a high current that causes the hydrino reaction to occur at a high reaction rate. In another embodiment, the plasma gas comprises of H _{2 O} as H 2 _O above, and the cell is a metal object that also the incident radiation with high frequencies such as RF or microwave Including. The sharp field sharp point on the metal object causes an arc in the plasma gas containing H ₂ O with high hydrino reaction rate enhancement.

In one embodiment, the high current plasma includes an arc. Arc plasma may have distinctive features compared to glow discharge plasma. In the former case, the electron and ion temperatures may be similar, and in the latter case, the electron thermal energy may be much greater than the ion thermal energy. In one embodiment, the arc plasma cell includes a pinch plasma. A plasma gas such as that containing H ₂ O is maintained at a pressure sufficient to form an arc plasma. The pressure may be high, such as in the range of about 100 Torr to 100 atm. In one embodiment, breakdown and high current power supply may be the same. The arc has a high current, such as that which may increase as the resistance and voltage decrease, with the formation and maintenance of the arc, where the current is in the range of about 0.1 mA to 100,000 A, and the power supply comprising a plurality of capacitors including a bank of capacitors which can be from about 1 kV to supply a high voltage such as a voltage in the range of 50 kV, the high pressure H ₂ in _O containing of H _{2 O} liquid May be formed with. The voltage may be increased by connecting capacitors in series, but the capacitance may also be increased by connecting capacitors in parallel to achieve the desired high voltage and current. The capacitance may be sufficient to maintain the plasma for long durations such as 0.1 s to longer than 24 hours. The power circuit may have additional elements to maintain the arc once the secondary high current power source is formed. In one embodiment, the power supply includes a plurality of banks of capacitors that may continuously supply power to the arc, where each discharged bank of capacitors is given a charged charge. As the bank capacitors are discharged, they may be recharged by the changing power source. The multiple banks may be sufficient to maintain a steady state arc plasma. In another embodiment, the power supply that provides at least one of plasma breakdown and high current to the arc plasma includes at least one transformer. In one embodiment, the arc is established with a high DC repetition rate, such as in the range of about 0.01 Hz to 1 MHz. In one embodiment, the roles of cathode and anode may be reversed cyclically. The rate of reversal may be low so as to maintain the arc plasma. The alternating current cycle rate may be at least one of about 0 Hz to 1000 Hz, 0 Hz to 500 Hz, and 0 Hz to 100 Hz. The power supply may have a maximum current that maintains the hydrino reaction rate at the desired rate. In one embodiment, the high current is variable to control the hydrino generation output to provide a variable power output. The high current limit controlled by the power supply may be in the range of at least one of about 1 kA to 100 kA, 2 kA to 50 kA, and 10 kA to 30 kA. The arc plasma may have a negative resistance that includes a voltage behavior that decreases with increasing current. The plasma arc cell power circuit may comprise a form of positive phase impedance such as an electrical ballast to establish a stable current at the desired level. The electrode may have a desired shape to provide an electric field between them. Appropriate shapes are at least one of a central cylindrical electrode and an outer concentric electrode, a parallel plate electrode, and an opposing pin or cylinder. The electrode may provide at least one of electron heat and field emission at the electrode to support the arc plasma. High current densities such as about 10 ⁶ A / cm ² may be formed. The electrode is a refractory metal such as W or Mo and a material with a high melting point such as one from the group of carbon, and Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In groups May include at least one material that is less reactive with water, such as In one embodiment, the electrode may be movable. The electrodes may be placed in direct contact or proximity with each other and mechanically separated to initiate and maintain the arc plasma. In this case, the breakdown voltage is much smaller than if the electrodes are permanently separated with a fixed gap. The voltage applied to form the arc with the movable or gap adjustable electrode is within at least one range of about 0.1 V to 20 kV, 1 V to 10 kV, and 10 V to 1 kV. might exist. Electrode separation may be adjusted to maintain a stable arc at the desired current or current density.

In one embodiment, a catalyst comprising at least one of OH, HOH, O ₂ , nO, and nH (n is an integer) is generated in a water-arc plasma. The H ₂ O arc plasma cell power generator 100 is shown in FIG. 2B. The arc plasma cell 109 includes an insulator base 102 and a cell cell that can define an arc plasma chamber of the cell 109 capable of at least one of vacuum, atmospheric pressure, and pressure above atmospheric pressure. It includes two electrodes such as a center axial electrode 103 such as a central rod with a cap 111 and an outer cylindrical electrode 106. The cell 109 is supplied with an arc plasma gas or liquid such as H ₂ O. Instead, the electrodes 103 and 106 are immersed in an arc plasma gas or liquid such as H ₂ O contained in the bath 109. H ₂ O may be made more conductive to achieve arc breakdown at lower voltages by the addition of a source of ions such as ionic compounds that may decompose such as salts. unknown. Salts may include hydroxides or halides such as alkali hydroxides or halides or others of the present disclosure. The supply may be from a source such as a tank 107 having a line 110 and a valve 108 for gas or liquid to flow into the cell 109, and the exhaust gas to maintain at least one of the desired flow and pressure. , Flows from the cell through an outlet line 126 having at least one pressure gauge 115 and valve 116 where the pump 117 removes gas from the cell 109. In one embodiment, the plasma gas provides sufficient mass flow of reactants (mass flow) to the hydrino reaction to produce hydrino-based power at the desired level. Maintained in high flow conditions such as supersonic flow at pressures such as atmospheric pressure and higher pressures. A reasonable typical flow rate achieves a hydrino-based power that exceeds its input power. Instead, the liquid water may be in a cell 109, such as in a reservoir with electrodes like boundaries. The electrodes 103 and 106 are connected to a high voltage-high current power supply 123 through a cell power connector 124. The connection to the center electrode 103 may be through the base plate 101. In one embodiment, power supply 123 is supplied by another power supply, such as charging power supply 121, through connector 122. The high voltage-high current power supply 123 may include capacitors in banks that are in parallel to supply high capacitance and high current, and in series to supply high voltage, and The power supply 123 may include a plurality of such capacitor banks, where each is temporarily discharged to provide a power output that may approach a continuous output. And may be charged. The bank (s) of capacitors may be charged by the charging power supply 121.

In one embodiment, an electrode such as 103 may be powered by an AC power source 123 that is at a high frequency and such as that supplied by an RF generator such as a Tesla coil. May be high power. In another embodiment, the electrode 103 includes a microwave plasma torch antenna. Power and frequency may be one of the present disclosure, such as in the range of about 100 kHz to 100 MHz or 100 MHz to 10 GHz, and in the range of 100 W to 500 kW per liter. In one embodiment, the cylindrical electrode may include only the cell walls and may include an insulator such as quartz, ceramic, or alumina. The cell cap 111 may further include an electrode, such as a grounded or not installed electrode. The cell may be operated to form H ₂ O streamers or plasma arcs that at least partially cover the electrode 103 inside the arc plasma cell 109. Arcs or streamers may greatly increase the hydrino reaction rate.

In one embodiment, the arc plasma cell 109 is closed to confine the thermal energy release. The water inside the sealed cell is then in the standard state of a liquid and gaseous mixture according to the H ₂ O phase diagram for the desired operating temperature and pressure as known by those skilled in the art. The operating temperature may be in the range of about 25 ° C to 1000 ° C. The operating pressure may be in a range of at least one of about 0.001 atm to 200 atm, 0.01 atm to 200 atm, and 0.1 atm to 100 atm. Cell 109 may be a boiler, but at least one phase comprising heated water, superheated water, steam, and superheated steam flows out of steam outlet 114 and generates electricity. To a thermal or mechanical load such as a steam turbine. At least one of the processes of steam condensation and outlet flow cooling occurs with heat power transfer to the load, and the cooled steam or water is returned to the cell through return 112. Instead, make-up steam or water is returned. The system may be closed and a pump 113 such as a return pump or H ₂ O recirculation that circulates H ₂ O in its physical phase acting as a coolant, and further May include. The cell may further include a heat exchanger 119 that may be on or in the outer cell wall that cools off at the coolant inlet 118 and exits hot at the coolant outlet 120 to remove heat energy in the coolant. . After that, the hot coolant is optionally a heat load or heat-mechanical power such as a steam engine with a generator or a heat-mechanical power converter such as a steam or gas turbine or a pure heat load. -Flows to the converter. Further typical converters from heat to mechanical or electrical power are Rankine or Brayton cycle engines, Stirling engines, thermionic and thermoelectric converters, and other systems known in the art. is there. Systems and methods from heat to at least one of mechanical and electrical conversion are also disclosed in Mills prior application, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

In one embodiment, electrodes 103 and 106, such as metal or carbon electrodes, such as tungsten or copper electrodes, may be fed into the cell 109 as they erode by the plasma. The electrodes may be replaced when fully eroded or may be replaced continuously. Corrosion products may be collected from the cell in a deposit-like form and recycled into a new electrode. Thus, the arc plasma cell power generator further comprises an electrode corrosion product recovery system 105, an electrode regeneration system 104, and a regenerated electrode continuous system. A regenerated electrode continuous feed 125. In one embodiment, at least one electrode that is prone to major corrosion, such as the cathode, such as the central electrode 103, may be regenerated by the systems and methods of the present disclosure. For example, the electrode may be Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge with a corresponding oxide that may be reduced by at least one of H ₂ treatment, heating, and heating under vacuum. , Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and It may contain one metal selected from In. The regeneration system 104 may include a furnace for melting at least one of oxide and metal and casting or extruding electrodes from the regenerated metal. Systems and methods for metal smelting and forming or rolling are well known to those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, the regeneration system 104 may include an electrolytic cell, such as a molten salt electrolysis cell containing metal ions, where the electrode metal is well known in the art. May be plated on the electrode by electroplating using the systems and methods that are described.

In one embodiment of a plasma cell, such as the arc plasma cell 109 shown in FIG. 2B, the H ₂ O arc plasma cell outputs high optical power, and the light is photovoltaic. It is converted into electricity by the power converter. In one embodiment, the cell cap 111 includes a photovoltaic power converter that receives high optical power and converts it to electricity. In one embodiment, the at least one electrode 103 and 106 includes a grid electrode that is at least partially transparent to light. Transparency may be due to the gap between the conductive sections of that electrode. A photovoltaic converter is placed behind the grid electrode to convert light power into electricity. In another embodiment, electrodes 103 and 106 include parallel plates. The parallel plate electrode may be confined within a cell 109 that may be sealed. High optical power may be received by a photovoltaic converter that is transverse to the plane formed by the electrodes. The photovoltaic converter may include a photovoltaic cell and may further include a window that is transparent to the optical power to protect the cell from damage from arc plasma pressure waves. Support at least one of an arc plasma and plasma, such as a plasma containing H ₂ O, and at least one region for light penetration to a photovoltaic converter such as those known by those skilled in the art. Including other embodiments of electrode configurations and designs and electrodes are within the scope of this disclosure.

  In one embodiment, the hydrino cell includes a pinch plasma source to form hydrino continuous emission. The cell includes a cathode, an anode, a power supply, and at least one of a source of HOH catalyst and a source of hydrogen to form a pinch plasma. The plasma system may include a dense plasma focus source, such as those known in the art. The plasma current may be very high, such as greater than 1 kA. The plasma may be an arc plasma. The distinguishing feature is that the plasma gas contains H and at least one of HOH or H catalyst, and the plasma conditions may be optimized to give hydrogen continuous emission. In one embodiment, the optical power is converted to electricity by the photovoltaic converter 106a or 111.

I. Photovoltaic optical to electric power converter (Photovoltaic Optical to Electric Power Converter)
In the alternative plasma power converter 306 of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 2A, the plasma generated by ignition of the solid fuel 303 is highly ionized. Similar to the energy released in forming hydrinos, hydrino catalytic reactions such as those given by equations (6-9) and (44-47) result in the ionization of the fuel. Ions recombine with free electrons to emit light. Additional light is emitted by disrupting excited states of atoms, ions, molecules, compounds, and materials. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction releases soft X-ray continuous radiation that is converted to black body visible light emission in an optically thick medium. The light enters the photovoltaic converter 306. Photovoltaic power converter 306 is connected to output power controller / conditioner 307, respectively, by cathode and anode output power connectors 308a and 308, respectively. A cathode 306c and an anode 306b are included. The light may be received by a photon-to-electric converter 306, such as a photovoltaic tile inside the vacuum chamber 301. The photovoltaic power converter receives cold coolant through a photovoltaic coolant inlet line 319 and rejects hot coolant through the photovoltaic coolant outlet line 320, It may be cooled by at least one heat exchanger 318. The SF-CIHT cell optical power to photovoltaic conversion provided here also applies to arc and high DC, AC, and DC-AC mixed currents with optical power photovoltaic conversion. Is done.

a. Solid fuel injection system (Solid Fuel Injection System)
In one embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, solid fuel is fed into the SF-CIHT generator by gravity. The fuel flow system may include a gravity flow system. Gravitational flow occurs from a helical cutting edge, a rotating gear that may receive fuel into the gear teeth from the bottom of the chute at the bottom of the hopper 305, and from the bottom of the chute at the bottom of the hopper 305. It may include a feeder mechanism such as at least one of a pair of gears or rollers 302a that may receive fuel in the gear teeth. The solid fuel may be dispensed from a rolling drum reservoir that includes an Archimedian screw as commonly known in the art of concrete mixers. In an alternative embodiment, fuel 303 is injected into electrode 302 that causes the fuel to be ignited. Electrode 302 is a movable element such as a roller, gear, piston, and “photovoltaic power generator system and method” filed on Apr. 1, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. May include at least one of the other embodiments described in the PCT / US14 / 32584 PCT application entitled The roller 302a may have a height or width to radius ratio within at least one range of about 0.0001 to 100,000, 0.001 to 10,000, and 0.01 to 1000. The length to radius ratio of the roller is such that the plasma is allowed to expand so that light is emitted into the photovoltaic converter so that at least one of the light is not disturbed from the photovoltaic converter. So that the density of the fuel is lower than causing damage to the roller surface so that the blast pressure is allowed to dissipate with less resistance to the expansion of the compressed gas and confinement It may be selected so that the heat transfer is sufficient to prevent thermal damage and that the electrical conductivity is sufficient to avoid at least one of insufficient power loss and roller heating. Absent. The light collection system, such as the mirror and lens of the optical distribution system of the present disclosure, may be adapted to match the electrode shape and dimensions. The mirror may be parabolic to receive light from a light source such as a focal point such as a roller electrode having a length or width to radius ratio less than one. The mirror may be more parabolic or cylindrical to receive light from a more extended light source such as that including a roller electrode having a length or width to radius ratio greater than one. ) In one embodiment, the plasma may expand at at least one velocity that is greater than, less than, and equal to the speed of sound. In one embodiment, the injection system includes means for electrically charging the fuel and means for electrically accelerating the fuel toward the electrode 302. The means for filling the fuel may include a source of electrons, such as a filament, a coronal discharge, an electron gun, or other means known to those skilled in the art. The fuel may be filled at the injector at the base of the hopper 305 or at the injector hopper 305. An electrode 302, such as a gear 302a or roller, may be filled in the opposite position so that the fuel charged to the electrode is accelerated. The speed of the fuel is the time during which the voltage difference is applied in the case where the fuel charge at a source such as a hopper 305 or injector and the voltage difference between the electrodes 302, the particle size of the fuel, intermittent voltage is applied It may be controlled by controlling at least one of the pressure of the gas through which the fuel travels and the size of the fuel particles. The speed of the fuel may be controlled to overcome any pressure from an explosion of the previous sample of fuel. In one embodiment, the energy and power of the ignited fuel is primarily radiation (optical power), not pressure volume. In one embodiment, the pressure overpressure from the fuel explosion is at least one of less than 100 PSIg, less than 50 PSIg, less than 10 PSIg, less than 5 PSIg, less than 2 PSIg, and less than 1 PSIg. In one embodiment, the ejector is similar to those used in particle delivery in copies, air pollutant removal in electrostatic precipitators, and other such electrostatic technologies known to those skilled in the art. May utilize the system and method.

  In another embodiment, the fuel injection and fuel injector include pneumatic injection. The fuel 303 may be injected by a carrier gas such as an inert gas such as a noble gas such as argon. The fuel 303 may include powder that is removed from the hopper 305 by a mechanical feeder such as a gear or a helical cutting edge. In an exemplary embodiment, the hopper 305 has a tapered chute with a gear that rotates at the end of the chute, where the gear meter determines the rotational speed of the gear and the teeth. And a controlled flow of fuel (flow) based on the size of the cavity formed by the tooth bottom. The gas pressure may be controlled to overcome any pressure from an explosion of the previous sample of fuel. The pressure may be greater than any pressure from an explosion of the sample before the fuel. In one exemplary embodiment, since the blast pressure is less than about 3 PSIg, solid fuel is injected with a jet of argon at a higher pressure. In one embodiment, fuel 303 may be injected into electrode 302 by a combination of pneumatic and electrostatic injection by a corresponding system. The fuel may be transported and / or destined to the electrode 302 by a carrier gas such as a noble gas such as argon in a pneumatic injection system and by an electric field in an electrostatic injection system. In one embodiment, the fuel 303 or product may be transported and / or accelerated by a magnetic field from a magnetic field system. At least one of the fuel 303 or the product is magnetic or can be magnetized. In one embodiment, particles such as those of the carrier gas and product may be separated by a magnetic field that deflects the particles but not the gas. In one embodiment, the fuel is injected by at least one of mechanical, pneumatic, electrostatic and magnetic systems and methods. The injection system may include a feeder mechanism such as a rotating gear or a helical cutting edge that may receive fuel into its teeth from the bottom of the chute at the bottom of the hopper 305. The supplied fuel is injected by at least one of mechanical, pneumatic, electrostatic and magnetic systems and methods.

  Solid fuel may be injected to form a coating on the electrode. Spray coating is accomplished by at least one of mechanical, pneumatic, and electrostatic systems and methods. The solid fuel may be in a bulk state, such as a pile of ignited fuel that is rehydrated and picked up by at least one electrode and transported to a location that is subject to ignition. Rehydrated fuels are electrostatically charged at absorption, physisorption or physisorption, chemisorption, adhesion, suction, compression, thermal bonding, shrink bonding, at least one fuel and at least one electrode Formed by at least one of: electrostatic coupling, and magnetic coupling, where at least one fuel and at least one electrode may be magnetic or magnetized. It may be picked up as a coating.

  A schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator including a solid fuel slurry 5 source of solid fuel, a light distribution and photovoltaic converter system 26a is shown in FIGS. 2C and 2C1, and an applicator wheel. ) 27 is further shown in FIG. 2D, and the interior of the light distribution and photovoltaic converter system including the translucent mirror 23 and photovoltaic cell 15 is shown in FIG. 2E. The components of FIGS. 2C, 2C1, 2C2, and 2D may be equivalent to those of the first embodiment shown in FIGS. 1 and 2A and may be grouped in different structures. The system may further include new components that replace components that are not present in the first embodiment. Incorporating the structure and function of the components of the first embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the generator shown in FIGS. 2C, 2C1, 2C2, 2D, and 2E includes a cell 26 supported by structural support 1; Power is provided by motors 12 and 13 and is sent from a bearing 4a supported by bearing support 4 and from an electrical power source 2 that may receive power from an output power controller / conditioner 3. And electrical connections to each electrode such as bus bars 9 and 10. The solid fuel is lifted from the soot 5 and transported to the electrode 8 contact area where high current causes its ignition. The light is directed upwards due to the lower expansion resistance and fuel trajectory. The light directed downward is reflected upward by a parabolic mirror 14. The optical power generated by the ignition of the solid fuel passes through the window 20 and onto a light distribution and PV conversion system 26 that includes a translucent mirror 23 connected to be supported by fasteners 22. Where the mirror 23 in each stacked mirror in each column splits the incident high intensity and onto the output power terminal 6 and the output power controller / conditioner 3 on the bus bar 26b. Light is directed to the corresponding PV panel 15 of that column so that it is converted into electricity that is carried to The ignition product is a window wash line having a pressurized water flow by a drain pump 17 with water added to it that is consumed in forming the hydrino supplied by the water reservoir 11. From a rising line with a water jet 21 supplied by a (window wash line) 16, it is washed out of the window 20 by a stream (stream) like a gas stream. The ignition product is rinsed into the collection area 24 formed for its collection as the fuel is injected into the ignition and also to strip off the solid fuel from the rotating roller electrode 8. It is. The collected fuel rinsing liquid is pumped through the chute 25 by the rotational movement of the roller 8 and collected in the basket 5. Excess water is removed with a water sucking pump 18 through a water sucking line 9, where 樋 5 is vibrated and moved to facilitate recovery of excess water. At least one of the agitation may be done. The suction pump 18 may include a liquid centrifuge. The water is then pumped to the drain pump 17. The slurry consistency is adjusted to the desired viscosity. In one embodiment, the collected fuel rinse may be caused to flow down a chute that includes a screen, such as a metal screen with a pressure gradient. The higher pressure on the upper side of the slurry causes some of the water to separate from the slurry. The water may flow through the screen and may be collected by a pump such as the suction pump 18. The pressure gradient on the screen may be maintained by a gas pump. The gas pump may circulate the gas pumped through a gas jet that collects the ignition product and facilitates recirculation of the ignition product. Application of the slurry to the roller electrode 8 includes an applicator wheel 28 including an applicator flap 28 driven by an applicator wheel motor 30 through an applicator shaft 29. may be supported by an applicator such as (wheel) 27. The roller electrode may be groves in at least one of the landscape and portrait orientations to better hold solid fuel on its surface.

In one embodiment, the injection is achieved by coating at least one electrode comprising solid fuel. The coating may be aided and / or achieved by electrostatically charging the electrodes. The source of fuel for the coating may be a bulk accumulation or pile of fuel with at least one electrode in contact. In one embodiment, the electrode includes a roller in contact with the bulk fuel, such as at least one of a bulk reservoir, a slurry bath, and a paste bath. The roller may be coated by rotating through at least one of a fuel source such as a bulk reservoir, a slurry bath, and a paste bath. The fuel may stick to at least one roller due to an electrostatic charge applied to at least one of the fuel and the roller. Fuel may be absorbed on the rollers. The fuel may absorb H ₂ O to form an absorbent field such as a paste or slurry that sticks to at least one roller. The thickness of the slurry or paste may be controlled using a blade that trowels the fuel layer onto the roller at the desired thickness. Referring to FIG. 2D, the paste is padded at an angle greater than 90 degrees from the X axis defined by the tangential axis relative to the wheel with a positive axis in the direction of rotation of the wheel. Or it may be applied to an electrode such as the roller electrode 8 by an applicator wheel 27 with flexible appendages such as blades attached around it. The blade or spatula may pick up fuel paste from the reservoir 5, may come into contact with the roller electrode 8 by rotation, may apply a deforming pressure such that each bends, and with further rotation A trowel may be applied. In one embodiment, the solid fuel is applied and set to a desired thickness coating using a doctor blade. Solid fuel may flow from the reservoir to be applied by the doctor blade. Instead, the doctor blade may assist or facilitate the application of a layer of the desired thickness, but the fuel may be applied from a reservoir with a pump or a helical cutting edge. The coating may be applied using tape cast electrode methods and systems. In one embodiment, the electrode may be coated with a solid fuel paste by a wire brush such as a fuel applicator. The wire material, wire thickness, wire density, and wire elasticity in the wire brush may be selected to achieve the desired pick-up of the paste and application to the wheel electrode. In one embodiment, the coating uses a gear pump or paddle wheel system and method that injects fuel, such as paste or slurry, from the reservoir into the area of electrical contact of the pair of electrodes. May be applied. The injection may be due to the centrifugal force of the rotating pump element. In one embodiment, the fixed fuel paste may be applied to at least one electrode using another applicator, where the applicator wheel is driven by the roller electrode due to shrinkage of the cylindrical surface. May be driven. The electrode may be coated with the fuel paste from the reservoir by troweling or doctor blazing the fuel paste.

  In one embodiment, the means for coating fuel on the roller electrode may include a continuous moving slab fuel source that is transported into contact with the roller electrode. The movement of the fuel slab is achieved using a conveyor belt, a vibrating table, and a helical cutting edge that may have barbs to facilitate the application of fuel on the roller electrode. It may be. In one embodiment, the conveyor receives solid fuel from the reservoir. The conveyor may include at least a portion of the reservoir floor. The side of the reservoir may be sloped to act as a chute against the conveyor surface. The reservoir may have an adjustable height slot at the outlet to control the depth of solid fuel transported by the conveyor. The reservoir may be on an adjustable foot with the conveyor at the bottom to receive fuel at a depth determined by the foot height. In one embodiment, a conveyor that functions as a solid fuel applicator may include a belt, such as a timing belt or a drive belt with a mechanical one. The fuel may be applied onto the roller surface by at least one of slab compression and contact. The tangential speed of the slab may be made to closely match that of the roller electrode to which the fuel is applied. The relative speed may be adjusted to apply fuel on a moving electrode such as a rotating roller or gear electrode. The continuously moving slab fuel source may be at least one of a tape cast from a fuel reservoir such as a soot, or mechanically from the reservoir by means such as a conveyor and at least one of a helical cutting edge. May be picked up. The slab thickness may be set by a depth blade, such as a doctor blade, at the outlet of the fuel reservoir. In one embodiment, a conveyor that functions like a solid fuel applicator may include a belt such as a timing belt or a drive belt with a mechanical one. In one embodiment, a helical cutting edge that transports fuel, such as a slurry, is one type of positive displacement pump, a positive displacement pump, also known as a single screw pump, Includes an eccentric screw pump or a cavity pump.

In one embodiment, excess water is separated from the hydrated solid fuel by applying pressure over excess-water-containing slurry (pre-slurry). Is done. The pressure is applied mechanically and / or pneumatically. The mechanical pressure may be applied by a vibrator such as at least one of a vibrating table, a tank, and a transport device, and by a piston that presses onto the pre-slurry. Air pressure may be applied by pressurized gas in a sealed container containing pre-slurry. In one embodiment, the cell may be operated under sufficient pressure so that excess water is separated from the pre-slurry to form a slurry. In one embodiment, the pre-slurry is conveyed to at least one cell that may be sealed and the cell is pressurized with a gas such as argon. The gas pressure may be controlled to achieve the desired water separation. In one embodiment, the pre-slurry and at least one temperature of the slurry is a water soluble solid fuel compound, such as a water binding compound such as an alkaline earth or transition metal halide that forms a hydrate. May be controlled to control the solubility of. At least one of the metal and halide may be selected to achieve the desired solubility. In one exemplary embodiment of MgCl ₂ , fluoride may be selected for MgX ₂ (X = halide) to reduce the solubility of the water binding compound, where 25 ° C. The solubilities of MgX ₂ (X═F, Cl, Br) in moles / 100 g H ₂ O are 0.0002, 0.58, and 0.55, respectively. Excess water may be removed by pumping with a pump such as suction pump 18. Excess water may be achieved in multiple vessels that may be sealed. Separation may be in a batch process. Separation may be in different phases and continuously so that a continuous or periodic flow of slurry output is achieved. In another embodiment, the gas pressure is applied such that the pre-slurry is conveyed so that a more continuous flow of slurry is produced. The slurry may be conveyed to the slurry basket 5. The conveyance may be accomplished using at least one of a chute under gravity or pneumatic flow, a helical cutting edge, a conveyor, and a pump such as a uniaxial eccentric screw pump.

  In one embodiment, the fuel may be coated on an electrode such as at least one gear or roller. The fuel may be coated on the at least one electrode by a fuel applicator. In another embodiment, the fuel may include a slurry that can be mechanically pumped. The fuel may be pumped to coat at least one electrode, such as at least one gear or roller electrode. Alternatively, the fuel may be pumped to inject fuel into an electrode just proximal to the point where fuel ignition occurs. The fuel is moved by pumping the fuel from a position where at least one of collection and hydration is performed from a first position at -90 ° to a second position, such as -180 °, where ignition occurs. May be let go. In another embodiment, the fuel is fed centrally to the electrodes and is extruded, flushed, pumped, or otherwise transported to make a surface that makes electrical contact with a pair of opposing electrodes. Might reach. The electrodes may include rollers or gears, and the conveyance may be radial from the central input area. The flow may be due to centrifugal forces where electrodes such as rollers or gears may rotate.

  In another embodiment shown in FIGS. 2C, 2C1, 2C2, 2D, and 2E, the ignition is automatically triggered by the presence of fuel that sufficiently reduces the resistance of the 8 electrode turns to allow ignition ( auto-triggered). The fuel may be injected into the electrode at that rate to achieve the desired rate of ignition. Photovoltaic converter 26a functions as a source of low voltage, high current DC power that is reasonable enough to re-power electrode 8 to cause ignition of subsequently supplied fuel. Might do. The power from the electrical power source 2 supplying the electrode 8 may be reflected back to the electrical power source 2 when the fuel ignites to create a high relative resistance such as that of an open circuit. unknown. Referring to FIG. 2C1, the electrical power source 2 may include a storage element such as a capacitor or battery 27 to receive and store the reflected power used for another ignition. The ignition system may further include a DC power supply with a DC regeneration device 33.

  The generator may be started by the start-up battery 27 and starter circuit 28 of FIG. 2C1. As an alternative to the battery, the initial startup energy may be applied by a capacitor such as one of the output power controller / conditioner 3. The capacitor may include a super capacitor and may have a frequency response that is compatible with the desired firing frequency. The firing frequency may be in at least one of the following ranges: 1 Hz to 10 MHz, 10 Hz to 1 MHz, 100 Hz to 100 kHz, and 1 kHz to 10 kHz. Internal loads such as motors and pumps may be initially powered by a startup power source. Following startup, the ignition and internal power load may be powered by the photovoltaic converter 26a. The voltage output by the photovoltaic converter 26a to at least one of the internal and external loads may be high to reduce resistance loss. DC power may be provided in at least one variable frequency drive 36 to provide appropriate input power to an internal load such as at least one motor or pump. The PV output may be directed to at least one servo drive to power at least one servo motor, such as the piezoelectric actuator and roller motors 11 and 12, of the present disclosure to control ignition. unknown. The DC PV output may be regulated with at least one of a DC / DC, AC / DC, and DC / AC converter. The output power to the internal and external loads may be AC converted from the DC output of the PV converter 26a by the DC / AC power inverter 35. The converted DC power may be stored in a DC power power store 34.

The electrical power source 2 and the start-up battery or capacitor (eg, part of 27 or 3) may be recharged by the photovoltaic converter 26a and may include the photovoltaic converter 26a. The range of the peak power of the electrical power source 2 and the start-up battery or capacitor may be within the range given by the product of the voltage and current ranges.
The voltage may be in the range of about 4V to 20V, and the current may be in the range of about 5000A to 30,000A. The peak power may be in the range of about 20 kW to 600 kW. The time average power may be given by multiplying the energy required to ignite the fuel by the ignition frequency. The average energy for igniting the fuel may be in the range of about 1 J to 500 J, and the ignition frequency may be in the range of about 1 Hz to 100 kHz. The time average power may be in the range of about 1 W to 50 MW. Duty cycle may be given by the ratio of time average power to peak power. The duration of the ignition input power flow is given by the energy to achieve ignition divided by the peak power. Some operating parameters are given in Table 7.

  Switching may be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). . Instead, the ignition may be mechanically switched. As the fuel accumulates so that a high current flows to cause ignition, the fuel may trigger switching where the conductivity between the electrodes falls. Switching may be controlled by a microcontroller. Microcontrollers not only fuel injection / delivery, fuel recovery, fuel regeneration, power regulation, power output, cooling, and plasma-to-electric converter performance, but also frequency, duty cycle, voltage, current, power, pulse peak, May control power, pulse duration.

In one embodiment, the fuel may include powder. The fuel may contain a highly electrically conductive matrix such as metal endnotes and H ₂ O. The fuel further includes a material that combines with H ₂ O, such as a hydrous compound. Typical hydrous compounds are halides such as alkaline earth halides such as MgCl ₂ and oxides such as transition metal oxides. Solid fuels include low melting point metals such as Zn, Sn, and In, Ti alloys such as TiAl, Ti, TiFe, TiV, TiMo, TiC, molybdenum-titanium-zirconium (TZM) alloys, and TiN and H _2. A combination of O ₂ and H ₂ O sources. In one embodiment, Ag, Cu, and noble metals as solid fuel conductors have low voltages, such as in the range of 4 to 15 V, and about 5,000 A to 35,000 A to cause ignition. It has a sufficiently low resistance regardless of exposure to metal air to support high currents such as in the range.

In one embodiment, the H ₂ O based solid fuel includes chemical components that change the surface tension of the mixture. The component may comprise a water-binding compound such as an alkaline earth halide or linear halide such as MgX ₂ (X = F, Cl, Br, I) or a metal halide or oxide such as a linearizer. Changes in surface tension may facilitate better sticking of the mixture to the rollers of the ignition system.

A reasonable typical H ₂ O based solid fuel is (75 mg) (30 μl of aluminum crucible, D: 6.7 mm × 3 mm (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D: 6. 7 mm, stamped, airtight (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409) -like aluminum DSC pan-like metal case-like Ti + H ₂ O, Cu + H in DSC pan ₂ O, Cu + CuO + H ₂ O in DSC pan, Ag + MgCl ₂ · 6H ₂ O in DSC pan, Ag + NH ₄ NO ₃ + H ₂ O, NH ₄ NO ₃ + H ₂ O + in DSC pan Al, NH ₄ NO ₃ in the DSC pan, NH ₄ NO ₃ + fuel oil, NH ₄ NO ₃ + fuel oil + Al, It is those from the group of and _{Ti + Al + ZnCl 2 + H} 2 O. Reaction mixtures include oxides such as metal oxides, hydroxides such as metal hydroxides, borates, metaborate, molybdate, tungstate, stannate, phosphate, and sulfuric acid. It may further comprise at least one of a compound such as an ionic compound containing an oxyanion such as a salt. At least one of the oxide, hydroxide, and oxygen containing compounds may include a hydrate or may include hydrated water. The fuel may contain M + M′X ₂ + H ₂ O content +/− hydrocarbons (M = transition metal, Ag; M ′ = alkaline earth metal, Zn; X = halogen). The metal may have a positive to slightly negative free energy for the oxidation reaction with H ₂ O, or may be non-reactive. Typical metals are Ni, Cu, Ag, Mo, Co, and Sn. The metal may comprise at least one alloy such as one of at least two metals from the group of Ni, Cu, Ag, Mo, Co, Sn, and noble metals. A typical alloy is AgCu. The fuel may include powder. Reasonable typical hydrocarbon veil solid fuels are those from the group of paraffin wax in DSC pans and synthetic oil 10W40 in DSC pans. The reaction mixture may be operated under vacuum, ambient pressure, pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, the electrodes may be coated with a layer of metal that protects them from melting and explosion damage. The coating may comprise a solid fuel metal such as Ti. The metal may have protection because it has at least one of having a higher melting point and being harder. The coating may be thin so that the electrical resistance is low. The metal may be the same as that of electrodes such as Cu metal and Cu electrodes.

  In one embodiment, a material, such as a compound, provides directional electrostatic injection of solid fuel into the electrode, blast product repulsion from the light distribution system, and blast product collection and blasting. Added to the solid fuel so as to facilitate at least one of the transportation of the goods to the recycling system.

In one embodiment, H ₂ O is injected into at least one on the plasma formation region and the electrode. The electrode may include a rough surface such as that with adhered metal powder. The rough electrode may cause the sprayed water to stick to facilitate transport of H ₂ O into the ignition zone. A rough surface may be formed by coating the wheel with a metal ending and by allowing the heat of ignition to melt or bond the metal to an electrode, such as a wheel electrode. The water may be injected using the presently disclosed water recirculation system. A typical H ₂ O recirculation system shown in FIG. 2C includes a trough 5, a water sucking line 19, a water sucking pump 18, an exhaust pump 17, A jet water line 16, a rinsing line with jets 21, a scraper and collection area 24, and a chute 25 are included.

A reasonable typical H ₂ O based solid fuel is a highly conductive matrix such as a metal such as metal powder and H ₂ O, H ₂ O bonded compounds, oxides, hydroxides, And at least one of a hydrate such as a halide and a metal hydrate. The metal powder may include at least one of a transition metal, an internal transition metal, Ag, Al, and other metals of the present disclosure. Metal may be applied as part of the solid fuel of the present disclosure. The metal may include a case of solid fuel pellets. The metal may include hydrogen dissociators such as Ni, Ti, and noble metals. Fuel is M + M′X ₂ + H ₂ O content +/− hydrocarbon (M = transition metal, Sn, Ag; M ′ = alkaline earth metal, transition metal, Ni, Zn; X = halogen) May include. Typical solid fuels are Ti, Ag, Ni, or at least one of Sn + MgCl ₂ and ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O, MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, ZnCl ₂ 6H ₂ O and Ni + NiCl ₂ 6H ₂ O is there. In one embodiment, the fuel H ₂ O may be added by steam treatment of the solid fuel. In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes a hydroxide that has a reversible reaction from oxide to hydroxide with the addition of H ₂ O. Reasonable oxides are alkaline earth oxides such as Al ₂ O ₃ and MgO, and transition metal oxides such as NiO. In one embodiment, the solid fuel containing hydroxide is further NiCl which provides a halide-hydroxide exchange such as that given by formula (185-186) to form H and then hydrino. containing ₂ or halide, such as transition metal halides or alkali metal halides such as MgCl _2, such as ZnCl _2.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes H ₂ O and an H ₂ O binding compound such as those of the present disclosure, and at least one of H ₂ O and a conductive matrix. In one embodiment, the conductive matrix includes at least one of graphene and superconductor.

In one embodiment, H 2 _O-based solid fuel, may include a metal that may react with H _{2 O} to form the oxide and H _2. At least one metal oxide may be prevented from forming, and the metal oxide that forms may be reduced to metal and H ₂ O by application of hydrogen. The ignition may be operated under a hydrogen atmosphere. The plasma formed by ignition may form atomic hydrogen. Atomic hydrogen may have a much higher reactivity than H ₂ for at least one of inhibiting metal oxide formation and reducing any formed metal oxide. The cell atmosphere may contain inert gases such as noble gases such as hydrogen and argon. The cell atmosphere may be at any desired pressure, such as within at least one range of about 0.1 Torr to 100 atm, 10 Torr to 50 atm, and 1 atm to 10 atm. The H ₂ may be in any desired molar ratio, such as in at least one range of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 75%, and 10% to 50%. In an exemplary embodiment, the H ₂ O based solid fuel may include Ti + MgCl ₂ + H ₂ O operation under a H ₂ and argon cell atmosphere. The ignition plasma forms H atoms that prevent the formation of titanium oxide and may react with the titanium oxide to form Ti and H ₂ O. In one embodiment, a high current of the present disclosure, such as in the range of about 100 A to 1 MA, maintains a plasma that maintains atomic hydrogen to be reduced. In one embodiment, the oxidation of titanium is limited to the 2+ state as in the case of TiO due to atomic hydrogen that may be sustained by the plasma. Additional examples of fuel operation under H ₂ that may optionally include a noble gas such as krypton to prevent metal oxidation are Al + MgCl ₂ + H ₂ O, Al + Ti + MgCl ₂ + H ₂ As one of the present disclosures such as at least one transition metal such as O, Fe or Ti and an alkaline earth halide such as Al + MgX ₂ or CaX ₂ (X = F, Cl, Br, I) A water-containing compound.

In one embodiment, where the metal oxide is formed by oxidation of a H ₂ O based solid fuel, the generator further includes a separation that reduces the metal oxide to metal, such as a hydrogen plasma chamber and a hydrogen gas reduction chamber. May include a modified plasma chamber.

In another embodiment, the formation of at least one metal oxide of the H ₂ O based solid fuel is inhibited and the metal oxide is reduced to a metal by reaction with carbon. Metal oxide formation may be prevented and reversed by carbohydrate-reduction. The carbon may include graphite or activated carbon. In an exemplary embodiment, where any titanium oxide formation is suppressed and any titanium oxide formation is reduced to Ti by reaction with carbon, the H ₂ O based solid fuel is Ti + MgCl ₂ + May contain H ₂ O. In one embodiment, the stabilization of at least one metal of the H ₂ O based solid fuel may protect or stabilize against oxidation by at least one of H reduction and carbohydrate-reduction. . At least one of protection and stabilization may be achieved by the addition of hydrocarbons such as gasoline, diesel fuel, wax, kerosene, and oil. The hydrocarbon may function as a source of carbon for carbohydrate-reduction, and the hydrocarbon may function as a source of hydrogen for H reduction. In one embodiment, TiO is electrically conductive and is formed from at least one of a higher oxide H of Ti and a carbohydrate-reduction. TiO may contain a layer that is protective against further oxidation. In one embodiment, the solid fuel may further include a conductive oxide such as TiO, ZnO, SnO, cobalt oxide, and LiCoO ₂ . In another embodiment, the H ₂ O based solid fuel comprises titanium oxide (TiO), titanium nitride (TiN), titanium carbonitride (TiCN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium aluminum nitride (TiAlN), And a metal such as Al or Ti coated with a conductive coating such as at least one of titanium-aluminum carbonitride. In one embodiment, the coating protects the conductive matrix material from oxidation by reacting with at least one of oxygen and water. In another embodiment, the conductive matrix of the H ₂ O-based solid fuel includes titanium oxide (TiO), titanium nitride (TiN), titanium carbonitride (TiCN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium-aluminum nitride ( TiAlN) and at least one conductive compound such as titanium / aluminum carbonitride. In one embodiment, the compound comprises at least one of being non-reactive and resistant to being oxidized by reacting with at least one of oxygen and water. Additional such coatings or compounds include In ₂ O ₃ and SnO ₂ or indium tin oxide such as a mixture of aluminum, gallium, or indium doped zinc oxide.

In one embodiment, the metal of the H ₂ O based solid fuel is an alloy. The oxides of the alloy may be more susceptible to reductions such as H reduction or carbo-reduction than that of one metal of the alloy. The alloy may include Ti such as at least one of Pt-noble metals, Ti-Pt, Ti-other transition metals, TiCu, and Ti-Ni. The alloy may include at least two elements capable of H ₂ O metal reaction to assist in the generation of H hydrino reactants such as TiAl alloys and molybdenum-titanium-zirconium (TZM) alloys. Both Ti and Al may be protected from oxidation by the presence of hydrogen in the ignition plasma as provided in this disclosure.

Carbo-reduction may include CO ₂ and CO ₂ . The carbon consumed to form the product may be replaced in the cell as in the H ₂ O based solid fuel. The product may be trapped and removed from the cell. CO and CO ₂ may be removed with a scavenger, scrubber, or getter. CO and CO ₂ may be removed by a reversible chemical reaction. In one embodiment, the cell includes a device that absorbs carbon dioxide (CO ₂ ), a carbon dioxide scrubber, to remove the CO ₂ that is formed during the carbohydrate-reduction. Scrubbers are systems and methods known to those skilled in the art such as amine scrubbing, minerals and zeolites such as sodium hydroxide or lithium hydroxide, regenerated carbon dioxide removal systems, and activated carbon. May include. The scrubber reaction may be reversible as at high temperatures. Thermally reversible scrubber (scrubber) reaction, amines such as monoethanolamine binding reversibly to CO _2, oxides for carbonate loops, or may include hydroxides about causticizing (causticization) alternative to thermochemical process is an electrical process that the nominal voltage is applied across the carbonate solution to release the CO _2.

In one embodiment, the applied voltage with high current exceeds the corresponding threshold energy for breaking the H ₂ O OH bond. Bond breaking provides a source of H atoms to form hydrinos. The energy may be in a range such as at least one of about 2 V to 10 V, 3 V to 8 V, 4 V to 6 V, and 4 V to 5 V. The high current may be in the range of about 5,000 A to 35,000 A. In another embodiment, H ₂ O may react with metals such as Mg, Al, and Ti to form the corresponding oxide and hydrogen. In one embodiment, an additional source of power is applied to the ignition plasma to form atomic hydrogen from a source such as H ₂ O. The additional power may be at least one of microwave, RF, glow discharge and other sources of plasma power of the present disclosure. Additional power may further include lasers such as those selective to excitation of H ₂ O H—O bonds that cause H—O bonds to break to form H atoms. . The laser wavelength may be infrared, such as in the range of about 1 μm to 10 μm. In an exemplary embodiment, the wavelength is about 2.9 μm. Typical lasers are gas lasers such as CO, CO ₂ , HCN, and C ₂ H ₂ gas lasers, solid state lasers such as rare earth doped chalcogenide glass fiber lasers, and GaAs or Group III-antimony It is a diode laser such as a chemical laser. The laser may be high power, continuous wave or pulsed.

  In one embodiment, the metal powder coating is or is allowed to adhere to an electrode such as a roller or gear to protect the electrode from damage from explosions. In one embodiment, at least one metal of the solid fuel may adhere to the electrode to protect the electrode from damage from explosions. Typical metals are transition metals such as Cu and Ti. The layer may be thin so that the resistance is kept low. Metal may accumulate continuously during operation. The electrode may be adjustable to be self-adjusting to accept size changes in the electrode, such as an increase in radius over time. The electrode may have means for maintaining a constant size, such as at least one means of polishing or grinding the electrode surface intermittently or continuously. One means is a lathe or grinder that may be controlled by a controller, such as a computer controlled controller, to maintain the electrodes within a particular desired size tolerance. At least one electrode may be adjusted with a dressing wheel. Each electrode may have a dressing wheel to condition the surface. Each dressing wheel may be driven by a drive train such as at least one gear, where the drive system is at least one electric motor that may be controlled by a system such as a microprocessor. May be driven by. Alternatively, the at least one dressing wheel may be driven directly by an electric motor which may be controlled by a microprocessor or may be controlled by another control means. The dressing wheel may engrave a pattern on the electrode surface. The pattern may assist in sticking solid fuel to the surface. In one embodiment, the dressing wheel is driven by a separate motor that may rotate the dressing wheel in the opposite direction to that of the roller being dressed. In another embodiment, counter-rotation is counter-counted from a gearbox driven out of an electrode drive motor that also provides a variable speed gear that may be set to increase or decrease the speed of rotation relative to the roller speed. Achieved by gearing. In an alternative embodiment such as that shown in FIGS. 2C and 2D, one roller electrode 8 driven by a motor 12 or 13 functions as a dressing wheel for the other. In one embodiment, each roller 8 is driven by a motor 12 or 13 that is independently speed controlled. A typical computer controlled DC motor is a ClearPath by Technique (Teknic). In this case, the rotational speed of one roller may be controlled to be faster or slower relative to the other. A faster rotating roller may dress the other and vice versa. Each roller surface condition and rotational speed sensor may be controlled by a microprocessor-like controller and at least one sensor while also performing a dressing operation to maintain the desired fuel flow and ignition speed. . The space between the rollers may also be controlled by a controller such as a microprocessor. The space may be set to maintain the desired mechanical pressure to control the grinding or milling speed and to allow one rotation of the pair of rollers to be faster relative to the other. unknown. In another embodiment, the motor may include at least one of a pneumatic, hydraulic, internal, and electric motor, and an electric motor with a speed reduction-torque increase device. In one embodiment, the exhaust from the pneumatic motor is supplied to a solid fuel recovery and regeneration system, such as through duct 53 and perforated window 20c (FIGS. 2G1, 2G1a, 2G1b, and 2G1c). may be used to flow gas in the system).

  In one embodiment, the electrode may be protected with unexploded powder. Shape, fuel compressive strength, amount of fuel, fuel composition, ignition frequency, and charging may be varied to achieve the desired power output, where at least one of the gear and roller electrodes is protected. unknown. In one embodiment, the electrode at least partially contains an easily oxidized metal, such as at least one of Al, Zr, Mo, W, transition metal, and Ti. In an embodiment of the electrode having a low applied voltage, such as in the range of 4 V to 15 V, and having an oxidized coating, the current is 5,000 to 40,000 in the absence of the oxide coating. Very low compared to currents in the range of A. The region of the electrode has an oxidized region that is resistant to high currents, such that selective high current flow and selective explosion of fuel are achieved within the non-oxidized region. May be selectively oxidized to cause so. In one embodiment, an electrode shape that causes at least one of selective compression and charging of a fuel, such as a powdered fuel, results in a protective un-detonated powder of the electrode. In one embodiment, the electrode comprises a material that is resistant to explosion damage. Electrodes are cold formed of copper dispersion reinforced with aluminum oxide such as Luberta's Nitrode, copper chrome, copper chrome-zirconium, copper molybdenum, copper tungsten, and tungsten or molybdenum surface finish copper May contain alloys.

  In one embodiment, coolant such as water is flowed through an internal channel in the gear to cool it. The coolant and channel may be electrically isolated. At least one section of the coolant channel, coolant inlet, and coolant outlet may be non-electrically conductive to achieve electrical isolation. In one embodiment, the heat pipe is used to remove thermal energy from at least one component of the generator, such as at least one of an electrode and a photovoltaic converter.

The solid fuel of the present disclosure is at least one of a regenerated solid fuel or a hydrated solid fuel formed by processing a solid fuel product where at least H ₂ O is added to the product for fuel reforming. May include one.

b. Solid Fuel Regeneration System Referring to FIG. 2A, the ignition product may be moved to the regeneration system 314. The product is rehydrated and reused as fuel. The fuel can be monitored online or in batch for H ₂ O content by means such as at least one of infrared and Raman spectroscopy. The fuel or product may be conveyed by at least one of mechanical, pneumatic, and electrostatic systems and methods. The conveying device may include a mechanical product removal device / fuel loading device, such as at least one of a helical cutting edge and a conveyor belt. The pneumatic product remover / fuel loader 313 may include a source of gas pressure above or below the average of ambient pressure to cause fuel particles to be transported. The system may move the particles by blowing or sucking. The particles may be separated from the gas by at least one of a cyclone separator, a filter, and a sedimentation separator. The electrostatic product remover / fuel loader 313 may include means for moving the fuel by creating an electric field that accelerates the fuel particles and means for filling the fuel. The means for establishing an accelerating electric field may include a series of electrodes, such as electrodes such as wire grid electrodes, that are full of holes and can be filled with powder. Filling may be controlled to cause an electrostatic or partially electrostatic electric field. In one embodiment, the electrodes may be continuously filled to move the powder continuously along a path determined by the position and timing of electrode filling. In one embodiment, the timing of the electric field positioning is used to move the filled powder between the electrodes. Product remover / fuel loader 313 may include mechanical, pneumatic, and electrostatic systems and methods. For example, the system can be electrostatically charged, such as a spiral cutting edge or conveyor belt that may then be charged to cause adhesion of fuel particles or charged products that are mechanically conveyed. May include a mechanical transport device. The particles are released by applying a reverse charge or by discharging.

In one embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the product of solid fuel ignition is conveyed in at least one of the product remover / fuel loader 313 along the chute 306a, actively or passively. Is done. The floor of the chute 306a may be sloped so that the product flow is at least partially in gravity flow. Chute 306a may include the systems and methods of the present disclosure to convey products such as at least one of mechanical, pneumatic, and electrostatic systems and methods. In an exemplary embodiment, the floor of chute 306a may be at least one of mechanically vibrated, shaken, or vibrated to assist the flow. The floor of the chute 306a is a conveyor, shaker, scraper, helical cutting edge, source of suction for moving the product from the area where it is collected into the product removal device-fuel filling device 31 And at least one of a mechanical and pneumatic system for conveying a product, such as at least one of the blowers. The fuel may be rehydrated as it is transported to and stored in the product remover / fuel loader 313. Cell 301 may include a reasonable partial pressure above H ₂ O to achieve the desired degree of rehydration. In one embodiment, an electrode, such as a gear or roller 302a, extends partially into the product remover / fuel loader 313 so that the electrode is a rehydrated product containing regenerated fuel. Contact with at least some of the. The fuel may be in the form of a slurry or paste so that it sticks to the gear or roller electrode 302a. The product remover / fuel loader 313 further includes a doctor blade, trowel, tape casting system, jetting device, and electrostatic electrode for applying a coating to the gear or roller electrode 302a. It may include the system of the present invention such as at least one filling device. In one embodiment, product remover / fuel loader 313 further includes a system for troweling or applying solid fuel onto electrode 302, such as a roller or gear electrode 302a. In one embodiment, product remover / fuel loader 313 functions as regeneration system 314 and hopper 305. The product remover / fuel loader 313 inlet and outlet may not be required in this embodiment.

  In one embodiment, the regeneration system 314 and product remover / fuel loader 313 of FIG. 2A are shown in FIGS. 2C and 2D, as shown in FIGS. It is replaced by a water rinsing and recirculation system such as water line 16, jet rinsing line 21, scraper and collection area 24, and chute 25.

In one embodiment, cell 301 (FIG. 2A) and cell 26 (FIG. 2C) may have an atmosphere that may include water vapor. The water vapor may hydrate the solid fuel. The cell atmosphere may contain a controlled amount of water vapor to rehydrate the fuel. Solids such as those to be sprayed, including coatings such as paste coatings, including bulk materials, including baths such as slurry baths, and including suspensions The H ₂ O content of the fuel may be adjusted to a desired level by controlling such as at least one of the degree of dehydration or drying and the degree of rehydration. In any case, the degree of rehydration is controlled by controlling at least one of H ₂ O vapor pressure, the temperature of the reaction mixture containing the ignition product and water vapor, and the time the product is exposed to water vapor. May be. In embodiments that include a solid fuel compound that is a hydrous compound such as at least one of an alkaline earth halide such as MgCl ₂ and ZnCl ₂ and forms a hydrate, the water vapor pressure is any significant degree. While maintaining the value to allow hydrate formation while preventing bulk H ₂ O absorption. In another example, the H ₂ O vapor pressure is maintained at a value that causes hydrates and deliquescent water to be absorbed. In an exemplary embodiment of a solid fuel comprising MgCl ₂ , the H ₂ O vapor pressure is kept below 30 Torr to selectively allow hydrate formation and above 30 Torr, H ₂ O and chemically bonded hydrated water were physically adsorbed. In one embodiment, the electrode temperature may be controlled so that excess H2O absorbed by the fuel is driven away prior to ignition. Using sensors for H ₂ O such as infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and conductivity, H ₂ O content can be monitored to achieve dominance in a feedback control loop. it can. In one embodiment, at least one of the H ₂ O vapors and another gas such as ammonia may be added as a cell gas that increases power output by relating the cell gas to a reaction to the hydrino form. May not be controlled. Another gas may provide at least hydrogen and may enhance the catalytic rate to form hydrinos.

The penetration of a pair of at least one electrode of a wet fuel, such as a hydrated bulk fuel or slurry, with at least one of the wet fuel layers may act as a heat sink to cool the at least one electrode. . In one embodiment, the electrode temperatures are about 25 ° C. to 2000 ° C., 100 ° C. to 1500 ° C., 200 ° C. to 1000 ° C., so that excess H 2 O absorbed by the fuel is driven away prior to ignition. And may be controlled in a range such as at least one of 300 ° C to 600 ° C. While the ignition is maintaining sufficient conductivity, such as might be achieved, H 2 _O content may be optimized to provide the maximum output energy.

In one embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the regeneration system 314 may include a fluidized bed. The fluid may include a suspended gas of fuel to be regenerated. The gas may contain a controlled amount of water vapor to rehydrate the fuel. In one embodiment, the regeneration system 314 comprises a moving bed reactor that may further include a fluidized reactor portion, where the reactants are continuously fed, by-products are removed, regenerated, and Return. The system may further include a separator that separates the components of the product mixture. The separator comprises, for example, a sieve that mechanically separates due to differences in physical properties such as size. The separator may be a separator that utilizes the difference in density of the components of the mixture, such as a cyclone separator. For example, an inorganic substance can be separated based on a difference in density by centrifugal force in a suitable medium such as a gas that is forcibly inactivated. Separation of solid and gas components such as a carrier gas such as argon may also be achieved. Separation of components may be based on differences in dielectric constant or chargeability. For example, carbon can be removed from the mixture by an electric field and separated from the metal based on the former application of charging. If one or more components of the mixture are magnetic, separation may be performed using a magnet. Based on at least one of a series of strong magnets, or in combination with one or more sieves, stir the mixture to strongly adsorb or attract magnetic particles to the magnet, and the size difference classifies the particles into two Separation is also possible. In embodiments using a sieve and an applied magnetic field, the latter applies an additional force to gravity to obtain small magnetic particles that pass through the sieve. At this time, the other particles of the mixture remain on the sieve due to their large size.

  The reactor may further include a separator that separates one or more components based on a differential phase change or reaction. In some embodiments, the phase change includes melting using heat and the liquid is separated from the solid by methods known in the art such as gravity filtration, pressurized gas assisted filtration, centrifugation and vacuum processing. Reactions include cracking, such as hydride cracking, or reactions that form hydrides, each of which may be performed by melting the corresponding metal and then separating and mechanically separating the hydride powder. The latter can be performed by sieving.

  Other methods known to those skilled in the art can be applied to the separation of the present disclosure by applying routine experimentation. In general, mechanical separation can be divided into four groups: sedimentation, centrifugation, filtration and sieving. In one embodiment, particle separation is achieved by at least one of sieving and the use of a classifier. In order to desirably separate the products, the size and shape of the particles may be selected with the starting materials.

c. Formulated Slurry Ignition and Regeneration System Referring to FIGS. 2C, 2C1, 2C2, 2D, and 2E, the generator may include a combined ignition and regeneration system. In one embodiment, the electrode 8, such as a roller or gear electrode, is submerged at least partially in the solid fuel slurry so that the slurry is a rotary pumped into the electrode contact area, and the fuel Then ignite. The solid fuel slurry may be contained in a reservoir such as tub 5 that may receive fuel flow from collection area 24. The flow may be achieved using a water or gas stream. At least one of the water and gas streams may be provided by lines 16 from reservoirs 5 and 11. The stream may be forced by the pump 17. The line may run towards at least one nozzle 21 that may have a pressure gauge as an input to the barometric pressure and flow controller. The stream may be collected by collection systems 24 and 25, a suction line 19 and a pump 18 that may pump the stream. Alternatively, the second pump 17 may pump the stream through the line and nozzles 16 and 21. In another embodiment, excess H 2 O may be drained from the trough 5 by a drain hole or channel. Excess water may be pumped from using the sewage pump 18. The pumping may be by a filter, such as a filter, at the bottom of the collection reservoir that may contain the tub 5. Mixing the vibrating table with a solid one that stirs the slurry into at least one separate excess water of solid fuel and maintains the desired viscosity energizes the components (eg, metal powder, hygroscopic compound and H 2 O) There may be a vibrator system like this in 樋 5. In one embodiment, solid fuel rotary pumping is achieved by rotation of an electrode (eg, roller or gear electrode 8). As it rotates into at least one of the transports, the solid fuel may temporarily adhere at least or may apply at least one electrode 8 and throw the solid fuel into the contact area. The rotation is maintained at a sufficient speed to transport the solid fuel slurry. In an exemplary embodiment with three inch diameter copper roller electrodes, running the roller at a high rotational speed of over 1000 RMPs allowed Ti (50 at a supported speed to maintain approximately 1 MW of optical power. Mole%) + H 2 O (50 mole%) slurry solid fuel is transported to the ignition zone. Another typical fuel is M (Ti + gCl ₂ ) (50 mole%) + H ₂ O (50 mole%). The ignition system may include an electrode demolitioner 24 to clean the side of the deposited solid fuel slurry and provide it with a solid fuel pressure gradient against the rotating electrode to at least one of the better coats Or it may further include a baffle plate and a chute 25 to cause better adhesion of the fuel. The ignition system may include an agitator, such as a mechanical vibrator, to facilitate the application of fuel onto the electrode 8 which is transported by means to the contact area, for example by rotation of the electrode. The agitator may include a disclosed outer wheel. The slurry agitator may include a propeller or stirrer blade driven by an electric motor. When air pressure is applied to the electrodes, the flow rate of the fuel may be controlled by adjusting the thickness of the fuel by adjusting the gap between the electrodes. In the electrode where the atmospheric pressure might be, the fuel was adjusted to at least one of the poultices so that H2O was rejected when the resistance was lowered enough to cause ignition. In certain embodiments, at least one of the electrodes, such as the roller or gear electrode 8, is movable. Fuel compression may be provided by adjustable tension such as one achieved by adjustable springs, pneumatic tires or hydraulic actuators. The electrical connection to the movable electrode may be flexible. A movable coupling method may be provided by a wire rope connection. In some embodiments, the mechanical system that separates the electrodes 8 may include at least one of a rotational mechanism and a linear mechanism. The rotation mechanism may include a cam that slides the roller electrode back and forth to achieve a change in separation. The cam may be driven by a servo motor. The mechanical separation of the electrodes may be achieved with actuators such as those of the solenoid disclosure, for example, may be piezoelectric, air, and servomotor driven. The cam is then driven by a rotary impulse connection and an actuator driven by a screw-motor. The separation may be in a range of at least one of about 0.0001 cm to 3 cm, 0.01 cm to 1 cm, and 0.05 cm to 0.5 cm. Fuel flow may also be controlled by controlling the depth of the electrodes (eg, slurry and rotational speed rollers or gears). Surface irregularities may be controlled to vary the fuel pickup speed to dominate the fuel flow rate.

  The system may further include a blow-up water bottle (eg, an air blow-up water bottle such as a filter that lifts solid fuel, such as a slurry of solid fuel, into the electrode contact area with at least one of the mechanical agitators). Solid fuel may be supplied as a fuel column. The bubbler may include a gas pressure gauge as input to the barometric pressure and flow controller and gas nozzle. The gas may be supplied from a gas jet system used to clean the light element and facilitate the recovery of the ignition product for regeneration. An electrode such as the roller electrode 8 may be at least partially submerged in water. The rotational movement of an electrode such as a roller or gear electrode 8 may transport fuel to the contract area where ignition occurs. The bubbler may fill the gap between the electrodes in at least one part, such as the lower part. The solid fuel may be compressed so that current flows between the electrodes in preference to the compression region so that ignition occurs in this selected region. The expanded plasma formed by ignition may expand away from the area where the solid fuel is supplied by means such as a blow-up water bottle. The fuel lifted by the blower can provide a pressure barrier so that the plasma expands away from the supplied fuel. Light may be received by the disclosed light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system 26a. The optical power controls the fuel flow rate, which in turn may be controlled by electrode rotation layering on top of an electrode such as a roller electrode, at the minimum electrode spacing where ignition and fuel thickness occur. May be controlled by.

  In one embodiment, the fuel rotating or predicted split amount of kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome the blast pressure wave force of the previous fuel aliquot ignition. In some embodiments, where the centrifugal force of the fuel aliquot persists on the electrode surface, the gear, at least one of the fuel adhesion forces by the electrode and the atmospheric pressure holding the fuel on the wheel surface is greater or the fuel is a roller It is coated on an electrode such as a rotating electrode. Using a corresponding system, injection may be accomplished by imparting kinetic energy to the fuel to cause a fired injection of an aliquot of fuel. The firing action may be achieved not only by mechanical devices but also by electric or magnetic force devices. Typical examples of previous type devices known in the art are electrostatic engines and railguns.

D: Considering a H ₂ O based solid fuel aliquot with dimensions of 6.7 mm X 3 mm, the fuel aliquot velocity ν is the width of the aliquot divided during the duration of the pulse of light.
ν = (6.7 mm) (1 m / 1000 mm) (1 / 0.5 × 10 ⁻³ s)
(196)
The rotation frequency is the speed of the aliquot divided by the roller circumference.
In a typical case, a roller with a 6.5 cm radius and a circumference of 41 cm has a rotation frequency f as follows.
f = (13.4 m / s) / (0.41 m)
= 32.7 rev / s
= 1961 RPM (197)
The kinetic energy K of a 530 mg aliquot is:
K = mν ^{2/2
= (5.3 × 10 -4 kg)} (13.4m / s) 2/2
= 4.76 × 10 ⁻² J (198)
Centrifugal force _{F C} of aliquots of 530mg is as follows.
F _C = mν ² / r
= (5.3 × 10 ⁻⁴ kg) (13.4 m / s) ² /(6.5×10 ⁻² m)
= 1.46N (199)
In an exemplary embodiment, the pressure of the blast wave from ignition is 2 PSIg or 1.37 × 10 ⁴ N / m ² . Estimates of the blast force F _B of the cross-sectional area of the fuel aliquot is as follows.
F _B = (6.7 mm) (3 mm) (10 ⁻⁶ m ² / mm ² ) (1.37 × 10 ⁴ N / m ² )
= 0.275N (200)
Estimates of the force F _K which corresponds to the kinetic energy is as follows.
F _K = (4.76 × 10 ⁻² J) / (6.7 × 10 ⁻³ m)
= 7.1N (201)
The power of movement is greater than that of blasting, so the aliquot is not bounced off by the previous blasting.
An estimate of the atmospheric pressure force F _{A on} the aliquot is:
F _A = PA
= (1.01 × 10 ⁵ N / m ² ) (π (6.7 mm / 2/1000 mm / m) ² )
= 3.56N (201)
The atmospheric pressure gradient force is greater than the centrifugal force. If linking the aliquot to the wheel is a force with respect to atmospheric forces, the aliquot is transported to the ignition zone and explodes without being released by centrifugal force.

In some embodiments, the rotational frequency may be in the range of at least one of about 1 RPM to 100,000 RPM, 10 RPM to 10,000 RPM, and 100 RPM to 2000 RPM. Each of the rotating electrodes, such as roller or gear electrodes, may have a radius in the range of at least one of about 0.1 cm to 1 m, 1 cm to 100 cm, and 1 cm to 25 cm. The ignition frequency may be in the range of at least one of about 1 Hz to 100,000 Hz, 10 Hz to 10,000 Hz, and 500 Hz to 3000 Hz. The peripheral speed of a rotating electrode such as a roller or gear electrode is approximately 0.01 m / s to 200 m / s, 0.1 m / s to 100 m / s, 1 m / s to 50 m / s and 1 m / s to 25 m / s. May be in at least one of the ranges. The width of the rotating electrode may be in the range of at least one of about 0.01 cm to 10 m, 0.1 cm to 1 m, 1 cm to 100 cm, and 1 cm to 10 cm. In one embodiment, increasing the roller width causes an increase in fuel flow at a given rotational speed. The ignition current may be increased to maintain a roughly constant ignition current density throughout the fuel. In another embodiment, an intrinsic response may cause the ignition current due to the electrode to decrease, and the increased fuel flow rate may increase the plasma intensity. The generator starts with a higher current pulse that once required the fuel supplied by the wider roller electrode to ignite at that point the plasma makes a contribution to the current to maintain the plasma and optical power. May be. As disclosed in the disclosure, the pulsed current may be provided by typical elements such as at least one of a capacitor and a battery. The beginning may not have been achieved with a roller at the lowest rotational speed so that the accumulated energy is deposited to facilitate ignition. The rotational speed may be increased after ignition. The hydrino power contribution to the plasma may facilitate the reduction of input power required to maintain solid fuel ignition. Ignition may be facilitated by sequential generation of currents, higher than average, density over multiple locations along the electrode's cross-section as it provides a sequential cross-section Rotate to. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition current sustaining the plasma remained at 4000 A with an increase in roller width from 1.3 cm to 2.6 cm. In certain embodiments, the ignition current may be climbed as a function of electrode surface area, where ignition is about 10 A / cm ² to 1 MA / cm ² , 100 A / cm ² to 500 kA / cm ^2. It has been achieved with sufficient current density 1 kA / cm ² from 100 kA / ^cm 2, and in at least one range of 5k a / cm ² from 50 kA / cm ^2. In a typical embodiment, the ignition current is climbed from a range of approximately 30,000 to 40,000 A to approximately 3000 to 4000 A, but a 5/8 inch diameter cylindrical electrode is widened by a 4 cm radius roller electrode. It is replaced with 1-2.5cm. The thickness of the solid fuel layer may be in the range of at least one of about 0.001 cm to 10 cm, 0.01 cm to 1 cm, and 0.1 cm to 1 cm. The water composition of the applied solid fuel may be in the range of at least one of about 0.01 mole% to 99.9 mole%, 0.1 mole% to 80 mole%, and 1 mole% to 50 mole%. unknown.

  In some embodiments, where the fuel includes a conductive matrix and composite to bind H2O, the current density is increased by current transients and skin effects. That initial transient is a fast, alternating and a combination that may be achieved with one of the least direct currents. The source of power that causes the ignition is the skin depth of the current in the solid fuel's conductive matrix such that the higher frequency swallowing person current density may be increased with some fuels, which may include a pulsating spring. The maximum current and pulsing frequency are controlled to achieve the desired current density, such as that causing ignition of at least some solid fuel. The current density may be controlled to optimize the generator energy gain, which includes the ratio of output energy to input energy. As disclosed in the disclosure, fast pulsing may be accomplished electronically and mechanically at least. The current density may be further increased by reducing the contact area or electrical cross section for at least one current flow of fuel and electrode. The contact area of the roller electrode may be reduced by at least one reduction in roller diameter and roller width. In certain embodiments, the roller electrodes may include different radii. The electrode may be modified as well. For example, the roller surfaces of a pair of at least one roller while rotating to make electrical contact in an area of reduced surface area that causes current confusion and causes current to concentrate on the area May have a roller with an elevation that looks like at least one protrusion in mechanical vibration with one of the ear lobes compared to each other. In some embodiments, the pair of at least one electrode may include a circular surface with alternating regions of a conductive material such as a metal such as copper and a non-conductive or insulating material such as a ceramic. Or the metal was oxidized or anodized. The nonconductive material may include a layer of rollers on the surface, or may include a roller segment of the surface and body. If both electrodes have a non-conductive surface between them, the contact of the same electrode pair region may be synchronized. The current corresponding to the conductivity is sent rhythmically for alternating conductivity due to the geometric or specific change of the roller. Pulsing may increase the effect of maximum current by causing ignition by current concentration through the skin effect.

  In certain embodiments, the high current from the skin effect may cause a magnetic pinch plasma of the plasma formed by fuel ignition. Pinch may cause plasma confinement that may increase at least one of the hydrino reaction rates and increase one of the plasma density and confinement time to yield.

  FIG. 2A provides a typical orientation of the electrodes. At least one coated arc welding rod may carry fuel to a point where high current is passed between the electrodes through the fuel to achieve ignition. Transport may be accomplished by rotation of electrode 302 (eg, roller electrode 302a coated with fuel at a location different from the point of gear rotation or ignition). With a vertically oriented z-axis, with respect to the generator system as shown in FIG. 2A, the angle θ = 0 °, φ = 0 ° is along the z-axis, and the + x− axis is horizontally adapted to the right side of the number And considering the spherical Cartesian coordinate system, for example, the fuel is ignited, for example, that the left roller rotates counterclockwise and the normal roller rotates clockwise θ = 90 °, φ = Coated to the second position at 180 ° may be transported from the first position of the roller on the right side with θ = 180 °, φ = 0 °. In another embodiment, for example, the fuel is ignited, for example, when the left roller rotates clockwise and a normal roller rotates counterclockwise θ = 90 °, φ = 180 ° May be transported from the first position of the roller on the right side at θ = 180 °, φ = 0 ° coated at the second position. In another embodiment, both electrodes are coated and transport fuel by rotation, more than ignition. In certain embodiments, a pair of electrodes 302, such as rollers or gears 302a, may be aligned along the z-axis. In an exemplary embodiment, the bottom electrode may be applied at a first position such as one at θ = 180 °, φ = 0 °, and ignition occurs at θ = 90 °, φ = 180 °. In order to transport the applied fuel to a second position, such as one, it may rotate clockwise. Alternatively, the lower electrode may be coated, such as one at θ = 90 °, φ = 180 °, where ignition occurs from a first position, such as one at θ = 180 °, φ = 0 °. It may be rotated counterclockwise to transport the fuel layer to the second position. In one embodiment, the centrifugally flying solid fuel of one rotating electrode is at least partially captured by the counter circulating electrode that is transported to the ignition zone.

  Referring to FIG. 2C, in one embodiment, the ignition product is a liquid vapor (eg, a gas such as H 2 O and argon) from a collecting surface such as window 20 to the light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system 26a. May be recovered by at least one of the streams). In some embodiments, a window in which 20 may be electrostatically at least one is charged with such a H2O and maintained in a liquid film to prevent ignition products from adhering to the window. did. In certain embodiments, the window and optionally any cell reflective surface is anti-tacky or coated with an anti-adhesion layer so that sticking of the ignition product is prevented. The coating may include a microengineering coating known in the art. The coating may include a super hydrophobic coating. The coating may include an antifouling coating reported by Jones: http: // phys. org / news / 2014-01-self-cleaning-solar-panel-coating-optimize. html is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The coating may be transparent above the wavelength useful for photovoltaic conversion to electricity. Any surface material on the window may be cleaned with gaseous and H2O streams. The application of the stream may be in a raster, for example by using a controlled sequence of jet 21 activations. Raster movement may be controlled by a microprocessor controller. The removal may be pixels or a limited number of pixels at a time so that the stream is concentrated and at least one of the light disturbances is limited. The rinse may be in the collection area 24 (or product remover / fuel loader 313 in FIG. 2A). In some embodiments, at least the top window 20 includes an arch. The pressure of the stream propagates along the arch where gas or H2O (or other suitable liquid capable of at least one of cleaning cooling) picks up the product from the surface and into a collection area such as 24 To cause flow, at least one of the gas and the H2O stream may be partially applied to at least one base of the arch, in part to a slight touch. In some embodiments, any water-absorbing material powder floating in the cell gas and ignition products such as conductive matrix materials such as metal or carbon power is removed to remove these potential absorbers from the optical path. It may be. A vacant lot in progress with at least gas flow and H2O stream by the side may be achieved. A stream may be a transversal to the transmission of light that removes it from the optical path. The neat material may be collected in at least one cell area, such as the window 20, the wall of the cell 26 and the collection area 24, and may be returned to the solid fuel reservoir, such as the slurry tank 5, as regenerated solid fuel. unknown.

  In one embodiment, when H2O flows out of a source such as cleaning a line with a jet 21, it has an electrode around it with a focal point that directs light towards the light window (eg, the top window 20). The disclosed parabolic mirror 14 enclosing one) may be at least one of those rinsed and cooled by at least one of the gases. The mirror may be reflective and may be connected directly via a longitudinal structural member such as the wall of the cell 26 that may include the mirror. In certain embodiments, the H 2 O stream may remove product from at least one of the longitudinal members of the windows 20, 26 and the parabolic mirror 14. Then, in the path of the parabolic mirror 14, water may flow to the collection area 24. Then, along the chute 25 and to the fuel reservoir such as the soot 5, the passage may lead a water stream to the surface of each electrode, on the opposite side of the face where ignition occurs. The roller electrode 8 may be rotating in the direction of the flow of the H 2 O stream in the trough 5. The rotation of the roller may assist in pumping the H2O stream. In one embodiment, an electrode such as a roller or gear 8 is a rotary pump whose solid fuel and fuel are stored in a reservoir where ignition occurs higher and pumps a water stream down into the chute 25 to the contract area. (For example, 樋 5) is rotated in the direction. In another embodiment, the parabolic mirror is free standing. And it is not connected via a longitudinal member. The gas and H 2 O streams may be applied separately to the paraboloid mirror 14 and cell 26 longitudinals. The separate flows may be combined or may remain independent, with each electrode such as a roller electrode 8 rotating in the direction of the H2O stream flow through any transition of 樋 5. Flowed to a collection area 24 that led a water stream to the surface.

  The product may be rehydrated by the H2O stream. A stream, such as an H2O stream, may be streamed to a collection area, such as 24 (or product remover / fuel loader 313 in FIG. 2A). Excess liquid such as H2O or gas such as argon may be removed by at least one of a strainer, pump, filter, centrifuge, and centrifuge and other separation systems and disclosed methods They are known in the art. A gas such as argon and a liquid such as H2O may be recirculated by means such as a pump. In one embodiment, the generator includes a recirculation system that includes a pipe to the H2O reservoir having an inlet at the outlet and a suction pump at the H2O injection pump. Alternatively, the recirculation system includes a pipe 19 to the H2O suction pump 18 that removes excess H2O from the dredging 5 and recirculates water to clean the cell components at the waterline 16 and rinse line with a jet 21. Then pump it. The discharge pump 17 may obtain additional water from the H2O reservoir 11 to be consumed by and supplemented by the means, for example by the formation of hydrinos. H 2 O may be emitted to at least one of the window 20, the parabolic mirror 14, and the collection area 24. Cause the transport of ignition products from the window 20 to the collection area 24 and the transportation of ignition products from the collection area 24 to the product tank 5 with one of the least causes of H2O. Alternatively, or in addition to H 2 O water flow, the ignition product may be transported from the collection area 24, the window 5 of the basket 5 and the parabolic mirror 14-at least 1 by a gas stream. In some embodiments, the non-irrigated slurry is a conveyor, spiral and pump (eg, advanced cavity pump, a kind of positive displacement vacuum pump (aka advanced cavity pump), unusual screw pump or cavity pump) The water suction pump 18 includes a hydrocyclone separator that is returned to the trough 5 by a transport device such as at least one of the following to remove excess water.

In one embodiment, water is used to collect and recover the ignition product from the cell and shape slurry applied to slurry electrode 5 from electrode 8. Excess will rehydrate the H2O-based solid fuel and form, removing the desired slurry that feeds at least over that amount. The desired slurry is about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 99%, 0.0001% to 90%, 0.001% to 80%, 0.01% to 75%, 0.1% H ₂ O content within at least one wt% range of from 70%, 1% to 65%, 10% to 60%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10% May have. Alternatively, the water composition of the slurry solid fuel applied to the electrode 8 is at least about 1 mole% to 99.9 mole%, 0.1 mole% to 80 mole%, and 1 mole% to 50 mole%. May be one range. Excess water may be removed with a water jet. The water jet may be directed at an angle with a reservoir containing extremely wet slurry so that a tangential component of the gas flow is created at the slurry surface. In some embodiments, tangential gas flow causes H2O flow that separates excess water from the desired slurry that remains. A reservoir, such as a trough 5, may be partially filled so that excess water is pushed vertically onto at least one wall of the reservoir by tangential flow. Excess water may be selectively removed over the solid fuel due to at least one of its lower mass, lower viscosity and greater fluidity. The gas injection may include at least one of a pulsed or continuous pressure to selectively remove excess H 2 O. In certain embodiments, the forced flow may be on a washboard road surface or sluice to increase separation, which may be at least one of either partially horizontal and partially vertical. The water stream may selectively adhere to a separator structure such as a curve placed in the correct vertical position where water is sprayed. Water may curve around or flow along the surface of the structure due to the Coanda effect. This effect may be exploited to achieve better separation. In some embodiments, excess water may be secretly removed to a larger extent by backflow of water and slurry. In certain embodiments, the removed water may contain a higher mole percentage of water than the slurry. This water may be collected and recycled to recover the ignition product from the cell and the shaped slurry. Water may be pumped with pumps (eg, water suction pump 18 and water discharge pump 17). The pump may include a peristaltic pump or a uniaxial eccentric screw pump.

  In certain embodiments, excess H 2 O may be removed by evaporation. Water may be at least one of the direct injection product collected and recovered from the rinse rinsed and removed with the gas jet. The evaporating water may be condensed in a condenser that may include at least one of a heat exchanger, a heat shut-off system and a cooler system that may remove excess heat from the cell or generator system. The condensate may be recycled for collection and recovery of ignition products. In an exemplary embodiment, heat liberated from water condensation may be dissipated in the heat exchanger, and excess heat may be removed from the system. A typical heat source to achieve evaporation is any heat exchanger of electrode 8 and photovoltaic cell of light distribution and photovoltaic converter 26a.

  In some embodiments, the slurry cools an electrode such as roller 8. Furthermore, a fuel layer such as a slurry layer may protect an electrode such as roller 8 from blast damage. In some embodiments, at least one of the slurry for the stream, such as at least one of the gas stream and the water stream, the slurry tank 5 and the reservoir may have a corresponding heat exchanger, cooler, radiator and cooling system (of FIG. 2C1). It is cooled by at least one of 31). In certain embodiments, the roller electrode may be looped to prevent heat from being transferred to the central bearing.

  In some embodiments, the light incident from the ignition of the solid fuel may be a light absorbing material that produces steam. The light absorbing material may include multiple layers such as carbon in two forms (eg flake graphite and porous carbon). The light-absorbing material may float on bulk water and may draw water into the structure using capillary action in the form of steam. Top layer may be selective, at least one other layer may act as an insulation and water pipe to the first layer made from water heated by light where vapor is absorbed and absorbs light Then get hot. Steam may be used in steam loads (eg, heating loads or turbines that generate electricity).

d. Light Distribution System In some embodiments, the system is operated to maximize light power, such as black body radiation. The optical power may be increased over other power inventory such as thermal and atmospheric volume power by means such as maintaining the expanded plasma as optically thin. This may be achieved by expanding the plasma at a higher rate while delaying the expansion to absorb the species. Interesting species may be sprayed or rinsed out of the optical path depending on the disclosure. System gas pressure may be adjusted to achieve a differential inflation rate. The roller diameter may vary, for example, to lower the barometric volume work by means by reducing confinement. At least one of the cell gas, fuel composition and additive to the fuel composition may be selected to reduce atmospheric volume work so that the energy from hydrino formation is substantially in the form of light. For example, the mass of the cell gas may change to reduce barometric volume work. Optional, any of these compositions may cause photons on the translational energy of the composition or ignition product. The roller width may be adjusted. The ignition power waveform may be adjusted. The current density may be adjusted. Water components and other absorbed gases may have been lowered in the cell. Water content and other components of the fuel may be adjusted. The injection speed and corresponding product speed may be adjusted. Additives such as noble gases such as Kr or Xe may be added to the cell atmosphere. Additives may be added to the fuel to release more of the power as light, or to shift emission such as blackbody emission to more desirable spectral regions such as short wavelengths. In certain embodiments, a cell where the gas may contain some oxygen up to at least one shifts the spectrum to the desired spectral region to increase optical power. And ZnCl ₂ is hydrated, the fuel may contain oxygen stable components, such as Ag.

  Referring to FIGS. 2C, 2C1, 2C2, 2D, and 2E, the SF-CIHT power generator photovoltaic power converter 26a includes a plurality of photovoltaic cells 15 that may be prepared in a small design. An optical distribution system 26a may further be included to provide the optical power of the SF-CIHT cell. At least one cell wall, such as the top of the cell 26, may include a window 20 that transmits the cell light and directs it to the photovoltaic converter 26a. The window 20 may be in the form of a plane. And arches, domes, polygons, geodesic domes, lenses (eg, at least one Fresnel lens) and other suitable structural shapes are known to those skilled in the art. The window material is transparent in at least one of the wavelength bands of the radiation (eg EUV, UV, visible, infrared, near infrared light). Typical materials are glass, quartz, and plastics such as polycarbonate, lexan, and acrylic.

  In one embodiment of the photovoltaic converter, the optical output (optical power) is intended for a plurality of photovoltaic converters. The light that could be output was distributed by a light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system, such as including at least one of mirrors, lenses, fiber optic cables and light guides. In embodiments such as SF-CIHT generators that include a roller or gear electrode, the generator at least partially surrounds the light emitting region to reflect light to at least one of the photovoltaic converters. Includes a light distribution system that transports and directs mirrors and light to the photovoltaic cells. In the embodiment of the light distribution system and the photovoltaic converter (26a in FIG. 2C), light is distributed to a plurality of PV cells or panels 15 by a series of semi-transparent mirrors 23.

  In one embodiment, the light is beamed with a lens at the focal point of the parabolic mirror, and the focal point of another parabolic mirror that outputs a collimated beam that is the incident incident on the photovoltaic cell. And about the lens. The system includes a plurality of such parabolic mirrors, lenses and photovoltaic cells, and may further include an optical waveguide. The light may be directed or distributed using beam splitters, prisms, gratings, diffusers and other optical elements known to those skilled in the art. In some embodiments, the window (eg, 20 in FIG. 2G1e3) includes a diffuser or homogenizer to more evenly distribute light to the photovoltaic converter. Such as prisms, polychromate layers, monochromators, filters and gratings, so that the separated light can relate to photovoltaic cells with the highest efficiency of light to electrical conversion within the wavelength range of each band The element may separate multiple wavelength ranges or bands of light output.

  In another embodiment, optical power is collected with a number of fiber optic cables. For example, when one or more optical impedance matching plates on a quarter wave plate, collection may be achieved with at least one lens. The light distribution system may further include at least one mirror for at least one of the light directly into the lens and the fiber optic cable, and the fiber optic cable to the cable inlet, at least one of the light collection system and the impedance matching plate. May reflect any light reflected from. The mirror may be around the center of ignition where light acts as a point source from the center of the mirror. The mirror may be the plane of the gear electrode of FIG. 2A. The mirror may include a pair of mirrors that project light in opposite directions to the opposed matched photovoltaic converters as shown in FIG. 2A. Opposing mirrors may project light into a light distribution system such as one that includes fiber optic cables. The mirror may have a shape that optimizes the reflection of back reflected light in a light distribution system. The mirror may be a paraboloid. The fiber optic cable element of the fiber optic cable is for the band of wavelengths that may selectively conduct light to multiple matched photovoltaic cells with the highest efficiency of light to electrical conversion within the wavelength range of the band May be selective. In another embodiment, the light distribution system and the photovoltaic power converter are prepared in a stack in which light penetrates the stack and the optical power from the ignition is converted to electricity at a member of the stack. Transparent or translucent photovoltaic cells. In some embodiments, the surface of the photovoltaic cell is coated with polychromate that separates incident light into wavelength bands and directs each band to some photovoltaic cells that are responsive to the wavelength band. It may be. In some embodiments, light is collected from the ignition before the blackbody radiation cools by a mechanism such as expansion. The plasma may be produced by Helmholtz coil 306d of FIG. 2A and maintained in a magnetic bottle like that to prevent expansion or collision loss so that maximum power may be extracted by radiation. .

In certain embodiments, the solid fuel may include an additive to shift the plasma spectrum to the desired wavelength band to match that of the photovoltaic cell response. In certain embodiments, the additive whose spectrum is shifted to short wavelengths is at least one of metal oxides such as alkali, alkaline earth, migration, internal migration, rare earth elements, Group 13 and Group 14 oxides. May contain oxides such as The oxide may comprise a composite of metalloids. The oxide may include a Group 13, 14, 15, or 16 element. Typical metal oxides and oxides that shift the spectrum are at least one of MgO, CuO, FeO, CaO, TiO, AlO, Al ₂ O ₃ , and SiO ₂ . In certain embodiments, the additive may be at least one that increases the hydrino reaction rate and yield. Additives such as MgO or MgBr _2, in order to bring the spectrum shifted into the short wavelength, it may increase the black body temperature. In certain embodiments, the gas may be added to at least one of the shifts in the spectrum. And in the desired wavelength range, increase the emission intensity, increase the concentration of at least one of atomic hydrogen and catalyst, increase at least one of the velocities, give up the hydrino reaction and prevent metal oxidation of solid fuel Assists in doing so and functions to transport the ignition product during regeneration. The gas may include noble gases such as He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe. Hydrogen may be added to the gas gas for at least one of the preventive oxidations. The solid one then supplies fuel to provide additional atomic hydrogen as a reactant for the hydrino reaction. A typical cell gas is a mixture of Kr and any desired ratio and total pressure of hydrogen.

  Photovoltaic converters may be modular and may be scalable. A photovoltaic converter may include a photovoltaic cell such as a concentrating battery. In certain embodiments, each of the photovoltaic cells includes at least one of extreme ultraviolet, ultraviolet, visible (region) and infrared photovoltaic cells. The cells may be organized as stacked modules that can be located around the periphery of the optical power source. The optical distribution system may be scalable based on the desired output power where the optical power is controlled to produce the desired level to achieve the desired electrical output. The optical power may be controlled by controlling the ignition frequency (amount of fuel ignited in double ignition, fuel composition and parameters of the igniting waveform).

  In certain embodiments, the light dispensing system includes a light collector that may also act as an optical concentrator. The collector may have a directional reflection. A light collector may include a parabolic mirror. Directional reflection may be for light distribution systems that may include one or more lenses, mirrors, light guides, and fiber optic cables. In some embodiments, the guided light may be incident on the entrance of the fiber optic cable. The light may be concentrated at the entrance by at least one lens. A series of lenses, such as a series prepared in a plane, may concentrate light onto a plurality of fiber optic cables that may include fiber optic bundles. The area of the fiber optic cable bundle illuminated by the lens is variable. The variable illuminated area may be adjusted by changing the focus of the lens. The focus of each or more lenses may be changed by changing the security distance between any given lens that receives light from the lens and the corresponding fiber optic cable. The lens system may include one similar to that described in US 6,730,840 incorporated herein by reference. Each fiber optic cable may be incident on at least one photovoltaic (PV) cell, such as a triple junction concentrator photovoltaic cell. Alternatively, each lens may concentrate the light into a mirror or optical waveguide system that transports the light to one or more corresponding photovoltaic cells. The distance between the output of a light distribution component such as a fiber optic cable and the PV cell it illuminates may be adjustable. The photovoltaic cell may include a concentrator photovoltaic cell. Photovoltaic cells may be stacked to create a modular scalable design. A PV cell stack may be incorporated by reference and described herein in US Pat. No. 5,575,860 and may include a similar one thereto. The electrical power output by the generator may be scaled up by doing at least one of the following steps: They are: (i) Increasing optical power by controlling power from fuel ignition; (ii) Incident light in proportion to fiber optic cable, mirror system or optical waveguide system (ie incident on PV cell) Defocusing the lens system to spread the increased area; (iii) proportionally increasing the PV cell area corresponding to the increased number of PV cells in the stack of PV cells; and (iv) at least Increasing the beam path between one illuminated fiber cell and the illuminated PV cell such that a larger area is illuminated with the plane of the PV cell swollen so that the PV cell area is comparable to the magnitude of the incident light; It is.

Photovoltaic converters may include a coating for at least one of an anti-reflective layer or coating (eg, silicon monoxide, optical impedance matching and protection from plasma or motion specific erosion or damage). The film may include a window. The window may further include a system for cleaning the explosion product over the window and at least partially impeding light transmission to the photovoltaic converter. In some embodiments, the optical window is cleaned. Cleaning may include at least one system and chemical cleaning or etching and plasma cleaning method or etching. The window may include a series of windows that are removable so that at least the other one is cleaned of explosive products, one in place of the other to help send light to the converter. In some embodiments, the optical window is cleaned. Cleaning may include at least one system and chemical cleaning or etching and plasma cleaning method or etching. In some embodiments, a stream of gas, such as an inert gas, is produced at least in a protective window, a light collection system (eg, at least one of a mirror), a lens, a fiber optic cable, a light guide and a photovoltaic converter In order to prevent coating one, it is directed in the direction opposite the expansion-ignited plasma. In some embodiments, a gas flow, such as an inert gas stream, such as an argon gas flow, causes ignition products to flow from the optical path between the plasma, the optical component, and the photovoltaic converter. Furthermore, it may be guided across the direction of plasma expansion. The gas stream may move the product to the collection area. The gas injection that provides the gas flow may include a gas pressure gauge as an input to the barometric pressure and flow controller and gas nozzle. In certain embodiments, a thin layer of stream material, such as a gas or H ₂ O stream material, is maintained to protect the window from damage from the plasma.

  In some embodiments, the liquid stream, which may be at high pressure and velocity, such as at least one of the gases and a high pressure jet, has at least one function that prevents the blown powder from collecting on the surface of the light distribution system components. Run to clean the components of the ignition product, where typical light distribution system components include at least one of mirrors, lenses, fiber optic cables, and light guides. Velocity and barometric pressure may be sufficient to remove any cumulative ignition product. A mirror-like light distribution system component could include an electrostatic system to impose the same polarity as the particles that are required to be repelled by the mirror-like component. The mirror may be positively charged to repel the apparently modified product particles in the expanded plasma. Alternatively, a negatively charged collector such as a charged electrode (eg, a grid electrode) may collect charged particles. Referring to FIG. 2A, the collected particles may be transported to the regeneration system 314 so that the fuel is regenerated.

  In one embodiment, the expanded plasma consists of positively charged particles and electrons. In certain embodiments, electrons have a higher mobility than cations. Space charge effects may develop. In some embodiments, a space charge with an influence of at least 1 collects product ions and repels the product ions. In certain embodiments, the electrons are electrically grounded at a surface that is undesirable for the particles to accumulate. The surface may be more positively charged to repel positively charged particles. The surface may include at least one element of a light distribution system (eg, an optical waveguide such as an entrance, a mirror, a lens and a fiber optic cable component). In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT power generation source includes at least one of a system repelling system and electrostatic particles repelling air particles. The rebounding system may prevent products such as fuel ignition products from accumulating in at least one of the light distribution system and the photovoltaic converter. The light distribution system may include lenses, mirrors, light guides, and fiber optic cables. In certain embodiments, the plasma particles may be charged by the application of electrons, and the particles may be stopped by applying a repelling electric field. The application of electrons may be a means such as coronary discharge. In some embodiments, the transmitted light includes a means such as a conductive wire grid that electrostatically fills the surface to repel product particles, and a transparent film or window such as a glass plate that can shut off the pressure. Wave hand from fuel ignition. In certain embodiments, the transparent film is charged so as to prevent product from sticking. In another embodiment, magnetic materials used with a force of at least 1 repel particles and prevent them from adhering.

In one embodiment, the voltage repelling the electric field is sufficient to stop a particle with a kinetic energy K = 1/2 mv ² where m is the particle mass and v is the particle velocity. The corresponding voltage above the braking distance may be given by eV> K, where e is the elementary charge of the particle and V is the applied voltage. The voltage may be in at least one range of about 1 V to 1 MV, 10 V to 1 MV, 100 V to 100 kV, and 1000 V to 50 kV. The electric field is at least about 1 V / m to 10 ⁸ V / m, 10 V / m to 10 ⁷ V / m, 100 V / m to 10 ⁶ V / m, and 1000 V / m to 10 ⁵ V / m. May be in one range.

  In one embodiment, the generator includes a parabolic mirror at the ignition region in the region so that the light generated by the ignition is reflected in at least one of the light distribution system window, lens and light guide. The location of the fuel point compared to the parabolic mirror may be at or near the focal point of the parabolic mirror. The lens may include at least one half-cylindrical lens in at least one of the fiber optic cables, with the optical waveguide aligned along the axis of each cylinder that receives the light concentrated in the fiber optic cable and at the minimum of the waveguide. The waveguide may include PV cells at the surface. The lens may be buried in the window to remove the optical interface. At least one of the window, lens, fiber optic cable, optical waveguide and photovoltaic cell is a quarter wave plate or others to better impedance match incident light to the optical element so that light is sent to or by the element May be coated with a light coating. Components that do not act as windows in the optical system (eg, non-transparent walls of the cell, electrodes, fuel applicator and other components where cell light is incident) are reflected in the light, and are ultimately reflected in the light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system. May have a reflective surface to cause it to be sent. In certain embodiments, mirrors, lenses, fiber optic cables, waveguides and PV cells exposed to windows and ignition products while H2O has a strong absorption band for visible light while minimizing light opacity. At least one of any optical elements such as may be cleaned intermittently or continuously with a combination of gas and H2O. The rinsed product may be conveyed to the collection area by a stream such as at least one of a gas and a H2O stream.

  With a vertically oriented z-axis, with respect to the generator system as shown in FIG. 2A, the angle θ = 0 °, φ = 0 ° is along the z-axis, and the + x− axis is horizontally adapted to the right side of the number And consider the spherical Cartesian coordinate system. In an embodiment such as that shown in FIG. 2F, the light is placed in the correct position for the structure support 1 (eg, θ = 45 °, φ = 0 °) and the light is placed in an optical element (eg, a lens or guide in a light distribution system). The incidence of at least one mirror 40 tilted relative to the cell side defined by 1) around θ = 45 °, φ = 180 ° as reflected perpendicularly to the waveguide). The light may relate to a mirror that is tilted by a mirror that surrounds the electrode (eg, central mirror 41 or parabolic mirror). In certain embodiments, the light is direct to a plurality of lenses that concentrate the light into an optical waveguide that may be wearing at least a PV cell on the side or front. The mirror angle may be whatever is desired to achieve the desired reflection on the optical elements of the light distribution system. The tiled mirror may be mounted outside the widow system surrounding the plasma through which light is sent in the window and is reflected in the light element at the entrance of the mirror. The light may be reflected vertically in a plurality of optical elements (eg lenses or waveguides (thick plates (eg rectangular glass or quartz blocks))). A mirror mirror or system, such as a parabolic mirror or system, may surround the electrode to direct light vertically. The light may be further guided vertically by performing at least one of confining the plasma such that it expands vertically and by causing the fuel to have kinetic energy in the vertical direction. Solid fuel may be accelerated vertically by injection. Injection may be accomplished with the disclosed air, electrostatic, magnetic, pumping with a pump, such as a rotary pump such as one that includes a rotating roller electrode, as well as by mechanical means. The top wall of the cell may include a window that sends light to a light distribution system, such as at least one of a system consisting of lenses, fiber optic cables, waveguides and PV cells. A system comprising a waveguide and a PV cell and a beam splitter (eg, semi-transparent mirror and PV cell).

  In certain embodiments, at least one of the motor and pump is outside a sealed chamber to contain a plasma having at least one window for sending light to the light distribution system and the PV converter. The light may be directed upward to the light distribution system and PV converter by means such as a parabolic mirror 14 that may sit so that ignition occurs around the center of the mirror. A schematic diagram of the SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the placement of motors, pumps and other components outside the area supplying the roller electrodes with the housing is shown in FIG. 2G. A shaft that may be placed on the azimuth may run towards the rotating electrode. Cell cheats may be sealed. In one embodiment, the generator runs each component such as a movable electrode such as a rotating roll or gear electrode, an electrode that refreshes the surface of the system such dressing moves, a pump such as a sewage pump. Independent motors included. Then suck the pump, H2O release pump and gas injection pump. In another embodiment, at least one of the plurality of motors may be replaced by a gearbox that is driven by another motor. The gearbox may include an adjustable gearing to control the speed of operation such as rotation. Control may be achieved using a computer or a microprocessor.

  The waveguide may have a photovoltaic cell on at least one surface or side of the waveguide to receive light that is trapped in the waveguide and transmitted at the surface. Pack closely together so that multiple waveguide entrances and the maximum amount of incident light may be sent to the waveguide. The expanding plasma includes a dynamic light source where light enters the waveguide at different angles with time and thus may be present in a direct lateral position with time. In one embodiment, a change in the waveguide light exit position to the PV cell examines the strong light on the PV cell surface over time in order to spread the light intensity over time. The time distribution of light may better match the maximum capacity of the PV cell. The waveguide may be prepared as a fan with a precise contract entrance and a more distally open waveguide so that the PV cell may be fixed on the surface. Any surface with PV cells that receive light may not be reflected. In another embodiment, the light is incident on a plurality of lenses that concentrate the light in the optical waveguide. The ensemble of waveguides and PV cells may be cooled. Cooling may be achieved by the amount of cooling water for the waveguide and PV cell.

  In some embodiments, the PV cell is more than that of sunlight, such as in at least one intensity range of about 1.5 suns to 75,000 suns, 10 suns to 10,000 suns, and 100 suns to 2000 suns. It is a large concentrating battery that can accept high brightness light. The concentrator PV cell contains c-Si that may be operated in the range of about 1 to 1000 Suns. A PV cell may include multiple junctions, such as triple junctions. The concentrator PV cell includes multiple layers such as those of Group III / Group V semiconductors, such as at least one of the following groups. In this group, multiple junctions such as triple or double junctions may be connected in series. In another embodiment, the junctions may be connected in parallel. The joints may be stacked mechanically. The bond may be a wafer to be bonded. In some embodiments, the tunnel diode between the junctions may be replaced by wafer bonding. The wafer bond is transparent and electrically isolated to wavelengths that are converted by subsequent or deeper bonds. Each junction may be connected via an independent electrical connection or bus bar. Independent bus bars may be connected in series or in parallel. The electrical contact for each electrically independent junction may include grid wires. The wire shadow area may be minimized due to current distribution for multiple parallel circuits or interconnects for independent junctions or groups of junctions. The current may be removed laterally. The wafer bonding material layer may include a transparent conductive layer. A typical transparent conductor is a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) such as ITO (ITO) (fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO)), doped with zinc oxide and a conductive polymer (graphene), and Carbon nanotubes and others were known to those skilled in the art. Henzocyclobutene (BCB) may include an intermediate bonding layer. Bonding may be between light guides such as borate glass and PV semiconductor material glass. A typical two-junction cell is one that includes the top layer of a GaInP wafer bonded to the bottom layer of GaAs (GaInP // GaAs). A typical 4-junction cell consists of a GaInP / GaAs / layer on an InP substrate where each junction may be individually separated by a diode (/) or tunneled transparent wafer bond layer. GaInAsP // GaInAs on / GaAs // InP, eg, cells fed by (//) GaInP with GaInAsP / GaInAs. All combinations of diodes and wafer bonds are within the scope of the disclosure. A typical 4-junction cell with 44.7% conversion effectiveness of 297 concentrations of AM1.5d spectrum is made by SOITEC, France. A PV cell may include a single junction. Typical single-junction PV cells may include single crystal silicon cells such as those given by Sater et al. (B. L. Sater, N.D. Sater, “up to 1000 stellar strengths. High Voltage Silicon VMJ Solar Cell for “Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002. Twenty-Ninth IEEE, May 19-24, 2002, pp. 1019-1022 Conference Record.). And it is here fully incorporated by reference. Alternatively, the single junction cell may include GaAs or GaAs doped with other elements such as those from Groups III and V. In an exemplary embodiment, the PV cell comprises a triple junction concentrator PV cell or GaAs PV cell operated at approximately 1000 stars. In another exemplary embodiment, the PV cell includes c-Si operated at 250 stars. In an exemplary embodiment, PV is selective for wavelengths less than 900 nm and InGaAs on at least one of InP, GaAs and Ge, which may be selectively responsive to wavelengths in the region between 900 nm and 1800 nm. May contain GaAs which may be responsive to. Two types of PV cells containing GaAs and InGaAs on InP may be used in combination to increase efficiency. Two such single junction type cells may be used to have the effect of a double junction cell. As provided in the combined disclosure, it is performed using dichroic mirrors, dichroic filters and at least one of the cell structures alone, or in combination with mirrors that achieve multiple bounces or light reflections. In one embodiment, each PV cell includes a polychromate layer that separates and classifies incoming light. It redirects to hit a special layer in the multi-junction cell. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell includes indium gallium phosphide layers for visible light and gallium arsenide layers for infrared light to which the corresponding light is directed.

In some embodiments, having an irradiance (W / m ² ) greater than that of the maximum illumination capacity of the photovoltaic cell, the irradiance is above a larger area of the photovoltaic cell and more in time It is reduced by the light distribution system by at least one method of constantly distributing light by distribution of light over large areas. In the former case, and the disclosed lens, fiber optic cable, presence cut, optical waveguide and photovoltaic cell system, the optical distribution system may include an entrance focus that is adjusted to cover the tunable number of the fiber optic cable. Fiber exit interest for the cell that may be played may match the dominance of the photovoltaic active area illuminated by each fiber. Alternatively, the light may be divided by at least one beam splitter such as a semi-transparent mirror where incident light is partially reflected by the PV cell or panel, and the transmitted light is at least one other PV of the PV control board. Finally guided to be incident on the cell, PV control panel or another part.

In the time distribution method, the light distribution system may include a plurality of movable light elements that may receive light from solid fuel and raster ignition, or a plurality of receiving light elements (eg, lenses, mirrors, fiber optic cables and light). And may examine the light throughout the optical waveguide (which transports it to the photovoltaic cell). Alternatively, the light was a raster, or stared at multiple photovoltaic cells. The movable factor may include at least one of an active mirror and an active lens. Movable light elements may be rastered or separated in time at the frequency at which light is received and separated by the light elements and delivered to the photovoltaic cells so that utilization of the photovoltaic cell capacity is maximized. You may take a quick look. In one embodiment, the raster or interrogation frequency of the light in the receiving element is a higher frequency, which times the photovoltaic cell such that the response is substantially constant. This rate includes the temporal fusing rate. The evaluator or scan rate may be faster or slower, as required by the examples, in the range of approximately 1% to 10,000% of the temporal fusing rate. In one embodiment, the movable optical element, such as an active mirror or lens, is piezoelectric, pneumatic, and includes a mechanical actuator. Steering mirrors motor controllers (eg auxiliary system components motorized micropositioning stage and actuator) and typical components of a scanning mirror system such as a dynamic mirror such as a piezoelectric tip / tilt mirror The position where the sensor is given.
http: // www. physikin instrument. com / en / products / prdetail. php? sortnr = 300710

  In certain embodiments, the movable light element includes a segmented mirror. In one embodiment, the segmented mirror is piezoelectric, air driven by at least one of the mechanical actuators. In one embodiment, the movable light element includes a rotating mirror, such as a rotating polygon mirror that rasters or examines light across the receiving light element. The raster or scan adjusts the light to the receiving light element so that the dimming has an averaged intensity of time that is lower than the light incidence of the movable light element. The receiving optical element may include at least one of an optical waveguide and a PV cell. The waveguide may place the PV cell on at least one surface to receive light and convert it to electricity. The distal portion may extend into the gap between the plurality of waveguides to provide space for placing the PV cell on the surface including at least one of the end and the face, and to the optical waveguide The entrance may be the end stuffed. The receiving element may include a lens that concentrates the light on other optical elements such as waveguides, fiber optic cables, mirrors and / or PV cells. In one embodiment, a scan or raster evaluates that the PV cell and the corresponding electrical output output cause a light input and a function of time that varies in response to the light adjustment to the receiving light element and the light of the light by the movable light element. The modulation may be controlled using PV output power.

  In certain embodiments, the light distribution system includes a cell that includes at least one lens to defocus incident light and a window such as one at the top of the lens system. The lens system may include multiple lenses. A lens may be attached to the window to reduce the number of optical interfaces. The defocused light may be incident on a PV converter that includes at least one PV cell. The defocused light may be incident on at least one optical element (eg, at least one mirror, lens, fiber optic cable and waveguide that directs the light to the PV converter). Another means that for spatial death, the light intensity compatible with the PV cell capability is to place the cell at a greater distance from the light source covering the larger area. The reciprocal distance squared intensity reduction light may be incident directly from the at least one optical element (eg, at least one mirror, beam splitter, lens, fiber optic cable and waveguide) or second incident.

  Referring to FIGS. 2C, 2C1, 2C2, 2D and 2E, in one embodiment, light is sent in one such window 20 at the top of the cell 26 to provide at least one of the incident and series of half mirrors for light distribution. A photovoltaic conversion system 26a including a plurality of semi-transparent mirrors 23, such as one spatially repeating stack. The mirror is attached to the support structure. Each mirror, such as a rectangular mirror frame or panel, may be attached to the support structure with a fastener, such as an end bracket 22, to avoid any light interference with a mirror fastener or support. In some embodiments, the semi-transparent mirror 23 may include different light rays, including optical elements known in the art as beam splitters with exceptions where the cell light includes a wavelength band, is not monochromatic, and is not coherent. Absent. Each mirror 23 reflects a portion of the incident light to at least one corresponding photovoltaic cell or panel 15 and sends the remainder of the light in series to the next mirror. In total, the mirror stack acts as a light distribution system that reduces the intensity of light from the cell and is incident on the photovoltaic cell or panel 15 at an intensity that allows the photovoltaic cell 15 to convert light into electricity. To do. The mirror stack architecture includes a louver lamella and may each resemble that of a Venetian blind or louver. The vertical separation of each (n + 1) th mirror from the nth one is that the light reflected from its surface is not disturbed by the nth mirror and the transmitted light is (n + 1) th on the surface It is like the incidence of a mirror. The angle of each mirror relative whose mirror axis is the z-axis may be the same or different. The angle may be such that the reflected light from the (n + 1) th mirror is not blocked by the rear of the nth mirror. The mirror angle may be such that light is reflected on the cell in a location other than the back. The light may be reflected in at least one of the other light elements and the PV cell. Compared to the middle axis of the mirror, called the z-axis, the angle of the mirror is in at least one range of θ = 1 ° to 89 °, θ = 10 ° to 75 ° and θ = 30 ° to 50 °. might exist. The vertical separation of each (n + 1) th mirror from each may be at least the nth cosine of the angle by the width x z-axis of each mirror. In certain embodiments, the mirror is oblique with respect to the z axis at approximately θ = 45 °, and the security distance is at least approximately 0.71 times the width of the mirror. The length of each mirror may be such that it receives all or essentially all of the light emitted from the cell. In one embodiment, the vertical separation of each (n + 1) th mirror from each is semi-transparent for light traveling with the direction of incidence of the front of the mirror jacket towards the cell (some The cosine of the angle with the z-axis that is transparent (essentially lacking reflectivity) for light traveling with the direction of incidence away from the cell and behind the mirror armor. It may be nth less than the width of the mirror time. The PV cell may be placed in an xy-plane transverse to the light propagation direction covering the mirror louver stack by receiving the remaining light not reflected by the mirror in the mirror louver stack. A schematic diagram of a photovoltaic conversion system 26a that includes a SF-CIHT cell power generator, a half mirror 23, and a photovoltaic cell 15 showing a perspective view in light distribution is shown in FIG. 2E.

  In certain embodiments, the light is made into light trapping a cavity such as that shown in FIG. 2E where there is a semi-transparent mirror that reflects light onto at least one of the plurality of photovoltaic cell types. Incident. The photovoltaic cell may include a bright incident surface in the cavity. The PV cell type may be selective for different wavelength ranges such as visible near infrared. The reflection is reflected repeatedly until it is absorbed by the photovoltaic cell, where the photons in the wavelength band are selectively absorbed by the photovoltaic cell type that is selective for the same light band. It may be like being trapped optimally in a cavity that can be received. In certain embodiments, light incidence on photovoltaic cells that are not selective due to wavelengths corresponding to createelectrons and holes is reflected in the cells that are selective. The reflectivity may be achieved with the aid of reflectivity on each photovoltaic cell, such as a conductive metal backing. In certain embodiments, the dichroic filter may be on a photovoltaic cell. The dichroic filter may select the appropriate light to find one that matches the selectivity of the photovoltaic cell. Unselected light may be reflected in another photovoltaic cell that is selective to reflected light. Until selective absorption occurs, light may be repeatedly reflected, and even a trajectory with multiple rates of occurrence for a given photovoltaic cell. Efficiency may increase in this case of multiple splashes and the incidence of light. Splitting light by a dichroic filter may also improve the efficiency of light to electrical conversion. In some embodiments, the light passes through a light valve and is trapped in a small cavity where the light is incident on at least one PV cell, and is incident on the PV cell or at least one other than the plurality of PV cells. One might get a bounce. The trapped light is least partially converted to electricity. In certain embodiments, at least one first photovoltaic cell of a given wavelength range sensitivity may act as a dichroic filter for at least another photovoltaic cell of a different wavelength range sensitivity. . The first photovoltaic cell absorbs the reflections that ignite onto at least one of the other photovoltaic cells that have different wavelength range sensitivities and the light that is not selective. The first and at least another photovoltaic cell may be oriented so that the first cell receives light from the ignition of the fuel and reflects light at least onto each other photovoltaic cell. Unselected light may be reflected from the beginning to another photovoltaic cell that is selective to reflected light. Light may be repeatedly reflected and may even receive multiple orbitals with multiple rates of occurrence in a given photovoltaic cell, or at least to each other, selective light absorption and electrical conversion to electrical conversion Of photovoltaic cells occur.

  In certain embodiments, the mirror material causes partial light transmission and reflectance. In another embodiment, a mirror medium, such as a gas, liquid, or solid surrounding a mirror, has a dielectric constant that causes a selective transmission and diffuse reflectivity with an appropriate change in dielectric constant at a moderate mirror interface. In some embodiments, for example, the mirror may have a shape other than flat, a hemisphere like a sine wave, bent, polygonal, and wavy. In certain embodiments, the back of each PV cell or panel may be mirrored, as for the PV cell, as the panel faces or the column light between the PV panels is ultimately reflected. In another embodiment, the PV material may be on both sides of the vertical cell or panel 15 as shown in FIG. 2E, so that the PV material receives the reflected light from the half mirror, and in the column Randomly reflected, scattered, and propagating light may be received by the opposing PV walls of the column to convert that light into electricity. PV material may sandwich a shared heat sink such as a water-cooled heat exchanger.

  Alternatively, in addition to the vertical orientation, light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system 26a may be directed with the horizontal axis of photon transmission and possibly cell light, or by at least one of the horizontal cell emissions, And be guided at least partly along this horizontal axis by horizontal light refraction, reflection or secondary light emission by at least one optical element (eg mirror, lens and waveguide).

  In one embodiment, the light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system 26a includes a plurality of mirrors, each with a corresponding PV cell panel 15 adjacent that directs its reflected light to the PV control panel 15 to which each stack of mirrors 23 corresponds. -Includes stack 23. The PV control panel 15 may be as thin as possible to avoid hiding the mirror stack. The base of each PV panel 15 may include at least one light element to reflect or otherwise guide the light incidence that each PV panel forms the basis for the mirror stack. For example, an angled mirror covering the footsteps of the base of each PV panel may redirect light incidence at each base, as it ultimately relates to the PV control panel corresponding to the mirror stack. unknown. Alternatively, the base may be covered with at least one lens, such as a cylindrical lens, to direct light incidence at the base to at least one of the photovoltaic cell and mirror. The light may also be directed to the cell and may be further reflected in the PV converter. The mirror control system and the PV control panel in place along the z-axis may include a PV converter tower to receive light from the cell 26 to the window 20 and convert it to electricity. The angle of each mirror may be adjustable and may change dynamically depending on the incident light to produce the desired light distribution on the corresponding photovoltaic cell or panel.

  The reflectivity of the mirror may be variable along the axis of transmitted light. The variability may be that of optimizing a small allocation to the cells to achieve the highest capacity and efficiency without damaging the cells with excessive incident power. In some embodiments, the light intensity decreases as a function of the stack's vertical position away from the light source. Thus, in some embodiments, the reflectivity of the mirror corresponds as a function of the vertical position, as the panel may be about a constant or the amount of light reflected over each area of the corresponding photovoltaic cell. And may increase. The last mirror in the vertical stack may be approximately 100% reflective so that no light is lost from the stack. Light from the cell is approximately 100% guided by a mirror stack that is incident on the photovoltaic cell or panel. In one embodiment, the reflectance (R) and transmittance (T) are about R = 0.0001% to 100% and T = 0% to 99.999%, R = 0.01% to 95% and T May be within at least one range of 0.01% to 95%, where the reflectivity increases and the transmittance decreases as a function of vertical position along the stack, and The reflectance and transmittance may be within at least one range.

  In certain embodiments, the reflectivity may be controlled dynamically. A suitable active element with variable reflectivity is an electro-optical device such as an electrochromic mirror. The dynamic reflectivity may be controlled by a controller such as a microprocessor. The reflectivity may be controlled in response to the power output of the PV cell that receives light from its corresponding mirror. Control may achieve optimal illumination of the PV cell to achieve at least one of peak efficiency and peak power output without damaging the cell. Mirror materials may include materials that have low loss due to visible wavelengths, such as fiber optic materials. In some embodiments, each mirror angle, reflectivity, and transmittance of each mirror is adjustable. The former may be replaced with servo motors or other actuators such as those disclosed, and the latter is adjusted by changing the voltage applied on the mirror that changes the opacity of the electrochromic mirror coating It may be.

  In one embodiment, a portion of the small spectrum is selectively reflected and sent by a given mirror. Thus, in one embodiment, the corresponding photovoltaic cell has a selective response to the selectively reflected wavelength. At least one other mirror in the stack above the nth mirror may be selective to reflect at least part of the selectively reflected light and selectively react to the selectively reflected wavelength. May direct light to a corresponding photovoltaic cell or panel having. The panel may repeat as a function of position along the stack to optimize chromatic dispersion along the stack of mirrors to achieve at least one of higher power and efficiency if there is no selectivity or mirror and response The wavelength selective diffuse reflectance of matched the corresponding PV cell.

  In some embodiments, the longer wavelength is increased from the bottom toward the top of the stack for reflectivity selectivity. In certain embodiments, the corresponding PV cell on the bottom is selective for short wavelengths and the PV cell on the top is selective for longer wavelengths. In an exemplary embodiment, the mirror above the bottom layer reflects the visible (region) and is selective for sending infrared radiation, and the corresponding PV cell has high performance for visible light. The corresponding PV cell has high performance for infrared light and the mirror above the top layer is selective for reflecting infrared light. A suitable infrared cell is germanium or silicon germanium and a suitable visible PV cell is single crystal silicon or GaAs. Suitable typical materials for wavelength selectivity are dichroic mirrors, dichroic reflectors and dichroic filters. In one example, a PV cell 15 that may be at least one actively and passively cooled. The cooling system may include a heat sink such as a fin. The heat sink may be constructed of a highly thermally conductive material (eg, aluminum or copper). Each of the heat sinks may be cooled by at least one of a gaseous or liquid medium such as air and water. In certain embodiments, for example, the PV cell 15 is a PV cell and water cooled (eg, a water flow on the bottom of the PV cell or a PV control panel to a heat exchanger such as a radiator or a cooler that rejects heat). May be cooled by at least one of air cooling. When the forced convection is cooled, the radiator may be at least one of convection (conduction). Another gas, such as helium, may replace air as a gas coolant. In one embodiment, each PV cell is one on the back of the cell where coolant such as at least one of H2O and ethylene glycol is routed by a heat shut-off system such as at least one of a heat exchanger and a cooler. Cooled with a simple microchannel cooler. In certain embodiments, the mirrors of the light distribution system 26a may be cooled by at least one of conduction, convection, forced air cooling and water cooling. The water cooling system may include microchannels along a mirror that minimizes light interference. The light may be reflected at the position of the microchannel by the corresponding optical element, or may be refracted.

  Referring to FIG. 2C1, window 20 and mirror 14 exposed to the ignition product are a combination of gas and H 2 O while H 2 O has a strong absorption band for visible light and minimizes light opacity. May be cleaned intermittently or continuously. In certain embodiments, a thin layer of stream material, such as a gas or H 2 O stream material, is maintained to protect window 20 from damage from the plasma. The ignition product may be rinsed from a collection area such as 24 and eventually flowed into the trough 5 with a water stream. Excess water may be removed. The jar 5 may be at the bottom of the cell 26. A rotating electrode, such as a roller or gear electrode 8, may be immersed in the solid fuel slurry at 樋 5. A movable electrode, such as a roller, may carry fuel slurry to the contact area between a pair of roller electrodes 8 to cause ignition.

  In one embodiment, infrared wavelengths are separated from short wavelengths and sent from the cell to a region where water attenuation is minimized by limiting the H2O transmission line. Separation may be achieved in the cell. Separation may be by means such as a dichroic mirror. Infrared light may be at least one of what is sent, reflected, and optionally focused on the light distribution system, and on the photovoltaic converter using the system and the disclosed method It was. Ga may be used to read and recirculate fuel in the area near window 20 to avoid light attenuation by water. Ga may be used to push any upward transport ignition product down to keep the slide in light.

  In one embodiment, the solid fuel is recirculated by transporting the ignition product to mirror 14 (FIG. 2C) by at least one of the gas and the H 2 O stream. As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 2C1, the generator is configured to supply a gas supply (eg, an argon gas supply 29 and a gas injection (eg, hold down the ignition product underneath and clean the window 20 with argon. Jet)). The argon jet may include an argon knife at window 20 to clean it. FIG. 2C2 shows another angle of the gas recirculation system. The gas-injected fuel search and recirculation system may include at least one of the gas pump inlets 37a, the gas pumping 37and per gas in addition to the blower and gas distribution line, and the gas pump return line 38 And jet 30. Gas injection, pumps and blowers may be arranged to achieve search and recirculation. In one embodiment, the gas flow pattern is below the center of the cell relative to the ejecting plasma with return flow from the periphery at the top of the cell. The ignition product may be pushed up onto the parabolic mirror 14, trains the H 2 O jet 21 onto the parabolic mirror 14, and is rinsed through the back of the rotating roller electrode 8 into the slurry basket 5. It may be. The water jet may be placed in a shaped water flow pattern to achieve H2O recirculation. A typical pattern on the parabolic mirror is below the center, from the periphery of the parabolic mirror, along the back of the roller electrode on both sides in the return flow. Water reflection may randomize less distribution across the light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system.

  In one embodiment, gas flow in the direction opposite to the direction of ignition plasma expansion is provided by a gas flow system. 2C1 and 2C3, in one embodiment, the direction of forced gas flow may be in the negative z-direction with the average direction of the expansion ignition plasma being in the positive z-direction. The gas flow system may include a fan that may include a plurality of fan blades. The fan is transparent to at least a portion of the spectrum of light emitted by the plasma, such as what is visible, and near infrared may be the spectrum. The fan may include a plurality of movable window slats (louver slats) 39. In certain embodiments, the window 20 may be flat. The fan may include a louver fan 20a. A louver fan may include a flat window. When the thin plate 39 is in the closed position, it is parallel to the window 20. In some examples, the lamellae may be at least one of cupped or bent and staggered in an angular orientation relative to each other to better move the gas. In one embodiment, the lamellas are placed in the correct position angularly compared to each other so that the slate rotates and the ensemble at the end of the lamella cleans the traveling wave. In another embodiment, the lamellas are paired, and in one embodiment where adjacent lamellae rotate in opposite directions, the slats are mounted offset from the central longitudinal axis to better move the gas. . In certain embodiments, the slats are attached to rotate approximately one longitudinal end. Each slat 39 may be coupled to a bracket 40 at each end of each lamina. Each bracket 40 would most likely be attached to the bracket holder 41 by a point or relationship 42 such that each lamina can freely rotate about a longitudinal lamina axis. A sheet bracket 40 may be at the end of each slat 39 to prevent light interference through the louver fan 20a. The thin plate may be made of quartz or glass (eg, fiber optics glass or PV cover glass with minimal attenuation of visible and near infrared light from the plasma). The edge of the thin plate 39 may be projected to reflect the light on the edge. Slat rotation may time-average incident light reflections and reflections to create a uniform distribution throughout the light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system 26a. The louver fan may include a light distribution system for the light distribution system. The thin plate may be driven by at least one electric motor 43. Multiple sheet rotations may be in tandem or synchronized. Coordinated rotation may be achieved by a synchronous motor or a single motor with multiple drive connections. In some embodiments, each lamella may include a double pulley 44 (one for each driver of the lamella adjacent to the driven one). Each double sheet pulley 44 may be driven by a transmission belt 45 and the pulley 44 may drive an adjacent sheet by a sheet belt 46. Each large pulley may have an idler to prevent belt slippage. Alternatively, belts 45 and 46 may include notched timing belts or chains. Alternatively, other connections known in the art such as gears or chains may drive slat rotation. The rotation of the lamella may be driven to cause gas flow induced in the negative z-axis. During the rotation cycle, a corresponding upward rotation of the sheet trailing edge pushes the gas upwards against the window 20 that redirects the gas downward, and a rotation downward of the edge of the main sheet directly depresses the gas. Thus, the result of clockwise or forensic clockwise rotation is a downward directed gas vapor (along the negative z-axis).

  The roller electrode may serve as a rotary pump up for solid fuel and a rotary pump down for at least one of gas and H2O. In one embodiment, roller gasket 47 prevents slurry from jumping over the visual elements (eg, louver fan 20a and window 20). If at least one of several slurries is inadvertently jumped onto the optic due to an event such as 47 or a roller gasket failure such as ignition arcing, ignition powder accumulates on the optic and The slurry can then be cleaned with at least one of a gas jet, a gas knife, a water jet and a water knife. In addition to pushing the ignition product down onto the parabolic mirror 14, the slat rotation may mechanically remove any sticky ignition product that is not stopped by the directed gas down. The turbulence is more thin and the gas produced in the top window 20 helps keep these surfaces free of sticky ignition products. This louver fan, which includes a rotating slat or vane recirculation system, has at least one gas knife and at least one H2O jet that may include sheet or vane and product deposition or steam injection on the plate. It may further include a sensor for such a blade cleaner. The louver fan gas flow may further help to cool at least one of the window 20, such as lamina 39, the louver fan 20a and the louver fan component.

  As shown in FIGS. 2G1 and 2G1a, the louver fan blows gas in the direction from the top window of the cell to the parabolic mirror 14 and the return gas flow is achieved at the gas collection inlet 64 by, for example, the parabolic mirror 14. It may be a line-through 53 at the lower edge of the end cell. Return gas may be directed to the area between the window 20 and the louver fan 20a.

  In another embodiment shown in FIG. 2G1b, the louver fan shown in FIG. 2G1 may be replaced by a perforated transparent window 20c. The upper window 20 and the lower window 20c may create a cavity. The windows may be parallel. The window may be a parallel plane window. The cavity may receive pressurized gas from the gas distribution duct 53. As shown in FIG. 2G1c, the pressure and flow of gas into the cavity may be maintained by a duct blower 53a. Pressurized gas may flow through the perforations distributed below to suppress the upward flow of ignition products as in the louver fan embodiment. The downwardly transported ignition product may be rehydrated into a recirculated solid fuel as described in the disclosure.

  2G1, 2G1a, 2G1b, and 2G1c, the duct blower 53a is the duct 53, and the lowest gas flow from the top of the cell by the well-down gas flow, volume and window 20c with holes in the louver fan 20a. One day may be in-line of duct 53 increasing the return gas flow rate, at least one of volume and pressure, and at least one of the ducts is pumped. At least one of the pump and blower 53a may further provide gas suction at the parabolic mirror 14 level. The gas may be sucked by the blower 53a that consumes the gas from the duct port 64c to the blower inlet 64a, the area of the parabolic mirror 14 by the general assembly 65 and the duct 53 to the blower outlet 64b. Gas may flow through duct 53 and another general assembly 65 in the area between window 20 and louver fan 20a or perforated window 20c. The gas in the duct may be cooled with a heat exchanger and a cooler. In other embodiments, they are used as a means to collect ignition products and direct them to the slurry tank and they are also very used as reflectors to direct the optical power of the cell towards the photovoltaic converter. The parabolic mirror 14 may be replaced by other structural members and reflectors that may be present. A typical alternative to a parabolic mirror is a chute with a reflective wall.

  In one embodiment, the blower means includes a surrounding fan, such as a cyclone-like fan such as one commercially manufactured by Dyson.

  2G1, 2G1b, 2G1c and 2G1d, in another embodiment, at least one of the ducts of the at least one sidewall and in the electrode housing 20b through the aluminum enamel glaze 49 below the slurry, and return The duct blower 53a provides gas suction to the underlying duct connected via the duct 53. In one embodiment, the gas collected from the aluminum enamel glaze 49 is drawn into the duct 65 by the pump 18 through the line 19, transferred to the injection pump 17 and discharged by the jet 21 supplied by the line 16. Is done. In other embodiments, water replaces gas as a recirculation medium. At least as provided in the disclosure, elements 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 49, 65 can recirculate liquid media such as water.

  In one embodiment, the generator includes a powder only ignition product recovery and recirculation system in which ignition product powder is blown down by blower means (eg, louver fan 20a and perforated window 20c). The gas flows in the channel 52 (FIGS. 2G1 and 2G1b) in the rotating part below the roller. A channel where gas flows through the conduit and bubbles below the surface of the slurry 48 to mix the ignition product powder with the wet slurry and 52 connects through the conduit. The gas may be collected by at least one screen on the side or bottom 49 of the slurry basket 5 that may include the electrode housing 20b. In one embodiment, the lateral gas return duct is below the parabolic mirror 14 and above the slurry basket 5 and slurry 48 that sit under the parabolic mirror. Gas may flow through duct 53 to return at the top of the cell (eg, the area between window 20 and louver fan 20a or perforated window 20c). In other embodiments, gas may flow through the distal side of each roller electrode 8 and is drawn into a duct 53 that extends 52 to join the electrode housing 20b, facing 52 to the end. Suction may be provided by the flue blower 53a. The blower may force the gas to be exhausted at the top of the cell conduit 53. In another embodiment, the flue may be a sidewall of the electrode housing 20b of FIG. 2G1. In this embodiment, the duct for the gas line may be below the parabolic mirror 14 and above the slurry that sits under the parabolic mirror.

As shown in the example of FIGS. 2G1 and 2G1b, the gas is moved in the opposite direction, for example as a plasma expansion direction down or in the negative z-axis direction. The gas may be a tip-down flowed by the louver fan 20a or the perforated window 20c. The gas may be directed along the surface of the parabolic mirror 14 and flowed into the channel on the outer part of the rotating roll 8 where they are alternating in a downward direction. The rotating roll is used as a rotating pump that moves the gas to the electrode housing 20b under the parabolic mirror 14 where the ignition product that is flowed by the gas may enter into a contract with the slurry at 5 which may include the electrode housing 20b. May be.
The channel outlet for the gas may be above or below the surface of the slurry, so that the gas and transported ignition product powder are in contact with the slurry, and the powder is part of the slurry. Become. A gasket 47 along the side of the roller electrode 8 may contain slurry in the electrode housing 20b area, except for its rotary pumped to the roller contact area and ignited. In another embodiment, the powder is selectively gas diaphragm 49 in the electrode housing 20b where the gas flows through the slurry 48 and out of the gas into a duct used as a gas conduit back to the top of the cell. Turning the. In one embodiment, with one of the least gas contacts, the surface of the slurry and the flow through the slurry will have a selectively permeable membrane, such as a fine screen like pure stainless steel, to enter the duct. Engage screen or aluminum enamel 49 to flush out. A typical screen includes a stainless steel mesh in the range of approximately 5-50 microns. Other examples of screen 49 are shown in FIGS. 2G1, 2G1b, and 2G1d.

  In another composite gas and H2O recirculation system embodiment shown in FIGS. 2G1, 2G1a, 2G1b, 2G1c and 2G1d, the louver fan 20a or the eagerly valved window 20c pushes the ignition product down, and The gas was returned to the area between the window 20 and the louver fan 20a or the window 20c was enthusiastically energized by the gas collection duct 64 along the periphery of the parabolic mirror and gas distribution duct 53. Gas flow may be emphasized by the duct blower 53a. Ignition products that are pushed up by the gas flow down onto the parabolic mirror 14 may be swept into the slurry basket by an H2O jet 21 that may include at least one vapor jet. In some embodiments, the mirror 14 includes a surface (eg, Pyrex® to which quartz, glass or H 2 O is attached by surface tension). Water may flow into the slurry trough in channels 52 of FIGS. 2G1 and 2G1b, and, for example, excess water may be aspirated through the diaphragm, barrier or filter 49in contact with slurry 48 on the side or bottom of slurry trough 5 It may be removed by suction by suction with the pump 18. The membrane may be selective for water so that the solid fuel solid reactant remains in the slurry tank. The membrane, barrier or filter 49 may comprise a mesh such as a stainless steel mesh or an aluminum enamel glaze (eg, a metallic aluminum enamel glaze such as a porous ceramic aluminum enamel glaze or a 25 micron stainless steel screen). Absent. At least one of the speed and range at which water is pumped from a slurry containing excess water is controlled across the barrier by controlling at least one of the membrane areas, the barrier or filter, and the differential pressure. It may be. In some embodiments, the speed of the H2O flow through the screen 49 may be increased with a sway, such as that provided by a stirrer or vibrator. In certain embodiments, at least one of the rate and range at which water is pumped from a slurry containing excess water is in contact with the membrane, barrier, or filter on the surface in a vacuum with a paddle 5 over the slurry. Is controlled by controlling at least one of the increased atmospheric pressure of the slurry. The pressure gradient may be measured with a sensor. In certain embodiments, if it becomes clogged, the water can be pumped back to remove membrane, barrier, or filter obstructions. Removing the fault may be controlled by the controller in response to the arrow sensor. The differential pressure may be achieved and maintained by the water suction pump 18. Water may be drawn into the water suction inlet 65 and the water suction line 19. Water may be recirculated by water discharge pump 17 in line 21 supplied by line 16. The cage 5 that may include the electrode housing 20b may further include an H2O sensor 50, and the hydration of the slurry may be desired by the addition of water from the reservoir 11 depending on the hydration being read. May be maintained in range. Control of reading and hydration levels may be achieved by a controller such as one that includes a computer. A typical slurry hydration sensor includes at least one of acoustic wave velocity, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity meter. The generator may further include at least one slurry agitator 66 driven by water and fuel by at least one slurry agitator motor 67 of the mixture. And then, maintain the slurry, facilitate the removal of excess H2O from the slurry by means such as suction across the membrane 49, and the rotating electrode 8 can pull the slurry into the ignition process Push into the area. In another embodiment, the water is removed by centrifugation. Water may flow through the aluminum enamel and may be removed by a pump.

  Each agitator may contain a spiral. Each agitator may include a plurality of mixer blades, such as a pair of mixer blades per agitator. For example, the blades may rotate in the opposite direction for a commercial double blade mixer. In another embodiment, the spiral may be driven by a single motor that rotates a single shaft that halves the pitch of the top spiral opposite. And be the opposite dominant hand. Other systems are known by those skilled in the art, or the generator may further comprise a source of H2O electrolysis system with means for supplying a selective membrane for hydrogen and for example only hydrogen, such as at least one of the hydrogen tanks 68. unknown. Hydrogen may be supplied to the cell at the hydrogen supply line 70. Rather than including a computer, the generator may further include a hydrogen sensor 69 and means for controlling the hydrogen partial pressure, such as a controller. The generator may include an external hydrogen sensor and alarm to warm up external hydrogen leaks. The controller may disable the generator, and in the event of an external hydrogen leak, it may stop the hydrogen flow from the source.

  In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2G1d, the sludge basket 5 includes a side tilt. The slope may connect a larger surface area top perimeter via a smaller surface area lower boom. The bottom may be in the form of a channel, such as a U shape. The channel may supply the agitator 66 with housing. At least one slurry basket side wall, such as two opposed long walls of a rectangular upturned slurry basket, may be V-shaped and tapered to connect the rectangular top via a U-shaped base. Might be. The V-shaped wall may include a water diaphragm 49. The soot containing the V-shaped wall may further include an outer housing wall 20d that creates a vacuum tight water chamber 20e for receiving water sucked by the water diaphragm 49. Suction may be provided by a water suction pump 18 that draws water from the chamber 20e at the water suction line 19. Water may be discharged by jet 21 by atmospheric pressure from a water discharge pump 17 supplied by line 16 (FIGURES 2G1 and 2G1b). The discharged water may rinse the ignition powder in the slurry tank 5. In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 2G1d, a slurry stirrer, such as spiral 66, is under 8 jurisdiction, so that it is sucked into the roller for ignition from both sides to the center. Give the slurry to the top well. The rinse from the parabolic mirror 14 may fall to the spiral 66 under which the slurry is mixed and may be at the end away from the center where it may be pushed up by a springing action. The slurry flow may include mixing circulation in the slurry tank 5. In another embodiment, chamber 20e contains gas and water, and the generator system further includes a vacuum pump that maintains suction across the water diaphragm / aluminum enamel glaze 49. The pump inlet may exceed the water level in chamber 20e and may penetrate electrode housing 20b. The pump inlet line may receive gas from the chamber 20e, and the pump output line may consume gas to another area of the cell outside at least one of the slurry basket 5 and electrode housing 20b. In some embodiments, gas may be consumed in the duct 53. In one embodiment, the gas pump pressure and water are such that the desired water suction through the diaphragm / aluminum enamel glaze 49, water suction through the water pumps 18 and 17, and gas pumping is achieved by the gas pump. The pump pressure is controlled. In certain embodiments, the relative pump pressure is controlled to avoid water being pumped into the gas pump.

  Energy inventory (eg, barometric volume work, heating a H 2 O based solid fuel reactant and evaporating the heating and water can be reduced by at least one of changing the radius of curvature of the roller electrode and metal powder matrix Such as non-light components of products), and the rotational speed of such changing rollers that change the kinetic energy of the fuel by means of energy, reducing the density of blast products and means (eg semi-transparent) Varying the H2O content by suction through the membrane and application of atmospheric pressure to the fuel by means of rollers.

  In one embodiment, the generator component such as mirror 14 and at least one attached component such as the inlet to duct 53 and water jet 21 are known in the art (eg, three-dimensional printing, casting and milling). Made by at least one method.

  Optionally, the embodiment (powder ignition product such as dry solid fuel powder) may be removed by gas flow such as suction. The powder may be collected with a filter. The entire material may be removed as a H2O based solid fuel, may be rehydrated and may be recycled. Removal may be by washing with H2O. Removal may be that point where the powder may be controllably hydrated with the slurry basket 5 by the action of compressed air. Rinse or powder may be transported to the slurry basket by disclosure. Excess water may be removed by disclosure before or after the slurry rinse is transported to the slurry tank. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition product powder is collected with a vacuum cleaner, the vacuum cleaner filter is cleaned with H2O periodically or continuously, and the resulting slurry is separated by H2O, such as 樋 5. Excess water is flushed into the reservoir and removed by means such as at least one gas jet that blows away excess H 2 O and selective suction through the H 2 O diaphragm. Alternatively, the vacuum-cleaned or sucked ignition product powder may be delivered directly to the slurry basket or first as a powder in the hydration reservoir. The powder may be rehydrated in the slurry basket 5 or in the reservoir and delivered to the slurry basket 5. The system may be substantially determined so that it is not affected by gravity or centrifugal force in applications such as transport applications such as aviation. The powder or slurry may be transported to the tub by disclosure such as air or mechanical means. Alternatively, the gas containing the ignition powder may flow into a closed reservoir that collects the powder and optionally rehydrates it and transports the powder or slurry to the slurry basket 5 according to the disclosure.

  In one embodiment, the rotating electrode 8 is operated at a sufficient rotational speed to transport solid fuel from a reservoir such as a slurry tank 5 to a pair of contact areas such as a roller to cause ignition. . Three inch diameter copper roller electrodes, running the roller at a high rotational speed greater than 1000 RMP at the bottom submerged in water with Ti (50 mole%) + H 2 O (50 mole%) or Ti + MgCl 2 (50 + H 2 O (50 mole%) slurry transports fuel from θ = 180 °, φ = 0 ° position to θ = 90 °, φ = 180 ° position, and The compression of the roller contact area results in ignition. Light goes mainly vertically (z-axis direction). This may be expected since the plasma may not expand down due to the pressure of the slurry, and the vertically induced kinetic energy of the fuel provided by the rollers causes vertical plasma expansion. In one embodiment, the mirror system 14 surrounds an electrode, such as the roller electrode 8, and directs light vertically. The mirror system may include a parabolic mirror 14. The electrode 8 may be in position, for example at or near the focal point, so that the light is optimally guided up to the top of the cell. The top wall of the cell sends light to a light distribution and photovoltaic converter system 26a such as one that includes a stacked series of semi-transparent mirror 23 and photovoltaic panel 15 (FIGS. 2C and 2C1). A window 20 may be included.

  High speed video recording of ignition of H2O-based fuel containing Ti + MgCl2 + H2O was performed with an Edgetronics camera. Some observed phenomena due to the hydrino reaction were as follows: (i) H 2 O based fuel showed fractal type microburst after the main ignition, ie many subsequent ignitions (Ii) Fractal-type microburst was applied simultaneously with rapid fuel injection and ignition to produce non-linear, multiplicative power output; (iii) H2O-based solid as it Micro-aerosol administration of fuel ignites causes a plasma illumination bullet-type phenomenon, and (iv) Fuel pellets such as Ti + H2O in Al DSC pans that undergo ignition exhibit shock wave reverberation. In certain embodiments, the microburst waterfall is enhanced at least one of speed and range by applying at least one of an external electric field, current and external magnetic field. An external electric field and current may be provided by the electrodes in contact with the ignition output (eg, an external power source that may be powdered by the generator and the plasma formed by ignition of the H 2 O based solid fuel). The electric field and current may be in the range of 0.01 V / m to 100 kV / m and 1 A to 100 kA, respectively. The applied electric field and current frequencies may be within the disclosed plasma excitation range, for example, in the range of 0 Hz to 100 GHz. In an exemplary embodiment, AC, RF and microwave excitement may be provided by the disclosed generator. The magnetic field may be provided by at least one of the electromagnets and a permanent magnet such as those disclosed. The electromagnet may include a Helmholtz coil. The magnetic field may do so in the range of 0.001T to 10T. The magnetic field may be constant without delay or alternating. The frequency of the applied alternating magnetic field is in at least one range of about 0.001 Hz to 10 GHz, 0.1 Hz to 100 MHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 1 Hz to 100 kHz, and 1 Hz to 1 kHz. might exist. In certain embodiments, the alternating magnetic field may be achieved by rotating a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Rotation may be achieved using a motor that mechanically rotates the magnet. In another embodiment, the magnetic field rotates electronically. As known by those skilled in the art, electronic rotation may be achieved by controlling the change of current in space and time. In certain embodiments, the magnetic field confines the plasma to increase the concentration of hydrino reactants and thereby increase the rate of the hydrino reaction.

  In certain embodiments, the light may be output by at least one light element that is defocused or reduces the light intensity by means such as diffusing the light. The low intensity light may have an incident on the light distribution and a larger footprint, or may be a photovoltaic converter system 26a that may cover a larger cross-sectional area than the window 20. In an exemplary embodiment, window 20 includes a lens that blurs light that is incident on the light distribution and a photovoltaic converter system 26a that has a larger cross-sectional area. The window 20 may include a concave lens. The lens may include a Fresnel lens. Light distribution and photovoltaic converter system 26ah, light distribution that may be diffused and lowered in intensity light and may include at least one additional entrance optical element such as a mirror, lens, fiber optic cable and optical waveguide And the photovoltaic converter system or the light distribution and photovoltaic converter system 26a containing the focused light to the column. In another embodiment, the light may be output by at least one light element that increases the light intensity by means such as focusing or focusing on the light. The bright light may have a light incident on the light distribution and a smaller footprint, or may be a photovoltaic converter system 26a that may cover a smaller cross-sectional area than the window 20. In an exemplary embodiment, the window 20 includes a lens that focuses light that is incident on the light distribution and a photovoltaic converter system 26a having a smaller cross-sectional area. Window 20 may include a convex lens. The lens may include a Fresnel lens. The light distribution and photovoltaic converter system 26a is focused to direct high brightness light and may include at least one additional mirror-like entrance optical element, lens, fiber optic cable and optical waveguide. Distribution and photovoltaic converter system or light distribution and photovoltaic converter system 26a including concentrated light on the column. In this case, a standard size cell 26 that includes ignition and a regeneration system that functions as a light source, for example, a light distribution and photovoltaic converter system 26a may provide light power to the window 20, light distribution and photovoltaic The cross section of the converter system 26a may be sized to convert to an electrical output that may be different and may be a module that can output a range of optical power in the range of 10 kW to 50 MW. . Some typical operating parameters for 10 MW electrical output are given in Table 8. Some of the independent parameters are given without a protocol for calculation. Methods for calculating other dependent parameters are given in Table 8. The parameters are typical for 10 MW electrical output. Parameters may be climbed proportionally for other powers.

The mirror may be moved dynamically. The active mirror may be rastered, or it may scan through time at a frequency that accepts light and divides it by photovoltaic cells so that utilization of the photovoltaic cell capacity is maximized. Light splitting may also be achieved by the translucent nature of many mirror mirrors. In one embodiment, the raster or interrogation frequency of the light in the receiving element is a higher frequency, which times the photovoltaic cell such that the response is substantially constant. This rate includes the temporal fusing rate. The evaluator or scan rate may be faster or slower, as required by the examples, in the range of approximately 1% to 10,000% of the temporal fusing rate. In one embodiment, the movable or active mirror includes piezoelectric, air, mechanical actuators. Steering mirrors motor controllers (eg auxiliary system components motorized micropositioning stage and actuator) and typical components of a scanning mirror system such as a dynamic mirror such as a piezoelectric tip / tilt mirror The position at which the sensor is provided: http: // www. physikin instrument. com / en / products / prdetail. php? sortnr = 300710
In certain embodiments, each mirror includes a segmented mirror. In one embodiment, the segmented mirror is piezoelectric, air driven by at least one of the mechanical actuators. In some embodiments, the movable mirror includes a rotating mirror, such as a rotating polygon mirror that rasters or examines light across the receiving PV cell. In some embodiments, the modulation of light may be controlled using the PV output power by the movable mirror, depending on the optical raster speed and adjustments received in the PV cell as the function of time varies.

  The power from the PV converter may be delivered to a battery system such as a lithium ion battery system (27 or 34 in FIG. 2C1). PV converted electricity may charge the battery. The battery may run the ignition system and may be further conditioned by the output power controller / conditioner. The battery and output power controller / conditioner may include a similar system to one used in solar power output regulation known to those skilled in the art.

  In one embodiment, the ignition system includes a PV conditioner to power conditioner. Conditional power may at least partially move the ignition system. Conditional PV power may include AC, DC, and variations thereof. PV power may charge a storage element such as a battery and at least one of the capacitors as 27 in FIG. 2C1. The storage elements may be connected via circuit elements of the ignition system such as electrical output, busbar and electrode sources. The circuit element may self-activate. A trigger may be achieved when the storage element rushes to the threshold. Or, for example, the memory element is a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a metal / oxide / semiconductor FET (MOSFET) and at least one or more of a group of gas-filled tubes. May be triggered by a switch at a member. In certain embodiments, the source of high current, such as direct current, includes a unipolar generator. In some embodiments, the ignition power is applied continuously. The current to achieve ignition may be very high at the beginning, as opposed to stable operation. In some embodiments, the high initial or start-up current above the current is due to an initial circuit that may include a power storage element such as at least one capacitor and at least one of the battery and a power source. May be offered. In certain embodiments, start-up may be achieved in standard steady state operating currents that increase in time to a steady state level with the current applied by the plasma. Using switches such as the mechanical or electronic switches of the present disclosure, a reasonable current for continuous operation is less than 0.1% to less than the current for intermittent ignition such as those applied. It may be in the range of at least one of 90%, 1% -80%, 5% -75%, and 10% -50%. Typical continuously applied ignition currents are in the range of about 100 A to 10,000 A, 500 A and 7,500 A, 1000 A and 5,000 A, 1500 A and 2000 A. . Matching ignition power to fuel transport speed may be achieved with control so that power gain is optimized at a given desired output power. The controller may combine the ignition energy from the corresponding ignited fuel with the light energy to achieve the optimal power gain for the molded hydrino. The controller may dominate at least one of fuel flow rate, ignition current and ignition voltage. The fuel flow rate may be controlled by controlling the roller rotation speed and the fuel thickness applied to the roller or other type of movable electrode. The controller may receive input from a sensor that can determine the presence or absence of fuel between the electrodes. The sensor may be optical. The sensor may detect at least one of fuel counter electrode reflection, scattering and absorption. The sensor may include an image sensor such as a high speed camera.

  In some embodiments, an ignition that includes a switch to at least 1 initiates a current, and when ignition is achieved, shut off the current. The flow of current may be initiated by a pellet that completes the gap between the electrodes. The switch that initiates the current may be at least one of the allocation mounts and may be electronic. The electronic switch may include at least one of IGBT, SCR, and MOSFET switch. The current may be interrupted after ignition to optimize the output hydrino power generation relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may include a switch to allow the fuel to bring power to the explosion and turn-off during the phase in which a controllable amount of energy into the flow occurs, called the plasma phase of ignition. Absent. In some embodiments, the current is terminated by at least one depletion of charge that drives effective power, energy, current or ignition (eg, charge in a capacitor, capacitor bank or battery or current in a transformer). In certain embodiments, termination or interruption of current to the plasma is accomplished by mechanically removing the conductive fuel from between the roller electrodes. The rate of transport of conductive fuel through the contact area in the electrode may be controlled to dominate the electrical contact time duration. The timing of removal of the conductive fuel may be achieved by controlling the rotation speed of the electrode. The wheel speed may be increased after ignition to lose contact faster during the plasma phase to cause a shorter duration due to the current termination or interruption. Termination of the current after ignition may optimize the input energy. The termination of the current flow during the plasma phase of ignition may be controlled by a sensor such as current, voltage, conductivity, power, light, and to a controller such as a sensor and a computer. May apply pressure.

  In another embodiment, the switch may include a mechanical one. Contact between the electrodes may be interrupted periodically by physically separating them at a sufficient distance so that low pressure ones cannot maintain electrical contact between them. Isolating the electrodes, in some embodiments, there is current flow, the isolation is sufficient so that the current does not include significant parasitic drains from the charging scheme (eg, conditional power or direct power from the PV converter) It is. In certain embodiments, the mechanical system that periodically and optionally separates the electrodes may include at least one of a rotational mechanism and a linear mechanism. The rotation mechanism may include a cam that slides the roller electrode back and forth to achieve a change in separation over time. The cam may be driven by a servo motor. The mechanical separation of the electrodes may be achieved with actuators such as those of the solenoid disclosure, for example, may be piezoelectric, air, and servomotor driven. The cam is then driven by a rotary impulse connection and an actuator driven by a screw-motor. In certain embodiments, intermittent separation may be achieved by atmospheric pressure from an ignition event that pushes away an electrode where contact is restored by a spring-like restoring mechanism. The separation may be in at least one range of approximately 0.001 cm per 3 cm, 0.01 cm per cm, and 0.05 cm per 0.5 cm. The ignition itself may be triggered at least when the separation gap is small enough to move the electrodes closer together and the voltage mechanism is charged to a sufficiently high level. In certain embodiments, the electrodes are separated by at least a gap that is minimal to prevent ignition in the absence of fuel. Transport of highly conductive fuel to the mid-gap region causes sufficient electrical contact between the electrodes to cause ignition of large currents into the flow. In one embodiment, the mid-gap fuel is then ignited and lost due to ignition, and the current substantially ceases from when the gap exists without fuel electrical connection.

  In some embodiments, the mechanical tensioning and positioning system may include a pair of electrode tensions relative to each other so that the current can be constant constant maintenance so that it is constant or can be optimally maintained. Maintain position. In another embodiment, the mechanical tension and positioning system maintains a pair of tension and position of the electrodes relative to each other so that the current is pulsatile. The mechanical system may include at least one of the screws. And with air, hydraulic, piezoelectric, other mechanical systems can act like linear actuation of at least one electrode compared to others to cause at least one change in separation and tension between the electrodes Known in technology. Positioning and tension may be controlled by a controller such as one with a sensor and a computer. The sensor may find that the signal corresponds to a change in the optimal condition of the current. The signal may be reactive or at least partially interrupted from the ignition current, the torque of the changing motor (eg servo motor and light emitting change for tension changes) reflecting the current. Positioning may be dynamic. And after ignition, it reacts on the time scale of light emission duration. Alternatively, the positioning may be essentially stiff. And it happens on a longer time scale. The system may generally have a bend to provide the desired current in response to the dynamic pressure created by the fuel explosion. The set position may be adjusted regularly. The adjustment may be made by mechanical tension and positioning system. A typical mechanical system is a threaded rod connected via a moveable table with an increased drive motor and one roller. The threaded rod may have nuts that are tightened or loosened so that the table moves to complete the positioning or is fixed away for the opposing electrode it may be. In another exemplary embodiment, the electrodes (e.g., the person riding on the drive motor on a movable table) are moved by a piezoelectric actuator. The actuator may be driven by a power supply. The power supply may be controlled by a controller. When the electrode is held in a relative home position, except for adjustments based on optimizing operating conditions, the electrode is maintained by milling. Milling may be achieved with a fixed abrasive blade that rotates the roller electrode to powder the surface. The height of the blade may be adjustable.

  In some embodiments, the roller electrode may rotate around a relationship such as a plain bearing. The diameter of the plain bearing and the corresponding circumference may be sufficient to prevent overheating and shearing. The surface may be electroplated or coated with a conductor such as Ag, Cu, Ti, TiO or Cr that improves durability. As silver plated copper on the other, the bearing surface may include different materials on one to improve durability such as Cu. In one embodiment, the plain bearing is spring loaded. The expandable inner electrode ring may be pressed against the outer electrode ring by springs to make electrical contact where one ring rotates relative to the other. The plain bearing may be cooled. The bearing may be water cooled. A plain bearing may include a slip ring. A rotating shaft connected and shocked by a plain bearing may be supported by a relationship other than a plain bearing such as a roller bearing. Bearings with elements that increase current contact on the ball bearing balls, such as those with alternative bearings and cylindrical elements known by those skilled in the art, such as ball bearings, are also within the scope of the invention. In one embodiment, a bus bar such as 9 shown in FIG. 2C1 may rotate with a frame horse at the end opposite the roller 8 connection. A movable or flexible connector to the bus bar may provide a low voltage high current of ignition power from a source of electrical output. The bus bar may be electrically isolated from the source of electrical output, except for the connector. A typical connector is a braided wire. Consider each member of a pair of roller electrodes. The roller may be attached to the frame or driven by a motor that may be attached so that it rotates about the axis of the bus bar 9 or 10. The roller may be driven by a drive connector (eg belt, chain or transmission). Alternatively, the roller may be driven by the second roller, with the second roller in contact with a roller electrode that is driven by a motor such as an electric motor. In another embodiment, the roller may be driven by a magnetic drive. The electromagnet has gone up in the gap between the roller magnet and the drive magnet on the drive mechanism (which drives the magnet), or the electromagnet has gone up on the roller (roller magnet) permanently and oppositely, or magnetic The drive may contain at least one permanent. The drive magnet may be rotated by a motor such as an electric motor. The rotating drive magnets may be mechanically coupled with the roller magnet to turn them and concomitantly turn the roller electrode. Rollers and drive magnets are a set of magnets running as others as a rotor and stator, and may include an electric motor. The motor may include a brush or may be brushless, such as an electronic rectifying motor. In another embodiment, the motor may drive the roller 8 directly by the shaft 7 by means of a mechanical coupler and the motor may be attached to the frame, at least one of which may be curved with an electrical isolator, Make a stir to respond to the movement. The song may contain the maximum cruising distance of the displacement displacement of the roller from the contact point of approximately 1 mm to 1 cm. In another embodiment, shaft 7, roller 8 and bus bar 9 or 10 may be mounted on a table that can be moved over a guide to allow reciprocal movement of the electrode with contact and displacement. In certain embodiments, the bus bar is superconducting. Superconducting busbars may be more normal conductive busbars that trap it.

  As shown in the embodiment of FIG. 2G1d1, the at least one bus bar 9 that rotates the antan electrically connects the gist connection (eg, the relationship or curvature of the sugar sugar that is the cell-mounted end iso of the electrode housing 20b). Insulated. The bar may be electrically connected to the source of electrical output 2 by a related flexible conductor such as wire 75. The roller 8 may be tightly connected via the shaft 7 that penetrates the outer wall 20d of the electrode housing 20b. The slot that allows the shaft 7 to move laterally on the wall 20 d is sealed by the drive shaft gasket 59. The shaft 7 connects the disclosed bearing 73aand et al. Starting at the end of the pivoting bus bar 9 to the opposite side of the point mounted end via a plain-like relationship. The shaft 7 may further include an indirect drive mechanism on the mounting extension on the portion of the shaft 7 that passes through the bearing. The indirect mechanism may include a motor 71 or 13 mounted separately on the frame and a pulley 71 turned by a shaft 74. A roller drive pulley 71 a connected via a drive shaft 74 held by a drive bearing 73 may be driven by a shaft drive belt 72 driven by the drive pulley 71. An alternative drive mechanism includes a rotor-stator mechanism in which the roller magnets may be fixed to a circularly symmetrical articulator mounting structure at the end of the shaft 7 such as an articulator mounting disk. The bus bar 9 may be spring-loaded by connecting the spring 57 via a horse 57 atat that applies air pressure to the bus bar to apply tension on the roller electrode 8. The outer housing wall 20d of the electrode housing 20b may contain mu metal in the shield that the rotor-stator drives from the magnetic field produced by the ignition current. The advantage of the pivoted cam busbar embodiment is that it is allowed to position the busbar electrical separation on the bottom axis of rotation away from the hotter area closer to the roller electrode 8.

  As provided in the disclosure, a bus bar that can be oscillating allows the tension and gap between the roller electrodes to be variable. A restoration mechanism for separation force after solid fuel ignition may be one of the disclosures. Typical restoration mechanisms are spring, air, hydraulic, and piezoelectric actuation. An embodiment that includes a roller that is recovered and rotated by a restoring mechanism in a separately mounted motorized busbar has a faster repair response time compared to an embodiment that is mounted on a roller-driven motor and a roller-movable table. May have. The response may be faster due to reduced mass. Response time may also be reduced using a restoration mechanism with a higher effective spring constant. The response time may suit what you want. The adjustment may be to produce at least one of the desired power and energy gain. The adjustment may be performed by a controller such as one that includes at least one sensor, such as at least one of tension (position), tension senor and computer.

  In another embodiment, the periodic contact is achieved by a non-uniform surface at least one of a rotating electrode and a recessed or corrugated region, such as one containing a raised lobe or side. It may be. Contact may be achieved when the recessed area is juxtaposed and contact is lost and the raised area of the opposing electrode enters closer with rotation. Alternatively, contact may be achieved when the raised area of the notched electrode contacts the circular surface counter roller electrode with rotation and vice versa. Alternating electrical contact results in current pulsing. PCT Application No. PCT / US14 / 32584, PCT / IB2014 / 058177, named 040114 and PCT No. 1 before the title “Photovoltaic Power Conversion System and Method” filed on April 1, 2014. In "Power Generation Systems and Methods Related To", a suitable electrode design is given where there is non-uniformity in the periphery of the surface providing intermittent contact. And is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Filed on January 10, 2014. Alternatively, the roller electrode periphery of at least one roller may be relatively non-conductive between or at a uniform level due to insulating areas, regions or segments. The insulating roller portion may include a surface and may optionally include an underlying body portion, region or segment. The roller section of the conductor may contain a metal such as copper, and the roller section of the non-conductive or insulating material may contain a ceramic, oxidized metal, or anodized metal did. The alternating non-conductive material may include a layer of rollers on the surface, or may include a roller surface and a body portion. If the surfaces of both rollers are non-conductive and have a mixture of conductive sections, the contacts of the same pair of electrodes may be synchronized so that the current corresponding to the conductivity is sent rhythmically. Alternatively, contact is made when the conductive section constantly contacts the conductive roller. The alternating conductivity results in pulsing with current.

  In one embodiment, the rotating electrode achieved by juxtaposition of those areas of each pair of rotating electrodes that cause periodic contact comprises a plurality of pairs of such electrodes. An elevational view of a non-uniform surface along the periphery of at least one member of each pair of rotating electrodes includes an earlobe or side that includes a recessed or raised area between the earlobes. Each pair may include an independent source of electricity to cause ignition. Each source of electricity may receive power and energy from the PV converter. Multiple electrode pairs, such as roller electrode pairs, may be adjusted to receive ignition in a stepwise manner with a cycle to achieve for a constant ignition and light duration or other parameters required. n pairs are together with at least one member having an m% earlobe area, compared to a non-split area geometrically prepared by a phase relative to the cycle, Such a desired burning rate may be achieved with a desired utilization such as 10%. Here, the usage rate may be fixed, but can be changed by changing the number of roller ear lobes above the roller with the ear lobes. The firing timing may vary, or it may vary further electronically by controlling the ignition circuit. The rotation speed of each member electrode of a plurality of n-electrode pairs must be rotated at a speed of only 1 / n pairs of rotation speeds. For example, a pair of 10 needs to rotate at only 200 RPM to achieve the same utilization and ignition rate as a pair of uniform electrodes with 2000 RPM rotation speed. The heat per surface area is likewise equal between the two cases. In embodiments having a plurality of regularly conductive roller electrode pairs, the number of pairs is approximately 1 / wherein one pair, each roller is conductive along the periphery continuously, Usage rate operated at the same RPM. In one embodiment with one pair of regularly conductive rollers / duty charge / discharge times for a pair of rollers, the number of ignition circuits may be approximately 1 / utilization and each may have a capacitor that is approximately 1. No / usage to charge as fast as that of a pair of ignition circuits where each roller is continuously conductive along the periphery and operated at the same RPM.

  The ignition system may further include means for directing light from the plurality of electrode pairs uniformly throughout the light distribution and photovoltaic conversion system. The guidance system may include disclosed optical elements such as active optical elements (eg, active mirrors or lenses). The guidance system may further include a mechanical system such as means for moving the ignition system to achieve for cell centering of ignition from each pair of electrodes.

  A plurality of pairs of electrodes in an embodiment of an independent drive motor, a shaft comprising a plurality of rollers driven and driven by at least one common motor and a drive connection (e.g. a drive connection comprising at least one roller) An electrical connection is provided to each pair in isolation where an impulse to each roller is provided by at least one of a motor that may be driven (gear, belt or chain drive). In some embodiments, the drive connection that is part of the mechanism that drives the plurality of rollers includes electrical isolation between the rollers. Electrical isolation may be provided by an electrically non-conductive element of the drive mechanism. The plurality of n-roller electrode pairs may include an n-electrode-ignition system such as one pair shown in FIG. 2C1. In one embodiment, one member of a pair of rollers is connected via one shaft as the other is attached to another shaft for multiple pairs, such as n pairs. Each shaft may be driven by an electric motor. The non-conductive section of each axis between the electrodes may electrically insulate the rollers from each other. The electrodes may be powered independently. Each may have an independent connection that may include a slip ring such as a plain bearing or an electrically conductive bearing to allow the shaft and attached roller to rotate while providing current. Absent. In some embodiments, the electrical connection may include a bus bar such as 9 or 10 in FIG. 2C1, which may include a conductive orientation such as a slip ring or a plain bearing.

  The ignition system may be controlled by at least one of applying a force on at least one electrode, such as a rotating electrode, such as a roller electrode, to change the separation between the electrodes. At least one of barometric application and separation change may be achieved by at least one of mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, piezoelectric actuation. The security distance between the electrodes may be in the range of at least one of approximately 0-50 mm, 0-10 mm, 0-2 mm, and 0-1 mm. The pressure of one electrode relative to the other of the pair may be in the range of approximately 0.1N to 100,000N, 1N to 10,000N, 10N to 1000N, and 20N 200N. Contracts depending on the expanding piezoelectric actuator and the applied voltage may achieve at least one of a separation gap and barometric pressure. In certain embodiments, the piezoelectric actuator may apply atmospheric pressure to the busbar where the electrode is fixed to cause it to reversibly bend to thereby apply atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, the electrode may have another restoring mechanism, such as a spring, that forces at least one roller electrode away from a pair of other members for the phase of the ignition cycle where the pressure is reduced. In one embodiment, the piezoelectric actuator is subjected to a reciprocal action of at least a high current to flow applying atmospheric pressure, at least where the separation between the electrodes causes the other one piezoelectric actuator to ignite. A bus bar that is fixed to cause the electrode to bend reversibly and thereby reversibly to apply atmospheric pressure. In certain embodiments, the piezoelectric actuator may at least move a table of electrode drive motors corresponding to the one electrode being initiated. The piezoelectric actuator may be mounted on the generator frame in a particular position, such as one that establishes at least one of an initial gap and initial pressure. The position may be adjusted by a position adjustment device, such as one of a hydraulic position adjustment device, with a machine, with air, with a solenoid. Suitable mechanical alignment devices include 1 micrometer. A piezoelectric actuator is parallel to at least one function in series that may include multiple units that it may. In some embodiments, the piezoelectric actuator may be provided with at least one in series and parallel. Parallel arrangements may be used to achieve stronger forces. A series arrangement may be used to achieve a greater displacement suppression. Piezoelectric actuators may include mechanical systems such as lever arms to increase their range of motion. The lever arm may be attached to the part of the electrode system that is required to be moved or forced.

  At least one piezoelectric actuator moves the at least one roller electrode back and forth to open and close the corresponding gap between the pair of roller electrodes to open and close the ignition circuit. The roller electrode may be mounted on a bearing table connected via a slide. The roller electrode may be driven directly by a motor that may also be started on a sliding table.

In one embodiment, a piezoelectric actuator comprising at least two piezoelectric actuators that are ready for reciprocating action due to an ignition system at least up to one applies a barometric pressure to release and cause a high current to cause ignition Or close and open the separation between the electrodes to finish. In one embodiment, one piezoelectric actuator undergoes contraction and expansion in return for the expansion operation while performing a reciprocating operation opposite that of the other. At least two actuators operating in opposite motion to cause intermittent ignition at the electrodes by applying and releasing the closing and opening of the barometric pressure and separation gap. In this way, opposing piezoelectric actuators may provide a restoring behavior. Frequency, force, displacement, and duty cycle may do so. And those in the disclosure that the opposing actuators undergo a motion that is in the 180 ° phase moved. In an exemplary embodiment, the gap may be approximately 50 μm, the frequency may be 1000-2000 Hz, while others contract to remove stability for 50 μs up to 100 μs, one The actuator may expand to cause pressure and closure application to the electrode pair for about 50 μs to 100 μs.
Then things shrink while others expand to reduce the air pressure and open a gap for about 500 μs up to 1000 μs. The operation of the piezoelectric actuator may be controlled by a programmable controller that controls the power supply, which may be controlled by the strength of the applied voltage and the force and travel distance of the piezoelectric actuator. The frequency and usage rate may be controlled by the controller by controlling the voltage waveform applied to the piezoelectric actuator. In one embodiment, the function of applying atmospheric gradient force to provide stability is provided by the same piezoelectric actuator in expansion and contract modes during the ignition and non-ignition cycles. Ignition by applying mechanical action directly or indirectly to at least one electrode and by applying mechanical action directly or indirectly to a table comprising at least one mounted electrode May be achieved. In one embodiment, a typical piezoelectric body includes at least one of quartz, barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate. In some embodiments, the high-response speed and fast distortion of the piezoelectric crystal allows the step to be done with a VHF such as at least 5 MHz. This gives a typical maximum linear velocity of approximately 800 mm or approximately 2.9 km / h per second. However, other desirable speeds may be higher or lower. For example, within at least one range of about 10 mm / s to 10,000 mm / s and 100 mm / s to 1000 mm / s. In certain embodiments, the piezoelectric actuator is moved with a voltage to achieve contact between the electrodes that is sufficient to cause ignition. The ignition or activation time that includes the time that high current is passed through the fuel may be different from the corresponding non-ignition or deactivation time. The usage rate, including the ratio of ignition to non-ignition time, may be in the range of at least one of approximately 0.01% to 99%, 0.1% to 50%, and 1% to 20%. The piezoelectric actuator may be moved during the ignition phase to apply at least one of barometric pressure or reduced electrode spacing. Activation may be achieved by applying a voltage. The voltage may be applied by a function generator such as a computer, a power supply and a controller. For example, a square wave of opposite polarity voltage may be applied for 500 μs, or a square wave driving voltage may not be applied for 50 μs and voltage. At least one of the activation frequencies and the deactivation frequency may be in a range of at least one of approximately 1 Hz per 1 MHz, 10 Hz per 100 kHz, and 100 Hz per 10 kHz. At least one of the activation duration and the deactivation duration may be in a range of at least one of about 1 μs to 100 s, 10 μs to 10 s, and 25 μs to 1 s. .

  A system diagram of the piezoelectric actuator system is shown in FIG. 2G1e. In an embodiment, in control and at least one of the switch-on and off-ignition piezoelectric systems, the separation and tension between the electrodes may be opposed to the opposing piezoelectric actuators 54 to move the electrodes relative to each other. And 55. The piezoelectric actuator may be attached to the piezoelectric actuator mount 56. The motors 12 and 13 and the electrode 8 supported by the roller shaft 7 and the bearing support for the roller shaft 4 may be a single mounted movable table 62 that is moved relative to each other by piezoelectric actuators 54 and 55. Absent. Stability may be provided by a tension spring 57 supported by a tension spring horse 57a. The movement of the table 62 may be guided by the slide track 60 at the base support 61. The motor may be attached to the table 62 by a motor mount 63. Changes in the electrode roller shaft 7 may be accommodated by a flexible gasket 59 on the wall of the electrode housing 20b containing the slurry basket 5. The electrode housing may be initiated to the base support 61 by an electrode housing bracket 58.

  Solid fuel ignition may be achieved by passing a high current. Ignition may be initiated and may be terminated intermittently. The time of current flow between the rollers may be different from the time when no current flows. The usage rate for the application of current may be in the range of at least one of approximately 0.01% to 99%, 0.1% to 50%, and 1% to 20%. The interruption may be accomplished by at least one of reducing the air pressure that the electrodes apply to the fuel and opening a gap between the electrodes. In some embodiments, at least one electrode, such as a roller or gear electrode, rotates with an indirect drive from an electric motor such as a belt and pulley, a gear and chain and a gear drive. The roller electrode may be started on a lever that may include a gist during the end holding the roller opposite the bearing. The other side may be driven. The movement may be periodic to at least one of the open ones and may close the gap between the electrodes, applying atmospheric pressure to the fuel. Opposite propulsion motion may be triggered by at least one of piezoelectric actuation, mechanical, air. The mutual mechanical movement of the drive ends may be achieved by connecting rods connected via cams or crankshafts. The cam may be shaped to achieve the desired utilization. The cam may be multilobal. The reciprocal movement may also be achieved by a solenoid system such as one that has a speaker design. Solenoid coils and magnets of speaker-type actuators may be protected from high magnetic fields with high ignition current by means (eg orientation and magnetic shielding). Servo motors may also be protected by magnetism. Shielding may have been achieved with mu metal. A piezoelectric motor or actuator that expands and contracts in response to an applied voltage may achieve a movement that dominates intermittent ignition. The applied voltage from the function generator and power supply may be controlled to achieve the desired utilization.

  In certain embodiments, the electrode is constantly in a conductive position. Electrodes such as roller electrodes may be loaded with springs or other means that apply air pressure between them to maintain electrical contact. In one embodiment, the roller electrode 8 (FIGS. 2C, 2G1 and 2G1b) is driven by a burnt motor. A motion drive roller may drive a pair of other rollers of the roller electrode with which they communicate. The tension of one roller on the other may be provided by at least one spring that pushes the rollers together to communicate. Each roller may be dressed by at least one dismantler, such as a stationary dismantler applied to the roller surface to remove foreign objects as a roller turn. The busbar connection may be stiff or nearly stiff and the motor increases. The ignition current may be constantly maintained by a source of electricity that may obtain power from the PV converter. Alternatively, the ignition current may be applied intermittently with a usage rate of less than 100%. The current switch that causes ignition may include a mechanical switch. In one embodiment, the mechanical switch is moved to open and close the circuit, rather than including a switching element that contacts the bus bar circuit contact by moving the electrode and optionally the drive motor to the table. Part of the bus bar. Programmable switching action and duty applied to circulate approximately 2000 Hz and 10% can be greatly reduced and achieve this case, mass, mileage, respectively.

  A mechanical switch may include a movement that pulls and unplugs parts of the busbar circuit. Sections are end connectors that may be manufactured in contact by an actuator and may include wires such as braided wires. In one embodiment, the small cross section of the conductor is moved by an actuator, such as a piezoelectric actuator, to open and close the ignition distribution circuit. The contact area between portions of the busbar circuit could be very large and very flat, but this could be within at least one of the following ranges so that the separation is very small and breaks the contact. It is about 10 nm to 200 μm, 100 nm to 100 μm, and 1 μm to 50 μm. It is. The contact could be between two large plates. The guide may include at least one of a collar that bends at the bearing and springs and slides. At least one of the guide and the switch itself may have an attachment to the bracket or an actuator that moves the at least one switch portion and may guide to close the switch.

  The switch may include at least one of a highly conductive material (eg, copper such as aluminum, silver and a light, highly conductive metal). In certain embodiments, the voltage is too low to cause arching; so the surface remains flat. In some embodiments, the switch may be maintained in an inert atmosphere such as a noble gas atmosphere such as a helium atmosphere that may prevent oxidation and also prevent arcing due to the high ionization energy of He. Absent. Alternatively, the switch may be maintained under vacuum to prevent at least one of arcing and oxidation. The contact surface of the switch, such as a large flat plate, may be coated with an inert material such as Au or Ag to prevent oxidation. The switch surface may be coated with a metal with a high work function such as tungsten to prevent arcing. In one embodiment, a lever arm or other mechanical system is used to increase the range of motion of the actuator to open and close the circuit. In another embodiment, a mechanical switch actuator includes at least one of the disclosed hydraulic, pneumatic, solenoid, cam driven, crankshaft driven, servo motor driven actuators. Including. A cam may have multiple ear lobes. The earlobe area that causes electrical contact may include a utilization percentage such as 10% for a utilization of 10%. Alternatively, the earlobe may contain 100% without an area utilization percentage and the cam may initiate a switch. In any case, the restoring mechanism may include opposing cam-like springs, pneumatic tires, hydrodynamic radii and machine repairers.

  At least one of the barometric application and electrode spacing is the least of the pressurized ones, i.e. at least one of the rotating camshaft and crankshaft mechanics with connecting rods to the desired electrode components and possibly like a solenoid It may be achieved with a reciprocating actuator and may be moved. In another embodiment, the electric servomotor is repeatedly rotated clockwise and counterclockwise over an arc of less than 180 ° that moves the cam forward and back. To open and close the ignition circuit, the cam may have a shaft connection to the roller electrode to move it back and forth compared to the pair of second roller electrodes. The roller may then be attached to a bearing table connected via a slide. The roller may then be driven directly by an electric motor that may also be placed on the table.

  In one embodiment, the ignition is a mechanical and electronic system hybrid. In one embodiment, the ignition system includes a wholesaler with an electrical lead that moves an electrically connected contact toward at least one via at least one member of a pair of electrodes. The movement of the lead into contact allows current to flow from an electrical lead to an electrode such as a roller electrode. The complete circuit consists of the electrical output, the terminal of the source of electrical output connected via the current flowing distributor lead, the distributor contact, the pair of electrodes, the contact connected via one member of the pair of electrodes, It may include a source of contact electrodes, a pair of other members of an electrode connected via other terminals of the source of electrical output. The current flow results in fuel ignition between the roller electrodes. Contact is intermittent, such as at that point, where the utilization is controlled to allow a source of electrical output sufficient time to store enough energy to cause the ignition to be closed. May be made. The wholesaler's electricity flowing lead may include a central hub connected via one terminal of the source of electrical output. A pair of members of the electrode may be in electrical connection with at least one contact. Opposing roller electrodes may be electrically connected to other terminals of the source of electrical output. At least one contact may be arranged circumferentially so that the contact thereby is made by rotation of the distributor lead.

  In one embodiment, at least one of the current and voltage may be a pulse to increase at least one of the output power gain and hydrino reaction rate relative to the input power. Pulsing may be accomplished electronically and / or mechanically by at least one. Electronically pulsed systems may include electronic switches of the present disclosure, such as those including thyristors, insulated gate bipolar transistors, and MOSFETs. At least one of the voltage and current may be pulsed. At least one of peak current, peak voltage, offset current or minimum current, offset voltage or minimum voltage, waveform shape or format, pulse duration, pulse frequency, and duty cycle achieve the desired ignition power pulsing May be controlled for. The control may be accomplished by a controller such as at least one voltage and current sensor and a computer including a computer. The pulsing further includes a controlled waveform envelope (such as a sawtooth waveform, a sinusoidal waveform, and at least one of a current and voltage ramp that may include a waveform envelope known by those skilled in the art). (waveform envelope) may further be included. The peak current may be in the range of about 10A to 1MA. The offset or minimum current may be in the range of 0 to 10 kA. The peak voltage may be in the range of about 0.1V to 1000V. The offset voltage may be greater than about 0V to 100V. The pulse duration may be in the range of about 100 ns to 1 s. The pulse frequency may be in the range of about 10 Hz to 1 MHz. The duty cycle may be in the range of about 1% to 99%.

Mechanical pulsing may be accomplished either actively or passively. Active mechanical systems that achieve pulsing include the mechanical switches of the present disclosure, such as cam switches and piezoelectric switches. A passive mechanical system that achieves pulsing may include mechanical restoration such as a restoration spring and switch parts such as a swivel bus bar (FIG. 2G1d1) and a mechanical switch. The mechanical frequency may be adjusted by changing the mass and spring constant of the movable part of the ignition system. In an exemplary embodiment, the mass is measured by an indirectly driven roller mounted on a lightweight bus bar, such as a pivoting bus bar that is not directly loaded with a drive motor. It is reduced by using. In one embodiment, mechanical pulsing may be achieved with at least one roller of the present disclosure having a non-uniform periphery, such as a lobe-shaped roller electrode or an electrode of the present disclosure. unknown. In one embodiment, mechanical pulsing is achieved by controlling the rotational speed of the roller electrode. The blast pressure of the ignited fuel and the dynamics of the mechanical response may be adjusted to cause pulsing. Such means includes controlling the rate at which fuel is supplied to the ignition by means such as rotational speed. Other means include controlling energy per fuel and fuel concentration. Its concentration may be controlled using the fuel applicator means of the present disclosure. Energy per fuel is controlled by controlling the fuel composition such as H ₂ O content and other components of the mixture such as water binding compounds and conductive matrices as provided in this disclosure. May be.

  In one embodiment, the ignition system is a hybrid of mechanical and electronic systems, where the mechanical and electronic conditions are monitored to achieve at least one of ignition timing and desired speed. Is done. The ignition system may be primarily electronically or mechanically pulsed, where electronically triggered pulses are preceded to accept mechanically generated pulses. Or may be delayed and vice versa. In the latter case, the mechanical ignition system may be control driven. A typical controlled mechanical ignition system includes at least one of the disclosed piezoelectric, cam, and electromagnetic drive systems. An ignition system is desired to trigger at least one of a controller, such as a computer, a sensor that follows mechanical movement, position, and electrical conductivity, and electronic and mechanically triggered ignition. Timing in the ignition cycle. In the case where the fuel contains separate pellets of the present disclosure, the sensor may further sense the pressure, conductivity, and position of the pellets through and through the ignition. The sensor may be at least one of a mechanical such as a pressure sensor and an electrical and optical such as a conductivity sensor.

In one embodiment, the fuel may include powder in addition to including slurry. The fuel may be ignited under an inert atmosphere such as one containing water vapor and an inert gas such as a noble gas such as argon or krypton. The solid fuel, such as solid fuel powder, includes at least one of the group of Ag, Cu, Ni, Co, Te, Sn, Sb, Mo, Cd, Pb, and Bi, and Ag, Cu, Ni, Co, Fe. For reaction with H ₂ O, such as one of the groups of As, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Cd, Sb, Te, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pd, and Bi. And substantially stable metals, and in addition, such as halides, hydroxides, and at least one of oxides and multiple halides, hydroxides, and oxides and mixtures thereof It may include a source of H ₂ O such as a water binding compound and at least one of absorbed water. H ₂ O binding compounds include hydrated alkaline earth and transition metal halides such as MgBr ₂ and ZnCl ₂ , and hydrated alkali, internal transition and rare earth metal halides and hydrated. May include one or more of the group of metalloid halides and alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and those hydrated with rare earth metals and metalloid oxides or hydroxides. The reaction mixture may further comprise an oxide such as a metal oxide, an alkali, an alkaline earth, a transition, an internal transition, a rare earth, or a metal such as a Group 13, 14, or 15 metal or metalloid oxide or hydroxide. Of ionic compounds including hydroxides such as hydroxides and oxyanions such as borates, metaborates, molybdates, tungstates, stannates, phosphates, and sulfates It may contain at least one of such compounds. At least one of the oxide, hydroxide, and oxygen containing compounds may include hydrates and may include hydrated water. In one embodiment, the solid fuel may include a hydroxide that has a reversible reaction from oxide to hydroxide with the addition of H ₂ O. Typical oxides are alkaline earth oxides such as Al ₂ O ₃ , MgO, and transition metal oxides such as NiO. For example, aluminum hydroxide, Al (OH) ₃ , an archaic hydrate of alumina or alumina trihydrate (Al ₂ O ₃ .3H ₂ O) can reversibly undergo hydration and dehydration.
Al ₂ O ₃ .3H ₂ O Ａｌ Al ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ O (202)
Al ₂ O ₃ .3H ₂ O Ａｌ Al ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ O (203)

Solid alkaline earth hydroxide undergoes reversible hydration and dehydration reactions. For example, magnesium hydroxide undergoes endothermic decomposition at 332 ° C., and conversely, MgO reacts with water to form magnesium hydroxide.
Mg (OH) ₂ (s) ⇔ MgO (s) + H ₂ O (g) (204)

Similarly, rare earth hydroxides undergo reversible hydration and dehydration reactions.
2Ln (OH) ₃ ⇔ Ln ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ O (205)

Transition metal oxides form hydrates that may include hydroxides. Interconversion is reversible due to loss or gain of H ₂ O. For example, dehydration is performed around 200 ° C. of Fe ₂ O ₃ .H ₂ O (also described as 2Fe (O) OH).
2FeO (OH) ⇔Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ O (206)

Similarly, thermal decomposition of iron (III) hydroxide at temperatures higher than 200 ° C. is given as follows:
2Fe (OH) ₃ Ｆｅ Fe ₂ O ₃ + 3H ₂ O (207)

Alkali metal hydroxides such as LiOH also undergo reversible hydration and dehydration reactions.
2LiOH⇔Li ₂ O + H ₂ O (208)

In one example, H ₂ O is released from the solid fuel by reaction with an oxygen containing compound such as an oxide or hydroxide. A typical H ₂ O release reaction involving the H ₂ reduction of an oxygen-containing compound, including partial reduction of Fe ₂ O ₃ with hydrogen at about 400 ° C., converts both Fe (III) and Fe (II). Give magnetite containing.
3Fe ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ ⇔ 2Fe ₃ O ₄ + H ₂ O (209)

Conductive matrices such as metal powders may be stable to reaction with hydrated H ₂ O binding compounds. The solid fuel may include at least one of Ag and Cu with rare earth halides such as chlorides such as La, Ce, Pr, Ho, Dy, Er, Lu, Nd to be hydrated. . The solid fuel is a mixture of metals such as a plurality selected from the group of Ag, Cu, Ni, Co, Te, Sn, Sb, Mo, Cd, Pb, and Bi at different ratios as a more optimal fuel. May include. Materials with high electrical resistance may be mixed with those with low resistance. A typical conductive matrix comprises a mixture of highly conductive Ag and lower conductive Ni in different ratios. Fuel mixtures with an optimized ratio of components may be obtained by routine experimentation, and power and energy generation, spectral profiles and irradiance, fuel stability against unwanted reactions, desired particles It may be selected for the stability of the size distribution, the stability of a hydrate such as MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O or BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O, which is relatively thermally stable, where ZnCl hydrates with lower decomposition temperature than that of the ₂ 4H 2 _O, the ability to facilitate the re-surface finish of the electrode including the fuel material, and electrode erosion, so limiting the extent of the electrode material in the fuel, It may be more preferable. The cell material may be selected to avoid reactivity with the fuel or product. In one embodiment, the cell may include at least one of stainless steel, molybdenum alloy, TZM, and Monel metal. In the case where a halogen gas is formed, the generator parts and cells exposed to the gas may comprise a halogen corrosion resistant metal such as at least one of stainless steel and monel metal.

  In one embodiment, components of a conductive metal matrix such as fuel or silver powder are doped with trace amounts of impurities of other elements in known amounts such as weight percent to locate any theft of the material. It may be.

  In one embodiment, solid fuel is injected vertically from a fuel reservoir 5 as shown in FIG. 2G1e1 onto a roller. Injection may be by means and methods of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the fuel is returned to a re-injected soot, so a compressed air ignition product removal / collection system, such as one that includes a duct, a fan, and a cyclone separator, and a roller It is recirculated using compressed air and mechanical injection of powdered fuel into it. In one embodiment, the ignition product is blown or sucked out of the cell and injected into a roller. The cell gas may function as a carrier gas for the ignition product. The injection may be a compressed air method. The powder may flow in a compressed air manner through a cyclone separator that includes a portion of the gas flow used to inject the fuel in a compressed air manner. The cyclone separator may separate carrier gas and ignition products. Some of the gas flow from the cyclone separator may be used to inject fuel powder. A portion of the gas flow may be used to cause the powder to flow into the roller so that it is ignited. The fuel may flow from the cyclone separator to the soot 5 as it is injected into the roller by means such as compressed air. The cyclone separator may be connected to at least one of the duct 53 and the gutter 5 (FIG. 2G1b). Inlet and outlet designations may be interchangeable by reversing the direction of gas flow in the ducts and cells. Cell gas may flow through a passage like that at window 20c at the top of the cell. Instead, the gas may pass through at least one window on the side of the cell. The opening to the cell may include a plurality of reflectors that are perforated to selectively provide gas passages while reflecting photons from the duct.

In one embodiment shown in FIG. 2G1e1, the slurry 48 is replaced by a powdered solid fuel such as that comprising a water binding compound such as a hydrate and a conductive matrix such as a metal powder. Typical solid fuels are Ag + MX ₂ (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; X = F, Cl, Br, I) and Cu + MX ₂ (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; X = F, Cl, Br, I). In one embodiment, the pulverized fuel is delivered into a rotating roller electrode 8 that may function as a rotary pump. The powder may be agitated by a powder agitator 66 driven by an agitator motor 67. The agitator 66 may include a helical cutting edge with two opposite pitch screws and one motor 67 on the same shaft. The fuel may also be agitated with a vibrator. The powder may be further stirred in compressed air. In one embodiment, the agitator blower or pump 18 injects a gas, such as a cell gas, such as a noble gas such as argon or krypton, through the gas injection line 19 into the chamber 20e. The gas may flow through the gas permeable membrane 49 to be blown into the powdered fuel 48 to cause the powdered fuel to be agitated. In another embodiment, the powder may be agitated compressed air by a gas jet that may be supplied by a gas injection line 19. The powder may be partially suspended by at least one of mechanical and compressed air agitation to cause the fuel to be delivered to the electrode. In one embodiment, the ignition may be pulsed at a current such as the parameters provided in this disclosure, such as about 1 kHz, 50% duty cycle, 1 kA maximum current. The roller may be essentially fixed in place with a bend in the bus bar to provide the ignition dynamics so that it is substantially driven by a positive source of electricity. A bearing, such as at least one plain bearing, may be placed away from the rollers to avoid overheating. In an exemplary embodiment, the plain bearing may be located outside the electrode housing 20b. The roller 8 may be fixed to the shaft 7 through which current is passed by a bus bar 9 (FIG. 2G1d1) having a sliding bearing 73a.

In one example, the fuel performance of Ag + alkaline earth halide hydrate appears to depend on the temperature stability of the hydrate. The higher stability of the hydrate allows operating the roller electrode at higher temperatures. Typical thermally stable fuels are at least one of Ag and Cu powder and at least one of BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O, MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O, and CaCl ₂ 6H ₂ O. The roller electrode may be cooled by flowing a coolant such as water through the roller shaft 7. Each roller electrode may also include a coolant channel that is ground and covered with a sealed plate, such as one welded into the plate. Instead, the channel may be cast. The coolant may be cooled by a chiller that may include at least one heat exchanger and a fan. In one embodiment, the fuel containing Ag metal powder is safe from burning the metal powder and does not require an explosion proof motor and other components.

  In one embodiment, the powder is recovered and recycled in a compressed air manner. Cell gas may be pumped out of electrode housing 20b by gas recirculation blower or pump 17 through gas suction line 17a. The recirculation blower 17 may supply gas to the agitating blower 18 and may further supply gas discharged through the gas jet line 16 to the gas jet 21 of FIG. 2G1b. The return gas may flow through the channel 52 to the electrode housing 20b to carry the ignition product to the fuel tank 5. In one embodiment, a cell wall such as mirror 14 may include a smooth steep cell wall that functions as a chute to fuel tank 5 and return channel 52 for easy flow of powdered fuel. . The wall may be mechanically vibrated with an agitator such as a vibrator to increase the flow of ignition product.

Powder may be recovered for recirculation of compressed air in the high part of the cell as well as in the low part containing the electrode housing 20b. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 2G1b and 2G1c, cell gas enters the gas collection duct 64 through the duct inlet 64 and plenum 65, flows along the duct 53 into the duct blower 53a through the blower inlet 64a, and The blower outlet 64b is jetted by the duct blower 53a to the plenum 65 and out of the duct outlet 64d. The gas may flow between window 20 and perforated window 20c and be blown down on cell floor mirror 14 and through channel 52. The downward flow may carry the ignition product and transport it downwards, causing transport to the kite 5. During the flow or transport of fuel to the tub 5, the fuel may be rehydrated. The powder may be rehydrated by absorption of H ₂ O from the cell gas. The partial pressure of cell gas H ₂ O may be maintained at a level that achieves the water content of a solid fuel such as a hydrate such as hexahydrate or the desired degree of hydration. Absent. In another embodiment, the direction of cell gas recirculation may be reversed.

In one embodiment, the fuel injection or fuel supply system includes a fluidized bed. In one embodiment, the fuel is hydrated such as Ag + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O, Ag + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + ZnCl ₂ hydrate, such as ZnCl ₂ 4H ₂ O, which is recycled in a compressed air fashion. Contains powder. The electrode may include a solid fuel metal surface coating. An SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of a fuel powder injection and ignition system with a blower and cyclone separator fuel recirculation-regeneration system is shown in FIG. 2G1e2. The ignited powder product may be drawn by suction into the inlet duct 76 of the blower 77. The product entrained in the gas flow may be blown out of the blower 77 outlet 78 and may flow into the cyclone separator inlet 79 of the cyclone separator 80. In one embodiment, antistatic tubes or metal tubes are used to prevent electrostatic sticking of ignition product particles to the walls of the recirculation system. Solid particles may fall into the cyclone separator 80 and the gas may exit a gas return duct 81 at the top of the cyclone separator 80. Pressurized gas may return to the cell through return duct 81 to the top of the cell just below window 20. The powder collected in the cyclone separator 80 may be pressurized by a blower-77 gas flow. Additional blowers may be added along the duct, and components of the fuel recirculation system need to achieve the desired flow and improved movement of the powder. The powder may flow into the bowl 5 to be injected into the roller. The cyclone separator may include an outlet chute 82 that feeds into a helical cutting edge 66. Instead, the helical cutting edge 66 or cutting edge and scissors 5 cause the fuel to chute 82 at an angle that allows the fuel to flow freely, such as when there is pressure applied to the top of the fuel in the cyclone separator 80. May extend enough to allow the supply. The pressure may be applied by gas from a blower 77. In other embodiments, the helical cutting edge that serves as a means of transporting fuel powder to the area under the roller 8 may be replaced by another transport device, such as a conveyor belt, and other transport devices of the present disclosure. unknown.

  Powdered fuel injection from the soot may be facilitated by pressurized gas flow. As shown in FIG. 2G1e1, the higher pressure gas output from the blower 77 may enter the chamber 20e through the gas injection line 19 and be drawn into the roller 8 to be ignited. It may flow through a jet or gas permeable membrane 49 to suspend the powder 48 in the tub 5. For the fuel in the cage 5, the agitating and extruding to the center of the cage 5 is available to be transported into the roller 8 by a stirrer 66 like a helical blade driven by a stirring motor 67. At least one may be done.

  In another embodiment shown in FIGS. 2G1e2 and 2G1e3, the fuel is at least one of aerosolized and fluidized by at least one of a gas jet and a gas knife 83. The gas stream is at a certain angle so that the flow direction of the fuel powder is at a certain angle so that the flow direction has a protrusion along the negative z-axis that is the opposite direction to that of the ridge 5 to the roller electrode. May be directed to the surface. For example, the high velocity gas may be directed along the negative z-axis, which causes the fuel to be suspended in turbulence created by impact with the fuel powder and at least one of the floor and the walls of the ridge 5. The The suspended powder may flow into the area between the electrodes to be ignited. The floor and the walls of the fence 5 may be shaped to cause the turbulent flow to stir and float the fuel powder so as to cause its injection into the roller for ignition. . In one embodiment, the ignition system includes a jet 83 on each side of the soot for downward injection of high velocity gas into the powder that is forced upward by back pressure from the gas flow away from the soot wall. including. The ignition system may include a gasket 47 (FIG. 2G1b) along the side of the roller electrode to confine the aerosolized powder in the cage 5 above the powder under the parabolic mirror 14. High velocity gas may be supplied by a line from the high pressure side of the blower. Alternatively, the generator may further include a gas pump or compressor that supplies a high velocity gas that may be at high pressure. The speed and pressure may be any desired to achieve fuel agitation and flotation, such as in the range of about 1 m / s to 1000 m / s and about 1 PSIG to 1500 PSIG, respectively. The gas jet or knife 83 may be moved to cover the desired area. The movement may be in a cross section. The movement may include a shifted repeating pattern. The jet or knife 83 may be scanned over a given area to better agitate and float the fuel powder. That movement may be achieved with an actuator such as an electromagnetic mechanical device. A typical actuator may work on the principle of an electronic bell or speaker as is well known in the art. In an exemplary embodiment, the fuel powder was formed into a 1/8 inch diameter fluidized cloud. 35 PSIG gas was injected on the opposite side of the ridge in the middle where the spiral cutting edge was piled up of powder. The fuel cloud then flowed through the rollers to be ignited.

  In one embodiment, the roller electrode includes a mechanical mechanism that transports fuel powder from the soot into the ignition zone at the contact area of the roller electrode. The mechanism may include gears, blades, scoops, paddles, or other protrusions or appendages adjacent to or attached to the fuel that transports fuel upward and rotates. unknown. In one embodiment, the roller electrode is covered with a shield to return the unignited fuel. The parabolic mirror 14 may have a channel 52 on the back of the roller to return the unignited fuel to the soot.

The fuel may be rehydrated by absorption of humidity from the cell gas that may be controlled to achieve the desired hydration. Rehydration may occur during the course between successive ignition events. In one embodiment, the gas stream is at least one of water vapor and suspended water to cause rehydration of the fuel to cause the fuel to be fluidized and aerosolized to cause fuel injection. Might carry. Water may be entrained in the gas by bubbling through the water column. The cell's H ₂ O vapor pressure may be controlled by maintaining the coldest spot at that temperature in order to achieve the desired pressure in the steady state of the liquid and gaseous phases, where the cell The balance of the cell is maintained at a higher temperature than its coldest spot. In one embodiment, the cell gas temperature may be raised such that it is within a temperature range of about 26 ° C. to 2000 ° C., depending on the temperature of the water source where the equilibrium partial pressure of H ₂ O is colder. It is because it is not limited. In one embodiment, at least one of the gas streams comprising liquid H ₂ O and H ₂ O vapor is selected for rehydration, such as in a bowl 5 that may be stirred with a helical cutting edge 66. May be directed over powdered fuel in the region. The water directed in that direction may be supplied by a sprayer or misting means such as that of ultrasonic or compressed air. The compressed air system may be operated separately from the gas pressure from the blower. In one embodiment, the hydrate is formed by at least one application of liquid water and water vapor and is stable to the elevated temperature of the cell and cell gas. Any excess water, such as deliquescent water, may be evaporated to produce a compound with hydrated combined water. The evaporated water may be condensed to maintain a lower vapor pressure to prevent light attenuation. In one exemplary embodiment, the collected ignition product may be humidified with H ₂ O in an excess of water of hydration in an area such as a cyclone separator and at least one of the soots. Hydrates are stable to the elevated temperature of the roller, and water content above the water of hydration will contact the roller and evaporate. The evaporated water condenses vapor on the window 20 to avoid attenuation of light such as near infrared light and visible light propagating from the cell to a power converter such as a photovoltaic power converter. It may be condensed with a dehumidifier or a cooler condenser to prevent this. The condenser or dehumidifier may be in a desired area, such as a blower inlet that removes H ₂ O water from the cell cavity through which light propagates. In one embodiment, the steam may be recycled to make it available for rehydrating the ignition product. The blower draws vapor from the cell and may blow it onto the fuel in the desired area, such as in a cyclone separator or a helical cutting edge. Evaporation of water in excess of the amount that hydrates the fuel may function to remove heat from the rollers. In one embodiment, the cooling load due to roller heating is reduced by the heat removed by the steam. The steam may be condensed in a condenser and removed from the system by at least one of a heat exchanger and a cooling device.

  In one embodiment, the rollers provide blower blades such as those of turbo pumps that cause at least one of suction and spraying relative to solid fuel such as powdered fuel in a cage. Including. The spray may agitate the powder so that it floats so that some flows into the contact area of the roller and ignites. In another embodiment where the blade creates suction, the fuel is sucked into the roller contact area and undergoes ignition. In one embodiment, the rotating blade secured to the roller electrode includes a blower that may replace the blower 77. In another embodiment, the rotating blades are independently driven by means such as a gear box or an electric motor that may be variable and driven from another motor in the system. Fuel may be drawn into the electrode contact area and ignited. The ignition product may be blown into at least one return duct and returned to the tub 5 with cell gas as a carrier. Instead, the ignition product may be blown into the cyclone separator 80. The ignition product may be rehydrated during recirculation. The particles may fall out of the cell gas carrier, and will also exit the cyclone separator 82 to blow into the bowl 5 and spiral into the area below the roller 8 to be re-injected. It may be transported by means such as a cutting edge 66. Cell gas from the chute outlet 82 of the cyclone separator 80 may flow back to the trough 5 via a return duct. The gas may be diffused in the soot by a gas diffuser. The flow of gas around the roller 8 created by the rotating blades may cool the roller. The heat may be removed with a heat exchanger such as that in the duct, such as in a duct where the flowing gas is returned to the soot.

  In one embodiment, the supporting shaft and bearing and at least one roller electrode may be mounted on a movable platform such as a slide bearing and a table on a guide as shown in FIG. 2G1e. . A plain bearing may slide over a rod that guides a movement like a linear movement. The bearings may be electrically isolated from the movable platform with a high temperature insulator such as ceramic. The roller shaft penetration of the electrode housing has a space for the shaft to undergo small movements due to changes in separation between the electrodes. The movable shaft may have an elongated gap in the electrode housing penetration with a slot that allows the roller shaft to move as the electrode separation changes during operation. These penetrations may be sealed with a flexible seal. The seal may include a bellows from metal to ceramic or glass union. Alternatively, the penetration may not be sealed. Rather, the seal may be open and the gas-tight housing may be attached to the roller motor mount, the drive system such as the drive belt and pulley, and other ignition systems such as the bus bar through the housing. May include something surrounding the part. The housing may further house a movable platform in a case. The ignition system may include a bus bar bend inside the housing chamber attached to a movable electrode on a movable platform, where the bus bar is a silicon caulk. They may be tightly sealed through their housing with insulating sealants such as The housing chamber formed by the housing may be in communication with some water vapor and a cell gas containing a noble gas such as argon or krypton. Each open seal where the shaft passes through the electrode housing may include an electrically insulating bushing such as a ceramic bushing around a roller shaft with a gap between the shaft and the surrounding bushing; And further, in embodiments that include powdered fuel, a gas jet may be included to blow back the powder feedstock in the gap. A bearing in the fixed roller shaft penetration of a stationary or fixed counter-roller electrode may be sealed.

  In one embodiment, the ignition powder source or powder supply includes a power distributor in a reasonable portion of the photovoltaic converter DC output that is input to the inverter to output AC power. A typical input voltage to the inverter is 400V DC and a reasonable output voltage for the inverter is 480V AC. The AC voltage may be stepped down with a transformer below 20V, and the current is increased to at least 1000A. In one embodiment, the transformer frequency may be increased to reduce its size. The AC voltage may be rectified to apply a high direct current (DC) at a low voltage to the electrodes to ignite the solid fuel. Typical drops across the roller electrode are 1V and 10,000A DC. Typical AC rectifiers include C & H Technologies, CHA1BU2450F2FRCMVF single phase diode bridge (CHA1BU2450F2FRCMVF single phase diode bridge), and Power Rex single phase bridge (diode bridge circuits). DC power may be applied to the electrode as a current that is essentially constant, where the current density is sufficient to cause the fuel to ignite. Otherwise, the current may be pulsed to cause bulb concentration through the skin effect, where the increase in current density is sufficient to cause fuel ignition. In these and other embodiments, fast response supercapacitors may be used for power leveling.

  The power supply may include photovoltaic cells (PV) cells that supply power to large bus bars. In one embodiment, high DC current is supplied by a photovoltaic converter, either directly or with DC-DC power regulation, to achieve the desired voltage and current. The output terminal of the PV cell may be connected to a large bus bar that supplies a low voltage high current to the roller electrode. Instead, its power may be adjusted from this large bus bar. In another embodiment, multiple sub-populations or individual PV cells of a PV cell of a PV converter are large bus bars that supply at least one of a power conditioner, a roller electrode, power storage, and an output power terminal. May be individually controlled to contribute their corresponding power output. The flow of power from or from each sub-population of PV cells in the PV converter can deliver the desired voltage and current to a large bus bar, such as a high current greater than 1000A and a low voltage less than 10V. To output, it may be controlled by a switch that blends power elements in series and in parallel. In one embodiment, the current may be adjusted to ignite efficiently as a function of fuel flow rate. The current may be adjusted to provide sufficient power to heat the fuel to explode the fuel while it is in the ignition zone.

  In one embodiment that includes a DC power source from a PV converter, the PV cells may be connected in series and in parallel to deliver at least one desired voltage and current. A PV power supply may include multiple voltages and currents with appropriate parallel and series connections of PV cells. The PV power source may include, for example, low and higher voltage DC outputs. A PV power supply may output a low voltage, such as 1 to 10V, for an electrical power ignition source, and a higher voltage, such as 10V to 400V, for a servo motor. The internal load of the electrical generator may be selected to match the available DC output from the PV converter. For example, the internal load of a servo motor may include low voltage, high current operation.

  In one embodiment, current carrying elements such as bus bars 9 and 10 are cooled to reduce resistance and power degradation in these elements. Cooling may be achieved with coolant in contact with the element, where the coolant is cooled with a cooling device including a heat exchanger and a fan. In one embodiment, conductive elements such as bus bars 9 and 10 may include superconductors. The voltage drop along the conductive element may be reduced by using a superconductor or by cooling. Liquid nitrogen superconductors may be used because the purpose is not to generate a magnetic field. A component comprising a superconducting material may include a cryogenic management system. The cryogenic management system may be powered by liquid helium dewar, liquid nitrogen dewar, radiation baffle that may contain copper, high vacuum insulation, radiation shield, and power output of hydrino bale power generator. It may include at least one cryogenic recovery system, such as one that does not include a compressor and cryopump.

  In one embodiment, the powdered fuel is compressed by the roller electrode 8 to an extent sufficient to cause the fuel to explode with optimal conversion of the hydrogen content of the fuel to hydrino. In one example, the pressure is in the range of 0.1 bar to 500 bar. Roller motors 12 and 13 are sized for power and torque to provide pressure volume work corresponding to compressing fuel.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes small particles, such as powder or slurry particles. The current from the source of electrical power may be pulsed. The particle size may be selected to increase the efficiency of the skin effect for igniting the fuel. In one embodiment, the source of electrical power ignites the fuel particles due to high frequency pulsing of current that dramatically increases current density due to the skin effect, but may have a lower maximum current. The conversion may be DC, AC, and combinations thereof. Current parameters such as pulsed frequency, waveform, peak current, peak repression, offset current, offset voltage, and duty cycle and at least one of the particle sizes is the optimal amount of ignited fuel per input energy (Ie, the highest ignition efficiency) may be selected. The fuel particle size is at least of the components of the fuel, such as a conductive matrix such as a H ₂ O binding compound such as MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O or ZnCl ₂ 4H ₂ O and a metal powder such as Ag or Cu metal powder. It may be selected by selecting one particle size. The component particle size may be in the range of about 0.01 um to 1 mm. The fuel particle size may be in the range of about 0.01 um to 1 mm. The fuel flow rate may be controlled to achieve an optimally efficient energy input to achieve ignition. The roller may include a pattern to hold fuel in the agglomerates that can be exploded due to the concentration of the skin effect of the current. The pattern may be maintained with grinding operations during intermittent maintenance or operations. In one embodiment, the fuel may be formed into fuel agglomerates that can be flowed into the electrodes and ignited. Ignition may be facilitated by current concentration at the surface of the fuel aggregate due to the skin effect. The fuel agglomerates may be formed by at least one of water addition and drying. In one embodiment, the ignition product, such as a powder, may be humidified and / or wetted and / or dried. Humidification and / or at least one of wet and dry may be performed in a cell region such as a cyclone separator and at least one of the soots. The fuel agglomerates may be processed into smaller, more desirable sized fuel agglomerates. Processing may be performed mechanically. The helical cutting edge may function to process the fuel assembly. The process may occur while the particles are being injected into the roller for ignition. The fuel agglomerate particles may be selected by an injection system such as by a gas jet that selectively floats the desired size fuel agglomerates. The size may be selected, for example, by controlling the flow rate and pressure for the carrier gas applied by the gas jet.

In one embodiment, the fuel includes electrically non-conductive particles to periodically interrupt the circuit. Current interruption may cause current pulsing. Pulsed or rapidly changing currents may concentrate the current due to the skin effect to cause the fuel to ignite. The particles may include at least one of irregular shapes, beads, and spheres. Particles can be alumina, transition metal oxides such as CuO, alkaline earth metal oxides such as MgO, rare earth metal oxides such as CaO, SiO ₂ , La ₂ O ₃ , glass, quartz, or anodized May contain oxidized aluminum such as anodized aluminum metal balls. The beads may be of sufficient size to cause a blockage of the ignition current so as to produce the desired concentration of current pulsed by the skin effect. The bead size may range from about 10 um to 5 mm in diameter. The pulse frequency may be controlled not only by controlling fuel injection parameters such as roller rotation speed, but also by controlling particle size and by means such as particle addition and removal. . Non-conductive particles may be selectively removed in the cyclone separator due to their higher mass than solid fuel metal and water binding compound particles. In one embodiment of polishing the roller, an abrasive is run through the ridge 5. The abrasive may be an alternative to at least a portion of the solid fuel. In one embodiment, the abrasive comprises electrically non-conductive particles.

  In one embodiment, the fuel injection system includes means for causing the flow to be intermittent and means for causing fuel flow into the contact area between the electrodes. Since the presence of conductive fuel completes the electrical circuit between the electrodes, and the absence of conductive fuel essentially results in an open circuit, the intermittent flow causes the current to be pulsed. It might make you become. The intermittent flow of fuel may be achieved by an injector that causes the fuel to flow intermittently. An injection device may be one of the present disclosure. Injectors may include rollers that act as rotary pumps and compressed air types such as gas jets. Injectors may further include electrical and mechanical devices. The mechanical injector is folded around the top dead center position to allow the fuel samples carried in each paddle or bucket to fly into the area of electrode contact. May have a rotating set of paddles or buckets. The paddle or bucket may be mounted on a chain or belt that undergoes rotational motion. Instead, they may be mounted on similar structures or rotating wheels known to those skilled in the art. The fuel may be picked up from a reservoir that is maintained in the tub 5. In one embodiment, the fuel flow is intermittent with a chopper. The chopper intermittently impedes fuel flow. In one embodiment, the chopper includes a disk that rotates transversely to the direction of fuel flow in the fuel passage in a portion of the area of the disk. The passage intermittently coincides with the fuel flow path. The fuel rotates out of alignment with the fuel flow path and flows through the passage until the non-passage portion rotates into this position. In this way, the disc functions as a mechanical chopper for fuel flow. Intermittent flow and current pulse rates may be controlled by controlling the speed of rotation of the disk. In another embodiment, the chopper includes a shutter. The chopper also includes a rotating shaft.

  In one embodiment, the pulsed ignition current is supplied by intermittently supplying electrically conductive fuel pellets. In one embodiment, the pulverized fuel is formed into pellets that are transported into a region between electrodes, such as roller electrodes, where the electrical circuit is non-conductive by means of conductive pellets. It is completed across the gap between the electrodes. The system shown in FIGS. 2G1e2 and 2G1e3 is a mechanical, hydraulic, or piezoelectric locking mechanism for fixing the movable table 62 in a fixed position to correct the interelectrode gap between electrodes such as the roller 8. May include means such as an actuator. The gap may include a substantially open circuit that is closed by the pellet. The pressure applied to the solid fuel to form pellets typically 1 mm to 10 mm in diameter may correspond to a force in the range of 0.01 to 10 tons. The pressure on the electrode may be adjustable and correspond to a force on a 1 mm to 10 mm diameter pellet in the range of about 1 pound to 1000 pounds. The gap may be set to apply a desired pressure on the pellet as it enters the interelectrode region. The gap may be smaller than the pellet so that pressure is applied to the pellet. The mechanical system may include some deflection to accommodate the pellets while applying pressure and essentially maintaining the fixed table 62 position. A typical gap may be in the range of about 0.001 mm to 10 mm.

  The pellet may have any desired shape such as a cylinder or sphere. The desired shape, such as a sphere, may be selected to increase the current density at one or more locations to cause ignition at a lower current than if no geometric reinforcement is present. The current density may be further increased and optionally amplified by skin effects caused by rapid changes in current. That rapid change may be achieved by pulsing the current by means such as mechanical, electronic, or physical switching. Physical switching may be achieved by intermittently supplying a conductive fuel between the electrodes, such as in the form of pellets. Instead, physical switching cuts off the current by supplying electrically non-conductive material, such as non-conductive particles, within a conductive fuel stream that flows into the contact area of the electrode. May be achieved.

  In one embodiment where there are preferred conditions, such as pellet orientation, position, velocity, and pressure, within an electrode, such as a roller electrode 8, the electrically pulsed ignition system of the present disclosure comprises: It includes a sensor such as an optical one or a conductivity sensor for detection of a condition such as a position, and further includes a trigger of a pulse of ignition current at an optimal condition such as a position. At least one of the ignition and ignition trigger timing controls may include computer control and electronics. In embodiments where there is a mismatch between the timing of the trigger and the arrival of current, the ignition circuit provides a current delay such as an advanced trigger or a delay line such as an advanced trigger. Includes a power regulation system such as

  The injection may be at least one of electrostatic, compressed air, and mechanical injection. In one embodiment, the ignition system includes a pelletizer that forms a compressed sample of fuel delivered into the contact area of the electrode for explosion. The pellets may be supplied by at least one of a turbo fan, a gas jet, and a roller rotary pump. Alternatively, pellet injection may be accomplished by a pellet injection device. In one embodiment, a reservoir of pellets, such as that in the basket 5 supplies pellets that are transported in compressed air into the contact area of the electrode 8. Referring to FIGS. 2G1e2 and 2G1e3, transport is accomplished in a compressed air fashion by at least one of suction by a rotary pump that includes a pressure gradient maintained by a roller electrode 8, a gas jet 83, and a blower 77. It may be. The pellet may be introduced into the electrode contact area by at least one of suction and blowing. The pellets may be fed into the roller by at least one of a vibrator, such as a shaft that generates vibration, a platform, or a table. The shaft may have a shape for pushing into a pile of pellets at least in the upward ridge and ridge 5. The vibrator may include a piezoelectric type. The bottom may be, for example, tapered and the top flat or cup-shaped. Alternatively, the pellets may be partially suspended to cause the pellets to be fed into the roller by at least one direct gas jet and one or more gas tables. The pellets may also be thrown onto the roller by a downwardly projecting jet 83 that acts to cause agitation due to the gas reflex of the cage 5. Injection devices such as rotary pumps, gas jets, vibrators, and gas tables may be supplied by a helical cutting edge 66. Such as about 0.1 to 100 ms, where the pressure dissipates to allow the (n + 1) th particle to flow into the contact area, as the overpressure created from the blast of pellet n suffers an explosion. As the pellet (n + 1) (n is an integer) may be displaced over time, the pellet may flow alone and continuously. The firing interval may be controlled by changing the roller shape such as at least one of width and diameter to control the time for blast overpressure to dissipate. The ignition system may include a plurality of roller electrode pairs that continuously add fuel pellets. The ignition system may be electrically connected in parallel to detonate one pellet at a time as current flows through detonating the pellet. Instead, the generator system may include multiple ignition power supplies that are capable of accommodating such that multiple pellets can be exploded at the same time. The ignition product may be collected by a cyclone separator, the fuel may be rehydrated as disclosed in the present disclosure, and the regenerated fuel may flow from the cyclone separator to the pelletizer.

  The pelletizer may include a machine or a powered stamper of fuel, such as a tablet maker known to those skilled in the art. The pelletizer may include an extruder-knife type or a meshed-gear type. The pelletizer may include a pill maker. The pelletizer may include a hopper that fills intermittently during the spreading stroke. The stroke may spread the fuel and may fly back to receive an inflow of another charge of fuel to be pelleted. The pellets may be formed by intermeshing gears that compress the fuel supplied in the contact area into pellets. In one embodiment, the molding of the pelletizer may be by an interlocking gear-like mechanism that separates the pellet formation from the ignition process. To form the pellet, at least a portion of one of the pair of gears includes a non-metal such as nylon, Teflon, or a plastic such as polycarbonate. In one embodiment, the gear includes a non-metallic tooth surface that resists the adhesion of the pellets formed between the meshing teeth. The teeth are prevented from spreading by adjacent teeth until the pellet is released and may be held in place. The pellets may be released from members of a pair of gears by spreading the malleable teeth, partially and reversibly, with a spraying gear.

In one example, a 40 mg sample of a solid fuel mixture comprising Ag + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O in a ratio of 200 mg to 60 mg (30 wt% MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O) was measured at 357 J in the water bath calorimeter described in the Data I section. Gave possible energy. The fuel is a right cylindrical pellet formed in the press at 0.1 to 0.75 tons, in the form of 3 mm OD × 1 mm H = 7.1 × 10 ⁻³ cm ³ and water bath bomb heat The force between the sample fastening bolts of the water bath bomb calorimeter was held between 90 and 175 pounds. The density of the pellets was given by the ratio of pellet mass and volume and was 40 × 10 ⁻³ g / 7.1 × 10 ⁻³ cm ³ = 5.65 g / cm ³ . The molar amount of water in the sample is the weight of the sample multiplied by wt% of the hydrate divided by the molecular weight of the hydrated MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O multiplied by the molar amount of H ₂ O per molar hydrate (40 mg × 0.30 ) /292.2×6=2.46×10 ⁻⁴ moles H ₂ O. The amount of energy produced per mole of H ₂ O in the fuel is given by the ratio of the energy per pellet to the molar amount of H ₂ O per pellet, 357 J / 2.46 × 10 ⁻⁴ moles H ₂ O = 1. 44 MJ / mole H ₂ O. The theoretical energy for H ₂ O → H ₂ (1/4) + 1 / 2O ₂ is 50 MJ / mole. Hydrino output continues from the ratio of energy output per mole of fuel H ₂ O and the corresponding theoretical energy is 1.44 MJ / 50 MJ = 2.88%. The gain given by the excess energy divided by the ignition energy is 357J / 40J = 8.9 times. In one embodiment, the condition of igniting the calorimeter pellet is a continuous electric current such as that shown in a diagram like FIG. 2G1e2 to achieve the same energy output per mass of fuel in both embodiments. It is fully regenerated in the automatic generator. The engineering principle may then be determined for the case of successive ignitions repeated at high ratios from the pellet data. The fuel may include various forms such as fuel powder, powder compressed by a roller electrode, and fuel pellets that may be implemented in a pelletizer or formed in a roller. Consider a 40 mg fuel sample that yields 357J ignited at a typical frequency of 1000 Hz (one ignition per millisecond). Then, the total continuous excess power is 357 J × 1000 Hz = 357,000 W. The fuel mass flow rate, given by the product of the fuel sample mass and the ignition rate, is 40 mg × 1000 Hz = 40 g / s. The fuel flow volume is given by the ratio of mass flow to fuel density and is 40 g / s / (5.65 g / cm ³ ) = 7.1 cm ³ / s. The input Coulomb energy for a single ignition is given by dividing the RMS current by the peak frequency and is 20,000 / 2 ^1/2 A × 1/120 Hz = 118 C (per ignition). The sample ignition energy is given by the RMS of the product of the sample voltage drop and the current and is 1/2 × 0.5V × 20,000 A × 1/120 Hz = 42 J. The corresponding continuous current is given by the product of the coulomb per sample and the ignition rate and is 118 C × 1000 Hz = 118,000 A or comprises 10 × of the skin effect due to the pulse as given in this disclosure 11, 800A. The continuous power is given by the product of the energy per sample multiplied by the ignition rate and is 42 J × 1000 Hz = 42 kW, or 4.2 kW with 10 × of the skin effect due to the pulse as given in this disclosure. Power and current may be reduced at those conditions of steady high power plasma vs. pellet cold ignition. Furthermore, the power gain curve is expected to be positive non-linear. For a 1800 RPM parameter of a 10 cm diameter and 1 cm wide roller electrode, the fuel thickness is given by dividing the volume fuel flow rate by the surface area of the roller and the rotational speed, 7.1 cm ³ / s × 60 s / min. / 1800 RPM × 1 / (π × 10 cm × 1 cm) = 0.0005 cm. Solid containing Ag (4-7um) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O in a ratio of 200 mg to 30 mg (15 wt% BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O), giving an excess energy of 380 J in the water bath calorimeter described in the Data I section Using the same analysis for a 40 mg sample of the fuel mixture, 27% of the H ₂ O hydrogen went to hydrino H ₂ (1/4) and the energy gain was 9.5 times, but the corresponding all-continuous excess The power is 380,000W.

In one exemplary embodiment, the pellets are 40 mg pellets of Cu + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O (13 wt%), 40 mg pellets of Ag + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O (23 wt%), or Ag + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O (15 wt%). ) 40 mg pellet. In one embodiment, in the absence of pellets, electrodes such as rollers are used to prevent electrical current between them such as a gap of about 0.1 to 10 mm to prevent substantial current flow such as that causing ignition. The presence of the pellet completes the circuit, although it may have a common gap but also allow sufficient current flow to cause ignition. The intermittent presence of the pellet may cause intermittent current pulsing that may concentrate the current due to the skin effect that reduces the maximum current required to achieve ignition. The pellets may be formed at a pressure applied to about 0.1 to 1 ton of fuel. The pressure applied to the pellet by the electrode may be about 10 to 500 pounds. In an exemplary embodiment, a 40 mg pellet of Ag + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O (15 wt%) with a diameter of 2 mm is accompanied by a drop of about 0.2 V to 0.5 V and a maximum current of about 10 kA across the electrode. Was ignited. Ignition occurred in an argon, krypton, xenon atmosphere for about 1 ms and emitted a strong white light in about 1 ms. In another example, the pellets were 10% Ag + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O (13 wt.) On spherical Cu formed by powder TIG welder heating on graphite or ceramic plates without an inert atmosphere glove box. %) And was ignited in a krypton atmosphere. In one embodiment, the pellets are formed on a conductive mirror such as a graphite or copper surface.

In one embodiment, the generator includes a steam generator to rehydrate the fuel. A fast rehydration reaction rate may be achieved by applying steam to the ignition product. The steam generator may receive at least some heat from the heat generated by the cell, such as that released at the roller during solid fuel ignition by at least one of hydrino formation and resistance heating. Absent. The heat may be transferred to the steam generator by a heat exchanger. The heat may be transferred to the steam generator by a heat pipe. The ignition product may be rehydrated by such means as being exposed to water vapor, such as in the range from 0.1 Torr to the pressure of supersaturated steam such as greater than 1 atmosphere. Alternatively, the fuel may be rehydrated with water, such as by water mist exposure or using a water spray. Additional water such as in the range of about 0 to 100 wt% and excess water beyond the desired amount such as that to optimize energy production such as that of hydrates will form fuel pellets May be removed by application of pressure such as during compression. Alternatively, by adding an ignition product to a saturated solution of a water-binding compound such as an alkaline earth halide such as BaI ₂ and like an alkaline earth halide such as BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O crystals. By collecting the hydrated water-binding compound and the precipitated metal powder, the fuel may be rehydrated. Optionally, the fuel may centrifuge excess water. The fuel may be dried. Drying heat may be supplied by waste heat. The fuel may be formed into pellets by the method of the present disclosure.

In one embodiment, the pellet is formed by a physical or chemical process, such as by forming a solid that is machined into a pellet, such as a spherical shaped pellet. Instead, a typical process is to form a sphere based on surface tension. When the molten material is suspended in a liquid medium or placed on a non-stick surface, such as a ceramic surface, spheres may be formed with surface tension. In one embodiment, a solid fuel mixture such as at least one of Ag + BaI ₂ , Cu + BaI ₂ , and Ag + Cu + BaI ₂ is melted and the molten mixture is formed into pellets such as spheres or cylindrically formed pellets. To be cooled. The conductive mixture is Ag-Cu (28.1 wt%) alloy (melting point = 779 ° C), Ag-Sb (44 wt%) alloy (melting point = 485 ° C), where 25 wt% (melting point = 562 ° C). Lesser amounts of Sb may be used to maintain high conductivity, Cu—Sb (19 wt%) alloy (melting point = 645 ° C.), and Cu—Sb (63 wt%) alloy (melting point = 525 ° C.) Or a metal mixture such as a eutectic mixture with a melting point much lower than the highest melting point of the individual members of the mixture. Instead, typical alloys include 90/10 at% Ag—Ti alloy (melting point = 1150 ° C.) and 95/5 at% Ag—Ti alloy (melting point = 961 ° C.). The solid fuel may comprise a mixture of at least three different conductive matrices, such as a mixture of metals and alloys and different water binding compounds. The combination is selected from metals that are substantially stable to reaction with H ₂ O, such as at least one of the group Ag, Cu, Ni, Co, Te, Sn, Sb, Mo, Cd, Pb, and Bi. And water binding compounds and absorbed water such as at least one of halides, hydroxides and oxides, and a plurality of halides, hydroxides and oxides, and mixtures thereof. It may further comprise a source of H ₂ O such as at least one. Solid fuel may be sintered to form pellets. The desired shape may be achieved by sintering the solid fuel powder in a mold. The pellets may be hydrated by at least one application of water and steam such as mist or sprayed water. The solidified molten pellets and sintered pellets may be rehydrated after it is formed or during it. Alternatively, water binding compounds such as oxides such as La ₂ O ₃ or halides such as BaI ₂ such as LaBr ₃ 6H ₂ O or alkaline earth halides such as LaBr ₃ xH ₂ O May be rehydrated, but before at least one fuel mixture is melted, the metal is melted, and the fuel is sintered in-process to form pellets. In the case where only the metal melts, hydroxides such as Mg (OH) ₂ , Al (OH) ₃ , La (OH) ₃ , borax, hydrated B ₂ O ₃ , and borinic acid (hydrated oxide) ) Or water binding compounds such as metal halides may be trapped in the metal that solidifies upon pellet formation. Hydrates may be very stable and the decomposition temperature may not be exceeded during the process. For example, in one embodiment, the solid fuel mixture comprising BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O is not heated above the decomposition temperature of 740 ° C., where the conductivity of alloys such as Ag or Cu alloys and Sb The matrix melts below the decomposition temperature of BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O. Other exemplary fuel, Pb, such as 50 wt% from the hydrate and 10 as _{BaI 2 2H 2 O, Bi,} Sb, and with respect to reaction with at least one such of _{H 2} O Te Another low melting point metal that may be stable and an alloy such as at least one of Ag and Cu. A typical ternary alloy is Ag (5 at%), Cu (0.5 at%) Bi (94.5 at%) having a melting point of 258 ° C. In one embodiment, the H ₂ O vapor pressure is maintained higher than that which prevents decomposition of hydration at the melting point of the fuel. In another embodiment where the melting point of the fuel is higher than the hydrate decomposition temperature and the rate of the hydration reaction is low, the fuel is kept in a molten state to form pellets for a time shorter than the decomposition time. Is done. The ignition product may be recovered and rehydrated as provided in the present disclosure and then melted to form fuel pellets. In other embodiments, solid fuel, such as those that may include at least three mixtures of different conductive matrices such as metals and alloys and mixtures of different water binding compounds, is maintained from an electrode such as a roller electrode. With the application of possible pressure and current, the powder is chosen to ignite immediately for high hydrino yield. Reasonable currents are in the range of at least one of about 1000 A to 1 MA and 1000 A to 30,000 A. A reasonable pressure is in the range of about 1 atm to 10,000 atm. A reasonable force on the roller is in the range of about 10 lbs to 4000 lbs.

  In another example, the powdered fuel may flow toward the ignition system and may be converted to pellets before entering the ignition process. The pellet can be formed in a preliminary explosion. An in-situ pelletizer is a means of flowing powder through an ignition system such as a roller electrode, a source of plasma generated by a low current, a high voltage pulse applied to the flowing powder to cause pellets to form, Means for causing the pellet to flow in an ignition system such as a low voltage ignition system and a mechanical system such as a piezoelectric drive injector or a compressed air system such as a gas jet; The pellet may include a high current ignition system that can deliver the pulsed power at circuit closure. The ignition system may include an electrode, such as a roller electrode, and a source of electrical power to the ignition system, such as one that includes a PV converter and optionally a capacitor.

  In the embodiment as shown in FIGS. 2G1e2 and 2G1e3, the ignition product is recovered in a cyclone separator system. Ignition products may flow from the cyclone separator to the pelletizer. The ignited powder product may be drawn into the inlet duct 76 of the blower 77 by suction. Product entrained in the gas flow may be blown out of blower 77 outlet 78 and may flow into cyclone separator inlet 79 of cyclone separator 80. Solid particles may fall into cyclone separator 80, and gas may exit gas return duct 81 at the top of cyclone separator 80. In the case where the hydrate of the water-binding compound is stable to at least one of melting, sintering and mechanical pelletizing of the corresponding solid fuel, the blower 77, cyclone separators 80, 76 and 78 During the transfer to a cyclone separator system that includes such inlets and outlets, outlet chutes 82, and optionally a transport system such as scissors 5 and helical cutting edges 66, the ignition product is like mist or spray. The ignition product may be hydrated by exposure to at least one of fresh water and water vapor. Pressurized gas may return to the cell through return duct 81 and just below window 20 to the top of the cell. The powder collected in the cyclone separator 80 may be pressurized by the blower 77 gas flow. The cyclone separator may include an outlet chute 82 that may be fed into the helical cutting edge 66. Alternatively, the chute 82 may be fed into the pelletizer and the pellets may be transported or flowed from the pelletizer to the electrode 8. The helical cutting edge 66 may transport pellets. In other embodiments, the helical cutting edge that serves as a means of transporting pellets to the area directly below the roller 8 may be replaced by another transporter such as a conveyor belt and other transporters of the present disclosure. . In one embodiment, the injector includes a moving device that separates pellets or shots having a size outside the desired range. The injector may further include a transporter for returning an inappropriately sized pellet or shot to the pelletizer. Alternatively, different size shots or pellets may be sorted into multiple lots of size ranges such as pellets or shots with diameters of about 1 mm ± 50%, 2 mm ± 50%, and 3 mm ± 50%. Absent. Each lot of pellets or shots may be ignited with a corresponding set of ignition parameters, such as electrode separation adjusted to optimize power and energy release.

In an embodiment, a recirculation system for collecting the ignition product and supplying it to at least one of the injector and pelletizer comprises:
(I) Perforated window 20c and optional at the top of the cell with gas flowing down into the cyclone separator 80 and through the blower 77 to the back of the parabolic mirror 14 on the outside of the roller electrode 8 A typical window 20;
(Ii) to create a cyclone flow around the cell with gas inlet 64a into the cyclone separator 80 and through the blower 77 in the region above the outside of the roller electrode 8, preferably at the bottom of the cell. A plurality of duct outlets 64d on the upper side of the top of the cell;
(Iii) where the inlet 79 to the cyclone separator is on the side to create a cyclone gas flow, at least in the region of the electrode such as in the cyclone separator 80 and through the blower 77 on the outside of the roller electrode 8; A ductless design including one suction inlet 52 or 64a;
Including at least one or more features from a group of systems.
In one embodiment, the suction inlet is perpendicular to and above the roller electrode around the position of the Helmholtz coil as well as under the roller as shown in FIG. 2H1. The top of the cyclone separator 80 may be open to the cell to minimize gas flow back pressure. The recirculation system is an open cell design such as a box-in-box where the cell walls are shaped to reflect light upwards to the PV converter. design). The top of the cell may be open, and at least one of the wall, the open top cyclone separator, and the PV converter may be maintained under an inert atmosphere of controlled pressure. May also be housed in a sealed housing. The PV cell or panel may include a protective window 20 that may further include a perforated window 20c maintained under gas flow conditions. A window such as 20 may have an open gap between the window and at least one of the walls that allows return gas to flow along the wall into the suction inlet 52. The size of the gap may be variable to change the gas flow rate and pattern. The cell floor may include a hopper with optional means to assist in moving ignition products not accompanied by suction at the suction inlet to at least one of the pelletizer and cyclone separator. Typical means of transport are compressed air such as suction and blowing and mechanical such as vibration.

In an embodiment of a low resistance ignition system, each of the bus bars 9 and 10 is extruded as a Wehner extruded bus bar such as type TCC with a large cross-sectional area such as 1600 mm ^2. Includes bus bar. The source of electrical power for ignition may include a photovoltaic converter. Damping capacitors may be placed very close to the rollers due to the fast response of the input and reactive power. In another embodiment, reactive power may be dissipated with a shunt diode that may be connected in parallel to the bus bar. A typical diode for transient suppression is the transient voltage suppression diode (TVS), where the well-characterized avalanche breakdown is well-characterized. avalanche breakdown) occurs above a certain threshold voltage. A diode that acts as a resistor with negligible leakage not only possesses some dissipative function following breakdown, but also becomes a shunt capable of currents on the order of ignition currents such as several kiloamps . In another embodiment, reactive voltage and current transient transients are suppressed with at least one varistor. Certain reactances, such as inductance or capacitance, can be incorporated into the design in the circuit in events where a delay from the time of the first circuit closure by the fuel pellet is desired. The capacitor can be charged with a DC current to reduce the resistance of the bus bar for the current carried from the PV converter to the capacitor. In one embodiment, the reactive energy from the reactive power is low so that it can be dissipated in the corresponding circuit element. By dissipating reactive components, power consuming rectification and PV protection may be eliminated. In another embodiment, the designed reactance may counter that of the ignition circuit.

In one embodiment, the spark powder slurry has at least one capacitor, such as a bank capacitor, that may be connected to be at least one of series and parallel;
Photovoltaic converter that receives light from the SF-CIHT cell and converts it to electricity such as low voltage, high current DC electricity to charge a capacitor such as a bank of capacitors to a roller electrode And a bus bar connecting the PV converter to the bank of capacitors and to the bank of capacitors. Connections may be in series or in parallel. In one embodiment, the PV converter is connected in parallel with the capacitor and the electrode. The bus bar from the PV converter may include an inductor to suppress reflected or reverse reactive power from the electrode following the ignition event. The reactive power may be diverted or diverted from the PV converter to a bank of capacitors that may recover at least some of that reactive power energy. The inductor selectively provides impedance for reflected power, but not for forward DC charging power. A power shunt may protect the PV converter from damage due to reactive power. In one embodiment, a diode, such as a shunt diode, may branch and dissipate at least some of the reactive power to protect the PV converter.

In one embodiment, the pelletizer does not depend on the thermal stability of the hydrate, but includes at least one sample of fuel that may be hydrated, so that at least one foam or mold May include. Each sample may be heated for at least one of sintering or melting into pellets to form pellets, where the chilling melt (melt) may at least partially form spheres. The pellet may be hydrated if it does not contain H ₂ O. Sintering or melting may be accomplished by heating each fuel sample directly or indirectly in at least one way. The foam or mold may be heated in an arc furnace or arc furnace, such as a resistance heating oven. In one embodiment, the heat for the ignition reaction is transported to the fuel sintering or melting zone by a heat pipe, such as is done in the art. In another embodiment, each sample may be heated directly by a direct heater such as an electric arc or discharge or a plasma torch. The arc or discharge heater may include an electrode for each fuel sample, where the fuel sample and foam or mold include a counter electrode. The foam or mold may include a plurality of fuel sample containers such as indentations such as hemispherical indentations in the plate or holes such as cylindrical holes. At least one fuel, sintered fuel, molten fuel, and pellets may resist sticking to the plate. The sample may have been dispersed as aliquots by the sample dispenser. Alternatively, fuel may be applied to the surface of the plate and excess that is not in the holes or dents may be removed. Removal may be by means such as mechanically with a vibrator or scraper or compressed air in a gas stream. Other excess fuel removal means are known to those skilled in the art. With heating, the melt (melt) may form sintered pellets such as cylinders or spherical pellets solidified from the melt.

The pelletizer may include a plurality of such plates including a plurality of such foams or molds. The plate may be mounted on a chain or conveyor belt that contains a conveyor mold. The sample may be applied to the plate of the conveyor mold and the conveyor mold may move the fuel loaded plate into the heater. The heater may heat the sample indirectly or directly to form a pellet. An arc or discharge heater for the plate may include an arrayed electrode with each fuel sample having an electrode with each corresponding fuel sample that functions as a counter electrode. Instead, the direct heater is combined with a plurality of plasma torches, at least one scanning plasma torch, and at least one scan combined with the counter electrode comprising the sample forming an arc or discharge. It may include at least one of an arc or discharge electrode. Alternatively, a beam such as an electron beam may be used to heat the fuel to make a pellet. Steering electrodes or magnets may be used to steer the beam to produce pellets in a scan across multiple fuel samples that may be moved over a conveyor mold. The electron beam heater may include an electron beam welder. The welder may include power supply and control and monitoring electronics, an electron gun, a beam steering mechanism, and a vacuum chamber. In one embodiment, a laser such as a gas laser or diode lasers such as CO ₂ lasers, may be used to heat the fuel to make the pellets. In one example, the light output from the SF-CIHT cell may be used to heat a fuel sample that forms a pellet. In one embodiment, at least one of incandescent, fluorescent, arc, and halogen lamps and light emitting diodes, laser pump sources, flash bulbs, or other sources of light known in the art. One may be used to heat a fuel sample to form a pellet. The light may be directed at the fuel sample by a mirror such as a parabolic mirror. The light may be focused with optical elements such as at least one or more of lenses and mirrors. The light may be delivered by at least one optical element of the present disclosure, such as one or more of lenses, mirrors, and fiber optic cables. The fuel sample heated with photons may be on a thermally insulating support to prevent excessive loss of energy delivered to heat the fuel sample. Steering optics is used to steer light, light beams, or laser beams from a cell to create pellets when scanning over multiple fuel samples that may be moved over a conveyor mold. May be used. The area of the sample can be heated with a combined movement of transporting the sample by conveyor mold and scanning at least one direct heater. The sample area of the sample plate is: (i) at least one direct heater is scanned over the area; (ii) at least one direct heater is scanned along the line; and the conveyor mold is transporting a linear raster by transport from the nth line (where n is an integer) to the (n + 1) th line, (iii) at least one multiple member of the direct heater directs the sample line Heating and the conveyor mold advances linear heaters by transport from the nth line (n is an integer) to the (n + 1) th line, and (iv) A two-dimensional array of heaters, all the sump of the plate Or by heating at least one sample area of the plate and the conveyor mold advances a heater arranged from the nth area to the (n + 1) th area. Heated. In an exemplary embodiment, a 10,5 mm-spaced array of electrodes directly heats a 10,5 mm-spaced sample with a high voltage, low current discharge. The voltage and current may be those of the discharge. Samples such as 30 to 40 mg Ag + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O are present in dents in plates of non-stick material such as ceramic or graphite. In one embodiment, the pellets are formed on a conductive surface such as a graphite or copper surface. The plate is mounted on a conveyor and includes a conveyor mold moving at an average of about 1 m / s. An energy of about 10 J / sample is delivered by a pulsed discharge with a duration of about milliseconds. 10, 5 mm-spaced rows of electrodes are moved from nth to n + 1th rows by transport by a 10 mm conveyor. The number of rows covered in 1 second is 100 so that 1000 spherical pellets are formed in 1 second.

  Once the pellet is formed, it may be transported to the ignition electrode and removed from the plate. The pellets may be placed in the trough 5 and the helical cutting edge 66 for transport to the roller electrode. Alternatively, the pellets may be removed from the conveyor mold plate, for example, mechanically by a vibrator or scraper or by means of compressed air in a gas stream. Other pellet removal means are known to those skilled in the art. The pellet forming process may occur continuously because multiple plates of the conveyor mold facilitate repeated cycles of forming and releasing the pellets. In other embodiments, the conveyor mold is replaced with another type of pelletizer such as a gear or extrusion type known to those skilled in the art. Fuel may flow from the cyclone separator 80 into a pelletizer as known in the art, and the pellets may exit the pelletizer for transport to the electrode 8. Since the pellets are delivered to the roller electrode 8, they may be transported by the helical cutting edge 66 into the basket 5.

In one embodiment, the pelletizer may include a shot maker. In one embodiment, the pelletizer may include a heated hopper, where the solid fuel is melted and flowed through a nozzle or dripper into a water reservoir. Where hydration to BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O may occur in the water reservoir, water is saturated with water-binding compounds such as BaI ₂ to inhibit decomposition of compounds such as BaI _{2 in} the fuel. It may be. The heater may include one of the present disclosure. In one example, the melt may be agitated or agitated to maintain a uniform mixture of water binding compounds such as BaI ₂ and BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O and metal. Agitation may be achieved by spraying steam or water that may also perform at least one of maintaining and hydrating the hydrate of the water binding compound. The heater may be a resistance heater or an arc heater. The nozzle may form essentially spherical pellets in the water bath and may cool rapidly to form molten fuel droplets. The pellets may be cooled and formed on a cold support or in a vacuum drop or gas. The pellets may be removed from the water reservoir and flow into the helical cutting edge 66 for transport to the electrode 8. The removal may be mechanical. In one embodiment, the pellets are filtered from a bath (bath). Instead, the water is pumped out to another reservoir, and so on. The pellets may be transported onto a conveyor belt and the pellets may be loaded into the helical cutting edge 66 as follows. The water reservoir may further function as a heat sink that cools the system where necessary. For example, electrodes and plain bearings may be cooled.

In one embodiment, the fuel is (i) an alloy or metal such as one containing a water-nonreactive component such as at least one or more of Ag, Pb, Bi, Sb, and Te. Conductive materials, and (ii) of agents and conductive materials that form hydrates of compounds such as metal halides, hydrated oxides, and hydroxides such as those of the present disclosure. Including pellets of hydrated water binding material, such as at least one. Typical metal halide hydrates, hydrated oxides, and hydroxides are BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O, MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O, ZnCl ₂ in alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metal halide waters. And alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth and rare earth metal hydrated oxides and hydroxides, NaOH, Mg (OH) ₂ , Fe (OH ) ₃ , Al (OH) ₃ , borax, hydrated B ₂ O ₃ or other boron oxide, borinic acid, and La (OH) ₃ . In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes an oxide that reacts with hydrogen, such as CuO, but the cell gas is hydrogen such that the HOH catalyst is formed by the reaction of the cell gas hydrogen with the oxide. including. The ignition product may be formed into pellets by melting and rehydration steps. The steps can be in any order or simultaneously. Pellets may be formed by a metal-shot method, where the ignition product is melted and dripped through a nozzle or poured into an aqueous cooling reservoir to form a pellet. . The water binding material may be hydrated prior to dripping or pouring into the water reservoir. Alternatively, the water binding material may be hydrated when immersed in the water reservoir. In one embodiment, the conductive material, such as a metal or metal alloy, includes an ignition product that is melted and dripped or injected into a water reservoir. Some water may cool the pellets into steam, and the steam may create cavities and taper in forming the fuel pellets. Bulk water may be trapped in the resulting fuel pellets.

  The heater that forms the melt may include one of the present disclosures such as resistive heating, arcing, or inductively coupled heaters. The light output from the SF-CIHT cell may be used to heat the fuel sample to form a pellet. The light may be directed to the fuel sample by a mirror, such as a parabolic mirror. The light may be focused by optical elements such as at least one of a lens and a mirror. The light may be delivered by at least one of the optical elements of the present disclosure, such as one or more of lenses, mirrors, and fiber optic cables.

In an exemplary embodiment, fuel pellets are formed by dropping about 40 mg of sample into water and melting silver, preferably under an inert atmosphere. Vapor may form voids and H ₂ O may be trapped within the pellet. Silver melt may also be dripped into brine of inorganic compounds that form hydrates such as BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O brine where the hydrate may be incorporated as hydrates in the pellets. Absent. A typical energy is 10 kJ / g. If the energy release from H ₂ O → H ₂ (1/4) + 1 / 2O ₂ is 50 MJ / mole, 10 kJ requires 2 × 10 ⁻⁴ moles (3.6 mg) of H ₂ O. Become. In this way, the silver pellets will comprise at least 0.36wt% _{H 2} O. In another embodiment, the pellets are composed of an Ag alloy such as Ag (72 wt%)-Cu (28 wt%) or a metal such as Ag and the incorporation of H ₂ O from the reservoir and dripping into the reservoir. And at least one of H ₂ and H ₂ O that may be incorporated into the metal during pellet formation by means such as bubbling into the melt.

The fuel may comprise a metal or metal alloy foam, a sponge, a mesh, a hollow metal or alloy, or a metal alloy material such as a mat or a hydrated porous material such as a hydrated metal. . The hydrated porous material may be formed by at least one of a molten metal or metal alloy vapor and water treatment where H ₂ O may be trapped in the material. The metal or metal alloy may be at least one of Ag, Cu, Pb, Bi, Sb, and Te. The porous material may be formed in units larger than the fuel sample or pellet, and the fuel sample, such as a pellet, is formed by machining such that the pellet is extracted from a larger unit of material by stamping or punching. It may be. The material may be hydrated before or after being machined into the desired size pellets. In one embodiment, the metal foam adds a salt to the metal, heats it to a temperature intermediate between the melting point of the metal and its edge, and pushes the molten metal into the salt at a pressure exerted by an inert gas. And by cooling the mixture to a solid. The salt may be removed by placing the material in water and dissolving the salt. The material may be formed into a slab and the foam may be machined into individual parts and hydrated with water. In another example, the metal-salt mixture may be cut into pellets and hydrated to form fuel pellets. Alternatively, the metal-salt mixture may include hydrates and the mixture may be cut or punched into pellets to form fuel pellets. In one embodiment, the porous metal or metal alloy or metal-salt mixture may be cast as a cylinder or another elongated shape and cut into pellets by a machine such as a wire fed pelletizer. In one embodiment, the salt may include a flux. The metal may include silver and the flux may include alkali carbonates such as borax, borinic acid, and sodium carbonate. When the salt is dehydrated, the salt is rehydrated to form a fuel.

In one embodiment, the fuel source of hydrogen, hydrogen, _{H 2} O source, and _{H 2} O of at least one of the captured Ag-Cu (50-99wt% / 1 from 50 wt%) metal alloys or metal And may optionally include a hydrogen bonding compound that may include a hydrate. The fuel may include at least one of shots and pellets. In one embodiment, the solubility of at least one of hydrogen, a source of hydrogen, and H ₂ O is increased in a molten form of a solid fuel conductive matrix material such as a metal or alloy. A molten matrix material, such as a molten metal or alloy, may be exposed to at least one of hydrogen, a source of hydrogen, and H ₂ O. The pressure of the hydrogen, the source of hydrogen, and the H ₂ O may be any desired that is less than, equal to, or greater than atmospheric pressure. The pressure may be in the range of about 1 mTorr to 100 atm. The temperature may increase due to increased hydrogen absorption. In one embodiment, at least one of the metal and alloy compositions is selected to increase the incorporation of at least one of hydrogen, a source of hydrogen, and H ₂ O. In one embodiment, the Ag and Cu composition of the alloy comprising Ag and Cuwo is selected to optimize at least one incorporation of hydrogen, a source of hydrogen, and H ₂ O. Additives such as at least one of oxides and hydroxides may be added to the molten alloy to increase the content of at least one of oxygen and hydrogen that function as at least one of the source of H and the HOH catalyst. unknown. The source of hydrogen, hydrogen, _{H 2} O source, and _{H 2} O of at least one molten matrix absorbed the material, a source of hydrogen, hydrogen, _{H 2} O source, and _{H 2} O of at least one trap May be first solidified on the outer surface. At least one of H ₂ and H ₂ O may dissolve much less in the solid due to the molten metal or alloy. Gas cavities or pockets containing at least one of H ₂ and H ₂ O may be formed in the solidified metal or alloy. In one embodiment, the hydrogen is incorporated into a solidified melt by a technique that causes embrittlement such as those known in the art. The source of hydrogen, hydrogen, H 2 _O source, and the shot or pellets formed from the melt with at least one of H _{2 O} are either porous, sources of H incorporated, catalyst source, H ₂ It may include a metal foam or sponge with at least one of O, H ₂ , and H ₂ O sources. The source of hydrogen, hydrogen, H 2 _O source of molten matrix material which absorbs at least one of and H _{2 O,} by being cooled in a coolant or gaseous liquid such as an inert gas or water May be solidified to form shot-like pellets. Alternatively, the melt may be solidified as a solid that may be in any desired form, such as a wire or slab. Pellets may be formed mechanically from solids. The pellet may be formed by punching out a slab or by cutting a wire. In another embodiment, the pellets are such as those of the present disclosure such as oxides or metal halides that form hydrates such as ZnCl ₂ , BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O, or MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O. It may be formed from a molten conductive matrix material further comprising a water binding material.

  In one embodiment, the gas may be blown into the melt to form a shot. The gas blown into the melt may form a metal foam or porous metal in which water is collected when the melt is immersed in water. The gas may blow molten metal into the nozzle. Mechanical dispensers, such as rotating wheels, may be used to catch dip and throw them into the water bath for cooling. The pelletizer may include a centrifugal atomizer or a pelletizer. The molten pellet material may be dripped onto a disc or rotating cone that rotates at a sufficient speed to generate a substantial centrifugal force that forms the pellet or into the cup. In the rotating electrode process embodiment, the rod-shaped solid fuel or at least one part rotates, but the rod is melted at the end by a heater to form pellets. The heater may include an arc such as one from a tungsten fold. A water spray may be applied to at least partially cool the falling pellets. The pellets may fall into a coolant other than water, such as a less dense coolant such as oil.

  In other examples, the pellets may be formed by at least one of using methods other than soaking in bulk water and using a coolant or working fluid other than water. Reasonable methods known to those skilled in the art include atomization of water, including dispersion of a thin stream of molten pellet material by impinging high energy jets of a fluid such as a gas such as an inert gas or a liquid such as water. Or atomization of fluid or gas. In the nebulization process, the particle shape produced depends on the time available for surface tension to form a minimal surface to volume ratio when the molten droplet is cooled to a solid. A low heat capacity gas favors a spherical shape by extending the cooling time. Drippers or nozzles can allow more or less free fall of particles, but in the former case, called nebulization coupled or confined, the impingement of the melt stream and gas jets occurs directly under the nozzle. The design of the head and nozzle to provide an adjustable atomizing gas.

In one embodiment, when flowing out of the dripper to make a hole in the pellet, the non-molten component of the fuel, such as a powdered ignition product, is Ag (72 wt%)-Cu (28 wt%) or Ag (50 wt%) + may be added to the melt of ignition products such as those including molten alloys such as Ag-Cu alloys such as Cu, Pb, Bi, Sb, or Te. The pressure over at least a portion of the pellet surface may change during the phase change between steam and water that may create holes. The pellets may be dripped into different temperature waters to make holes by steaming or bubbling over the formed pellets. The pellets may be dripped into water with dissolved gases such as argon or CO ₂ to form porous pellets. Porous pellets may also be formed by bubbling a gas such as argon into the melt. In one embodiment, ultrasound is applied to a chilled pellet in a bath (bath) to form a hole. The ultrasound may be intense enough to cause a cavity. The pellets may concentrate ultrasonic power to increase the efficiency of forming porous pellets. Porous pellets may be formed by adding salts that may be decomposed in a water bath. The pellet may be hydrated by trapping H ₂ O in the holes. In one example, the pellet may include a zeolite structure. Pellets of the desired size and size range may be made by controlling the melt viscosity by means such as by controlling the size of the dripper or nozzle orifice and by controlling the temperature. Absent. The desired size may be in the range of at least one of about 10 um to 2 cm, 100 um to 10 mm, and 1 mm to 5 mm. A steam generator may be used to contribute to pellet hydration. Typical fuels are TiO + H ₂ O 3 mm pellets, Cu pan + H ₂ O, Ag + ZnCl ₂ 4H ₂ O, Ag + CaCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + CeBr ₃ 7H ₂ O, Ti + ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O (185: 30: 30) 100 mg (loaded in Cu cup), Ag + hydrated borax, Ag + CeCl ₃ 7H ₂ O, Ag + SrCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + SrI ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + BaCl ₂ 2H ₂ O , Ag + BaI ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + hydrated borax, Cu + ZnCl ₂ 4H ₂ O, Cu + CeBr ₃ 7H ₂ O, Cu + CeCl ₃ 7H ₂ O, Cu + MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + CaCl ₂ 6H ₂ O , Cu + SrCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + SrI ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + BaCl ₂ 2H ₂ O, and Cu + BaI ₂ 6H ₂ O.

In one embodiment, powder from solid fuel ignition is collected by a cyclone separator and formed into a mold such as a straight or slab mold. The powder may be dispersed by means of the present disclosure, such as mechanically or compressed air. The powder may be heated to melt in a furnace that is sufficiently insulated to conserve energy. The melt is cooled in cooler sections that may have some heat provided by the heat exchanger from the hot part of the cell. Solidified materials such as metal-salt mixtures such as Ag + ZnCl ₂ or Ag + MgBr ₂ mixtures are hydrated. Hydration may be achieved by applying bulk water, water mist, or steam. In the latter case, the water vapor may be recycled to conserve energy. The strip fuel slab may be machined into pellets by means of at least one of punching, stamping, and cutting. The pellets may be transported to the trailer by means of an auger such as a spiral cutting edge 66 or a conveyor. The pellets may be injected into the roller to be ignited by an injection device like that of the present disclosure.

In one embodiment, at least one nozzle or dripper is spatially scanned across a line or area, which releases molten fuel onto a non-stick surface such as that of a conveyor belt Where the non-stick surface connects the droplets to a pellet sphere or hemisphere. The scan may be across the line, where the conveyor belt is moved and the droplets occur to achieve dispersion across the area. Instead, the scan may be across a plane during dispersion across an area independent of conveyor movement. In other embodiments, nozzle or dripper lines are distributed simultaneously along the line and only to lines in different lateral axis positions by scanning in a lateral direction or with conveyor movement. By doing so, you may distribute across areas. In one embodiment, the molten fuel is discharged onto a non-stick surface conveyor belt such as a bead of spheres or hemispheres of pellets, in the case of BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O May contain additives such as Sb that function to lower the melting point below the decomposition temperature of the hydrate, such as 740 ° C.

The pelletizer may include a furnace or heater that may function as an ignition product melting device that may include an alloy such as an Ag, Cu, or Ag-Cu alloy or a metal such as a pure metal. May contain two tanks. The heater that forms the melt may include one of the present disclosures such as resistance heating, arcing, or inductively coupled heaters. The light output from the SF-CIHT cell may be used to heat the fuel powder to form a pellet. The heat from the heat exchanger may deliver heat to the melt from another part of the SF-CIHT cell. The heater may include a resistance heater with a heating element capable of high temperatures such as those including nichrome, tungsten, molybdenum, SiC, or MoSi ₂ . The element may be hermetically sealed. The heater may include a non-filament type such as an electric arc heater. In one embodiment, the ignition product is collected by means such as a cyclone separator. The collected product may be flowed into a first tank, crucible, or hopper that further includes a heater. The product may be melted with the heater and the melt may flow through the connecting passageway into the second vessel. The passage exit into the second tank may be submerged below the surface of the melt, such as the melt ignition product in the second tank. The first tank may release the melt below the surface of the second tank. The level of melt in any tank is low due to low resistance when in contact with the melt, and in the absence of contact with the melt, the level of W or Mo wire that is electrically isolated from the tank wall that detects the open circuit. It may be detected by an electrical resistance such as a refractory wire. The flow from the first to the second is based on any gas pressure in the first and second tanks and the level of melt in the first and second tanks, and the pressure difference between the first and second tanks. May be controlled by. The melt level may be varied to control the flow between tanks. In one embodiment, the corresponding pressure given by the product of melt density, gravitational acceleration, and gas pressure in the first tank plus cylinder height is greater than the pressure in the second tank, or Equally, the cylinder height of the melt-ignition product in the passage and in at least one of the first vessels can be. The gas pressure in the first tank may include that of the SF-CIHT cell. In one embodiment, the pressure in at least one of the first and second vessels is at least one pressure sensor, at least one valve, at least one gas pressure controller, at least one pump, and one computer. Controlled. The flow through that passage may also or additionally be controlled by a valve, petcock, or gate valve.

  The second vessel or crucible further includes at least one nozzle or dripper to form a shot. The melt flows out of the second tank nozzle or orifice into the water reservoir to form a shot, and as a result, level and pressure changes occur from the first tank to the second tank. May cause flow. In one embodiment, the orifice or nozzle opening size may be controlled by controlling at least one of the shot size and the metal flow rate. Typical orifices of adjustable size may include solenoid valves, shutter valves, or gate valves. The aperture size may be controlled by electromagnetic or other mechanical, electronic, or electromechanical actuators. In another example, the orifice may have a fixed size, such as a 1 mm diameter, for an alloy such as Ag-Cu (72% / 28%). The orifice may have a diameter that is in the range of about 0.01 mm to 10 mm. The size of the shot is the orifice size, the fuel melt temperature, the diameter of the connecting passage between the tanks, the pressure in the first tank, the pressure in the second tank, the pressure difference between the first and second tanks A fuel composition, such as at least one composition of a conductive matrix, such as a weight percent of a pure metal component of a metal alloy such as an Ag-Cu alloy, and a percent of water binding compounds, water content, and hydrogen content. It may be controlled by adjustably adjusting at least one of the at least one of the compositions.

In one embodiment, the ignition product includes an ignition product that carries directly at least some of the arc current and arc-on in the vicinity of the first vessel, such as a refractory metal tube through which the ignition product powder flows. It is melted in a first region or bath with strong heating such as that supplied by an electric arc such as at least one of the arcs having. The melt has a temperature higher than the melting point of the ignition product that may be maintained by a second tank heater, such as a resistance heater, such as one containing at least one of nichrome, SiC, and MoSi. It may flow into another area or tank. In one embodiment for melting the ignition product powder and avoiding arc plasma electrode degradation, the heater in the first vessel is an electromagnetic such as an alternating frequency (AC) inductively coupled heater. Includes an induction heating element such as a heater. The second tank heater may include an inductively coupled heater. The frequency may be within at least one range of about 1 Hz to 10 GHz, 10 Hz to 100 MHz, 10 Hz to 20 MHz, 100 Hz to 20 MHz, 100 kHz to 1 MHz, 500 Hz to 500 kHz, 1 kHz to 500 kHz, and 1 kHz to 400 kHz. The bath may contain a heat resistant AC transparent material such as Si ₃ N ₄ , Al ₂ O ₃ , alumina, or a ceramic such as zirconia, silicon nitride such as zirconium oxide. The heater may include a high insulation between the inductively coupled coil and the bath that may be cooled by means such as water cooling. In another embodiment, the second vessel may be heated at a temperature in the first vessel, raised and formed, at least one of the melt and partially and alone. . A first tank heater, such as an inductively coupled heater, may heat the melt at a higher temperature than desired in the second tank to supply heat to the second tank. The flow rate and temperature of the metal flowing from the first tank to the second tank may be controlled to achieve the desired temperature in the second tank. In one embodiment, the at least one heater in the first and second vessels is an inductively coupled heater, a heat exchanger that transfers heat power sourced from the reaction of the reactants, and a reactant It includes at least one of at least one optical element that transfers optical power sourced from the sensuality. The pelletizer may also include one or more electromagnetic pumps to control at least one flow of powder and melt through the pelletizer. In one embodiment, the pelletizer further recovers or reuses at least some heat from the chilled shot, and recovers heat to transfer heat to the incoming ignition product for preheating. The apparatus further includes a device. The melt may drip from the dripper into the water reservoir and may form a hot shot that is recovered while hot. The heat from the chilling shot may be at least partially recovered or reused by the recovery device. The recovered or recycled heat may be used to perform at least one of preheating the recovered ignition product powder, melting the powder, and maintaining the temperature of at least a portion of the pelletizer. unknown. The pelletizer may further include a heat pump to raise the temperature of the recovered heat.

The second tank may be able to be maintained at the same and higher pressure below atmospheric pressure. The second tank may be sealed. The second vessel may be able to maintain the desired controlled atmosphere under gas flow conditions. A gas such as H, H ₂ , a source of catalyst, a source of H ₂ O, and at least one of H ₂ O may be supplied to the second vessel under static or flow conditions. In one embodiment, gases such as hydrogen and water vapor may be recycled. The recirculation system may include one or more of at least one valve, one pump, one flow and pressure regulator, and one gas line group. In one embodiment, a plurality of gases, such as H ₂ and H ₂ O, may perform at least one of flowing into or out of the tank using a common line or separate lines. . Allowing the gas to bubble through the melt, the inlet gas port may be submerged in the melt and the gas outlet may be above the melt. Both H ₂ and _{H 2} O _{is, H 2,} H 2 _O, and _{H 2} and _{H 2} O mixtures with added gas, such as it or Ar _/ H 2 (5%) containing at least one It may be supplied by flowing a gas mixture such as that containing a cell gas such as a noble gas. The gas may flow through an H ₂ O bubbling device (bubbler) to entrain H ₂ O in a gas stream such as an H ₂ gas stream. The gas treated melt may be immersed in H ₂ O to form a shot with the incorporation of a gas such as at least one of H ₂ O and H ₂ . The added or flowing gas may include H ₂ alone and H ₂ O alone. The melt may include an oxide to further increase the shot content of at least one of a source of H, a source of catalyst, H ₂ , and H ₂ O. The oxide may be formed by the addition of a source of fO ₂ or O ₂ gas that may flow into the melt. Oxides may include those of the present disclosure, such as transition metal oxides. Oxides such as CuO may be reducible with H ₂ (CuO + H ₂ → Cu + H ₂ O) or are resistant to H ₂ reduction such as alkali, alkaline earth, or rare earth oxides. May contain oxides. The oxide may be able to be reversibly hydrated. Hydration / dehydration may be achieved by H ₂ O addition and heating or ignition, respectively. In one example, a fluxing agent such as borax may be added to enhance the incorporation of H ₂ and H ₂ O into at least one shot.

In one embodiment, the shot fuel may include at least one of a source of H, H ₂ , a source of catalyst, a source of H ₂ O, and H ₂ O. H source, H _2, catalyst source, H 2 _O source, and at least one of H _{2 O} might be supplied to the plasma formed from the ignition of fuel such as shot or pellets fuels. Hydrogen may be supplied to the cell where the plasma is formed. Hydrogen may be supplied as a gas. In one embodiment, water may be supplied to the plasma in the cell where the plasma is formed. The water may be supplied as a vapor-like gas from a heated reservoir of water. Instead, water may be injected into the plasma. Directed water may be supplied by such sprayers or spray ground or mist means that are ultrasonic or compressed air. The water spray and / or spray device may include a sprayer such as US Pat. No. 5,390,854, Fog Buster model # 10110. The water spray may also function as a coolant, such as roller electrode coolant. Excess water may be condensed by the condenser. The supplied hydrogen may function as at least one of primary, secondary or auxiliary sources of at least one of H, a source of catalyst, a catalyst, a source of water, and a source of HOH. . The supplied water may function as at least one of at least one primary or secondary or auxiliary source of H and HOH catalyst.

In one embodiment, cell gases such as cell gas pressure and noble gases and additives such as phosphors and sources of H, sources of catalysts, sources of H ₂ , H ₂ O, and H ₂ O At least one of the fuel compositions, such as at least one of, may be dynamically controlled to control the spectrum of light generated to match that of the PV converter sensitivity. The match may be monitored with at least one of the PV converter electrical output and the spectrometer. At least one of pressure, flow and at least one exposure time of H source, H ₂ , catalyst source, H ₂ O source, and H ₂ O is in the second tank to control fuel composition May be controlled by The light spectrum may further be controlled by controlling ignition speed, roller speed, shot injection speed, shot size, ignition current, ignition current time, and ignition voltage.

In one embodiment, the H ₂ O reaction of the fuel is H ₂ O → H ₂ (1 / p) + 1 / 2O ₂ , such as p = 4. Oxygen may be removed from the cell. Alternatively, hydrogen may be added to the cell to replace what formed hydrino H ₂ (1 / p). Oxygen may react with the oxygen product to form H ₂ O. Combustion may be facilitated by cell plasma. Hydrogen may be supplied by permeation through the cathode during external electrolysis of H ₂ O. In another embodiment, oxygen may be trapped in the cell. Oxygen may be pumped by an oxygen getter such as a metal-like material that may be subdivided. The getter may selectively react with oxygen where there are other gases in the cell, such as H ₂ O. Typical metals are those that are resistant to reaction with the water of the present disclosure. Typical metals with low water reactivity are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Includes those of the Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn groups. The getter or oxygen scrubber may be removed from the SF-CIHT cell and regenerated. Removal may be periodic or intermittent. Regeneration may be by hydrogen reduction. Regeneration may occur on the spot. In-situ regeneration may be intermittent or continuous. Compounds that form reversible ligand bonds containing oxygen, such as nitrates such as nitrates of 2-aminoterephthalato-linked deoxy systems, and other oxygen getters such as zeolites and their regeneration, [{(bpbp) Co ₂ ^II (NO ₃ )} ₂ (NH ₂ bdc)] (NO ₃ ) ₂ · 2H ₂ O (bpbp ⁻ = 2,6-bis (N, N-bis (2-pyridylmethyl) aminomethyl) -4- tert- butyl phenol _Lato, NH ^{2 bdc} 2- = 2- amino-1,4-benzene dicarboxylate ^{_{Ratn) ([{(bpbp) Co}} 2 II (NO 3)} 2 (NH 2 bdc)] (NO 3) ^{_{2 · 2H 2 O (bpbp -}} = 2,6-bis (N, N-bis (2-pyridylmethyl) aminomethyl) -4-tert-butylpheno ^{_{ato, NH 2 bdc 2- = 2}} -amino-1,4-benzenedicarboxylato)) are known to those skilled in the art. The timing of oxygen scrubber regeneration may be determined when the oxygen level increases as sensed by the cell oxygen content oxygen sensor.

  In one embodiment, the pellets are conveyed from the pelletizer to the pellet injector. In embodiments where the pellets are formed with a water reservoir, the pellets may be removed from the water bath by a conveyor that may be porous to water. The water may be removed in the trough 5 that is porous to water. The pellets may be transported by the helical cutting edge 66 to the area under the roller electrode. The pellets may be jetted onto a roller by a gas jet 83. A gas jet may be directed toward the bottom of the tub 5 as the air jet 83 propelling downward lifts the pellet to achieve pellet injection by reflected air and turbulence. One or more collimators and baffles under the roller through which the pellet passes may cause a single row of pellet flow that may further function to create a venturi effect for sucking the pellet into the roller. Absent.

  Casket 5 may include a housing for containing pressurized gas. The scissors and housing may include a cylindrical tube with an internal helical cutting edge 66. The helical cutting edge 66 may substantially close the tube against gas flow. The pellets may be conveyed to the hopper in the middle of the helical cutting edge 66. The hopper may include air jets such as those 83 that may be pointed in a desired direction, such as upwards, to fluidize the pile of pellets. The gas jet may form a fluidized bed of fuel pellets that may flow through at least one of the collimator or baffle to flow into the region between the electrodes of the roller electrode 8 being ignited. Absent.

  In one embodiment, the pellet injector includes a piezoelectric actuator such as that of the present disclosure where the axis of motion is axial toward the region between the electrodes. The spray device may be fed with pellets from a helical cutting edge 66. The piezoelectric actuator may include an extension shaft so that the shaft moves through the pile of pellets to the top where the end of the shaft pushes the pellets from the top of the pile toward the electrode. The injection of pellets may be assisted at least in part by suction from above the roller. Suction may be provided by a fuel recirculation system that includes at least one or more fans, blowers, or pumps, such as a blower 77. In other embodiments, the jet may include an electromagnetic actuator such as an acoustic speaker or at least one of a gear or auxiliary wheel to throw the pellet into the gap between the electrodes. In addition to at least one collimator or baffle, the width of the roller electrode may be adjusted to make it easier to continuously fire the pellets at a rate of about 1 millisecond.

  In one embodiment, the injection device may include a compressed air tube that may include a pressurized flowing gas that carries the pellet along a trajectory to the region between the electrodes and into the tube opening through which the pellet passes. A compressed air injection device including a valve for regulating the flow of pellets in the injection device and a source of pellets such as a hopper is included. The valve may include a rotary air lock valve in the pellet transport line. The gas in the tube may be supplied by a separate line where the pellet flows from the pellet transport line. The tube downstream from the merging of the two lines includes an injection tube that carries the pellets to the opening pointed towards the electrode. The gas flow in the injection tube may be increased by the venturi effect. The compressed air injection system may include at least one channel for flowing gas that creates a venturi effect. The flowing gas may be pressurized by a fan, blower, or pump. A compressed air pellet hopper and injector is an alternative to the railgun embodiment shown in FIGS. 2H3 and 2H4.

  The pellet injector may be at least one of control and facilitation by at least one of an electric field and a magnetic field. The pellets may be directed and filled by an electrode such as a grid electrode in the spray area between the roller electrodes 8. The pellets may be filled or have an applied voltage and may be guided to the ignition area of the roller electrode 8 with the polarity of the applied voltage or opposite charge. The pellet contains a magnetizable material, such as ferromagnetic nanoparticles, and may be magnetized. Ferromagnetic materials may be resistant to oxidation. The particles may have an oxidation resistant coating such as an oxide coating. The particles may be incorporated into the pellets during pelletization, such as during shot formation. The pellet may be magnetized by at least one of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet. The magnetized pellet may be directed into the ignition area by a magnetic field. The magnetic field may be supplied and controlled by at least one of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet. The roller electrode 8 may be magnetized in reverse to guide the pellet into the ignition area.

  In one embodiment, the fuel pellets are conveyed in a drum that includes a pellet selector, such as nicks and holes, each appropriate to hold the pellets. The pellet may be held in the selector by a gas pressure gradient. The drum may be pressurized and the pressurized gas may leak through the holes. The gas flow may be attenuated by the presence of pellets that at least partially obstruct perforated holes, where the partially obstructed flow causes the pellet to be held in place. Cause a pressure gradient. Pressurization may be accomplished with a fan or blower. The drum may rotate to move the pellets selected in a selector such as that containing perforations and imprints in a certain position. Here, the perforations are covered by means such as an external set of rollers as the drum rotates. The presence of each roller blocking each hole removes the gas pressure gradient that causes the corresponding pellet to be released. Each pellet may fall into a corresponding manifold connected to the gas line. The pellets may be transported into the gas line by the flow of gas from a drum that is pressurized to a position below the roller electrode. The gas pressure gradient from the manifold to the electrode may push the pellet into the area between the roller electrodes where it is ignited. In another embodiment, the pellets formed on the conveyor mold may fall directly into the manifold that is coupled to the gas line, where the roller electrode from the area of the conveyor manifold The pressure gradient to the vortex conveys the pellets to the roller electrode with kinetic energy so that they are injected into the ignition process.

  The pellets may be accelerated by a roller to match the roller speed. The roller speed is such that the travel distance of the pellet during the duration of ignition becomes similar to the diameter of the pellet, and the ignition power during the ignition residence time, ignition duration of the corresponding pellet May be matched to supply. For example, the pellet may have a diameter of 2 mm and the ignition duration may be 1 ms. Thus, at a roller peripheral speed of 2 m / s, the distance that the pellet travels during the ignition duration is 2 mm. With 5 kW input power, the input energy matching the ignition energy is 5J.

  In one embodiment, light may be emitted in any direction from the position of fuel ignition. The light may propagate to a window in any desired direction to further enter the photovoltaic converter using optical elements such as those of the present disclosure, either directly or indirectly. In another embodiment, the light may be directed in a preferred direction, such as upward, by at least one optical element such as at least one mirror such as the parabolic mirror 14 shown in FIG. 2G. The injected fuel may contain a mixture of powder and pellets that are regenerated following ignition. The mixture of powder and pellets may seal the bottom portion of the electrode to force plasma expansion upward toward the window 20 to confine light emission to the cell rather than the soot region 5. In one embodiment, fuel such as pellets may be launched and roughed in a desired direction to cause a preferential trajectory, and the corresponding luminescence is the desired area of the cell. In an exemplary embodiment, at least one of an injection system, such as a rotary pump including a rotating roller electrode 8, a pressure gradient caused by a blower 77, a gas jet, and a compressed air injection device. Launches the pellets upward from the trough 5 so that the light ignites and emits light in the cell space above the parabolic mirror 14.

  In one embodiment comprising a fuel such as at least one of a slurry, a powder and a pelletized fuel such as those comprising a mixture of pellets and powder, some fuel such as powder flows between the rollers, Heated and the metal on the roller sticks to repair the blast damage. The ignition system may further include a mill to remove excess material from the rollers to tamper with them. In addition to the adjustment based on the electrode optimizing operating conditions, in the typical case where the electrode is held in a relative fixed position, the electrode is maintained by grinding. The grinding (milling) may be accomplished with a fixed abrasive blade that grinds (mills) the surface as the roller electrode rotates. The height of the blade may be adjustable. In one embodiment, the outer layer of the roller comprises a hardened layer such as an 18200 grade 3 edge that may be a compression applied over a central roller section that may have a higher conductivity. May include. In one embodiment, metals such as metal powders may be sintered onto the electrodes to protect them from blasting. Sintering may occur during operation, and may occur at least in another location on the roller and in at least one ignition zone with at least partial heating by blasting. In the latter case, the metal powder may be flowed over the roller and a heater such as an arc or resistance heater that causes the metal to stick to the roller by means such as sintering and the roller It may be heated by at least one. Roller erosion may be repaired continuously or intermittently during operation. Using the deposition system, the roller electrode may be repaired and repaired during operation or may be maintained intermittently with a temporary shutdown. Examples of deposition systems include EDM electroplating systems that may be operated in vacuum. Systems and methods that may provide continuous repair of gears or rollers during operation in an inert atmosphere such as one containing noble gases such as argon, krypton, or xenon, or in vacuum Includes alternative embodiments of deposition systems. Typical vapor deposition systems known to those skilled in the art include thermal spraying such as laser welding or sintering with a diode laser, cold spray sufficiently adequate for copper deposition, plasma arc, thermal spraying using an electric arc, Includes high speed flame spraying, oxy-fuel, (HVOF), and sputtering. In an exemplary embodiment, silver and copper sprays are applied at about 200 ° C. and 400 ° C., respectively, the spray pressure is in the range of 250 to 500 PSI, the gas velocity is about Mach 2.2, and the powder chamber The pressure is about 25 PSI, the gas flow is about 50 SCFM, and the carrier gas is a noble gas such as He, Ne, or Ar. Heating to maintain the spray temperature may be provided at least in part by the thermal power of the SF-CIHT cell. Other ranges are possible, such as these values plus or minus 75%. In one embodiment, the outer portion of the electrode, such as a roller electrode that wears out during operation, includes a metal alloy that is similar to or the same as the fuel, so that they can be used during operations including repairs and repairs. They are mixed and exchanged with each other. The roller may be smoothed and formed to the desired radius by at least one of milling, polishing, lapping, superfinishing, and heat treatment. In another embodiment, the electrode repair or repair system includes a sensor such as an optical sensor such as a laser that detects roller damage. The controller may control deposition to repair blast damage. The cell or other cell element may be coated with a corrosion resistant coating such as yttrium partially stabilized zirconia (YSZ) by the disclosed coating methods such as plasma spraying. The ground material and excess cold sprayed material may be returned to at least one of the pelletizer and cyclone separator by a transporter of the present disclosure, such as that of compressed air or mechanical. Absent.

  In one embodiment, an electrode such as a roller electrode or its surface may comprise a fuel metal. In one embodiment, some of the fuel shot or pellet metal is melted or welded to the electrode surface. In embodiments such as those with a high rate of shot or pellet injection, the deposition may exceed the rate at which the material deforms or delaminates from the electrode due to an ignition event so that its net metal accumulation occurs on the surface. unknown. Vapor deposition of shot or pellet material, such as roller metal, includes shot or pellet size, ignition current, ignition voltage, ignition power, ignition current trigger for shot or pellet position in the interelectrode region, roller speed, roller spacing And may be controlled by controlling at least one of the roller temperatures. Excess metal above it, including the initial electrode dimensions, may be removed by means such as machining. In one embodiment, at least one of the powered ignition product and the pulverulent fuel is injected into an inter-electrode region where plasma is generated during ignition of the co-injected fuel. The ignition product and powdered fuel may include a metal powder such as Ag or Ag alloy such as Ag-Cu powder. The metal powder may be at least one of a bond to the surface of the roller electrode, a weld or melt to the roller electrode surface, a coating of the roller electrode, and a powder coating of the roller electrode. Powders such as ignition products such as metal powders such as silver metal powders may have been injected by the action of compressed air. The injection may be in conjunction with the fuel or in synchronism with the fuel whose ignition creates the plasma. The metal powder may have been injected in shots or fuel pellets, such as silver shots of about 1 mm to 5 mm diameter, which may contain at least one of hydrogen and water. The ignition product may be diverted from the fuel recirculation system. For example, the powder may have been taken from a cyclone separator, may bypass the cyclone separator, and may have been injected with a fuel, such as a silver shot. In one embodiment, small particles such as those less than 10 um in diameter may be jetted onto a roller to bypass the cyclone separator and couple directly to the surface. In this case, an electrostatic precipitator may not be necessary to remove particles that the cyclone separator has difficulty removing. Powder that does not adhere to the roller electrode may be recirculated to form an ignition product directly upon ignition. In an exemplary embodiment, the Ag powder is co-injected at the roller electrode that binds the Ag powder to the surface during ignition for the roller repair during operation, that is, the Ag shot repairs the roller in place. . In one embodiment, the pressure may be applied with one roller over the other. Pressure may be applied while powder deposition occurs. The pressure may be applied by closing any gap between the rollers. The current may be applied continuously while the roller contacts and the powder is sprayed for bonding to the roller. Bonding may be facilitated by at least one of a high current applied between a roller such as an arc current and a plasma resulting from ignition of the fuel such as at least one of a pellet fuel and powdered fuel. As disclosed, for example, powder injection may cause a powder stream to flow into the inter-electrode region, by means of a gas jet into the pellet or shot by gas injection into the soot and other methods of compressed air injection May be achieved by: Excess material such as Ag metal is machined and peeled off with a surface treatment tool such as a precision grinder or lathe that may move intermittently while the roller is stopped, and continuously while the roller rotates. May be. The machined removed material may be recycled. The material may be recycled by transport to the cyclone separator. In another embodiment, a material such as a low work function material such as a metal such as silver powder may be injected into the inter-electrode region during ionized ignition to support the plasma. The material may have a low work function to better ionize to support the plasma. A typical gaseous material that ionizes is a noble gas such as argon. Plasma enhancement may increase hydrino reaction rate and power.

In certain embodiments, a hydrino reaction initiated by an ignition event releases high energy light (eg, extreme ultraviolet and ultraviolet). The resulting plasma may be fully ionized and optically thickened by maintaining a suitable cover gas at the proper pressure. The pressure may be maintained below atmospheric pressure, atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure. The cover gas may include a noble gas such as argon, krypton, or xenon, or a source of H ₂ O such as water vapor or hydrated fuel, or H ₂ O, where water is It may be chemically bound or physically absorbed. Other elements or compounds may be added to the reaction mixture to optically thicken the plasma, such as ZnCl ₂ or ZnCl ₂ hydrate. The additive may have a low ionization energy in order to form more ions and electrons. An optically thick plasma may emit black body radiation. Blackbody radiation may be desirable for photovoltaic conversion. At least one of cell gas, additive, fuel, ignition conditions, and pressure is selected to achieve the desired spectrum of blackbody radiation that is optimized to efficiently convert light into electricity May be. Photovoltaic converters may include solar cells that convert ultraviolet light into electricity. A typical UV PV cell is a p-type semiconducting polymer PEDOT-PSS: Nb-doped titanium oxide (SrTiO3: Nb) (PEDOT-PSS / SrTiO3: Nb heterostructure) (Nb-doped titanium oxide (SrTiO3: Nb) ( Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with poly (4-styrenesulfonate) deposited on PEDOT-PSS / SrTiO3: Nb heterostructure) (poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)) 3, 4-ethylenediothiophene)), at least one of GaN, SiC, diamond, Si, and TiO ₂ doped with a transition metal such as GaN, manganese.

  In certain embodiments, the ignition of the fuel causes a high rate of hydrino reaction that creates a plasma. The plasma may be optically thick and may include a fully ionized plasma that may emit its characteristic blackbody radiation. In some embodiments, essentially all of the energy may be emitted as photons, except for heating and pressure volume energy that may be minimized by the means of the present disclosure, since it is a small part.

In one embodiment, the solid fuel is allowed to expand after blasting so that the gas density of the nascent HOH and H can be optimized to propagate the hydrino reaction. Ignition under unconfined conditions may increase at least one of power, light and hydrino products by hydrino reaction. Solid fuel containing Ag (4-7um) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O in a ratio of about 50 to 100 mg or 200 mg: 30 mg (15 wt% BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O) with Ag + ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O (74:13:13 wt%) For a typical solid fuel pellet of a 40 mg sample of the mixture, a high speed (18,000 frames per second) video recorded with an Edgertronic camera shows that the plasma sphere has a radius of about 10 cm and a substantial plasma luminescence event. Indicates that it may be relatively static for the duration. The plasma achieves this radius within about 100 us and the plasma sphere persists even after the electrical current is zero. A typical time is 1 ms for a decaying current and 10 ms for a continuous plasma. The plasma cools uniformly with the same sustained volume of approximately 4.2 liters. Only the continuous expansion of the weak plasma is observed with respect to arc plasma formation of control materials such as Sn wires with kinks. This indicates that in certain embodiments, the hydrino reaction requires a fixed volume with a corresponding plasma density to maintain the nascent HOH and H of the catalyst. Visible and infrared spectra of unconfined explosions of fuels such as Ag + ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O (74:13:13 wt%) and Ag + MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O (83:17 wt%) are controlled only by silver or aluminum. Continuous blackbody emission with an integrated intensity at least 5 to 10 times that of the arc plasma. In one embodiment, Ti + ZnCl ₂ 4H ₂ O, Ti + MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, and Ti + H ₂ O in an Al DSC pan with a mechanism similar to that of a thermal solid fuel such as Cu (OH) ₂ + FeBr _2. Chemically assisted things such as those that may be compensated for being detonated in a confined volume. In certain embodiments, the electrodes may be narrowed or beveled to reduce blast confinement. Typical solid fuels that are exploded in an unconfined manner are Ag + MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + ZnCl ₂ 4H ₂ O, Ag + CeBr ₃ 7H ₂ O, Ag + BaI ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag powder + DIW, Ag + CaCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O, Ag + hydrated _{borax, Ag + CeCl 3 7H 2 O} , Ag + SrCl 2 6H 2 O, Ag + SrI 2 6H 2 O, Ag + BaCl 2 2H 2 O, hydrated alkali halide, such as Ag + LiCl H ₂ O Hydrated alkali halides, such as hydride, Ag + hydrated borax, Ag + KMgCl ₃ .6 (H ₂ O), Ag + LiCl H ₂ O; Cu + MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + ZnCl ₂ 4H ₂ O, Cu + CeBr ₃ 7H ₂ O, Cu + BaI ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu powder + DIW, Cu + CaCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + hydrated borax, Cu + CeCl ₃ 7H ₂ O, Cu + SrCl ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + SrI ₂ 6H ₂ O, Cu + BaCl ₂ 2H ₂ O , Cu + hydrated alkali halides, such as LiCl H ₂ O, Cu + hydrated _{borax, Cu + KMgCl 3 · 6 (} H 2 O), hydrated alkali halide such as Cu + LiCl H ₂ O, NH _{4 At} least one of the NO ₃ in the DSC pan. In one embodiment, at least one source of catalyst, such as HOH, and H are maintained in the cell. For example, at least one of hydrogen and water vapor may be added or flowed through the cell. H ₂ O may be added by bubbling in a flowing inert cover gas such as argon.

Continuum EUV with a short wavelength cut-off at 10.1 nm is observed with the expansion of the solid fuel ignition plasma in vacuum, where the expansion results in an optically thin plasma and the hydrino reaction The density is lower than the plasma that can be supported. In certain embodiments of H ₂ O arc plasma, the overpressure limitation is removed. In one embodiment, the arc plasma is created and maintained in gaseous H ₂ O such as steam at a pressure that may exceed atmospheric pressure. The cell may include two electrodes in a vessel that can maintain a desired atmosphere of plasma gas at a desired pressure, such as a pressure range of about 1 Torr to 100 atm. The H ₂ O gas may be ignited with a high voltage arc that transitions to a high current, low voltage plasma. The H ₂ O pressure may be adjusted to achieve a plasma density-temperature condition that propagates the hydrino reaction at a high rate. The cell may be maintained above the temperature at which the vapor condenses at the desired pressure conditions. Vapor may be created from a predetermined charge of water in a sealed cell. Alternatively, steam may be flowed from the steam generator to the cell. The arc plasma discharge is between an anode and a cathode that may be connected to high voltage power supplies and switches such as those including a bank of capacitors as described in Mills' previous publications and in this disclosure. May be maintained and formed. The voltage may be in the range of about 0.1 to 100 kV and the current may be in the range of about 1 mA to 100 kA.

  In embodiments operating at vacuum pressure, intense soft X-ray emission is observed, which is consistent with hydrino emission, a continuum soft X-ray with a short wavelength cutoff of 10.1 nm (122.4 eV). I'm doing it. In examples operated at atmospheric pressure, primary UV, weak visible light, and intermediate levels of near infrared are observed. Hydrino soft x-ray radiation ionizes media that subsequently develop as ultraviolet (UV) and longer wavelengths. The heated fuel may radiate in the near infrared depending on the temperature. Since the luminescence is from the plasma, essentially all the energy should be emitted as photons. In certain embodiments, the systems and methods are applied to achieve high energy light for electrically efficient photovoltaic conversion. In some embodiments, the window 20 is transparent to high energy light such as UV light. A corresponding photovoltaic converter may convert UV light into electricity.

The plasma mixture may include means such as additives that can convert the EUV or UV emitting plasma to those that emit longer wavelengths that are readily available to PV converters. For example, high energy light may be converted downward in energy to visible and near infrared wavelengths by making it optically thick. An optically thick plasma may include a high pressure, fully ionized plasma at the desired black body temperature. Powder density and ionization may be controlled by controlling ignition parameters such as barometric pressure and current, cell gas and additive composition, fuel composition and amount. In some embodiments containing Ag + ZnCl ₂ dihydrate, near infrared radiation (NIR) intensity is stronger than that of visible light emission. Hygroscopic ZnCl ₂ may, for example, convert light energy to the BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O of Ag + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O fuel downward. At least one of H ₂ O and ZnCl ₂ may be used to convert the UV down to a longer wavelength that matches a commercial PV cell, such as a collection cell. H ₂ O is optically thick at long wavelengths such as NIR, so the path length to PV may be controlled to maintain transparency to NIR light. Absent. ZnCl ₂ is another candidate.

Short-wavelength light may be converted downward to longer wavelength light by the gas maintained in the cell. The gas may absorb short wavelength light, such as UV, and may emit light again as a longer, desirable wavelength light. The re-emitted light may be capable of PV conversion to electricity such as visible light. Typical gases that absorb short-wavelength light such as UV and re-emit at longer wavelengths are molecular gases such as H ₂ O and N ₂ and noble gases such as xenon. The gas pressure may be adjusted to optimize the conversion from the short wavelength to the desired wavelength. Phosphors such as those used in fluorescence that converts UV from Hg vapor discharge to visible light may be used to convert UV to visible light within SF-CIHT. The phosphors may include single component phosphors such as crystalline phosphors such as MgWO ₄ and (ZnBe) ₂ SiO ₄ .Mn, or calcium halophosphate activated by antimony and manganese. The phosphor may be incorporated into the fuel or coated onto an optical component such as at least one of the windows such as 20 or 20c. Typical phosphors known to those skilled in the art are transition metal and rare earth metal compounds. Further typical phosphors are linked to http: // en. wikipedia. org / wiki / Phosphor
Given in. The phosphor may be selected to minimize energy loss due to down conversion of photons. In an exemplary embodiment, the phosphor is europium doped strontium fluoroborate (SrB ₄ O ₇ F: Eu ²⁺ ), europium doped strontium borate (SrB ₄ O ₇ F: Eu ²⁺ ), lead-doped barium silicate (BaSi ₂ O ₅ : Pb ⁺ ), lead-activated calcium metasilicate, europium-activated strontium pyroborate, SrP ₂ O ₇ , Eu, SrB ₄ O ₇ , Eu, BaSi ₂ A black light phosphor such as O ₅ , Pb, SrAl ₁₁ O ₁₈ , Ce, or MgSrAl ₁₀ O ₁₇ , Ce is included.

  In one embodiment, the energy released by the hydrino reaction in at least one form of light, heat and plasma is alloy 718, Hastelloy, Inconel, Waspaloy, Rene alloy, MP98T, TMS alloy, CMSX single crystal alloy, titanium. • Alloys such as aluminides, ceramics, superalloys used in jet engines or gas turbines such as metals or alloys coated with ceramics or metals, refractory metals such as tungsten, molybdenum or high temperatures such as carbon Heat an emitter, such as a possible emitter. The high temperature may be in the range of approximately 1000K to 4000K. In some embodiments, the light is transmitted through a window, such as a quartz or sapphire window, to heat the emitter. The heated emitter emits black body radiation that may be converted to electricity using a thermo-photovoltaic cell or using a photovoltaic cell such as an NIR cell such as an InGaAs or Ge cell. . In some embodiments, the emitter may include an enclosure around the electrode or a partial enclosure in a cell that may emit light through the window 20.

  In one embodiment, a solid fuel sample, such as a fuel pellet, is ignited while submerged in water. Ignition may be achieved at high currents. The voltage may be low. A typical high ignition current may be in the range of approximately 100 to 100,000 A, and a typical low voltage may be in the range of approximately 1V to 100V. The energy released may heat the water. Water may be converted to steam. At least one of heated water and steam may be used directly. Alternatively, steam may be converted to electricity using a steam turbine and generator.

  In certain embodiments, the solid fuel includes a source of hydrogen and a source of catalyst that does not oxidize the conductive matrix, such as a metal powder matrix. Non-oxidizing fuels may contain hydrogen. Non-oxidizing fuels may include hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon hydrogen may function as H and H catalytic reactants to form hydrinos. Hydrocarbons may be injected into the interelectrode region. Hydrocarbons may be injected into the contact area of the rotating roller electrode. The rotation may transport fuel to the contact area to be ignited. A conductive matrix such as a metal powder may be injected into the interelectrode region. The hydrino reaction mixture comprising a conductive matrix such as metal powder and hydrocarbons may be injected from the same or different injectors to constitute the fuel, either simultaneously or individually, respectively. The fuel may be transported by means such as by rotation of the roller electrode to receive ignition.

  The ignition product may be collected by means of compressed air of the present disclosure such as suction. Powder ignition products such as those containing a conductive matrix such as metal powder may be collected by suction onto the filter. Unignited hydrocarbons may be collected and recycled as well. The product may be transported and used to reconstitute the fuel. The fuel may be reconstituted by adding hydrocarbons to the conductive matrix. Hydrocarbons may be added directly to form fuel that may be injected. Alternatively, the recovered conductive matrix and hydrocarbons may be injected separately, where they form fuel with simultaneous injection into the ignition system.

  In one embodiment, the firing particles jump upwards toward the window 20 by at least one of an ignition blast and a rotating roll 8, and the particles are prevented or prevented from colliding with the window 20 at the top of the cell. . Suppression and obstruction may be achieved by the flow of gas from a recirculation system such as from the gas return duct 18 of the cyclone separator 80. In certain embodiments, the particles may be charged and suppression and interference may be achieved by a magnetic field such as that of a magnetic circuit. At least one of the magnetic field and magnetic circuit flux may have a contribution from the current of the ignition system. The magnetic circuit may include a ferromagnetic material. The magnetic field may be resistive or include at least one of an electromagnet such as a superconducting magnet and a permanent magnet.

  In another embodiment, suppression and jamming may be achieved by an applied electric field. The electric field may repel ions. The electric field may be applied by at least one pair of electrodes through which the particles flow. The electrode may produce a coronary discharge, may cause the particles to be charged, and may attract the particles to the counter electrode being collected. Particle removal may be achieved by current flow through the particle-cell gas mixture. The particle suppression and obstruction system may include one that is substantially similar to that of electrostatic precipitators known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the air pressure is increased after the fuel explosion to reduce the speed of the ignition product. The electrostatic precipitator may include at least one positively charged powder collection plate and at least one centrally charged wire. The plate may be the perimeter around the wire. The electrostatic precipitator may include a plurality of center wires and a collection plate that may be a perimeter such as a tube. In certain embodiments, the electrostatic precipitator plate is positioned at least partially off the line of light line of sight from the cell. In some embodiments, electrostatic precipitator electrodes or plates are placed in the area of the cell where there is no plasma from the ignition process to electrically short the plates. A typical location is one above the baffle of the present disclosure. In certain embodiments, the electrostatic precipitator may be an element of a recirculation system where plasma is not present as in a cyclone separator. Small particles may be charged by a central electrode, such as a wire electrode, and particles may be collected by surrounding electrodes, such as those including near the wall of the cyclone separator. An electrostatic precipitator may remove small particles that are not in a size range, such as less than about 10 um in diameter, that is difficult to remove by a cyclone separator. Cyclone separators are spread out parts such as light bulbs to reduce or stall gas drops that allow drops into desirable systems such as pelletizers and particles to stick to the electrostatic precipitator electrode plates. May have modifications in structures such as The collection electrode or plate may drop material to the bottom of the cyclone separator. The cyclone gas flow may also remove collected particles and may also transport them to the bottom of the cyclone separator. Removal may be accomplished by mechanical means such as vibrating means and other mechanical removal devices of the present disclosure. The plate may be a product-non-adhesive plate such as those of the disclosure. The diameter of the tube collection plate may be large enough so that the light path from the ignition process does not substantially intercept the plate. At effective infinite radius limits, the line path will not intercept positively charged plates. The collected ignition products may be gas jets, gas knives, gases forced to pass through perforations in the electrode plate, such as in the case of gas flow through the perforated cell walls of the present disclosure, and mechanical scrapers or above. It may be removed continuously or intermittently by the cleaning means of the present disclosure such as mechanical cleaning such as sonic application. The electrodes may be exchanged on an intermittent or continuous basis, where cleaning may be performed away from the incident light region. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrostatic precipitator electrode may be moving as on a belt, or it may include a moving belt. The ignition system may further include a parabolic mirror. The mirror may be cleaned. For example, the mirror may be constantly cleaned with an air jet. The tube wall may be of sufficient radius so as not to substantially intercept any line path from a parabolic mirror or directly. At higher pressures, the tube may be made larger due to the increased breakdown voltage of cell gases such as argon.

  In another embodiment, the particle suppression and obstruction system may include a pressurized gas jet. Alternatively, the pressurized gas may flow through the perforations of the perforated window 20c. Gas may flow through the gas return duct 81 from the top of the cyclone separator 80 (FIG. 2G1e3). In certain embodiments, the gas flow from the gas jet may include a fuel recirculation system in which pressurized gas may be further applied to recirculate the ignition product.

  In some embodiments, the ignition product can be applied to any window, such as a window to a PV converter, and any mirror, such as a parabolic mirror, to the reflective or transparent surface of an SF-CIHT cell, such as a cell wall. At least one of suppression or obstruction is made from at least one of adhesion or contact. Reflective and transparent surfaces may include polished, smooth surfaces, such as polished metal in the case of reflective surfaces, and are free from igniter-product sticky contaminants such as grease. It may be. The surface may be heated to high temperatures by at least one of an ignition process and at least one heater, where high temperatures reduce sticking of ignition products. The cell wall may include a material that is at least one capable of high temperature operation. And it is highly reflective and resistant to ignition product sticking. The cell wall may include a material or plating that does not form an oxide coat (eg, Ag, Au, Pt, Pd or other noble metal). The cell wall may include a material or plating that forms an oxide of Al, Ni, or Cu. Mechanical vibrations such as vibrations or ultrasound may be applied so that the ignition product powder is less able to adhere. In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell surface, such as a cell wall, is used to prevent ignition product powder from sticking so that the cell wall maintains incident light reflective from solid fuel ignition. It may include acoustic speakers that vibrate at frequency and amplitude. The ignition product may be further prevented from adhering to the surface by using an electrostatic precipitator to remove the ignition product or by at least one of the use of gas walls and electrostatic repulsion. Absent.

  In some embodiments, the cell walls may reflect with perforations or gas jets. Pressurized gas to the perforation or jet may flow between two parallel plates containing the walls of the gas supply duct. One plate with gas perforation or jet may face the cell and another mirrored wall of the duct into the cell penetrating the gas perforation or jet And may be arranged to reflect light. The back of the perforated wall may be mirrored as well, as multiple bounces between the walls may occur to allow the cell to return light. In another embodiment, the perforations or jets may be oriented at an angle relative to the surface. Perforations may have a cone-like geometry to achieve gas dispersion. The wall containing the jet or gas perforation may contain a screen or mesh, such as a 1-50um mesh screen. The screen may include stainless steel or other preservative metal or alloy. Perforation or jets may be implemented to ideally create a uniform gas pressure barrier at the wall that hinders the powder ignition product because it adheres and / or contacts the cell walls. The ignition product and at least one electrostatic charge on the wall that cause the former to bounce off the latter may be applied as well to prevent the powder from sticking to the wall. The gas flow through the cell may transport the ignition product powder to recirculate the fuel.

In one embodiment, the upward propagating ignition product is incident on a barrier or baffle, such as a window and transparent barrier for light such as the preferred window combination 20 and 20c. The barrier delays the particle trajectory up. Then the slow-velocity particles are removed. Removal may be by means of the present disclosure, such as by compressed air action such as by suction or blowing. In some embodiments, slow-velocity particles are removed by aspiration. The suction may be to a cyclone separator that may be substantially open. Corresponding recirculation systems may include boxes in a ductless design or box design. The barrier or baffle may decelerate the particle velocity from ignition so that particle removal by the electrostatic precipitator of the present disclosure is allowed. The baffle may include a transparent heat and adhesion resistant material, such as at least one of fire, fused silica, fused silica, a transparent substrate such as quartz. The baffle may be transparent to ultraviolet light. Suitable baffles include at least one of sapphire, LiF, MgF ₂ , and CaF ₂ . The baffle is a light source from the ignition of the fuel to form a uniform distribution across the aperture for light to an electrical converter, such as a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, and a thermionic energy converter. It may include a lens that may perform at least one of diffusion and concentration. The baffle lens may be configured to receive incident ignition light and concentrate the light on an electrical converter such as at least one of a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, and a thermionic energy converter. unknown. The lens may be at least partially concave to spread the light. In another embodiment, the scattered light may be focused or focused by a lens that may be at least partially convex. In certain embodiments, at least one electrostatic charge of the ignition product and baffle, a window that causes the wall and the former to rebound from the latter, may be similarly applied to prevent powder from adhering to the wall. Absent. The gas flow through the cell may transport the ignition product powder to recirculate the fuel. The charge may be due to electrodes such as those of the electrostatic precipitator of the present disclosure. In the case of transparent components such as baffles and windows, the electrodes are composed of grid wires and transparent conductive oxides such as indium tin oxide (ITO) such as fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO). Transparent conductors such as TCO), and doped zinc oxide and others known to those skilled in the art.

The SFCIHT generator may include sapphire elements such as plates, tiles or window glass for at least one of the cell components that are transparent or reflective (eg baffles, windows and cell walls). Each transparent sapphire element may be provided with a backing mirror. The mirror may be separated from the vacuum gap to reduce heat transfer. The component may further include additional radiation shields, insulators, and cooling systems in the circumferential direction from at least one of the sapphire elements and mirrors. The sapphire may be operated at a sufficiently high temperature to prevent sticking of the ignition product. The sapphire may be operated at a temperature at which the ignition product evaporates away. H ₂ O may be by additional means such as coolly spraying on at least one of the baffles and may wet the ignition product to enhance its ease of recirculation. The wet ignition product may be balled away from optical components such as windows and baffles and components such as walls due to vapor formation upon contact. The water spray may also cool at least one cell component, such as at least one of baffles, walls, and windows. Other materials include fluorides such as LiF, MgF ₂ , CaF ₂ , and BaF ₂ , and alkaline earth halides such as CdF ₂ , quartz, fused silica, UV glass, borosilicate, and Infrasil ( May be used as an element like ThorLabs). The element may be operated at a temperature that minimizes sticking, where the adhesion energy may be minimized at high temperatures. The element material may have a low energy of surface absorption of the ignition product and may have a high transmittance for optical power over wavelengths that are advantageous for PV conversion. In certain embodiments, the ignition product includes at least one component such as a conductive matrix that is substantially non-adherent to the cell walls and windows. In certain embodiments, the non-adhesive matrix includes silver. The wall may include a material that resists sticking of ignition products such as hermetically sealed silver such as silver or a metal such as silver with a mirror sealant such as sapphire or silicon dioxide. In an exemplary embodiment, the film is approximately 100 nm thick. The film may be less than approximately 40um thick. In another embodiment, the high Ag reflectivity may be extended to less than 400 nm, such as up to 200 nm, by applying a thin Ag coating on Al, where Wavelengths are sent through Ag and reflected by Al on the bottom. In some embodiments, the wall comprises a material capable of high reflectivity at UV wavelengths, such as MgF ₂ coated Al. The wall may comprise a thin fluoride film such as a MgF ₂ or LiF film or a SiC film on aluminum. The wall may be operated at temperatures below where ignition products such as Ag or Ag-Cu alloys may adhere below 200 ° C. While maintaining the vapor below the desired maximum temperature, such as 200 ° C., the wall may be cooled by allowing water to undergo a phase transition from liquid to vapor. In other embodiments, the wall may be operated at higher temperatures, where other methods of the present disclosure for removing gas jets, vibrations, or bonded ignition products may be applied. . Other typical suitable reflective coatings with high reflectivity may be used such as noble metals, platinum, ruthenium, palladium, iridium, rhodium, and gold groups, and silver.

  In certain embodiments, the sticky ignition product may be removed by at least one of a gas jet or knife, by vibration, by heating, and by bombardment or etching. Bombing or etching may be by ions. The ions may include noble gas ions such as those made from cell gas. The ions may be formed by a discharge such as a coronal discharge. The ions may be accelerated by the applied electric field. While avoiding significant etching of window-like optical elements such as windows 20 and 20c or cell components such as cell walls, ion energy is controlled to remove sticky ignition products. May

  In some embodiments, the ignition product may be removed by rinsing with a liquid such as water. The liquid may be applied by a liquid jet. Rinse solution may be collected in a bowl. Excess liquid, such as water, is known in the art such as those configured vertically (counterflow) or horizontally (crossflow) and screens with suction such as those of the present disclosure or It may be removed by at least one of the wet scrubbers such as a membrane. The wet scrubber may include at least one of a spray tower such as a cyclone separator, a venturi scrubber, a condensing scrubber and a mist remover. The wet scrubber may include at least one of a saturator, a venturi scrubber, an entrainment separator, a recirculation pump, a recirculated liquid (eg, water), a fan, and a conduit.

  The optical distribution system and photovoltaic converter 26a (FIG. 2C) may be modular and may be scalable. The optical power increases the ignition frequency of the intermittent ignition, optimizes the parameters of the ignition waveform, selects the fuel composition that gives more power, increases the fuel flow rate, the radius of the rotating electrode such as the roller or gear electrode 8 And may increase by increasing the rotational speed, increasing the amount of fuel coated on the rotating electrode, and increasing the width of a rotating electrode such as the roller or gear electrode 8. Photovoltaic converters may include light collection cells such as triple junction cells, c-Si cells, and GaAs cells. In certain embodiments, each of the photovoltaic cells includes at least one of extreme ultraviolet, ultraviolet, visible light, near infrared, and infrared photovoltaic cells. The optical distribution system and photovoltaic converter may be expandable based on the power that is controlled to produce the desired level to achieve the desired electrical output with the desired output optical power. The scale includes the light output area of the cell 26 and the window 20, the size of the optical distribution system and the photovoltaic converter 26a, the number of PV cells or panels 15, the efficiency of the PV cell 15, the strength carrying capacity of the PV cell 15, the translucent mirror It may be increased by increasing the number and width of 23 and the column height of the mirror and PV panel 26a. The component may be modular. For example, additional electrode sections may be added to increase electrode width, and the number and height of optical distribution and PV converter system columns use corresponding add-on modules to increase power capacity And may be increased.

  In one embodiment, the generator is applied to the roller electrode until the roller rotates at a speed sufficient to provide ignition fuel with sufficient speed to prevent ignition against pressure and plasma from causing substantial damage to the roller. May include a safety system such as an interlock switch that prevents the application of electrical power.

In one embodiment, a rotating electrode that includes a rotary pump maintains the slurry in a trough 5. In one embodiment, the differential pressure between the top of the parabolic mirror 14 and the slurry is maintained by at least one of the louver fan 20a of FIG. 2G1 and the duct fans of FIGS. 2G1, 2G1a, 2G1b, and 2G1c. Thus, where there is a return flow to the soot and a flow of solid fuel into the ignition zone, the cell can be operated in any orientation relative to gravity with the slurry maintained at the soot 5. . For example, a pressure gradient of 1 atmosphere can compensate for the fuel weight per unit area equivalent to 10 ⁵ N / m ² .

  Since the removal of the fuel is transported to the ignition zone, where the pressure effect occurs, the generator is connected to the positive pressure so that the stream that recirculates the fuel flow is under positive pressure relative to the soot 5. May be under. In another embodiment, the generator may be attached to a pivotable support attached to a structure such as an aircraft or satellite. The rotatable support then has multiple degrees of freedom for rotation such that the generator may be a rotation of a structure that maintains an upright orientation relative to the earth's gravity. A typical rotatable support fixed to the structure is that of a gyroscope.

  In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT generator may include a vacuum chamber arranged around the SF-CIHT cell 1 for noise reduction. In other embodiments, the cell includes active noise suppression, such as a noise cancellation system such as those known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, at least one of the time-varying electronic elements, such as the SF-CIHT generator and the source of electrical power to ignite the fuel, is nickel coated that is trimmed around for electromagnetic mixing removal. It may include a coated conductive chamber such as a closed chamber.

  In another embodiment, the plasma is confined by a photon-electric converter by at least one of a magnetic or electric field confinement that minimizes plasma contact. Magnetic confinement may include a magnetic bottle. Magnetic confinement may be provided by Helmholtz coil 6d. In a further embodiment, the converter converts kinetic energy from charged or neutral species in the plasma, such as energetic electrons, ions, and hydrogen atoms, into electricity. The converter may be in contact with the plasma to receive energetic species.

  In certain embodiments, the SF-CIHT generator includes hydrogen catalysis cells that generate atoms with the binding energy given by equation (1) and are electronically excited such as those of the fuel material Includes a high density of ions and atoms. Power is emitted as photons by spontaneous light emission or induced light emission. Light is converted into electricity using the photon-electric converter of the present disclosure, such as a photoelectric or photovoltaic cell. In certain embodiments, the power cell further includes a hydrogen laser of the present disclosure.

  In one embodiment, the photon performs at least one action of propagating and entering the photovoltaic cell, exiting the semi-transparent mirror of the laser cavity, and irradiating the photovoltaic cell. To do. Incoherent power and laser power is the conversion of laser power into electrical power in a photovoltaic cell such as the following, as described in the reference, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. It may be converted to electricity using the cell. It is a matter of L. C. Olsen, D.M. A. Huber, G.M. Dunham, F.M. W. Addis, “High efficiency monochromatic GaAs solar cells”, in Conf. Rec. 22nd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conf. Las Vegas, NV, Vol. I, Oct. (1991), pp. 419-424; A. Lowe, G .; A. Landis, P.M. Jenkins, “Response of photovoltaic cells to pulsed laser illumination”, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, Vol. 42, no. 4, (1995), pp. 744-751; K. Jain, G .; A. Landis, "Transient response of gallium arsenide and silicon solar cells under laser pulse", Solid-State Electronics, Vol. 4, no. 11, (1998), pp. 1981-1983; A. Iles, “Non-solar photovoltaic cells”, in Conf. Rec. 21st IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conf. Kissimmee, FL, Vol. I, May, (1990), pp. 420-423.

  In at least one embodiment of a light and laser power converter using a beam forming an optical system, at least one of the light beam and the laser beam is reduced and spread over a larger area, which is Described in the literature. It is a matter of L. C. Olsen, D.M. A. Huber, G.M. Dunham, F.M. W. Addis, “High efficiency monochromatic GaAs solar cells”, in Conf. Rec. 22nd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conf. Las Vegas, NV, Vol. I, Oct. (1991), pp. 419-424, the entirety of which is hereby incorporated by reference. The beam forming optics may be a lens or a diffuser. Cell 1 may further include a mirror or lens to direct light onto the photovoltaic. Mirrors may also be present on the cell walls to increase the flight distance of light such as hydrogen Lyman series emission to maintain an excited state that may be further excited by collisions or photons.

  In another embodiment, spontaneous or stimulated emission from a water-based fuel plasma is converted to electrical power using photovoltaic power. The conversion of spontaneous and stimulated emission into at least one electricity may be achieved with significant power density and efficiency using existing photovoltaic (PV) cells with a bandgap that matches the wavelength. Absent. The photovoltaic cell of the power converter of the present disclosure in which the response to ultraviolet light and the extreme ultraviolet light includes radiation includes a conventional cell that is radiation cured. Because of the potentially higher energy of photons, higher efficiencies can be achieved compared to those that convert lower energy photons. Curing may be accomplished by a protective coating such as an atomic layer of platinum or other noble metal. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic has a high band gap such as a photovoltaic composed of gallium nitride.

  In certain embodiments that use photovoltaics for power conversion, high energy light may be converted to lower energy light by a phosphor. In one embodiment, the phosphor is a gas that efficiently converts the short wavelength light of the cell to one that is more responsive to photovoltaics with longer wavelength light. The percentage of phosphor gas can be any desired range, such as within at least one range of about 0.1% to 99.9%, 0.1 to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 5%. May be within. The phosphor gas may be an inert gas such as a compound or elemental gas or a noble gas that has been gasified by an explosion such as a metal such as an alkali, alkaline earth or transition metal. In one embodiment, argon includes an argon candle as used in explosives to emit bright light that is not in the visible light range that is reasonable for photovoltaic conversion to electricity. In one embodiment, the phosphor is transparent to the cell 1 so that the photons emitted by the excitation phosphor more closely match the peak wavelength efficiency of the photovoltaic that may surround the phosphor-coated wall. It is coated on the wall. In some embodiments, the excimer-producing species is added to the plasma to absorb power from the formation of hydrinos and contribute to the formation of at least one of multiple states of excited states and population inversions. In certain embodiments, the solid fuel or additive gas may include a halogen. At least one noble gas such as helium, neon, and argon may be added so that an excimer is formed. Power may be extracted by excimer spontaneity or laser emission. The optical power is incident and the photovoltaic converter 6 converts it into electricity.

  In certain embodiments, the plasma emits a significant portion of optical power and energy as EUV and UV light. The pressure may be reduced by maintaining a vacuum in the reaction chamber (cell 1). And the plasma is made more optically thicker to reduce at least one of the conversion rates under the high energy photons to the range of conversion of the longer wavelength photons and EUV and UV light with lower energy (longer wavelength photons) Maintain the condition of not. The power spectrum wavelength range also includes additives and other cover gases such as noble gases such as argon, such as at least one of alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metal halides, oxides, and hydroxides. May vary by adding to a solid fuel such as at least one of an inorganic compound such as a metal compound and at least one of a transition metal

In this exemplary embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell power generation system is configured to capture plasma photons generated by the fuel ignition reaction and convert them to usable energy. Includes a converter. In some embodiments, high conversion efficiency may be desired. The reactor may eject plasma in multiple directions (eg, at least two directions), and the reaction radius may be, for example, from about 1 mm to about 25 cm in radius, from about a few millimeters to a few May be a scale up to a meter. Moreover, the spectrum of the plasma generated by fuel ignition may resemble the spectrum of the plasma generated by the sun and / or may include additional short wavelength radiation. FIG. 3 shows silver containing H ₂ and H ₂ O with H ₂ and H ₂ O absorbed from a silver melt gas treatment prior to becoming a water reservoir showing an average optical power of 172 kW, essentially in the ultraviolet spectral region. A typical absolute spectrum in the 120 nm to 450 nm region of an 80 mg shot of ignition is shown. Ignition was achieved at low voltage (high current) using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder. The current was approximately 25 kA and the voltage drop across the shot was less than 1V. The high intensity UV excitation scheme had a duration of approximately 1 ms. The control spectrum was flat in the UV region. In one embodiment, the plasma that may be verified by measuring the Stark broadening of H-balmer alpha rays is essentially 100% ionized. Solid fuel radiation, such as at least one of line and black body luminescence, may have an intensity in the range of at least one of approximately 2 to 200,000 Suns, 10 to 100,000 Suns, 100 to 75,000 Suns.

From the Vienna displacement law [A. Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1978), pp. 194 329-340], the wavelength λ _max having the largest energy density in a black body with T = 6000K is as follows.
λ _max = hc / 4.965 kT = 483 nm (210)

Stefan-Boltzmann law [A. Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1978), pp. 194 329-340] placed the radiated power R by the object per unit area equal to the emissivity e multiplied by the Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ multiplied by the temperature raised to the fourth power T ⁴ .
R = eσT ⁴ (211)

The emissivity for an optically thick plasma containing a black body is e = 1, σ = 5.67 × 10 ⁻⁸ Wm ⁻² K ⁻⁴ , and the measured black body temperature is 6000 K. there were. Thus, the radiated power per unit area by the ignited solid fuel is
R = (1) (σ = 5.67 × 10 ⁻⁸ Wm ⁻² K ⁻⁴ ) (6000 K) ⁴
= 7.34 × 10 ⁷ Wm ⁻² (212)

In the case the plasma is in a steady state, the radius _{r ps} plasma ball 6000K is given by blast (blast (blast)) of the quotient of 1000J energy _{E blast} of 20 × ^{10 -6} s and blasting the time τ It can be calculated from the typical power P _blast and R of the _blast .
In the case of expanding plasma, the average radius is given by the duration of blasting, such as 25 μm to 5 ms, multiplied by 1/2 the expansion rate, such as sonic speed 343 m / s.

The typical average radius of the expanded plasma sphere is 23 cm with an average black body temperature of 6000K. Visor [A. Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1978), pp. 194 329-340], the total number N of photons in a volume having a radius of 23 cm is as follows.
N = 8π (4 / 3πr _ps ³ ) (kT / hc) ³ (2.405)
= 2.23 × 10 ¹⁷ photons (214)

Average energy of photons from visor [1]
Is as follows.
Further plasma temperatures, plasma emissivity, power emitted per unit area, plasma radius, total photon number and photon average energy are within the scope of this disclosure. In some embodiments, the plasma temperature is in the range of approximately 500K to 100,000K, 1000K to 10,000K, and 5000K to 10,000K. In certain embodiments, the plasma emissivity is in the range of at least one of approximately 0.01-1, 0.1-1, and 0.5-1. In some embodiments, the power radiated per unit area according to equation (212) is from 10 ³ Wm ⁻² to 10 ¹⁰ Wm ⁻² , 10 ⁴ Wm ⁻² to 10 ⁹ Wm ⁻² , and 10 ⁵ Wm ^−2. It is in at least one range of 10 ⁸ Wm ⁻² . In one embodiment, according to the radiated power R and the blast power P _blast per unit area given by the quotient of the _blast energy E _blast and the blast time τ, respectively, the radius and the total number of photons are 213) and (214). In some embodiments, the energy is in the range of at least one of about 10 J to 1 GJ, 100 J to 100 MJ, 200 J to 10 MJ, 300 J to 1 MJ, 400 J to 100 kJ, 500 J to 10 kJ, and 1 kJ to 5 kJ. In some embodiments, the time is in a range of at least one of about 100 ns to 100 s, 1 μs to 10 s, 10 μs to 1 s, 100 μs to 100 ms, 100 μs to 10 ms, and 100 μs to 1 ms. In some embodiments, the power is in a range of at least one of about 100 W to 100 GW, 1 kW to 10 GW, 10 kW to 1 GW, 10 kW to 100 MW, and 100 kW to 100 MW. In some embodiments, the radius is in the range of at least one of about 100 nm to 10 m, 1 mm to 1 m, 10 mm to 100 cm, and 10 cm to 50 cm. In one embodiment, the total number of photons (photons) according to equation (214) is in a range of approximately 10 ⁷ to 10 ²⁵ , 10 ¹⁰ to 10 ²² , 10 ¹³ to 10 ²¹ , and 10 ¹⁴ to 10 ^18. . In certain embodiments, the average energy of photons according to equation (215) is in the range of approximately 0.1 eV to 100 eV, 0.5 eV to 10 eV, and at least one of 0.5 eV and 3 eV.

e. UV photovoltaic opto-electric converter system, optoelectronic opto-electric converter system, rail gun injector, and gravity and plasma rail gun recovery system SF-CIHT cell output power is heat and photovoltaic convertible light May include power. In certain embodiments, an opto-electric converter may include one that utilizes at least one of the photovoltaic effect, the thermionic effect and the optoelectronic effect. The power converter may be a direct power converter that converts the kinetic energy of energetic electrons into electricity. In certain embodiments, the power of the SF-CIHT cell may be partially in the form of thermal energy or may be at least partially converted to thermal energy. The electrical power converter may include a thermionic power converter. A typical thermionic cathode may comprise scandium doped tungsten. The light effect enhances electron emission by raising the electron energy at the semiconductor emitter across the bandgap to the conduction band where electrons are thermally emitted, where the cell utilizes photon extended thermionic emission (PETE). It may be. In some embodiments, the SF-CIHT cell may include an absorber of light such as extreme ultraviolet (EUV), ultraviolet (UV), visible (range) and near infrared light. The absorber may be outside the cell. For example, it may be outside the window 20. The absorber may rise in temperature as a result of absorption. The absorber temperature may be in the range of about 500 ° C to 4000 ° C. Heat may be input to a thermo-photovoltaic or thermoelectric cell. Thermoelectric and heat engines such as Stirling, Rankin, Brayton and other heat engines known in the art are within the scope of this disclosure.

  At least one first opto-electric converter, such as one that utilizes at least one of the photovoltaic effect, the effect of thermoelectrons and the optoelectronic effect of multiple converters, may be selective for the first part of the electromagnetic spectrum. It may be transparent to at least a second part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The first part may be converted to electricity by the corresponding first converter, and the second, non-selective second part of the second part is a transmitted second of at least a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. May propagate to another converter that is selective for that part.

In certain embodiments, the plasma emits a significant portion of optical power and energy as EUV and UV light. In order to maintain the plasma in conditions that are less optically thick to reduce the attenuation of short wavelength light, the pressure may be reduced by maintaining a vacuum in the reaction chamber (cell 1). In one embodiment, the opto-electric converter is a photovoltaic (PV) cell that is responsive to a substantial wavelength range of light emitted from such a cell corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. Including the photovoltaic converter of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the fuel may include a shot of silver with at least one of trapped hydrogen and trapped H ₂ O. The light emission may include mainly ultraviolet light, such as light, in a wavelength range of approximately 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may be responsive to at least some wavelength regions of approximately 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may include a Group III nitride, such as at least one of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. In certain embodiments, the PV cell may include multiple junctions. Junctions may be layered in series. In another embodiment, the junctions are independent or electrically parallel. Wafers bonded or independent bonds may be stacked mechanically. A typical multi-junction PV cell includes at least two junctions comprising np-doped semiconductors such as a plurality from the group of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. The n-dopant of GaN may contain oxygen and the p-dopant may contain Mg. A typical triple junction cell may include InGaN // GaN // AlGaN, where // may refer to an isolated transparent wafer bonding layer or mechanical stack. PV may move with high light intensity equivalent to that of concentrated photovoltaic (CPV). The substrate may be at least one of sapphire, Si, SiC, and GaN, where the latter two provide the best lattice matching for CPV applications. The layer may be deposited using metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) methods known in the art. The cell may be cooled by a cold plate such as those used in diode lasers such as CPV or commercial GaN diode lasers. Grid contact may be initiated on the front and back of the cell as in the case of CPV cells. In certain embodiments, the PV converter may have a protective window that is substantially transparent to the light it is responsive to. The window may be at least 10% transparent to responsive light. The window may be transparent to UV light. The window may include a coating such as a UV clear paint over the PV cell. The coating may include disclosed UV window materials such as sapphire or MgF ₂ windows. Other suitable window includes LiF, CaF _2. The coating may be applied by vapor deposition such as vapor deposition.

The SF-CIHT cell power converter may include a photoelectron (PE) converter. When the photon energy given by Planck's equation exceeds the work function, the photoelectron effect involves the absorption of photons by materials such as metals that have a work function Φ in the emission of electrons. For a photon of energy hν, the total energy of the excited electrons has an excess that exceeds the work function Φ required for the departure from the metal appearing as hν, kinetic energy 1/2 × m _e v ² , where h in Planck's constant, at ν is the photon frequency, m _e is the electron mass, v is the electron velocity. Energy conservation requires that the kinetic energy be the difference between the photon energy absorbed and the metal work function. The difference is the binding energy.
The relationship is as follows.
1 / 2m _e v ² = hν−Φ (216)

  The current due to the emitted electrons is proportional to the intensity of the radiation. Photo-electric converters of the present disclosure, such as ultraviolet light-electric converters, utilize the optoelectronic effect to convert photon energy into electrical energy. Heat may also assist in the emission of electrons that may contribute to the device current. The opto-electrical converter may include an optoelectronic power converter including at least one cell shown in FIG. 2G1e4. And incident light (e.g., transparent casing 201, photocathode or electron emitter 204, ultraviolet light 205 containing anode or collector 202, evacuated interelectrode space 203 and through separated load and load 206. Each can receive an external electrical connection 207) between the cathode and anode. When exposed to at least one of light and heat, the cathode 204 emits electrons that are collected by the anode 202 separated from the cathode by a gap or space 203. In one embodiment, the photocathode 204 has a higher work function than the anode 202, where the former functions and the electron emitter and the latter function as an electron collector where the cell is exposed to light such as ultraviolet light. . The work function difference between the different materials of the two electrodes serves to accelerate electrons from a higher work function photocathode that provides voltage to perform useful work in external circuitry to a lower work function anode. . The work function of the anode may be low to enhance the cell power output to the load. The optoelectronic cell further includes an electrical connection 207 for conducting electrons in electrical connection with the photocathode to remove electrons from the anode. The electrical connection may include circuitry by applying across a load 206 through which current flows. The cell may be sealed. The gap 203 may be under vacuum.

In embodiments, the photocathode can be divided into two group transmissions, can be translucent as shown in FIG. 2G1e4, and can be reflective or opaque as shown in FIGS. 2G1e5 and 2G1e6. Referring to FIG. 2G1e4, translucent optoelectronic cell embodiments include sapphire, LiF, MgF ₂ , and other alkaline earth halides such as fluorides such as CaF ₂ , BaF ₂ , CdF ₂ , quartz, A coating is typically included over a transparent window 201 such as fused silica, UV glass, borosilicate, and Infrasil (ThorLabs). Here, light strikes the photocathode 204 and electrons exit from the opposite surface. In a “translucent” mode embodiment, the cell includes a gap separating the photocathode 204, anode 202 between the electrodes 203, and the radiation 205 includes a window 201 in which the photocathode 204 is deposited on the inside of the cell. Enter the cell through. Electrons are emitted from the inner surface of the photocathode 204 (eg, gap or vacuum interface 203).

  The opaque or reflective optoelectronic cell embodiment typically shown in FIGS. 2G1e5 and 2G1e6 includes a photocathode material made of an opaque metal electrode base, where light enters when electrons exit from the same side. The variation is a double reflection type, where the metal base is like a mirror. Light emission then passes through the photocathode without causing backscatter due to absorption and photoelectron emission for the second pass. In the “opaque” mode embodiment, the cell shown in FIG. 2G1e5 is configured such that radiation, such as ultraviolet radiation 205, enters the cell and passes between the cathode and anode through a load 206 that is incident directly on the photocathode 204. It includes a transparent casing 201, a photocathode 204, a transparent anode 208, a separating space (eg, an evacuated interelectrode space 203) and an external electrical connection 207. Radiation enters the cathode 204 at a gap 203, such as a vacuum gap interface, and electrons are emitted from the same interface. Referring to FIG. 2G1e6, light 205 may enter the cell through the transparent window 201 with an anode, such as the grid anode 209, on the interior side of the window 201. FIG. The opaque mode may be considered because the incident light includes a directly illuminated cathode that first traverses the window 201, anode 208 or 209 and gap 203.

  In certain embodiments, the SF-CIHT generator cell may be maintained under vacuum. A photoelectric (PE) converter may include a photocathode, a grid anode, and a vacuum space between the electrodes where the vacuum is in communication with the cell's vacuum. The PE converter may be windowless in some embodiments.

  The electrode electrical connection grid may include that of a photovoltaic cell such as a fine wire grid in which light may pass between the grid wires. Such grids are known to those skilled in the art. The plurality of optoelectronic effect cells may be connected in at least one of series and parallel to achieve the desired voltage and current. The collection may achieve at least one of a higher current and a higher voltage. For example, cells may be connected in series to increase voltage, and cells may be connected in parallel to increase cell current. The grid and interconnects are connected to at least one bus bar 26b, for example to convey higher power to the power regulator 3 and the load on the parasitic load and the power output 6 of the SF-CIHT cell (FIG. 2c1). May have.

The emission of current as free electron flow from the photocathode to the anode causes a space charge in the gap. The opposing negative voltage V _SC due to space charge is given by the Child-Langmuir equation as follows:
^{_{V SC = - (81J 2 m}} e / 32ε 0 2 e) 1/3 d 4/3 (217)
Here, J is the current density, _me is the electron mass, ε ₀ is the magnetic permeability, e is the electronic charge, and d is the electrode separation distance corresponding to the gap between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the photoelectric cell voltage P _PE is given by the difference between the photocathode work function Φ _C and the anode work function Φ _A , but is corrected by the opposing negative space charge voltage V _SC. .
_{V PE = Φ C -Φ A +} Φ SC (218)

The photoelectron cell power density _PPE may be given by the product of the photoelectric cell voltage _VPE and the current density J.
P _PE = V _PE J (219)

The opposing space charge voltage V _SC , photoelectric cell voltage V _PE and power density P _PE are given in Table 9 using the formula (217-219) according to the selected values of current density J and electrode spacing J.

  In some embodiments, the gap or electrode spacing d is in the range of at least one of approximately 0.1 um to 1000 um, 1 um to 100 um, approximately 1 um to 10 um, and approximately 1 to 5 um. The gap spacing may be achieved with an insulating spacer such as alumina or beryllium oxide. In certain embodiments, the optoelectronic effect cell further includes a voltage source to apply the electron collection voltage to improve the space charge and its voltage at a given current and power density. Typical applied voltages are within approximately ± 50% and their inverse given by equation (217). The temperature may be kept below, for example, less than 500 ° C. to avoid thermal deformation effects that may result in a short circuit across the gap. Operating in the high temperature embodiment, the gap may be greater than 3-5 um to avoid near infrared loss. Thermionic and photoelectroluminescence may be utilized at higher temperatures, such as in the range of 500 ° C to 3500 ° C.

In certain embodiments, each individual optoelectronic cell that includes two electrodes separated by a gap may be individually sealed. The gap may be maintained at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure. The gap may be maintained under vacuum. In an embodiment, the gap pressure may be maintained in at least one range of about 0 Torr to 10,000 Torr, 10 ⁻⁹ Torr to 760 Torr, 10 ⁻⁶ Torr to 10 Torr, and 10 ⁻³ Torr to 1 Torr. In one embodiment, each individual optoelectronic cell containing two electrodes separated by a gap may be individually opened and included in a vessel that can maintain the pressure of the sealed cell. May be. The tank may be just the tank containing the optoelectronic cell. In another embodiment, the bath may contain SF-CIHT cells. In certain embodiments, the gap may include material to reduce space charge from electrons emitted from the cathode. A typical material is an alkali metal such as cesium vapor. In some embodiments, the space charge may be reduced with alkali metal vapors such as cesium vapor and oxygen. The material may produce a plasma in an ignited mode and may not produce a plasma in an unignited mode. With small gaps such as 1-10 um, cesium may be ionized at the cathode besides being ionized by the plasma. Ionization may be due to at least one of heat and electrical energy from the cathode.

  To eliminate space charges in certain embodiments, the cell may include a gate electrode in the gap and longitudinal magnetic field to cause electrons to be collected at the gate electrode. The gate electrode may be perforated to allow electrons to be trapped with magnetic field lines to pass through without being collected.

In the ignited mode, the density of cesium atoms is about 10 ¹⁶ / cm ³ (1 Torr), and the plasma density may be about 10 ¹³ / cm ³ to 10 ¹⁴ / cm ³ in the interelectrode space. unknown. The material may be present in a larger enclosure beyond the interelectrode space and may receive at least one of electrical and thermal energy to create a plasma from at least one of the electrodes and non-electrode contact surfaces. Absent. In certain embodiments, an arc drop of less than approximately 0.5 eV is required to maintain the plasma. In another embodiment, the arc voltage drop is in the range of approximately 0.01V to 5V. Ions may be created by luminescence from the cathode surface, which may be particularly hot at low specific pressures and may close the interelectrode spacing that minimizes electron scattering. Ionization may be due to at least one of heat and electrical energy from the cathode. In some embodiments, known as Knudsen discharge, the pressure between the electrodes is kept sufficiently low so that the electron mean free path is larger than the interelectrode gap so that electron transport occurs essentially without scattering. At the limit, no voltage drop due to space charge occurs. In some embodiments, a material such as an evaporated alkali metal gaseous material was selected and subtracted from the work function reduced with the cathode (emitter) for its collection at the anode (collector). Maintained to provide work function for electron removal. In another embodiment of the rate of light generation, the photocathode may have a surface that is angled with respect to the direction of incidence of light so that the radiation pressure may reduce space charge. Absent.

The photocathode includes a photoelectron effect active material. The photocathode may include a material with a work function that matches that of the ionization spectrum of the incident light. The photocathode work function may be greater than that of the anode. The magnitude of the photocathode work function may be greater than the sum of the opposing voltage energy of the space charge and the magnitude of the work function of the collector or anode. Typical energy magnitudes are 0.8 eV and 1 eV, respectively. In some embodiments, radiation from the SF-CIHT cell includes short wavelength radiation such as extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and ultraviolet (UV). An operating pressure for a cell gas such as helium or for example a vacuum may be advantageous for emitting short-wavelength light. In certain embodiments, the photocathode is responsive to UV light from the SF-CIHT cell. Since radiation with energy higher than the work function may lose kinetic energy and potential energy, the work function of the photocathode may be matched because it is close to the energy of light such as ultraviolet light. For example, the photocathode work function may be greater than 1.8 eV for radiation shorter than 690 nm and the photocathode work function may be greater than 3.5 eV for radiation shorter than 350 nm. The photocathode work function may be within at least one range of about 0.1V to 100V, 0.5V to 10V, 1V to 6V, and 1.85 eV to 6V. The photocathode is an alkali halide such as KI, KBr, and CsI, Al _x Ga _1-x N, In _x Ga, having a band gap of approximately 5.4 eV that is responsive to light in a wavelength range of less than 200 nm. An alloy such as _1-xN , and GaN having a band gap of about 3.5 eV that is responsive to light in the wavelength region 150-400 nm and the alloy, and responsive to light in a wavelength region greater than 150 nm. Na-K-Sb-Cs, GaAs that is responsive to light in the wavelength range greater than 300 nm, CsTe that is 150-300 nm responsive to light in the wavelength range, approximately 5 responsive to light in the wavelength range less than 200 nm Diamond with a band gap of .47 eV, Sb-Cs that is responsive to light in a wavelength range greater than 150 nm, and responsive to light at a peak wavelength of 185 nm Multi-alkali such as S20 Hamamatsu, which includes Ag-OC that is responsive to light in the wavelength range 300-1200 nm, such as Sb-Rb-Cs, Sb-K-Cs, or Na-K-Sb It may be at least one of a bialkali and InGaAs. A typical opaque photocathode may include at least one of GaN, CsI, and SbCs. A typical translucent photocathode may contain CsTe. Type III-V material UV photocathodes have reasonably large band gaps, such as 3.5 eV for GaN and 6.2 eV for AlN. The energy or wavelength responsive region may be fine tuned by means such as by changing the material composition of the cathode, such as by changing the ratio of GaN to AlN in Al _x Ga _1-x N. For example, thin films of p-doped material can be activated to negative electron affinity by appropriate surface treatment with cesium or Mg and oxygen. Further exemplary photocathodes include a thin film of MgO on Ag, MgF ₂ , MgO, and CuI ₂ . Typical metal photocathodes include Cu, Mg, Pb, Y, and Nb. Typical coated metal photocathodes include Cu-CsBr, Cu-MgF2, Cu-Cs, and Cu-CsI. Typical noble metal alloy photocathodes include CsAu and alloys of pure metals such as Al, Mg, and Cu, with small amounts of Li, Ba, and BaO, respectively. Typical semiconductor photocathodes include CsTe, RbTe, alkali antimonide, Cs ₃ Sb, K ₂ CsSb, Na ₂ KSb, NaK ₂ Sb, CsK ₂ Sb, Cs ₂ Te, super alkali, positive electron affinity (PEA ) Type; Cs: GaAs, Cs: GaN, Cs: InGaN, Cs: GaAsP, stepwise doping, tertiary structure, negative electron affinity (NEA) type. The semiconductor photocathode may be maintained at a high vacuum, such as less than about 10 ⁻⁷ Pa. The size of the PE cell may be desired and can be made. For example, a PE cell with dimensions of 20 cm × 20 cm and sub-millimeter dimensions is made to be hermetically sealed, including a photocathode, an anode, and a window as components of the seal structure.

In certain embodiments, the effect of the photocathode is expressed as the quantum efficiency, defined as the ratio of emitted electrons to the impinging photons or the quantum of light. In certain embodiments, quantum efficiency is provided by at least one of providing a strong electric field and optimizing geometry, temperature and material composition by means such as adding an additive such as an alkali metal. Optimized. In certain embodiments, the photocathode is selected to optimize photon absorption parameters, electron transport properties, and surface energy states to achieve maximum photoelectron efficiency. In the latter case, the conduction electrons attached to the surface have a higher energy than the vacuum electrons, so the surface may be treated with negative electron affinity or activated so that it optimally forms photoelectrons. unknown. The surface of the diamond can be treated for negative electron affinity, for example by secession, hydrogenation, coating with a single layer of LiF and RbF and phosphorus de-pinning using PH ₃ chemical vapor deposition, or active Can be The surface of the GaN photocathode may be activated with Cs and oxygen. For the translucent mode embodiment, the film thickness above and behind the window is chosen to optimize quantum efficiency, where the possibility of electron transport to the surface in a wavelength dependent manner. While is decreasing, the absorption of incident photons increases with film thickness. In a typical translucent embodiment, the photocathode thickness may be in the range of at least one of about 0.1 nm to 100 um, 1 nm to 10 um, 10 nm to 5 um, and 100 nm to 1 um. In general, the electrode, cathode, or anode thickness, such as electrode thickness, may be in the range of at least one of about 0.1 nm to 100 um, 1 nm to 10 um, 10 nm to 5 um, and 100 nm to 1 um.

  In certain embodiments, the photocathode includes multiple layers to convert a wider range of photon wavelengths. A multi-layer photocathode may include a thin layer that is transparent for photons due to successive layers along the propagation path. In an exemplary embodiment, the top layer may be selective to the least sharp light, and successive layers are prepared to be selective based on the rate of attenuation or transmission depth in a laminated structure . For a typical three-layer photocathode, the top layer may be selective for the least penetrating wavelength and may have the corresponding highest work function, the middle layer has a medium penetrating wavelength May be selective for, may have a corresponding intermediate work function, and the bottom or farthest layer along the bright propagation path may be selective for the most penetrating wavelengths May have the lowest corresponding work function. Other combinations of penetration depth, relative layer position and work function are within the scope of this disclosure.

  The anode includes a material that can collect electrons. The anode work function may be as low as possible to increase the cell voltage according to equation (218). The anode work function may be less than at least one of approximately 2V, 1.5V, 1V, 0.9V, 0.8V, 0.7V, 0.6V, 0.5V, 0.4V, and 0.3V. unknown. The anode may include at least one of alkali metals such as cesium, calcium aluminate electride (C12A7: e), with a work function of approximately 0.76 eV, and phosphorus is approximately 0 A diamond nanofilm having a work function of .9 eV and scandium doped tungsten was doped.

  At least one electrode of the cathode and anode may be at least partially constructed or non-planar on its surface, where some incident light is transmitted to another photocathode, some photo It may be reflected to at least one of the cathode and the optical element. Here, the optical element is, for example, a mirror that is reflective in light and reflects it onto another part of the photocathode or at least one other photocathode. Thus, the photocathode was subjected to multiple splashes (reflections) of incident light to increase the absorption cross section of the photocathode in order to produce photoelectrons. In certain embodiments, the photocathode includes a structured substrate to increase the efficiency with which the photocathode absorption path of the photocathode is increased while the electron escape path remains the same or less for a planar substrate. A typical structured surface has a zigzag with an angle of 45 °. In another embodiment, the zigzag angle can go back and forth between 45 ° and 90 °. Other angles are within the scope of this disclosure.

  In some embodiments, while reducing the distance of photoelectrons that must be directed to the surface, increased photon absorption within the material can change the angle of incidence and cause multiple total reflections within the photocathode. Can be achieved by at least one of the following. When each photon produces at most one photoelectron, using the latter method will achieve a greater 50% conversion efficiency for some materials with respect to the photoelectron reflection from the bottom of the photocathode. make it easier. For example, some GaN photocathodes grow on a thin buffer layer of AlN. And it has a band gap and functions as a reflective layer. The efficiency of light conversion as a function of incoming radiation angle increases with normal angle relative incidence until it reaches the point of total reflection. In addition, if a photocathode operated in a translucent mode can be grown on a transparent substrate so that it has a zigzag photoactive layer, the conduction electrons will be on a flat substrate. Produced closer to the escape surface than would be, and therefore should have a higher potential to escape to the vacuum. Alternatively, the photocathode is grown on a planar surface to avoid substantial degradation from lattice mismatch. For example, GaN typically grows on the matching crystal lattice of a sapphire or silicon carbide substrate in the C-plane at the surface. In another embodiment, similar reflective systems and methods may be applied to the anode. In a translucent mode cell, the anode may include a double reflection type, where the metal base is mirror-like, but without causing light emission to bounce back to the photocathode for the second illumination, Causes light to pass through the photocathode.

The window for the passage of light into the cell may be transparent to light such as short wavelength light such as ultraviolet light. Typical ultraviolet light has an energy greater than approximately 1.8 eV, corresponding to a wavelength of approximately less than 690 nm. The windows are sapphire, LiF, MgF ₂ and other alkaline earth halides such as fluorides such as CaF ₂ , BaF ₂ , CdF ₂ , quartz, fused silica, UV glass, borosilicate, and Infrasil. May include at least one of (ThorLabs).

  In certain embodiments, a photoelectric (PE) converter may be installed after the baffle of the disclosed recirculation system. In some embodiments, the baffle is replaced by a PE converter. The window of the PE converter prevents the upward trajectory of the ignition product flow and provides a baffle function as a means to provide transparency to the light-to-electric converter, which is the PE converter for this embodiment. May work.

  In one embodiment, the expanded plasma consists of positively charged particles and electrons. In certain embodiments, electrons have a higher mobility than cations. Space charge effects may develop. In certain embodiments, the space charge is eliminated by grounding at least one conductive component of the cell, such as a cell wall. In another embodiment, essentially all of the current from the source of electrical power 2 (FIG. 2C1) to the roller electrode causes ignition due to a much lower resistance of the fuel, such as that of a fuel shot or pellet. Both electrodes are electrically connected to a cell flowing through the fuel. The corresponding space charge and its elimination, voltage may increase the hydrino reaction rate. In certain embodiments, the cell moves under vacuum. The vacuum conditions may facilitate the elimination of at least one of space charge and confinement that may reduce the hydrino reaction rate. Vacuum conditions may also prevent the attenuation of UV light that may be desired for electricity to PE conversion.

  When the cell is operated under evacuated conditions such as vacuum, the SF-CIHT cell generator is vacuum pumped to maintain evacuation at the desired pressure controlled by the pressure gauge and controller. May include. A product gas such as oxygen may be removed by at least one of the pumping, as it is regenerated by a getter such as an oxygen getter that may be at least one continuously and periodically. The latter may be achieved by removing the getter and regenerating it by applying hydrogen to reduce the getter to form a product such as water.

The cell may be operated under evacuated conditions. The cell may include a vacuum chamber such as a cylindrical chamber or a conical cylindrical chamber that may have a dome-shaped end cap. In one embodiment, the recovery of the expanded ignition plasma upwards slows, stops, and finally accelerates the ignition product to be collected down with a pelletizer that is reformed into fuel. Achieved by gravity acting against the upward speed. Collection may be by means of this disclosure. The cell height can be calculated as follows by making the initial kinetic energy equal to the gravitational potential energy.
1/2 mv ² = mgh (220)
Where m is the particle mass, v is the initial particle velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration (9.8 m / s ² ), and h is the height of the maximum particle trajectory due to gravity deceleration. First, for particles that initially travel at 5 m / s, the cell may be higher than 1.2 m, but the maximum height is 1.2 m. In certain embodiments, the upward speed may be slowed by the baffles of the present disclosure to reduce cell height requirements.

  In another embodiment, fuel recirculation is achieved using Lorentz force. It then utilizes the principle of a railgun such as a plasma armature type that may further include an increased railgun type. The Lorentz force causes the ignition plasma to be guided and flow into a collection area such as a plate or collection box that may enter the pelletizer. The current and magnetic field may be horizontal or xy-plane so that the Lorentz force according to equation (221) is directed down along the negative z-axis to a collection system component such as a plate or trash can. In another embodiment, the current is in the xy-plane and B-field guided along the z axis so that the Lorentz force according to equation (221) is guided across the xy-plane to the acquisition system component. might exist. The ignition plasma may conduct current from a source of electrical power 2 (FIG. 2C1) to the roller electrode or from an external power source (power source) to function as a current in equation (221). Using at least some of the ignition current, at least one of the circuits corresponding to the electrodes and busbars produces the desired Lorentz force, for example, to move the plasma in the desired manner from the zone where the plasma is formed during ignition. Thus, it may be designed to provide at least one of a plasma current and a magnetic field during ignition. An ignition current that moves at least one of plasma current and magnetic flux to provide Lorentz force may be delayed by a delay circuit element, such as a delay line, to provide current and magnetic flux at a time later than the ignition event. unknown. The delay may allow the plasma to emit light before it is removed by the Lorentz force. The delay may be controlled by a circuit or control means known in the art. A current such as a high DC current may also be applied by the power source with parallel plate electrodes in the desired direction, with the current direction being along the axis between the plates. The current source power may come from a power converter such as PE or a PV converter where the power may be stored in a capacitor bank. The magnetic field of equation (221) may be provided by at least one of the currents flowing through the roller during ignition and an extended magnetic field (an extended railgun design referred to herein as an extended plasma railgun recovery system). Absent. The source of the increased magnetic field may include at least one of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet. For example, the increased plasma railgun magnetic field is generated by Helmholtz coils, such as a set of separate, axially aligned coils, with a field in the desired direction along the axis between the coils. May apply. The strength of the magnetic field may be controlled by current controllers to control the strength of the Lorentz force and, consequently, the recovery rate of the ignition product. The plurality of electromagnets may have different controlled magnetic fields to direct the plasma and ignition products to the desired location for collection. In certain embodiments, at least one of extended electricity and magnetic field may be inductively produced by at least one induction coil and an alternating voltage or current driver. In another embodiment, the magnetic field may be provided with a set of separated, axially aligned permanent magnets having a magnetic field in the desired direction along the axis between the polar faces. Absent. Permanent magnets may include AlNiCo, rare earth elements or other high field magnets known in the art. The magnetic flux may be any desired, such as within at least one range of about 0.001T to 10T, 0.01T to 1T, and 0.1T to 0.5T. The electromagnet may be powered by a power supply, where the electromagnetic power may be driven from a power converter such as a PE or PV converter, where the power may be stored in a capacitor bank. Absent. The magnetic field from at least one of the source of electrical power 2 (FIG. 2C1) to the roller electrode and the source of the extended magnetic field is configured to cause a desired flow of ignition product plasma in the collection system by Lorentz force. . The collection system may include that of the present disclosure, such as at least one of a collection plate and a bin that may be supplied to the pelletizer. The bin may be the first tank of the pelletizer. In another embodiment, an extended plasma railgun (electromagnetic pump) pumps the plasma to a desired location in the cell and causes the plasma to cause the light of the plasma radiation to be directed to the photovoltaic converter. May be used for at least one of focusing. An extended plasma railgun (electromagnetic pump) may achieve the effect of collimating the plasma light onto the power converter by at least one of focusing or focusing the plasma spatially and temporally.

  If the cell pressure is low, such as a vacuum, recirculation of the ignition product may be achieved using other means of the present disclosure such as electrostatic precipitating (ESP). The ESP collection electrode may not be visible from the wavy path of light generated by the hydrino reaction. The ESP may be operated in the ignition plasma region. Plasma operation may be supported by a low cell gas pressure such as a vacuum. The ESP may manipulate the plasma with ignition in a region that does not substantially contact at least one type of ESP electrode, such as a collection electrode, which is a cathode or an anode. The ESP collection electrode may be surrounded by a low pressure region with high resistance and ignition plasma by at least one of the vacuum in the electrical path from the counter to the collection electrode. The at least one set of ESP electrodes may include a barrier electrode. The barrier electrode may limit the current and may maintain a high magnetic field to collect ignition products electrostatically. One electrode type may be covered with a very resistive layer that is allowed in DC operation called resistive barrier discharge. The electrode barrier may include a semiconductor such as a layer of gallium arsenide to replace the dielectric barrier layer to allow the use of high voltage DC. The voltage may be in the range of 580V to 740V, for example. The high voltage may be pulsed. The ignition product may be transported from the collection electrode to the pelletizer. The transport may be at least one of gravity assisted transport and other methods of the present disclosure that are achieved, such as a compressed air method.

  The cell may be operated under emptied conditions. The cell may include a vacuum chamber such as a cylindrical chamber or a conical cylindrical chamber that may have a dome-shaped end cap. A conical cylindrical chamber may be beneficial to optimize light propagation from a cone emanating from an electrode with a minimum cell volume. In another embodiment, the cell is such that the ignition plasma light exits at least one of the PV or PE converter windows 20 and does not substantially contact the wall before being directly incident on the PV or PE converter. Has a sufficient diameter. Ignition products may collect on the cell walls and may be removed mechanically, for example by vibration. The ignition product may be collected in a vessel such as the first chamber of the pelletizer by gravity or by other means disclosed such as pneumatic means. The cell may be operated at a low pressure such as a vacuum.

  In one embodiment, the ignition product is: (i) gravity, where the cell may be operated under reduced pressure, such as a vacuum, in the range of 0-100 Torr, (ii) as an extended plasma railgun recovery system It may be removed by at least one of an extended railgun with ignition plasma as an armature referred to herein, and (iii) an electrostatic precipitator. In certain embodiments, the larger particles may be charged by means such as corona discharge, and by an electric field such as an electrostatic field that may be applied to the rebounding grid by the power supply, the opto-electric converter. May be bounced off. In certain embodiments, the extended plasma railgun recovery system removes or essentially recovers all of the particulates so that the cell is transparent to the light produced by ignition. Gravity may remove the rest or recover. In certain embodiments, the height of the cell may be such that the particles have not removed the recovery system, have not been recovered by the extended plasma railgun, or have not stopped in an upward trajectory by gravity; It is sufficient to be cooled to a temperature that makes it non-sticky to either a PV or PE converter. The SF-CIHT generator may include means for removing ignition products from the surface of the converter or window, such as an ion-sputtering beam that may be scanned or swept over the surface. Alternatively, the converter may include a mechanical scraper such as a razor blade that is periodically moved toward the surface, or the cleaning will remove ignition products from the surface of the window. The action may be a sweep for window width blades or a raster motion for smaller blades. The baffles of the present disclosure may further include a mechanical scraper such as a knife or ion beam cleaner that also removes ignition products from the baffle.

  In some embodiments, the injector is at least one of electrostatic, electric, electric force, magnetic, magnetic dynamic, and electromagnetic. The path trajectory is, for example, the closest contact center point of the facing roller electrodes and is in the inter-electrode region. Targeted transport may include fuel shots or pellet injection. Injection may result in the completion of electrical contact between rollers that may result in high current flow due to the shot or pellet being ignited. In certain embodiments, the injector includes an electrostatic injector, such as one of the present disclosure. The shot or pellet may be electrostatically charged, the roller electrode may be reversely charged, and the shot or pellet may be propelled by an injected electric field to the interelectrode region that is ignited unknown. In certain embodiments, the high conductivity of the fuel shot or pellet allows for the induction of a surface current for at least one time-dependent application of a magnetic field and an electric field, where the induced current is induced by the shot or pellet. Causes a magnetic field to be produced. Correspondingly magnetized shots or pellets may be accelerated along a path such as that provided by directing a magnetic field such as those provided by rails through which current flows. The gradient of the magnetic field may be made to accelerate the shot or pellet along the path over time.

  In another embodiment, the shot or pellet injector includes a railgun. In one embodiment, the railgun includes an armature that includes a high current source, at least one pair of rails containing high conductors, and a shot or pellet that functions as a projectile. The railgun injector may include a bottom plate that may be reusable. Alternatively, the metal that may be at least one of the ignition products and it carries a high current, causing the shot or pellet to be accelerated along the railgun injector rail, vaporized, shot or Railguns may use plasma armatures that may contain fuel that becomes plasma after the pellets. The current source may provide a pulse of current in a range of at least one of about 1A to 100MA, 10A to 10MA, 100A to 1MA, 1000A to 100KA, and 1kA to 10kA. The current source may include a source of electrical power 2 (FIG. 2C1) on a roller electrode that causes ignition, such as one that includes a bank of capacitors charged by an opto-electric converter such as a PV or PE converter. unknown. The rail may include a positive rail and a negative rail that include high conductors such as at least one of copper and silver. The railgun injector is designed to provide sufficient fuel to maintain the desired fuel ignition rate, where conductive arriving shots or pellets may complete the power distribution circuit between the roller electrodes to cause shot or pellet ignition. May be moved at a desired frequency, such as 1000 Hz. In certain embodiments, the jet activation frequency may be controlled because it is in at least one range of about 0.01 Hz to 1 MHz, 1 Hz to 10 kHz, and 10 Hz to 1 kHz. The jet activation frequency may be controlled to control the power output of the SF-CIHT cell. Control of spray activation may include a switch. The switch is a machine such as one of the disclosed switches including at least one of an IGBT, SCR and MOSFET transistor, or a roller electrode such as an electronic switch, for a source of electrical power 2 (FIG. 2C1) May include. In another embodiment, the rail continuously energizes as an open circuit that is closed to complete the circuit with fuel shots or pellets and allow high current in the flow. In one embodiment, as each shot or pellet contacts the rail to complete the circuit, it is accelerated and injected into the electrode and ignited. The pellet may have accelerated along the rail at any time, or the power source may be able to maintain the desired current in each shot or pellet of the multiple shots. The current may be controlled by at least one of the circuit element and the controller. In another embodiment, the railgun current is given for the given example so that the reduction in the rate of single shot or pellet injection according to equation (221) is compensated by simultaneous acceleration and continuous injection of n shots or pellets. Is divided by an integer n number of shots or pellets accelerating on the orbit. This compensation mechanism may keep the ratio depending on the railgun current for a given injection. In another embodiment, the voltage across the rail is maintained for a constant independent of the number of shots or pellets so that the current per shot or pellet is approximately the same due to the similar resistance of the shot or pellet. A roughly constant voltage may be supplied by a power source that includes a large capacitance, such as one that includes a bank of capacitors. In some embodiments, the rail may provide a continuous guide path so that the shot may propagate along different sections and the current may be variable and controlled, but for current May contain segmented sections. The current in each section will vary the shot speed and energy in any given section to control the injection or timing of the injection, where multiple shots may contain variable current sections on track. To control, it may be controlled by a computer, a sensor and multiple current sources.

  The constant voltage may be kept below the voltage causing the arc and the resulting shot to rail and rail welding or rail arc damage. In some embodiments, the voltage is at least one of less than about 100V, less than about 50V, less than about 20V, less than about 10V, less than about 5V, less than about 1V, less than about 0.5V, and less than about 0.25V. might exist. In certain embodiments, the rails may be heat sinked to avoid shot-to-rail welding. The heat sink may be electrically isolated from the circuit containing the rail and shot. An insulator that may also be a good heat conductor may provide electrical isolation. A typical heat sink is an electrical insulator and high thermal conductivity such as an Al, Cu, or Ag block that may be electrically insulated with a diamond top layer that is also a good thermal conductor. Contains a high mass of material. In another embodiment, the rail may include a conductor such as graphite that is resistant to welding. In another embodiment, the rail may include a refractory metal conductor such as tungsten or molybdenum that is resistant to welding. The rail may be cooled by means such as air or water cooling that prevents welding. In certain embodiments, the rail is submerged at least partially in water that cools the rail and shot and prevents welding. Water may prevent electrical arcing between the shot and the rail. The current may be less than causing a shot-to-rail weld. In some embodiments, the rails may be long cylinders that rotate about their longitudinal axis (z-axis in cylindrical coordinates) to make better contact with shots. Relative rail rotation may be a counter-circulation towards a pair of centers that pushes the shot more tightly against the rail. A tighter connection may weaken the shot-to-rail weld.

  The Lorentz force may be high with a low magnetic field contribution from the rail current by increasing the magnetic field with a magnetic field applied by a magnet such as an electromagnet or a permanent magnet. In an exemplary extended railgun embodiment, the applied magnetic field may be provided by a pair of Helmholtz coils, one above and one below the plane of the rail (xy-plane), but each xy Provide a magnetic field parallel to the plane and perpendicular to the xy-plane. A similar magnetic field directed to the z-axis may be generated by two permanent magnets such as a disk replacing the Helmholtz coil in the xy-plane. In another embodiment, the permanent magnet may include a rectangular bar that runs parallel to and below the rail oriented along the z-axis. Permanent magnets may include AlNiCo, rare earth elements or other high field magnets known in the art. The magnetic flux may be any desired within a range of at least one of about 0.001T to 10T, 0.01T to 1T, and 0.1T to 0.5T. In some embodiments, multiple shots may be present on the track to separate the power applied to impede the corresponding shot with the arc of the shot on the rail or arc damage to the rail. Current surges that cause welding or rail damage may be improved by damping circuit elements such as at least one of a shunt diode, a delay line, and a circuit inductor. A railgun injector may have redundancy so that if one fails, another will play its role until the failed railgun is repaired. In cases where the failure is due to pellet welding on the rail, it may be removed electrically, such as by evaporation at high current, or mechanically by grinding or polishing.

  The railgun injector may include a low friction, low pressure spring-loaded top guide to facilitate electrical contact between the shot and the rail. In certain embodiments, shot electrical contact to the rail is assisted by vibration applied to the injector. Vibration may be applied to cause a low resistance electrical contact between the rail and the shot. Contact may also be facilitated by an agitator such as the mechanical and water jet agitator shown in FIGS. 2I4 and 2I5. In one embodiment, the application of the extended railgun injector is such that the shot is forced down according to the Lorentz force given by equation (221) that creates and maintains good electrical contact between the shot and the rail on the track. The applied magnetic field may include components parallel to the pellet motion and the transverse direction to the current through the shot. The motion parallel magnetic field may be provided by at least one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet. In the latter case, while avoiding excessive friction, the magnetic field may change to control the force down on the shot to optimize contact. Control of the magnetic field may be provided by a computer, a sensor, and a variable current power supply. In certain embodiments, the rail may include an oxidation resistant material, such as a silver rail, to limit rail oxidation and increase the corresponding resistance.

  The railgun injector may include multiple railgun injectors that may have synchronized injection activation that may be controlled by a controller such as a microprocessor or computer. Multiple injectors may increase the injection speed. Multiple railgun injectors may include multiple injectors to increase injection speed. The rail gun rail may be straight or bent to achieve the desired injection path from the shot or pellet feed to the interelectrode region where ignition occurs. The rotational speed of the roller electrode may be increased to increase the power output of the SF-CIHT cell, corresponding to more fuel. The roller diameter may be trimmed to achieve increased rotational speed. For example, the maximum rotational speed for steel is approximately 1100 m / s [J. W. Beams, “Super High Speed Rotation”, pp. 135-147]. Considering the typical shot or pellet diameter and the case where the series or shot separation space is 3 mm, then the maximum fuel flow rate supplied by the rail gun or multiple rail guns is 367,000. With a typical energy of 500 J per shot or pellet, the corresponding total power converted to electricity may be 180 MW. Additional power can be achieved by adding multiple roller electrode pairs with an injector, where the electrodes may be on the same or different shafts.

In another embodiment, the injector includes a Gaussian or coilgun whose pellets or shots contain projectiles. The pellet or shot may include a ferromagnetic material such as at least one of Ni, Co, or Fe. Typical shot comprises Ag having trapped H ₂ and between H _{2 O} ferromagnetic. The coil gun is along a barrel containing a guide for pellets or shots, at least one current coil, a power supply that provides a magnetic field and high current in the at least one coil, and towards the center of the coil A switch that causes the current to flow to pull the shot or pellet, where the current is switched before the shot or pellet experiences the opposite force by passing through the coil center. The switch that is turned off may be one of the present disclosure, such as one that includes an IGBT. The power supply may include at least one capacitor. In certain embodiments, current is passed through the shot or pellet to create a shot or pellet magnetic field by application of external power or by an external time dependent field such as a time dependent magnetic field. Shot or pellet current flow may be achieved by magnetic induction. Magnetic induction may be caused by various magnetic fields at the current coil time. In certain embodiments, the current flow of current to the at least one current coil is controlled to propel the shot or pellet along the barrel.

In order to convert high intensity light into electricity, the generator may include a light distribution system 26a such as that shown in FIG. 2C. The light to the electrical control panel 15 may include at least one of PE, PV, and thermionic cells. The mirror 20 may be transparent to light such as short wavelength light. The window is made of at least one of sapphire, LiF, MgF ₂ , and CaF ₂ , fluorides such as BaF ₂ , other alkaline earth halides such as CdF ₂ , quartz, fused quartz, UV glass, borosilicate May include at least one of salt and Infrasil (ThorLabs). The semi-transparent mirror 23 may be transparent to short-wavelength light. The material may be the same as that of window 20 with a partial cover of reflective material such as a mirror such as a UV mirror. The semi-transparent mirror 23 comprises a checkered pattern of reflective material such as a UV mirror such as at least one of a thin fluoride film such as MgF ₂ coated Al and MgF ₂ or LiF film or a SiC film on aluminum. May include.

In some embodiments, speed and shot delivery or pellet position on the roller electrode surface can be controlled to repair any ignition damage controllably to the surface. Control can be achieved, for example, by controlling the timing of the shot or pellet that accelerates the current pulse as well as the current, position, and operability of the railgun injector. Controlled position delivery through control of roller speed and ignition current can facilitate shot or pellet bonding to the electrode. Bonding may be at a desired location by at least one of shot or pellet sintering, fusing and welding on the electrode surface. In certain embodiments, a certain percentage of shots or pellets may be made free of less to any of the hydrino reactants such as at least one of hydrogen and HOH. In certain embodiments, this means that in the pelletizer can be achieved by making at least one without additional shot of steam and H _2. Reduction or elimination of H ₂ O and H ₂ may be achieved by reducing the melt temperature by reducing the melt temperature during shot formation or by eliminating the feed. Alternatively, the pellets may be made with no or at least one reduced amount of H ₂ and H ₂ O. Corresponding “useless” shots or pellets may be applied separately or mixed with the usual ones in the desired percentage. By way of example, one shot or pellet in the integer n is an unexploded shell that is bonded to the electrode when injected. The integer n can be controlled to be larger or smaller if repaired, depending on the extent of damage. In one embodiment, the ignition powder is recovered and refrains from the shot molding process, where a small powder extended plasma railgun supports the plasma to cause it to be propelled or to the electrode by a plasma railgun injector. It is injected. An ignition plasma supported by at least one of the ignition currents and the ignition of another shot may cause the powder to bind to the electrode. For example, excess material may be machined away by use of a precision grinder or lathe. Alternatively, excess material may be removed by electrical discharge machining (EDM) where the EDM system may include electrodes and a power supply.

In the railgun injector embodiment, the current flows from the positive terminal of the power supply, over the positive rail, beyond the armature containing the fuel shot or pellet, and under the negative rail to the power supply. Run. The current flowing in the rail creates an azimuth and circular magnetic field for each rail axis. The magnetic field line runs in a counterclockwise circle around the positive rail and in a clockwise circle around the negative rail with a net magnetic field between the vertically guided rails. In other embodiments, such as an extended railgun, the current is directed through an additional pair of parallel conductors. It is then prepared to increase the magnetic field applied to the shot or pellet. Moreover, an external magnetic field may be applied where a pellet with current flows through it or acts on the shot. A shot or pellet projectile experiences a Lorentz force that is directed vertically, into the magnetic field, and in the direction of the current overflowing the armature containing the shot or pellet. A Lorentz force F (vector F) parallel to the rail is given as follows.
F (vector F) = Li × B (vector B) (221)
Where i is the current, L is the path length of the current through the shot or pellet between the rails, and B is the magnetic flux. The force may be boosted by increasing the diameter of the fuel shot or the amount of pellets or current. Shot or pellet kinetic energy may be increased by increasing the length of the rail. The projectile is affected by the Lorentz force and jumps out to the inter-electrode region, thus accelerating to the end of the rail. The exit may be through an aperture. With respect to the outlet, the circuit breaks, but the current flow ends here. For a typical current of 1 kA, a shot diameter of 3 mm, and a B flux of 0.01 T, the force is 0.03 N. The corresponding kinetic energy for a 5 cm long rail is 0.0015 J. From the kinetic energy, the final speed of the 80 mg shot is 6 m / s.

  Shots or pellets may be delivered to the injector. The supply may be from a hopper. The feeder may include one of the present disclosures such as a mechanical feeder. The feeder may include a vibrator. The feeder may include at least one of a piezoelectric vibrator and an actuator. The feeder may include at least one of a helical cutting edge and a ridge. The latter may have a slot along the bottom feeding along the railgun. Shots or pellets may be supplied from multiple locations along the railgun injector. Supply may be achieved in at least one of mechanical and compressed air action.

  In one embodiment, shots recovered from a quench water bath are sent to an injector such as a railgun injector before entering an evacuated area of an injector system such as a supply such as an oven such as a vacuum oven. Dry with a dryer. In certain embodiments, at least one of a pelletizer, water reservoir, or bath that cools and molds the shot and transport device removes the shot from the water reservoir is connected via a cell under vacuum conditions. The transporter may discard excess water from the shot. A typical transport device includes a conveyor that is permeable to water. When the surface adsorbed water evaporates hot enough, the shot may be removed. Water has evaporated from at least one of the shots, as the water reservoir may be removed from the cell air to maintain the desired low pressure by a pump (eg, vacuum pump or cryopump). The cryopump may include a water condenser. A condenser may be used instead of a vacuum pump to at least one of partially evacuate the cell and keep the cell under reduced pressure. A water condenser may reduce pressure due to water vapor by condensing water. Water may be recycled to the reservoir or bath. The condenser water may be recirculated to the reservoir or bath by a return water line, such as a return water dripping line. The water condenser may be cooled with a cooler, such as an air-cooled radiator, a refrigerator cooler and / or a Peltier cooler. Other coolers known in the art may be used to cool the condenser to the desired temperature. In some embodiments, the water vapor pressure of the cell is determined by the temperature of the condenser, which may be in the range of about 0 ° C to 100 ° C. In an exemplary embodiment, a typical industrial water cooler operates at 17 ° C. corresponding to a water vapor pressure of approximately 13 Torr. In another embodiment, the cooler may cool the reservoir or bath directly so that water vapor removed from the water return line is condensed directly into the reservoir or bath. The dried shot may be transported to the injector by a second transport device such as a spiral cutting edge on the shot injector. Its contact by a rail with electrical current may induce a current across the rail to cause a Lorentz force driving force on the electrode, such as a roller electrode, and a highly conductive shot acts as an armature The shot injector may include a railgun injection system that may be.

A typical shot includes a silver sphere with a trapped gas such as at least one of H ₂ and H ₂ O. A shot may be made by dripping and quenching the corresponding molten material in a bath or reservoir, such as a water bath or reservoir. In one embodiment, the shot carrier spiral blade and the shot injector feed spiral blade are replaced. In one embodiment, the water jet creates a water-fluidized bed supply to the railgun injector, where the inlet to the railgun is in the water bath and travels from the outside of the bath to the injection site . The fluidized water bath may serve the purpose of preventing hot / cooled shot sticking and may serve the same purpose as the gas / shot fluidized bed of the disclosed air injector. In certain embodiments, the water bath or reservoir that cools the melt and forms the shot further includes an agitator to stir the shot. The agitator may include a water jet that may be driven by at least one water pump. The operation of the water jet may create a fluidized bed. The stirrer may further include a mechanical stirrer, such as an electromagnetic or piezoelectric vibrator and a stirrer known in the art, a stirrer, or a helical cutting edge. In one embodiment, the bus includes a railgun that is in a position to receive a shot and propels it to an electrode for ignition. The shot input section of the railgun may be located at the bottom of the bath and may include a kite or hopper to receive shots stirred in the water bath by an agitator. The railgun injector may penetrate the wall of the bus that is led in the ignition region of the electrode. The railgun may have a guide path that transports shots from the bottom of the bus to the ignition region of an electrode such as a roller electrode. The railgun may include any means of draining water that is moved by shots into the bus as shots that are propagating at least slightly in vertical travel above the water level of the bus. Water that does not flow into the bath, such as the water that is drained by the shot, may fall into the hopper at the bottom of the cell and may be pumped into the bath with a drainage pump. Water that is evaporated by hot shots may be condensed into the bath by a bath cooler. The shot may be hot to provide drying. The high temperature of the shot may be from residual heat from the molten state that did not fully cool to cause Lorentz force and from the resistance heating method of the railgun from the current flow to the shot . In some embodiments, the cell, the pelletizer including the chamber, the water bath, and the spray rail gun may be maintained continuously with respect to gas pressure and empty the cell atmosphere.

In some embodiments, the SF-CIHT cell may be operated according to at least one of orientation independence relative to the earth and independence from gravity. The shot water bath may be sealed, expandable, and maintain a pressure in the range of about 0.001 Torr to 100 atm. The pressure P may roughly match or exceed that of the height h bath hydraulic column given by equation (222), where density ρ is the density of water and g is gravity. The acceleration is 9.8 m / s ² .
P = ρgh (222)
Shot drippers may be very high and thermally insulated to prevent excessive cooling of the melt in the dripper by contact with bath water. Systems that transport fuel and ignition products may operate using an intrinsic or extended magnetic field and Lorentz force applied by current. The shot injection system may include the extended rail gun of the present disclosure. The ignition product recovery system may include the enhanced plasma railgun of the present disclosure. The pelletizer may transport at least one of the powder ignition products as the melt using the extended railgun containing the applied magnetic field and the applied current flow through and weaken at least one of the powders. unknown. In one embodiment, the current and magnetic field are transverse to the desired flow direction and are perpendicular to each other according to equation (221). The system may include appropriate current electrodes and magnets to achieve transport. The railgun transporter may be equipped with a sensor and controller to monitor Lorentz force (flow rate) and may apply current to achieve the desired force and flow rate. Means for transporting at least one of the powders and melting through the pelletizer may include pumps such as electromagnetic pumps such as those known in the literature. A stirrer like a water jet might stir a shot with a bus that is the input to the railgun. A mechanical stirrer may also put shots into the extended railgun injector. In some embodiments, a mechanical stirrer may function regardless of cell orientation relative to gravity, where the stirrer may be relatively large for the water bath. In an exemplary embodiment, a large helical cutting edge with an equal gap due to the top and bottom of the water reservoir may push the shot towards a railgun independent of cell orientation. The water pump may return any water lost from the shot water bath to the railgun injector by pumping it at a speed that matches any loss.

The system includes: (i) a cell such as a vacuum cell; (ii) an ignition system including a roller electrode and a bus bar; (iii) an injector such as a railgun injector; (iv) an extended plasma railgun recovery system; An ignition product recovery system that may include at least one of gravity flows; (v) a hopper connected to the bottom of the cell; (vi) a first tank that receives the ignition product from the hopper, an ignition product; A pelletizer comprising a heater for melting and a second tank applying at least one of hydrogen and steam to the melt; (vii) H ₂ receiving dripping melt from a dripper of the second tank forming a shot; A bath such as an O bath; (viii) a shot conveyor; and (ix) a dryer such as a vacuum oven that receives the shot. (X) means for transporting shots to an injector such as a chute having a controllable vacuum lock passage; and (xi) a conveyor such as a helical blade that transports shots to an injector such as a railgun injector. And (xii) a vacuum pump that empties the cell.

SF-CIHT cell power generator showing cell capable of maintaining vacuum, ignition system supplying railgun shot injection system by two transport devices, extended plasma railgun and gravity recovery system An example of a pelletizer and photovoltaic converter system is shown in FIG. 2H1. As shown in FIG. 2H1, the SF-CIHT cell power generator comprises: i) a cell 26 such as a vacuum cell that may include a conical cylinder with a vacuum pump 13a; and ii) an ignition system 8a with a power supply 2. Iii) a photovoltaic converter system 26a including a photovoltaic cell or panel 15 for receiving light from the ignited fuel and converting it to electricity, wherein the converter is for cooling A heat exchanger 87, where the cooled coolant exits into the outlet 31c and the hot coolant flows through the inlet 31b into the photovoltaic converter cooling system 31; and iv) dripping melt to form a shot Fuel formation and projection means 8b with a water reservoir for quenching the water, where the reservoir is cooled Having a system 31a, where as the cooled coolant exits the exhaust port 31e, the hot coolant flows through the inlet 31d into the water reservoir cooling system 31a. Details of the ignition system 8a and its power supply 2 are shown in FIG. 2H2. In one embodiment, the roller electrodes started on the shaft 7 suspended by the bearings 4a attached to the structural support 4 being started with respect to the bus bars 9 and 10, the slip ring 73a, the shaft 7 and the base support 61. In order to pass high current through 8, the ignition system 8 a includes a source of electrical power 2.
The shaft and attached electrode 8 are each rotated by a belt-tensioner 72a, a roller drive pulley 71a driven by a belt 72 which suspends the motor shaft and pulley 71 with bearings 73 and motors 12 and 13. Details of the ignition system 8a and the photovoltaic converter system 26a are shown in FIG. 2H3. In some embodiments, the fuel may have been injected by an extended railgun injector 8f. The power supply 2 may receive power from the photovoltaic converter 26a and may supply a high current to the roller electrode 8 to cause fuel ignition of the shaped plasma at the ignition location 8e. The trajectory over the ignition product may be interrupted by a light transparent baffle 8d that may be concave. The ignition product is caused by at least one of the gravity of the evacuated cell 26 and by the current flowing between the electrode 8 through the extended plasma railgun recovery system including the Helmholtz coil magnet 8c and the plasma. May be recovered. Projection means 8b, including details of ignition 8a, fuel formation, ignition product recovery system 8c and pelletizer to shape shot, 5a, and injection mode 8f is shown in FIG. 2H4. In one embodiment, shot fuel may have been injected into the roller electrode 8 by an extended railgun injector 8f that is loaded with pellets from the water reservoir 11 of the pelletizer 5a. Then, it is transmitted to the injector / spiral blade tip hopper 66b driven by the injector spiral motor and the drive shaft 67 and then to the injection spiral 66 by the shot transport spiral blade edge 66a. The roller electrodes 8 are shot sequentially injected through each to cause ignition of the fuel to produce a glowing light emitting plasma that is converted into electricity by the photovoltaic converter 26a (FIGS. 2H1 and 2H3). You may receive a high current from the power supply 2 that flows. The trajectory over the ignition product may be interrupted by a light transparent baffle 8d and extended by at least one of the gravity of the evacuated cell 26 and including a Helmholtz coil magnet 8c The ignition product may be recovered by the current flowing between the plasma railgun recovery system and the electrode 8 in the plasma. The ignition product may flow into the first tank 5b of the pelletizer 5a, which may include a crucible 5d that may be insulated with insulation 5e. Inductively coupled heater 5f may be heated beside the product, melt. Shots that do not ignite may flow to the first tank 5b of the pelletizer 5a in addition to the recovered ignition product. The melt may flow into a second tank 5c of hydrogen gas supplied by a pelletizer 5a and inlet lines 5g and 5h where the melt may be exposed to at least one of the vapors. The gas may be recirculated to entrain the gas into the melt that causes the shot dripper 5i to fall out and may be extinguished in the water reservoir 11 into a shaped shot. Hydrogen may be supplied from a tank that is replenished by electrolysis of water, and water may be supplied to a water tank where water is consumed and water is regularly replenished anyway . The reservoir may have a cooling system 31a through which hot coolant flows into the water reservoir cooling system 31a through the inlet 31d, and the cooled coolant exits through the exhaust port 31e. The temperature of the bath connected to the evacuated cell 26 may be controlled to control the vapor pressure of water vapor in the cell. The cell pressure may also be controlled using the vacuum pump 13a shown in FIG. 2H1.

  SF-CIHT cell power generator, pelletizer showing an ignition system that is supplying vacuum, railgun shot injection directly from the pelletizer, an extended plasma railgun and a cell capable of maintaining a gravity recovery system, and An example of a photovoltaic converter system is shown in two perspective views in FIG. 2I1. As shown from one of the perspective views in FIG. 2I2, the SF-CIHT cell power generator comprises: i) a cell 26 such as a vacuum cell that may include a conical cylinder with a vacuum pump 13a; and ii) power An ignition system 8a by supply 2, and iii) a photovoltaic converter system 26a that includes a photovoltaic cell or panel 15 to receive light from the ignited fuel and convert it to electricity, The converter comprises a heat exchanger 87 for cooling, where hot coolant flows into the photovoltaic converter cooling system 31 through the inlet 31b, and the cooled coolant exits through the outlet 31c, And iv) fuel formation having a water reservoir for quenching the melt dripped to form a shot; And the delivery system 8b, where the reservoir has a cooling system 31a, where hot coolant flows through the inlet 31d into the water reservoir cooling system 31a, and the cooled coolant exits through the exhaust port 31e. , May include. Details of the ignition system 8a and its power supply 2 are shown in FIG. 2H2. Details of the ignition system 8a and the photovoltaic converter system 26a are shown in FIG. 2I3. In certain embodiments, fuel may be injected by the extended railgun injector 8f. The power supply 2 may receive power from the photovoltaic converter 26a and may supply a high current to the roller electrode 8 to cause fuel ignition of the shaped plasma at the ignition location 8e. The trajectory over the ignition product may be interrupted by a light transparent baffle 8d that may be concave. The ignition product is caused by at least one of the gravity of the evacuated cell 26 and by the current flowing between the electrode 8 through the extended plasma railgun recovery system including the Helmholtz coil magnet 8c and the plasma. May be recovered. Projection means 8b, including details of ignition 8a, fuel formation, ignition product recovery system 8c and pelletizer to shape shot, 5a, and injection mode 8f is shown in FIG. 2H4. In one embodiment, shot fuel may have been injected into the roller electrode 8 by an extended railgun injector 8f that is loaded with pellets from the water reservoir 11 of the pelletizer 5a. The water jet agitator is then eaten by the agitator water jet line 15 (FIG. 2I5) or transmitted by the agitator 16a with a helical blade edge. The roller electrode 8 was sequentially injected through each to cause the ignition of the fuel to produce a glowing light emitting plasma that is converted to electricity by the photovoltaic converter 26a (FIGS. 2I1, 2I2, and 2I3). You may receive a high current from the power supply 2 that runs the shot. The trajectory over the ignition product may be interrupted by a light transparent baffle 8d and extended by at least one of the gravity of the evacuated cell 26 and including a Helmholtz coil magnet 8c The ignition product may be recovered by the current flowing between the plasma railgun recovery system and the electrode 8 in the plasma. The ignition product may flow into the first tank 5b of the pelletizer 5a, which may include a crucible 5d that may be insulated with insulation 5e. The product may be heated to the melt by an inductively coupled heater 5f. Shots that do not ignite may flow to the first tank 5b of the pelletizer 5a in addition to the recovered ignition product. The melt may flow into a second tank 5c of hydrogen gas supplied by 5a and inlet lines 5g and 5h where the pelletizer melt may be exposed to at least one of the vapors. Gas may be recirculated to draw gas into the melt, dripped from the shot dripper 5i and quenched in the water reservoir 11 to form a shot. The reservoir may have a cooling system 31a through which hot coolant flows into the water reservoir cooling system 31a through the inlet 31d, and the cooled coolant exits through the exhaust port 31e. The temperature of the bath associated with the evacuated cell 26 may be controlled to control the vapor pressure of water vapor in the cell. The cell pressure may also be controlled using the vacuum pump 13a shown in FIGS. 2I1, 2I2, and 2I3.

  Other embodiments are anticipated by the disclosure by aspects that match the mixing of this disclosed embodiment. For example, the hopper 305 of FIG. 2A may include shots in which the playback system 314 includes the disclosed pelletizer. The product remover 313 may include an extended plasma railgun recovery system or disclosed air recovery system. The PV control panel is intended to maximize the light capture that can be measured and measured by one of ordinary skill in the art with monotonous knowledge than that shown for the photovoltaic converter 306 of FIG. 2A. May be placed in the correct position. The same applies to the combination of the relative orientation of other systems and the system of the present disclosure.

In one embodiment, the opto-electric converter is a photovoltaic (PV) cell that is responsive to a substantial wavelength range of light emitted from such a cell corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. Including the photovoltaic converter of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the fuel may include a shot of silver with at least one of trapped hydrogen and trapped H ₂ O. Light emission may include primarily ultraviolet light, such as light, in a wavelength range of approximately 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may be responsive to at least some wavelength regions of approximately 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may include a focused UV cell. The incident light intensity may be in the range of approximately 2-100,000 Suns and 10-10,000 Suns. The PV cell may include a Group III nitride, such as at least one of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. In certain embodiments, the PV cell may include multiple junctions. Junctions may be layered in series. In another embodiment, the junctions are independent or electrically parallel. Independent bonds may be stacked mechanically or bonded wafers. A typical multi-junction PV cell includes at least two junctions comprising np-doped semiconductors such as those from the group of InGaN, GaN and AlGaN. The n-dopant of GaN may contain oxygen and the p-dopant may contain Mg. A typical triple junction cell may include InGaN // GaN // AlGaN, where // means an isolated transparent wafer bonding layer or mechanical stack. The PV may be operated at a high light intensity equivalent to that of the concentrated photovoltaic (CPV). The substrate is at least one of sapphire, Si, SiC, and GaN, where the latter 2 provides the best lattice matching for CPV applications. The layer may be deposited using metal organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) methods known in the art. The cell may be cooled by a cold plate such as those used in diode lasers such as CPV or commercial GaN diode lasers. Grid contact may be raised on the front and bottom of the cell as in the case of CPV cells. In certain embodiments, the PV converter may have a protective window that is substantially transparent to the light it is responsive to. The window may be at least 10% transparent to responsive light. The window may be transparent to UV light. The window may include a coating such as a UV clear paint over the PV cell. The coating may comprise a UV window material of the present disclosure, such as a sapphire or MgF ₂ window. Other suitable windows include LiF and CaF _2. The coating may be applied by vapor deposition such as vapor deposition. The SF-CIHT generator may include means for removing ignition products from the surface, such as a mechanical scraper or ion sputtering beam.

f. In other embodiments shown in FIGS. 2G1d1 and 2J, the generator includes a heat exchanger 87 in the cell wall, at least one coolant inlet line 84, and at least one coolant outlet line 85; Optionally, a thermal power converter is included that includes a second heat exchanger, a boiler, a turbine such as a steam turbine, and a generator 86. In some embodiments, the thermal power converter includes a non-water coolant known to those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, the cell walls include a heat exchanger that heats the coolant. A coolant such as water may boil in response to receiving heat from the cell. If the gas is steam, the gas formed by boiling may be flowed to a heat engine such as a turbine such as a steam turbine. In certain embodiments, the cell may include a boiler. At least one of the steam and hot water may function to recover the ignition products and rinse them into the slurry tank so that the fuel may be recycled. The system may include at least one additional heat exchanger as well as a heater, preheater, boiler, condenser, and other components of a thermal power converter as known by those skilled in the art. .

  In another embodiment, at least some of the cell walls include a heat exchanger in contact with a heat engine such as a Stirling engine. The wall and heat engine may be connected by a heat conduit such as a heat pipe that transfers heat from at least one of the cell and cell wall to the heat engine.

  In one embodiment, power is emitted from the cell and collected with a photon collector. In one embodiment, the cell walls are kept highly reflective to reflect photons from the cell to the photon collector so that it is highly reflective during operation. In one embodiment, the light distribution and photovoltaic converter is replaced with a photon collector. Photons may be in a wavelength range such as ultraviolet, visible, near infrared, and infrared. In one embodiment, the photon collector traps photons and converts the photons into heat. Heat may be used directly or converted to electricity. In certain embodiments, the photon collector includes a solar collector. The photon collector may include multiple surfaces with high emissivity that may cause a metal such as aluminum, which has been further blackened to high thermal conductivity, for example. A photon collector may include multiple surfaces or elements, including surfaces that are directly or indirectly incident on photons emitted from the cell, where reflection occurs during energy absorption multiple reflections. May occur from one surface to another of the collectors. The plurality of surfaces may be at angles that support repeated reflections to increase absorption of photon power incidence to the photon collector. The surface may be corrugated or ridged. The collector may include multiple louver pairs in which light reflects from one sheet to another. Sheets may be placed in the correct position to maximize absorption by repeated reflections between reflective surfaces or elements such as sheets. The photon collector may be operated at a much higher temperature than the cell.

  In certain embodiments, the photovoltaic converter may include a thermo photovoltaic converter. Referring to FIG. 2I2, cell 26 may include at least one wall or blackbody cavity (absorber / emitter) that absorbs light and heat from fuel ignition. The absorber / emitter may comprise a refractory material such as carbon and at least one of refractory metals such as W and Mo. The absorber / emitter is thermally insulated to reduce conductive heat loss by being attached to a thin platform or post that may include low thermal conductivity materials such as silicon nitride, alumina, or ceramics such as zirconia. May be insulated. The absorber / emitter may be heated to at least one range of black body temperatures ranging from about 500 ° C. to 6000 ° C., 1000 ° C. to 4000 ° C., and 1000 ° C. to 3000 ° C. In one embodiment, the heated absorber / emitter emits light to the photovoltaic converter 26a. The photovoltaic converter 26a may be outside the cell 26 that may be sealed. The PV cell 15 may include a responsive PV material for absorber / emitter emission. The PV material may include at least one of GaAs, Si, InGaAs, and Ge. PV cells may include multi-junction cells such as Si or GaAs / InGaAs or Ge, where / means layer. A heat exchanger, such as the photovoltaic heat exchanger 87, has a coolant capable of high heat output transfer. The coolant may include water or other liquids, such as solvents or liquid metals or salts known to those skilled in the art. In certain embodiments, at least one of the heat exchangers and the heat exchanger components may include a heat pipe. The heat pipe fluid may contain molten salt or metal. Typical metals are cesium, NaK, potassium, sodium, lithium, and silver.

  In certain embodiments, the light emission from the SF-CIHT cell is tuned. Modulation may be achieved by controlling the ignition process and shut off or at least one of diverting light. The modulation may be an AC frequency to cause AC electricity in the PV converter. The AC voltage may be advanced using at least one transformer or other voltage step-up output regulator known in the art. A higher voltage may reduce at least one current in the PV circuit and busbar to reduce at least one of electrical resistance loss and heat generation. In addition to electrical, power may be transferred by magnetism and by beaming such as microwave and laser beaming.

  Heat is at least one heat exchanger to a power conversion system such as one that includes a group of Stirling engines that may include a minimum of input heat pipes, boilers, steam generators, turbines and power generation equipment May be moved by. A Stirling engine system may include a black body heat collector, a heat pipe that transfers heat to the Stirling engine, and a Stirling engine, and a generator or other mechanical load is connected via the Stirling engine. Such systems are known for technologies such as those that have concentrated on solar thermal energy as a source of input. As known to those skilled in the art, in another embodiment, the working material of a heat engine such as a turbine may include one other than water such as an organic liquid or a liquefied gas such as carbon dioxide. . In another embodiment, the heat may be transferred to a heat engine such as a Stirling engine. Heat may be transferred by at least one of a heat exchanger and a heat pipe. In certain embodiments, the photon collector is operated at an elevated temperature, such as in the range of about 800 ° C to 3500 ° C. Blackbody radiation may be incident on a thermo-photovoltaic converter that produces electricity.

Another application of the current disclosure is a light source. The optical power is from the ignition of the solid fuel of the present disclosure. In certain embodiments, the SF-CIHT generator includes a metal halide lamp that may be at least partially moved by a hydrino reaction. The metal and metal halide may be those of conventional metal halide lamps and may further comprise at least one solid fuel. Active metal halide lamp materials include metals such as at least one of Ag or Cu, and alkaline earth halide hydrates such as at least one of BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O and MgBr ₂ 6H ₂ O. Hydrates, transition metal halide hydrates such as ZnCl ₂ hydrate, and Mg (OH) ₂ , Al (OH) ₃ , La (OH) ₃ , borax, hydrated B ₂ O ₃ or other boron oxide and solid fuel containing borinic acid. The light source includes at least one transparent or translucent wall of the cell 1 shown in FIG. 2I2. Transparent or translucent walls may be coated with a phosphor to convert energy containing light into the desired wavelength band. Ignition may occur at a sufficient frequency so that the light appears to be constant. In one embodiment, a plasma produced from solid fuel ignition produces high power at short wavelengths. Considerable optical power may be in the EUV and soft X-ray regions. Short wavelength light sources such as UV light sources are known in the art for powerful UV light sources such as one that has up to hundreds of kilowatts in megawatts of UV light, most of which are known for chemical reaction transfer, material processing and others May be used for any purpose. UV light may exit cells using UV windows such as those of the disclosure such as MgF ₂ window. A short wavelength light source such as an EUV light source may be used for photolithography. EUV light may exit the cell using an exit channel without a window. In one embodiment, the ignition plasma from the solid fuel is expanded to a vacuum such that it is optically thin, for example for short wavelength light in the EUV region. At least one of the solid fuel and the plasma may be seeded with at least one of the other materials, the composite and the at least one element that is excited by the plasma, and emits light in the desired wavelength range Therefore, it may be excited by short-wavelength light. In certain embodiments, other typical materials, compounds, and elements include those that emit in the 13.5 nm wavelength region within 20 nm, such as Sn or Xe.

  This wavelength range of radiation may be selected using a filter or a monochromator. The power is very high. In an exemplary embodiment, more than 100 J is emitted in 0.5 ms to correspond to more than 200,000 W from a fuel volume of less than 10 ul. He chose to be used for medical treatments such as skin treatment because of radiation disorders such as skin cancer and other dermatological abnormalities.

In another application, short-wavelength light output by the SF-CIHT cell may be used to destroy the DNA of pathogens such as those of bacteria and viruses. The wavelength of light may be chosen for at least one of the pathogen's disrupting DNA and may be sterilized. A typical wavelength band is UV-C. The wavelength range may be in the range of approximately 100 nm to 280 nm. The power may be as high as in the range of about 10W to 10MW. The desired wavelength range may be selective in at least one of using a H ₂ O based solid fuel that outputs radiation by adding a fuel additive that shifts the spectrum to the desired region. Absent. In another embodiment, the cell atmosphere may change to achieve the desired wavelength output. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell gas includes at least one of hydrogen and a noble gas such as Xe that outputs the desired wavelength emission of sterilization. In another embodiment, the wavelength may be selected with at least one optical filter.

J. et al. H ₂ O based solid fuel power source based on H catalysis by HOH catalyst
a. Catalytic Reactions in the Examples Classical physics rules predict that atomic hydrogen may be catalyzed by certain species, including itself, where m is an integer of m · 27.2 eV where m is an integer. Energy can be received at an integer multiple of the potential energy of hydrogen. The expected reaction involves a resonant non-radiative energy transfer from an otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to an energy-accepting catalyst. The product is H (1 / p), in the Rydberg state of a fraction of atomic hydrogen called a hydrino “atom”, n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,. p (p ≦ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for the excited state of hydrogen. Each hydrino state also includes electrons, protons and photons, but rather than reducing it in response to energy desorption rather than absorption, the field contribution from photons increases the binding energy. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, the mH atom functions as an m · 27.2 eV catalyst for another (m + 1) th H atom. For example, the H atom is magnetic or induced to form an intermediate that decays with emission of a continuum band with an energy of m ² · 13.6 eV ((91.2 / m ² ) nm) and a short-wavelength cutoff. One can act as another H catalyst by accepting 27.2 eV then through energy transfer through space, such as by rectified electric dipole-dipole coupling. In the H atom catalyst including the transition to the H [a _H / (p = m + 1)] state, the mH atom functions as a catalyst of m · 27.2 eV with respect to the other (m + 1) th H atom. . Here, the reaction between m + 1 hydrogen atoms is that m atoms are resonant and non-radiatively receive m · 27.2 eV from the (m + 1) th hydrogen atom, and mH functions as a catalyst. It seems.
m · 27.2eV + mH + H
→ mH _fast ⁺ + me ⁻ + H ^* [aH / m + 1] + m · 27.2 eV
(223)
H ^* [aH / m + 1]
→ H [aH / m + 1] + [(m + 1) ² −1 ² ] · 13.6 eV
-M · 27.2 eV (224)
mH _fast ⁺ + me ⁻ → mH + m · 27.2 eV (225)

The overall reaction is as follows.
H → H [aH / P = m + 1] + [(m + 1) ² −1 ² ] · 13.6 eV
(226)

In addition to atoms H, molecules that receive m · 27.2 eV from atoms H with the same energy decrease in magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule may function as a catalyst. The potential energy of H ₂ O is 81.6 eV; nascent H ₂ O molecules (hydrogen not bound to a solid, liquid, or gas state) may function as a catalyst. When going from 0 ° C. ice to 100 ° C. water, hydrinos are formed because the average number of hydrogen bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6 based on a 10% energy change in heat of vaporization. Thus, in order to act as a catalyst, H ₂ O must be chemically created as an isolated molecule with appropriate activation energy. The catalytic reaction (m = 3) related to the potential energy of H ₂ O in the nascent stage is as follows.
81.6 eV + H ₂ O + H [aH]
→ 2H _fast ⁺ + O ⁻ + e ⁻ + H ^* [a _H /4]+81.6 eV
(227)
H ^* [aH / 4]
→ H [aH / 4] +122.4 eV (228)
2H _fast ⁺ + O ⁻ + e ⁻ → H ₂ O + 81.6 eV (229)

The overall reaction is as follows.
H [a _H ]
→ H [a _H /4]+81.6 eV + 122.4 eV (230)

Electrochemical CIHT (Catalyst Induced Hydrotransition) cells are derived from H ₂ O vapor that may be extracted from air using charge and discharge cycles to convert H ₂ O to hydrino, oxygen and excess electricity, Generate electricity. During the charging phase, hydrogen and oxygen are generated by electrolysis of H ₂ O at the anode and cathode, respectively. Then the cell is discharged when the electrolytic OH ⁻ is oxidized at the anode, OH ⁻ reacts with H to form HOH, and hydrino is made from H catalysis by HOH catalyst. The electrochemical cell reaction initially consumes hydrogen, and H ₂ O is supplied to the cell to produce a large gain with electrical output. CIHT electrical energy was a continuous output over a long duration, but this was measured in different systems, configurations, and modes of operation and was typically several times the electrical input However, this has exceeded the input by a factor of about 2 with an anode area of about 10 mW / cm ² for higher power densities in recent years. While maintaining the gain by running the corresponding high current, the power density was further increased by a factor of 10 or more.

Thermal energy is generated from H to H (1/4) catalysis, where nascent H ₂ O functions as a catalyst and chemical reactions occur at the source of atomic hydrogen and catalyst. is there. The solid fuel that also makes the HOH catalyst and H showed the maximum theoretical energy multiple times. These results were independently verified by a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) run in the laboratory, and excess heat from the solid fuel reaction was measured using water flow calorimetry. The predicted molecular hydrino H ₂ (1/4) was identified as the product of a power generation cell, a CIHT cell and a thermal cell. The techniques include, for example, MAS ¹ H NMR, ToF-SIMS, ESI-ToFMS, electron beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy by surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry ( ToF-SIMS), electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy (ESI-ToFMS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron XPS spectroscopy, and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy. Furthermore, mH catalysts have been identified as active in cosmological astronomical sources such as the sun, stars, and interstellar media, where hydrino product features match those of cosmic dark matter. To do.

  The broadening of Balmer α-rays greater than 50 eV, which represents a population of very high kinetic energy hydrogen atoms in certain mixed hydrogen plasmas such as water vapor and continuum released hydrogen pinch plasmas, is an established phenomenon, but it is The mechanism was controversial in that the traditional view of being due to field acceleration is not supported by data and marginal testing. Rather, it is shown that the cause is due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Seen at BlackLight Power (BLP), only originating from a very low energy pulsed pinch gas discharge that initially contained some hydrogen, Harvard Center EUV radiation in the 10-30 nm region regenerating with for Astrophysics (CfA), according to the transition of H to energy hydrogen or hydrino state H (1/4), where the alternative source is removed and the match with the observations is lower It has been determined. HOH has been identified as the most promising reason for migration. The high multi-ampere current of the pinch plasma was a unique feature of this bright source of hydrino transition radiation.

Based on the catalytic mechanism, high currents promote rapid transition rates (higher kinetics) by providing a sink to prevent ionization of space charge enhanced HOH catalysts. A Solid Fuel-Catalyst-Induced-Hydrino-Transition (SF-CIHT) cell uses a solid fuel containing a conductive matrix with bound water, Produce extraordinary power. By confining the fuel between the opposing electrodes of the cell and applying an electric current of approximately 12,000 A through the fuel, the phenomenal light power released by the transfer of H ₂ O hydrogen to water and hydrino I ignite a bright sparkle. Specifically, when a high current such as 10,000-20,000 A is flowed through a solid fuel containing a HOH catalyst and H + M + H ₂ O (M = Ti, Cu, Al), HOH It has been stated that the kinetics of H catalysis to H (1/4) by the catalyst can be explosive. The resulting power density is approximately 1 × 10 ¹⁰ times over observed for pioneer CIHT cells or thermal solid fuels. The energy was due to the reaction of H ₂ O to H ₂ (1/4) and 1 / 2O ₂ . The transition of H to H (1/4) was confirmed by extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy. HOH catalyst radiates EUV radiation around 15-30 nm by igniting a solid fuel source containing a source of H and HOH catalyst by passing a low pressure, high current through the fuel to produce an explosive plasma. Was shown to give. The chemical reaction cannot release such high energy light, and the field initially corresponded to a voltage that was less than 15V due to the superatmospheric collision plasma. A high magnetic field was not present to form highly ionized ions that could emit in this region. This plasma source serves as evidence of the presence of H transfer as strong as the catalyst to hydrino H (1/4) by HOH.

A solid fuel in the SF-CIHT cell containing H ₂ O combined for the production of explosive power and surplus energy was tested. Specifically, solid fuel based on H ₂ O such as one containing Ti + H ₂ O was made to explode by passing a high current. Each brilliant light emitting plasma and its modern evolution were characterized by high speed (6500 frames / s video) and fast photodiodes. Respectively happening to support a fast response photodiode and the energy balance and time of the event were determined separately by the bomb calorimetry and by the current waveform by the voltage mechanical disruption time and the blast event. From these parameters and fuel volume, power and power density were determined. The predicted hydrino product H ₂ (1/4) was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

b. The calorimeter energy balance of the solid fuel of the SF-CIHT cell was measured for the H ₂ O based solid fuel shown in Table 10 and includes: M + H ₂ O or M + MO + H ₂ O (M = Ti, Cu, Al), Ag + MgCl ₂ .6H ₂ O, Ti + MgCl ₂ .6H ₂ O, Ti + ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O, Ag + NH ₄ NO ₃ + H ₂ O, NH ₄ NO ₃ + H ₂ O + Al, and NH ₄ NO ₃ . The hydrocarbon-based solid fuel included paraffin wax, Nujol oil, and synthetic oil 0W40. The metal foil is heated in an argon air glove box to dry the hydrated surface oxide coat, which acted as a calibration control to determine the calorimeter heat capacity. Typical fuel is Cu (45 mg, Alfa Aesar stock # 41205, copper powder, 625 mesh, APS 0.50-1.5 micron, 99% (metal based)) + CuO (45 mg, Alpha Acer) (Alfa Aesar) stock # 33307) + H ₂ O (30 mg): sealed in aluminum DSC pan (75 mg) (aluminum crucible 30 μl, D: 6.7 mm × 3 mm (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum Cover D: 6.7 mm, stamped, airtight (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409). The sample also contained a metal powder mixture not included in the DSC pan. The Par 1341 calorimeter setup used for energy balance determination included a native calorimeter jacket (21) and a calorimeter cover (1) (Par part number: A1100DD). A thermistor with a temperature resolution of ± 0.0001 ° C. (2) (part number 1168E2) as it reads the water temperature in synchronization with the bomb assembly 2.54 cm away from the bottom of the water bucket (19) Passed through the calorimeter cover and secured. Custom made, 0.051 cm thick stainless steel oval bucket weighing 417.8 g, 12.7 cm in diameter, 18.4 cm in large diameter, and 10.2 cm in height. It was. The water bucket, along with a custom calorimeter bomb assembly, is 1225 ±. 01 g of deionized water was retained. The agitation assembly (6) was an impeller (11) (par part number A30A3), including a stirrer pulley (par part number 37C2), an assembly including a stirrer (par part number A27A) and a stirrer shaft. It is started on the calorimeter cover and is driven by a motor assembly (by a stirrer drive belt (7) (par part number 37M2) driven by a motor (9) and by a motor pulley (8) (par part number 36M4). Per part number A50MEB). The motor assembly was externally attached to the calorimeter by an L-bracket motor connector (10) to prevent the heat output of the motor from affecting the calorimeter measurement. Two 1.6 cm outer diameter solid copper electrodes (3) pass through customized holes in the calorimeter cover, further stabilize the block, and then the main conductor of the ACME 75 kVA resistance welder Passed through Teflon (registered trademark) position connected via. A 0.32 cm thick stainless steel custom cylindrical bomb cell (14) with a 12.4 cm flange that was 0.64 cm thick and had a diameter of 7.62 cm and a height of 2.54 cm. . The electrode was Teflon® insulating a ferrule seal (15) that provided electrical isolation and a hermetic seal, and penetrated the flange lid through the electrode feedthrough connection (13). The power was sent to the solid fuel (18) through a copper fastener swivel (17) with a diameter of 1.3 cm and a thickness of 0.48 cm. The swivel was secured with a copper sample fixing bolt (16) of length 3.0 cm and diameter 0.95 cm, which was threaded through the base of the electrode. The solid fuel will be measured by a high precision flat beam torque wrench, which results in approximately 1112 N force on the sample, as measured by a piezoresistive element force sensor (measurement specialty, FC 2311-0000-0250-L). Was included between the fastener and swivel by tightening the sample patch bolt to a torque of approximately 1.81 Nm. Effective heat transfer was permitted by the electrodes and by heat fins (12) installed on the electrodes immediately above the electrode feed-throughs that ensured minimal heat loss from the closed system. The bucket stand (20) operated the Par 1341 calorimeter to raise the bomb cell to the top of the calorimeter to minimize the dimensions and the amount of material needed to improve measurement accuracy. .

  Each sample was ignited under argon with an applied peak voltage of 60 Hz below 10 V and a peak current of approximately 20,000 A. Input power was recorded by a custom interface receiving input from the positive probe connector (4) and negative probe connector (5). Calibration input energy and solid fuel ignition were given as products of voltage and current integrated over the time of input. The voltage was measured by a data acquisition system (DAS) that included a National Instruments USB-6210 data acquisition module and a PC with Labview VI. The current was also determined by DAS using a Rogowski coil (model CWT600LF with 700 mm cable) that was accurate to 0.3% as the signal source. V and I input that the data is available at 83 KS / s, and the voltage attenuator was used to bring the analog input voltage, but the USB-6210 +/- 10V It was up to the range.

  The input power data was processed to calculate the input energy during rapid power decay after ignition to disconnection. Taking the seat of the measured voltage waveform obtained from the voltage tap just above the water level on the 5/8 inch outer diameter Cu rod and the measured current waveform provided by the Rogowski coil, a power waveform was given. The time-integrated power waveform provided cumulative energy delivered to the system up to the point where an ignition or explosion event occurred. As the electrode tips were pushed separately by blasting, the secondary circuit of the spot welder transformer was temporarily broken. On a time scale of approximately 10 μs, the circuit quickly transitioned to high resistance. This effectively resulted in breaks due to the growth of reactive voltage short-term residents as a result of fast crushing magnetic flux of the transformer. The current collapsed rapidly, typically on the order of approximately 500 μs to 1 ms, and dropped to zero because the voltage transient produced a corresponding reflected wave reactive power component in the power waveform. To remove this reactive power component over the time of current decay, until the current reaches zero during pre-blast conditions, by attaching the voltage and current component to their typical amplitude and phase during this time The power waveform was smoothed during the immediate post-blast period. The accuracy of this method was confirmed by the results of energy balance in the control sample.

c. Low voltage, ignition and plasma duration determined test samples _{H 2} O-based solid fuel having a high current includes the following: _{(i) H} 2 O- based solid fuel 100mgCu ¹ + 30mgH ₂ O DSC seal pan And sealed in 100 mg Ti (Alpha Acer Stock # 10386, Titanium powder, 325 mesh, 99% (metal based) (<44 microns)) + 30 mg H ₂ O DSC pan, (ii) Hydrocarbon based solid sealed in DSC pan with oil or paraffin wax in the fuel, (iii) control _H 2 O-based reaction mixture _{185mgIn + 30mgCaCl 2 + 15mgH 2 O} , 185mgIn + 30mgZnCl 2 + 15mgH 2 O, 185mgBi + 30mgZnCl 2 +5 gH ₂ O, and _{185mgSn + 30mgZnCl 2 + 5mgH 2 O} , which are not catalytically enough to form a hydrino, and (iv) an electrically conductive matrix material of the control, not including _{H 2} O, gold wire loop 0.0254cm diameter And 2.38 mm diameter InSn wire loops, each oriented with respect to axial current, and preheated / predehydrated metal foil in vacuum activated by applying high current through each sample It was filled in the electrode of the modified Acme 75KVA welder. The AC current was typically in the range of 10,000-30,000A, and the peak voltage is typically less than 6V except for wire samples where there is a much lower current due to low voltage and relatively high resistance. was. The expanded plasma produced from solid fuel ignition was recorded with a Phantom v7.3 high-speed video camera at 6500 frames per second.

Solid fuel Cu + H ₂ O (all metal samples are powders. H ₂ O is deionized water.) The temporal evolution of what was sealed in the DSC pan was measured with a photodiode (Thorlabs, model SM05PD1A). The spectrum range is 350-1100 nm, the peak sensitivity wavelength is 980 nm, the active area is 13 mm ² , the rise / fall time is 10 ns, and the junction capacitance is 20 V and 24 pF. The signal was processed with an amplifier (Opto Diode model PA100) without gain and 10V bias and recorded in the 60 MHz range (Pico Technology, Picscope 5442B) with a scan interval of 25 ns. The measurement distance was 25 cm. The time resolution of the photodiode is within specifications by recording the response to a 1 ms pulse generated by a 1 ms, 10 μs, and 1 ms pulse generated by a function generator (Agilent 33220A 20 MHz Arbitrary Waveform Generator), confirmed. In each case, a square wave with a temporal width of the pulse was observed.

d. Solid fuel, which was also used for calorimetric determination of analytical sample energy balance for spectroscopic identification of child hydrinos, as a source of the theoretically predicted molecular hydrino product H ₂ (1/4) It worked. An indium witness plate or KOH-KCl mixture placed in a sealed vessel under a KOH-KCl mixture, which acted as an argon or molecular hydrino getter, where the hydrinos generated by ignition were trapped in a matrix of indium, was converted into a molecular hydrino Sample included. Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were performed on the reaction product. The starting material that was not exposed to the hydrino source served as a control.

Quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD)
The XRD is a panoramic X'Pert MPD diffractometer using Cu radiation at 45 KV / 40 mA over a range of 10 ° and 80 ° with a step size of 0.0131 ° and a count time of 250 seconds per step. Was carried out on the starting material and the reaction product. Once the pattern was obtained, the phase was confirmed using the ICDD database and quantified by Rietveld refinement.

Raman spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy was performed on a witness plate of indium metal foil and for a solid 1 gKCl + 1 gKOH sample, where each was 1.45 cm OD × 2.5 cm high and top Was held in an open Al ₂ O ₃ crucible. The indium foil was exposed to the product gas for 1 minute after each ignition of a series of solid fuel pellet ignitions. Fifty solid fuel pellets were each ignited sequentially in an argon atmosphere with 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O sealed in a DSC pan. Each ignition of the solid fuel pellets was an Acme model 3-42-75AR spot welder that delivered a short burst of electrical energy in the form of a low voltage 60 Hz at approximately 8V RMS and a high current of approximately 15,000-25,000A. Was executed using. Spectra were acquired using a Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman spectrometer with a 780 nm diode laser. The resolution was typically 1-5 cm ⁻¹ depending on the instrument focal length, wavelength range and grating. Raman spectra were also recorded on In metal foils exposed to product gas from 50 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ sealed argon atmosphere ignition in a DSC pan.

It was then placed in a crucible and exposed to 50 sequential ignitions of solid fuel pellets in an argon atmosphere at room temperature, 1 g of KCl KOH of hydrino getter was heated and cooled at 250 ° C. for +1 g for 15 minutes (control) ). Each pellet contained 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O encapsulated in a DSC pan. Additional solid fuels, 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O and 100 mg Ti + 50 mg Al + 30 mg ZnCl ₂ +15 mg H ₂ O, were not heated and held in a stainless steel mesh pouch (0.014 cm diameter wire per 32 × 32 cm ² ) KOH: KCl ( 1: 1 wt%) and each was tested as a powder with three ignition exposure times. Each ignition of the solid fuel pellets is an Acme model 3-42-75AR spot that delivers a short burst of electrical energy in the form of a low voltage 60 Hz at a RMS of approximately 8V and a high current of approximately 15,000-25,000 A. Performed using a welder. The Raman spectra were recorded on a getter using a Horiba Joban Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer with a HeCd 325 nm laser in microscope mode at a magnification of 40 ×.

XPS Spectroscopy A series of XPS analyzes were performed on indium foil witness plates and solid KOH-KCl samples using a Scienta 300 XPS Spectrometer or Kratos Analytical Axis Ultra. A constant analyzer transmission mode and a cleaning acquisition mode were used. The step energy for the overview scan was 0.5 eV, and the step energy for the high resolution scan was 0.15 eV. In the overview scan, the time per step was 0.4 seconds and the number of sweeps was 4. C1s at 284.5 eV was used as an internal standard.

Using a Scienta 300 XPS spectrometer, XPS was first analyzed by Raman spectroscopy and of an indium metal foil witness plate that showed a strong 1982 cm ⁻¹ IRE peak (section e.3). Above, performed at Lehigh University. The sample described above contained In foil exposed to gas from solid fuel ignition encapsulated in an aluminum DSC pan with 100 mg Cu + 30 mg deionized water.

Additionally, XPS is a KOH: KCl (1: 1 wt%) getter placed in a stainless steel tray exposed to the product gas from three ignitions enclosed in an aluminum DSC pan with solid fuel 70 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O. Was carried out. For each sequential exposure, solid fuel maintained under argon was ignited in a sealed primary combustion chamber, and after 10 seconds of ignition, the product gas was sealed in a secondary initial, argon Was allowed to flow into the chamber containing the underlying KOH: KCl (1: 1 wt%) getter.

Solid fuel ignition products containing explosives were investigated due to the presence of hydrinos as products. The XPS spectra, 50MgNH sealed in an aluminum DSC pan _{4 NO 3 + KOH + KCl (} 2: 1:. 1wt) + 15mgH 2 O of the inner exposed to gases from the ignition of the argon atmosphere of the solid fuel KOH-KCl (1: 1% by weight) was also recorded on the getter.

e. Results and discussion
1. Low-voltage, high-current H ₂ O-based solid fuel ignition and plasma duration determination In addition to the 0.010 inch diameter gold wire loop, the control metal foil samples shown in Table 10 are high throughout each sample. The electrode of an Acme 75KVA welder activated to apply current was filled. Only resistive heating was observed for metal foil and wire controls. Those that are not catalytic enough to form hydrinos with additional H ₂ O-based reaction mixtures and function as controls are, for example, 185 mgIn + 30 mgCaCl ₂ +15 mgH ₂ O, 185 mgIn + 30 mgZnCl ₂ +15 mgH ₂ O, 185 mgBi + 30 mgZnCl ₂ +5 mgH ₂ O, And 185 mg Sn + 30 mg ZnCl ₂ +5 mg H ₂ O, which showed only resistive heating behavior. In contrast, all of the H ₂ O-based solid fuels experienced explosion events with large blasts, brilliant white light emission and pressure shock waves. White light was characterized by a black body emission temperature of approximately 5000 K, as confirmed by a spectroscope. As demonstrated by high speed video using a phantom v7.3 camera at 6500 frames per second (Figure 5), the sample appears to have been fully evaporated and atomized to form an ionized, expanded plasma. It was. It was confirmed that the plasma was essentially 100% ionized by measuring the Stark broadening of H-balmer alpha rays. The temporal duration of the blast event photodiode measurement for a typical solid fuel 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O sealed in a DSC pan was 0.7 ms (FIG. 6).

In addition to HOH, mH atomic catalysts have been found to be effective by showing a brilliant light emitting plasma and blast during ignition of hydrocarbon-based solid fuel paraffin wax in DSC pans. As in the case of H ₂ O-based solid fuel, black body radiation with a temperature of approximately 5000 K was observed to match the solar spectrum. Using a fast photodiode, it was determined that the ignition event consisted of two different light-emittings. The first had a duration of approximately 500 μs and the second duration was about 750 μs.

2. SF-CIHT cell solid fuel calorimeter Using the metal foil of Table 10, the calorimeter heat capacity and the electrode device used to measure the energy balance of the solid fuel sample, it was determined to be 8017 J / ° C. . Ignition was the analytical method described in the Par 1341 cylinder calorimeter operating manual, and the calorimetric method determined the thermal response from temperature versus the time response after equilibration. Net energy is the difference between heat output and energy input. Gain is the ratio of thermal energy to energy input.

As shown in Table 10, zero net energy balance was consistently measured on the control metal foil as well as the Al DSC pan. In contrast, the critical energy was gained as high as 7 × was observed for H ₂ O-based solid fuel where HOH functioned as a catalyst according to equation (227-230). . Their value is that most of the input energy was actually consumed at the six contacts of the calorimeter fuel ignition circuit for only about 20% of the input energy delivered to the fuel sample that caused it to ignite. Very conservative. The hierarchy of power production is Ti + H ₂ O (DSC pan)> Ti + ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O (Cu cap)> Cu + H ₂ O (DSC pan)> H ₂ O (DSC pan)> NH ₄ NO ₃ + H ₂ O + Al> Ti + MgCl ₂ 6H ₂ O> Ag + MgCl ₂ + H ₂ O> Cu + CuO + H ₂ O (DSC pan)> NH ₄ NO ₃ Moreover, H-based solid fuels containing oils or waxes produced some surplus energy where nH functioned as a catalyst according to equations (223-226). The H-based fuel has no theoretical energy since the reaction was run under an argon atmosphere.

The possibility that H ₂ O may react exothermically with Al in the DSC pan must be considered when it is used to seal a solid fuel mixture. Consider the solid fuel Cu + H ₂ O (DSC pan). As shown in Table 11, the reaction of Cu with water is highly endothermic. Specifically, the reaction Cu + H ₂ O → CuO + H ₂ has a positive enthalpy of +130 kJ / mole. Then the only theoretical energy for conventional chemistry is the reaction of Al with water to make Al ₂ O ₃ . It is known that this reaction has a very slow rate. Production of the H ₂ gas from Al- water reaction is difficult kinetic; as a result, other approaches, such as H 2 _O plasma is utilized to increase the speed. Even during the explosion of explosives containing Al, H ₂ O oxidation of Al is a slow reaction. Since ignition of H ₂ O-based solid fuel has a duration of less than 1 ms due to the inherently slow speed, very little Al ₂ O _{3 is to} be produced. This is confirmed by XRD. The analysis result of the XRD composition of the solid fuel product of the 100 mg Cu sample was mixed with 30 mg deionized water seal in an 75 mg Al DSC pan whose atmosphere was tested with Ar as shown in Table 12. No aluminum oxidation product was observed. And it proved that none of the output energy recorded by calorimetry was due to Al oxidation. Similarly, XRD of the product of solid fuel Ti + H ₂ O showed no oxidation of Ti. Thus, energy was released for Cu and Ti, and H ₂ O-based solid fuel was assigned to hydrino formation. The identification of hydrino products by several methods is described in section e. 3. Has been in.

The major part of the input energy that ignites the solid fuel in Table 10 was due to melting on the unnecessary Al DSC pan. For example, 27 wt% Ni powder exploded at 5 J input energy, and a 1 cm ² nickel screen conductor was applied with a thin (thickness <1 mm) tape cast coating of NiOOH (11 wt% carbon). This solid fuel produced a surprising amount of EUV continuum energy yield, as measured by EUV spectroscopy. Nevertheless, NiOOH solid fuel is difficult more to regenerate a continuous power cycles as compared to the total sum is only requires additional _{H 2 O M + H 2 O} (M = Ti, Cu, Al) . Rather than using an Al pan, a simply pressed metal powder such as Ag + MgCl ₂ .6H ₂ O regenerated by rehydration was tested. These also produced significant surplus energy as shown in Table 10. Furthermore, the theoretical energy is not from conventional chemistry, and the reaction of Ag metal with MgCl ₂ .6H ₂ O is shown in Table 13. The initial solid fuel XRD results and the products after ignition are shown in Tables 14 and 15, respectively. The net positive energy contribution from conventional chemistry cannot be assigned to the reaction product. Similar analysis for the reactant Ti + ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O shows negligible energy from conventional chemistry.

Solid fuel NH ₄ NO ₃ is a famous energetic material that releases energy by pyrolysis. The decomposition reaction NH ₄ NO ₃ to N ₂ O calculated from the heat of formation is exothermic due to ΔH = −124.4 kJ / mole NH ₄ NO ₃ .
NH ₄ NO ₃ → N ₂ O + 2H ₂ O (231)

At higher temperatures, further decomposition occurs. Decomposition reaction energy calculated from the generated heat NH ₄ NO ₃ to N ₂ , O ₂ , and H ₂ O: ΔH = −206.4 kJ / mole NH ₄ NO ₃ is as follows.
NH ₄ NO ₃ → N ₂ + 1 / 2O ₂ + 2H ₂ O (232)

For 5 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ , the theoretical energy release is 12.8 J (Equation (232)). If there is a slow rate for the oxidation of the Al metal pan, the experimental energy balance given in Table 10 is 442.7 J (34.6 times the most exothermic conventional chemical reaction given by equation (232). Of). The additional energy is due to the formation of hydrinos. A high excess energy balance was confirmed by replacing the conductive Al matrix with unreacted Ag. Solid fuel 159 mg Ag + 34 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ +7 mg H ₂ O, the 6 mm pellet produced produces a net energy of 370.3 J, which is 4.2 J, the maximum theoretical energy of 88 J (formula (232)) according to conventional chemistry. Is double. Section e. As given in 3, the product H ₂ (1/4) was observed with a spectrometer. The extraordinary energy and hydrino product identification is released by the formation of H2 (1/4) the mechanism of shock wave production of HOH such as those with high-performance explosives containing a source of H and elemental composition CHNO. Very strong evidence that it is based on extraordinary energy. Section e. As discussed in Section 3, this result is the result of an approach that exploits the shock wave hydrino mechanism of energetic materials to enhance this property. Section e. As given in 1, all of the H ₂ O-based solid fuel ignites shock waves that essentially act as energetic material with the exception that all power was in the form of visible rays rather than pressure-volume. And produced. The power and power density were amazing.

The power and power density of a solid fuel can be determined from the energy given in Table 10 and the energy released by the duration of release and the volume of fuel. Consider 866.0J from 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O with a typical duration of 0.7 ms, as shown in FIG. Then, the power is 1.24 MW. With a fuel volume of 30 μl, the corresponding power density is 41 GW / l. By adjusting the pressure applied to the solid fuel sample by confining the electrode, the length of duration of power generation based on the half-width of the photoluminescence peak, the range from 2 ms to 100 μs, the nature of the solid fuel composition and the solid fuel It was observed that the high current flow through the waveform could be changed. Thus, the power and power density may be controlled in the range of 0.433 MW per 8.66 MW and 14.4 GW / l per 289 GW / l, respectively.

  In addition to HOH, the mH atomic catalyst was tested as evidenced by observation of thermal energy from a solid fuel containing a highly conductive material and a source of hydrogen such as a hydrocarbon as shown in Table 10. Since calorimetry moved under an argon atmosphere, conventional exothermic chemistry was not possible. The release of energy above 100 J is important and confirmed with mH acting as a catalyst to form hydrinos. In addition, ignition of hydrocarbon-based solid fuels has some, as they exist on the surface of stars such as the sun and white dwarfs (the intrinsic liquid density of H atoms in blackbody radiators of 5500-6000K). May produce matching conditions. Thus, the kinetics of hydrino formation must be significant at the high specific gravity of H produced by the ignition plasma in the presence of the arc current. The effect of mH atomic catalyst on hydrinos under solid fuel ignition plasma conditions was confirmed by observation of EUV radiation and 5500-6000K blackbody radiation from ignition of hydrocarbon-based solid fuel.

3. Spectroscopic identification of molecular hydrinos The predicted hydrino product H2 (1/4) was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy and XPS. Using the thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman at 780nm diode laser absorption peak cm-1 of 1982 there is a range of 40 ^{cm -1,} after ignition of a series of 50 of the solid fuel pellets are exposed to the product gas It was observed on the indium metal foil (FIG. 7). Each pellet contained 100 mg Cu encapsulated in a DSC pan with +30 mg deionized water. The only possible elements to think of having a source were In and O. The control substitution did not regenerate the peak and only the sample exposed to gas revealed an absorption peak. Since no other element or compound capable of absorbing a single 40 cm ⁻¹ (0.005 eV) is known, 1.32 eV (the energy of a 780 nm laser minus 2000 cm ⁻¹ ) of H ₂ (1 / 4) near-infrared line was considered. The absorption peak starting from 1950 cm ⁻¹ combines the free space rotational energy of H ₂ (1/4) (0.2414 eV) with four significant figures, and a width of 40 cm −1 is a nuclear cup in the orbit Matches ring energy splitting. Absorption is J ″ = 0 transition assigned to the inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak due to H ₂ (1/4) rotational energy due to J = 1.

The rotation-vibration emission of H ₂ (1/4) trapped in the KCl getter crystal lattice (so-called 260 nm band) was excited by an incident 6 keV electron beam, and the excitation emission spectrum was sealed for the Gunpowder reaction. Recorded by UV spectroscopy without a window on a KCl getter from the reactor. And KNO ₃ with softwood charcoal had formulation C ₇ H ₄ O. The UV spectrum is an integer spaced from that of p ² H ₂ (p 20.0109 eV = 0.249 eV by p = 4) and peaks Q (0), R (0), R (1), R (2 ), P (1), P (2), P (3) and a 260 nm band containing P (4) of H2 (1/4). The hydrino reaction has a high CHNO structure, where production of hydrino H ₂ (1/4) is observed by the energetic material gun powder and is advantageous for making HOH and H (formulas (227-230)). It produces 200 times the energy of traditional chemistry of performance explosives. It is therefore reasonable to investigate whether the hydrino reaction is a mechanism for the unique formation of shock waves by energetic materials. Identification characteristics that are identified as specific characteristics are expected. Since this mechanism has increased the kinetics of the hydrino reaction of solid fuels, extraordinary power and energy balance can be predicted by applying high currents to energetic materials. As shown in Table 10, NH ₄ NO ₃ produced multiples of possible thermal energy under high current ignition, where ignition occurred in an amount (5 mg) and without a detonator unusually . The hydrino product of this energetic material was searched there. Raman spectra obtained on In metal foils exposed to 50 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ sealed argon atmosphere ignition in DSC pans were recorded using a Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman spectrometer and a 780 nm laser. The inverse Raman effect absorption peak was observed at 1988 cm −1 (FIG. 8), which combines the free rotor energy of H ₂ (1/4) (0.2414 eV) with four significant figures. Overwhelming evidence is the observation of soft X-ray generation from NH ₄ NO ₃ ignition. Indeed, 125J soft X-ray energy is emitted from 5 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ ignited in a vacuum chamber and expanded so that the resulting plasma was optically thin for such emission. It was left. This energy component exceeds the theoretical maximum by a factor of 10 from the direct conventional NH ₄ NO ₃ reaction of 12.8 J (Equation (232)). Thus, the dominant source of energy release from this energetic material under these conditions is the formation of H ₂ (1/4). The implication is that identifying the side of the high explosive that causes the shock wave is not a surprising conventional chemical kinetic, but rather it is a release of energy that is 200 times higher than the formation of hydrinos. Since H has less than 10 times the mass of the CHNO composition, more than 2000 times more energy per mass due to more effective shock output is possible with optimization of the hydrino mechanism.

Molecular hydrinos such as H ₂ (1/4) H ₂ (1 / p) are absorbed by a matrix like a composite of inorganic compounds, such as those containing halides and those containing oxygen. Might be at least one of those trapped. The cations of the composites may be one of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, internal transition, and rare earth elements are metals and metalloids. Oxygen species include oxyanions (eg, disclosed hydroxides, carbonates, bicarbonates, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, dihydrogen phosphates, sulfates, hydrogen sulfates, borates, metaborates, Silicates, arsenates and other oxyanions). The composite may be made by at least one of mechanical processing and heating. Mechanical processing may include ball milling. The composite may include lattice defects (eg, lattice mismatch allowing molecular hydrinos to be at least one trapped in the matrix, including inclusions, voids, and traps). A suitable exemplary composite made by at least one of ball milling and heating is KClKOH and KCl—K ₃ PO ₄ . The ratio may be anything required, for example, for one to one weight percent, or for one to one mole percent.

Another successful cross-validation technique in search of the hydrino spectrum is the rotation of H ₂ (1/4) as a secondary fluorescence comparable to the primary spectrum observed in the ultraviolet (260 nm electron beam band). -Included the use of a Raman spectrometer to record vibrations. The Raman spectrum of the product gas KOH: KCl (1: 1 wt%) getter from 50 sequential argon atmosphere ignitions of solid fuel pellets containing 100 mg Cu + 30 mg deionized water seal is in microscope mode at 40 × magnification Recorded using a Horiba Joban Yvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer with a HeCd 325 nm laser. No features were observed with the starting material getter. Hydroxide - halide solid fuel to heat a getter containing the, ^{1000 cm} Raman peaks spaced equal energy gap as a result was observed at 8000 cm ^-1 in 18,000Cm ^-1 region -1 (0. 1234 eV) low-intensity series. A strong, outer order, series increase in peak was observed in exposure to ignition product gas. The conversion of the Raman spectrum to a fluorescence or photoluminescence spectrum is a second order rotation-vibration spectrum of H ₂ (1/4) that corresponds to the 260 nm band that is first observed by e-beam excitation. It was clarified that there was. Assigning Q (0) to the strongest peak and assigning the peak to Q given in Table 16, the P branches for the spectrum shown in FIG. 9 are 13,183, 12,199, 11,207, respectively. 10,191,9141,8100,14,168,15,121,16,064,16,993, and Q (0), R (0), R (1), observed at 17,892 cm ^-1 , R (2), R (3), R (4), P (1), P (2), P (3), P (4) and P (5). The theoretical transition energy due to the peak mission compared to the observed Raman spectrum is shown in Table 16 and FIG. Further solid fuel 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O and 100 mg Ti + 50 mg Al + 30 mg ZnCl ₂ +15 mg H ₂ O were tested as powder with hydrino getter KOH: KCl (1: 1 wt%) and not heated It was. Heatless KOH: KCl (1: 1 wt%) control did not show a peak rotational-oscillating series to H ₂ (1/4), but solid fuels Ti + H ₂ O and Ti + Al + ZnCl ₂ + H ₂ O The latter fuel powder showed the same spectral characteristics as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10 at high intensity.

High energy UV, EUV He and grating (Labram Aramis 2400g / mm 460mm focal length system with 1024 × 26μm ^2- pixel CCD) are sporadic and its highest efficiency on the short wavelength side of the spectral region (same range as the 260nm band) Excitation was considered to be due to the Cd emission of a laser having a laser optical component that is transparent to at least 170 nm. For example, cadmium has a very strong line at 214.4 nm (5.8 eV), comparable to the rotation-vibration excitation energy of H ₂ (1/4) in a KCl matrix based on electron beam excitation data. The CCD is most responsive even at 500 nm, but the secondary region in the 260 nm band is concentrated at 520 nm.

Overall, with strong confirmation of a molecular hydrino with an internuclear distance of a Raman photoluminescence band spaced 0.2414 eV, matched to the 260 nm e-beam spectrum, that is ¼ that of H _2. Certainly, Raman results such as the observation of the Raman inversion Raman effect at 0.241 eV (1940 cm −1) peak. The possible assignment of the matrix reaches a peak with four significant digits agreement with the theoretical prediction, or the evidence is further verified in the latter case by being in a region where there is no known primary peak. Similar results were obtained with a KClK3PO4 (1: 1 wt%) getter. These characteristic ro-vibration discriminating properties of H ₂ (1/4) match those observed on electrochemical cells with heat.

Using a Scienta 300 XPS spectrometer, XPS was carried out at Lehigh University on an indium metal foil that showed a strong 1982 cm ⁻¹ IRE peak after series exposure of solid fuel pellets to gas. Then, each of 100 mg Cu + 30 mg of deionized water was enclosed in a DSC pan. A strong peak was observed at 498.5 eV (FIG. 11) but could not be assigned to a known element. Na, Sn, and Zn were the only possibilities, but exclusion based on the lack of any other corresponding peaks in these elements, In, C, O, and trace K peaks were Observed. The peak matched the energy of the theoretically acceptable double ionization of the molecular hydrino H ₂ (1/4). This result confirms the molecular hydrino assignment by Raman spectroscopy. And the inverse Raman effect absorption peak is centered at 1982 cm ⁻¹ .

Using the Lehigh University Scienta 300 XPS spectrometer, the XPS spectrum is KOH-KCl (1: 1 wt%) getter exposed to gas sequentially from three ignitions of solid fuel with 70 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in an aluminum DSC pan. Was also recorded. A strong peak was observed at 496 eV (FIG. 12) assigned to K ₂ , C, O, N to H ₂ (1/4), and a trace of I going up to the peak was observed. There was no element with a peak around 496 eV based on the lack of any other corresponding detector peak, and none of these elements has a peak around interest.

Using the Lehigh University Scienta 300 XPS spectrometer, the XPS spectrum is exposed to gas from an argon atmosphere ignition of 50 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ + KOH + KCl (2: 1: 1 wt.) + 15 mg H ₂ O enclosed in an aluminum DSC pan. It was also recorded on an internal KOH-KCl (1: 1 wt%) getter. A strong peak was observed at 496 eV (FIG. 13) assigned to H ₂ (1/4) since only K, Cu, Cl, Si, Al, C, O, and trace F peaks were observed. It was. There was no element with a peak around 496 eV based on the lack of any other corresponding detector peak, and none of these elements has a peak around interest.

K. Mechanism of soft x-ray continuum radiation from very low field ignition of solid fuel and low energy pinch discharge of hydrogen
a. Example catalyzed atomic hydrogen that emits continuous EUV radiation is expected to form a fractional state H (1 / p) of the Rydberg energy state, which is referred to as “hydrino atoms” and n = , 1 / p (n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,..., 1 / p (p ≦ 137 integer)). Here, the well-known parameter n = integer representing the excited state of n = integer Rydberg equation is replaced by a stable hydrino state H [a _H / (p with a binding energy of p ² · 13.6 eV from H. = M + 1)] is matched by the non-radiative resonance energy transfer m · 27.2 eV to the energy acceptor, by the same mechanism, by the nascent H ₂ O molecule (solid or liquid Or 81.6 eV (m = 3) to form a continuum band emission with a short-circuit wavelength cutoff of 10.1 nm and an intermediate that corrodes at 122.4 eV energy. The continuous emission at 10.1 nm and longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted transition of H to the lower energy state of the so-called “hydrino” state is Observed and generated only from a pulse, pinch and hydrogen discharge, first reproduced by Blacklight Power, Inc. (BLP) and at Harvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA), from H to hydrino state Continuous emission in the 10 to 30 nm region, matched to the expected transition of, seems to form a HOH catalyst Occurs only from pulse pinch hydrogen discharge with thermodynamically favored metal oxides to receive the H reduction, was observed.

In a study contracted by a GEN3 partner, helium was introduced in an astrophysics (Atrophytics) attempt to reproduce the experimental results published by BlackLight Power (BLP) showing the expected continuum radiation for hydrogen in the 10-30 nm region. The high current spectrum recorded in the EUV region of the Harvard Smithsonian Center for CfA) pinches the discharge with pure hydrogen. Other explanations were taken into account in the required interpretation of continuum radiation, emanating during the transition of H to a lower energy state (hydrino). Continuum radiation was observed with CfA in the 10-30 nm region that matched the BLP results. Considering the low energy of 5.2 J per pulse, observed radiation in the energy range of approximately 120 eV to 40 eV, reference experiments and analysis of plasma gases, filtration to remove contaminants and the spectrum of electrode metal material, the heat of the electrode metal emission braking X-ray to an electronic temperature (detector chamber with CCD and H ₂ react with that ion recombination which contains groups and energetic ions re-emission, the molecule or molecular ion band radiation It was plausible to include instrument artifacts) and I could not understand the conventional explanation. Furthermore, the predicted selective very high kinetic energy H was observed by the corresponding Doppler broadening of the Balmer alpha line.

After energy transfer to the catalyst (Equations (223) and (227)), the intermediate H ^* [a _H / (m + 1)] is formed, has a radius of H atoms and a central field of protons × m + 1 center Put a place. The radius is subjected to a radial acceleration to a stable state with a radius of 1 / (m + 1) of the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with the release of energy of m ² · 13.6 eV. Extreme UV continuum emission bands due to H ^* [a _H / (m + 1)] intermediates (eg, formulas (224) and (228)) having the energy shown below and undergoing a short wavelength cutoff:
Ultra-UV continuum radiation band for attenuation of intermediate H * [a _H / 4] cut-off with short wavelength, E = m ² 13.6 = 9 13.6 = 12.4 eV (10.1 nm) [ Here, it is predicted that p = m + 1 = 4 and m = 3 in equation (5), and a longer wavelength. The longer-wavelength continuum radiation band for the theoretically predicted transition of H to 10.1 nm and lower energy (the so-called hydrino state H (1/4)) Observed only from a pulsed pinch gas discharge containing. Another observation predicted by equations (223) and (227) is the formation of fast, excited H atoms from fast H ⁺ recombination. Fast atoms cause extended Ballmer alpha emission. The larger 50 eV Balmer alpha spread, which reveals a population of very high kinetic energy hydrogen atoms in a particular mixed hydrogen plasma, is an established phenomenon, but the conventional view that it is due to field acceleration is the data and limitations The mechanism was controversial in that it was not supported by the test. Rather, it is shown that the cause is due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H was observed in the continuum released hydrogen pinch plasma.

  Two possible catalysts (mH and HOH) could be the source of bands observed in the 10-30 nm region. Both species were present. Hydrogen as an additional plasma gas was confirmed by Balmer-visible spectral lines, and oxygen from the electrode could be defined by a characteristic oxygen ion line that reacted with H to produce HOH at the electrode surface. To investigate whether HOH is the dominant catalyst, the spectrum shows a pulsating pinch that discharges while hydrogen is maintained at the metal electrodes each formed an oxide film that is thermodynamically inert to H shrinkage. Recorded. These results each only result from a discharge containing pinched hydrogen pulsed with an electrode having a metal oxide coating that is thermodynamically advantageous to undergo H reduction to form HOH catalyst. Comparison with previous results of observation of continuum bands.

  Continuum radiation in the region of 10-30 nm, combining the expected transition of H with the hydrino state H (1/4), is a metal oxide that is thermodynamically advantageous to undergo H reduction to form HOH catalyst It was only observed from a discharge containing pinch hydrogen pulsed at. Even though the low melting point metals being tested are very advantageous to form a metal ion plasma with a strong short wavelength continuum in a more powerful plasma source, they are disadvantageous as they exhibit some continuum. There wasn't. Of the two possible catalysts, mH and HOH, the latter is H when the behavior of the oxide-coated electrode and the intensity of H transition to H (1 / (m + 1)) is λ ≧ 91.2 nm. The lower cross-section for n-body collisions with H> n to H (1/3) with> λ ≧ 22.8 nm is probably based on the expectation to show the (1/2) side, respectively, 2 H to ¼ (1/4) by λ ≧ 10.1 nm, which should be given to be 3 and 4. The HOH catalyst is further shown to provide radiation of the same nature to the EUV by igniting the solid fuel source of H and HOH catalyst by passing a low voltage (high current through the fuel producing the explosive plasma). It was.

  When flowing through a solid fuel containing a source of H and HOH embedded in a highly conductive matrix with a high current, such as 10,000-25,000 A, H to H (1/4) by HOH catalyst The kinetics of catalysis was observed to be explosive. When it is expanded into the vacuum chamber so that its atmospheric pressure is sufficiently extinguished to overcome the optical thickness, the resulting glowing light emitting expanded plasma emits EUV continuum radiation according to equation (233). It was predicted. Such a light source is readily available for any other mechanism of EUV continuous light emission, such as by a high electric field creating high charge ions from the voltage of ignition that had an AC peak voltage below 15V for the current source. Overcame. In addition, continuum radiation was 70 eV or more (estimated to filter 100 eV or more due to short wavelength cut-off by Al), although chemical reactions are not possible when there are more than a few eV. Due to the light thickness of the plasma elements, ion emission lines were observed as expected on the continuum radiation background due to the continuous absorption band and re-emission as spectral lines. The same mechanism applies plasma radiation to the H pinch. In addition to the expected HOH, mH atomic performance as a catalyst was demonstrated by observation of EUV radiation from a solid fuel containing a conductive material and a source of hydrogen such as hydrocarbons, and high to the end, and It was low voltage and high current.

  Furthermore, the mH catalyst with the most promising transition of H to H (1/2) was the indicated active state of astrophysical sources. Specifically, the multi-body collision reaction of H by another acts as a catalyst in the form H (1 / p) in the medium between stars, sun and stars. And all have a lot of atomic hydrogen. An advantageous condition for HH collisions is, for example, a very dense population of atomic hydrogen and stars in the sun. The discovery that radiation from hydrogen as that of the high energy continuum forms a more stable form is a candidate for dark matter identities that include astrophysics such as hydrinos and the corresponding luminescent high energy wonderful Be a source of continuum radiant energy of stars. For example, the white inertia EUV continuum spectrum matches the side of the hydrogen pinch plasma.

b. experimental method
1. For recording EUV spectrum of pulsed plasma using EUV pinch plasma spectrum light source and molybdenum (Mo), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg) electrodes Experimental preparation is shown in FIGS. Spectra were recorded using a McPherson Threadle incident EUV spectrometer (Model 248 / 310G) equipped with a platinum coated 600 g / mm or platinum coated 1200 g / mm grating. The incident angle was 87 °. The wavelength resolution was approximately 0.05 nm with an entrance slit width of <1 μm. EUV light was found by a CCD detector (Andor iDus) cooled to -60 ° C. In addition, CfA provided a 1200 g / mm grating coated with platinum on a McPherson 248 / 310G spectrometer. A spectrometer, CfA and BLP grating were used as part of the measurement program.

  The discharge cell comprised a hollow anode (3 mm bent) and a hollow cathode (3 mm bent) with electrodes made of Mo, Ta, W, Al or Mg (see FIG. 14). The electrodes were separated by a 3 mm gap. A high voltage DC power supply was used to fill a bank of 20 5200 pF capacitors connected in parallel to the electrodes. While the anode was grounded, the cathode was maintained at a voltage of -10 kV before triggering. In some experiments, the voltage was increased up to -15 kV and decreased to -7 kV to determine the effect of this parameter on the observed spectrum. An electron gun (Clinton Display, Part # 2-001) (driven by a high voltage pulse generator (DEI, PVX4140)) provides 1-3 keV electron energy and 0.5 ms pulse duration to a pulsed electron beam. Provided. The electron beam induced a high voltage pulsed discharge at a repetition rate of 5 Hz. If the discharge is also self-induced to determine the effect of the electron beam on the spectral emission, and if the electrode metal is the source of the continuum by changing the electrode temperature and evaporation rate, the electron-beam induced repetition rate is The range varied from 1 and 5 Hz to determine.

The discharge cell was matched to a spectrometer using a laser. CCDs that were detectors were gated synchronously with an e-beam trigger. It had an irradiation time of 100 ms for each discharge pulse with a breakdown time of approximately 300 ns. Each recorded spectrum stored radiation from 500 or 1000 discharges and in one case where 5000 discharged. The CCD dark count was subtracted from the cumulative value spectrum. Wavelength calibration was verified by OV as OVI lines from oxygen appeared on the electrodes in the form of metal oxides. Radiation was measured through an opening that restricted gas flow from the discharge box into the detector chamber. While the gas pressure of the discharge boxes are kept in a range up to 1.3Torr 0.1, two-stage differential pressure exhaust is turned low gas pressure as a result the detector chamber (the range of one ^X10 -6 Torr) It was. Typical flow rates of very high purity helium, hydrogen and mixtures ranged from 1 to 10 sccm, and the discharge chamber pressure was controlled by a mass flow controller (MKS). Online mass spectroscopy and visible spectroscopy were used to monitor contaminants with plasma forming gases.

  Pure hydrogen EUV spectra were recorded using an Aluminum (Al) (150 nm thickness, Luxel) filter to prove that soft x-rays were emitted from the plasma. Since the CCD detector position of the beam dispersed by the grating is concentrated at 20 nm, a short wavelength cutoff of hydrogen continuum radiation is determined at about 10 nm using a 600 g / mm grating and a Ta electrode at 10 nm. It was changed.

2. Spectroscopic measurement of the EUV spectrum and EUV optical power balance of the ignited solid fuel EUV spectroscopy (FIG. 16) was performed on a solid fuel sample, which includes: (I) NiOOH, a 0.08 cm ² nickel screen conductor coated with a thin (thickness <1 mm) tape cast coating of 11 wt% carbon and 27 wt% Ni powder; (ii) 40 mg Ag (87 wt%) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O (13 wt%), (iii) 5 mg of energetic material NH ₄ NO ₃ sealed aluminum DSC pan (75 mg) (aluminum crucible 30 μl, D: 6.7 mm × 3 mm (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D: tight, 6.7 mm (marked)) (DSC pan), (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409), and (iv) 5 mg of energetic material Gun powder sealed Al DSC pan and 30 mg paraffin Emissions wax is, to have sealed DSC pan (v). Each sample was contained in a vacuum chamber that was evacuated to 5 × 10 ⁻⁴ Torr. The material was spot welder (Taylor Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder, 75 KVA, so that the horizontal projection surface of the sample was aligned with the optical components of the EUV spectrometer as verified by the alignment laser. ) Between two copper electrodes. The electrodes were beveled to allow for a larger solid angle of light emission for Ag (87 wt%) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O pellets. The sample was subjected to a short burst of low voltage (high current electrical energy). The applied 60 Hz alternating voltage was less than the peak of 15V and the peak current was about 10,000-25,000A. The high current caused the sample to ignite as a glowing light emitting expanded plasma at near atmospheric pressure. Ignition occurred in a 12 liter vacuum chamber containing the ignited sample to cause the plasma to become optically thin so that EUV light could come out. The chamber pressure was 1 × 10 ⁻⁴ Torr. The EUV spectra were recorded using a MacPherson Slesle incident EUV spectrometer (Model 248 / 310G) equipped with a platinum coated 600 g / mm grating. The incident angle was 87 °. The wavelength resolution with an incident slit width of 100 μm was approximately 0.15 nm at the CCD center and 0.5 nm at the limit of the 50 nm CCD wavelength range window. Two aluminum filters (Luxel) were placed in the light path to block strong visible light and prevent damage to the spectrometer from the blast debris. The transmittance of each Al filter has a transmission window in the range from 17 nm to 80 nm, as shown in FIG. 17A. A first 800 nm thick Al filter was placed in front of the spectrometer entrance slit, and a second 150 nm thick Al filter was placed between the grating and the CCD detector. A 150 nm thick Zr filter (Luxel) is used for grating and CCD detection to look for a short wavelength cutoff of 10.1 nm for H (1/4) transition continuum radiation while selectively blocking visible light. It was placed in the light path between the vessels. The transmittance of the Zr filter has a transmission window around 10 nm as shown in FIG. 17B. The distance from the ignited solid fuel sample plasma source to the spectrometer inlet was 75 cm. EUV light was found by a CCD detector (Andor iDus) cooled to -60 ° C. The CCD detector was concentrated at 20 nm and the covered wavelength range was 0-45 nm. Oxygen and nitrogen ion lines, which are known and observed in high voltage pulse discharge spectra, were used to adjust the wavelength in the 0-45 nm region. Calibration spectra were obtained for high voltage discharges with air plasma gas at 100 mTorr using a W electrode.

Since the known standard source of incident radiant energy is determined by calculating the efficiency of the energy stored in the capacitor in the light, considering the emission as a point source, the hydrogen pinch plasma is operated in section b. Produced by one method and system. The incident energy was modified to give the energy density of the H ₂ pinch plasma with a cut in distance and solid angle. Using the cut dimensions, the photon energy passing through the 50um cut was calculated. Correction for grating efficiency for 15% EUV, CCD quantum efficiency (QE) for 90% EUV, 80% Al filter transmission rate (0.15um Al foil) and 15% Al filter transmission rate ( 0.8um Al foil) gave the calculated discovery energy. The total EUV that the photon counts in the calibration H ₂ pinch plasma spectrum was measured (section b.1). The corresponding cautious or observed energy was calculated using an average photon wavelength of 40 nm where the Al filter bandpassed from 17 to 80 nm. The ratio of calculated and observed energy gave a calibration factor accounting for other inefficiencies in discovery. The inverse application of photon energy at an average wavelength of 40 nm and the diffusion correlation coefficient applied to the total EUV photon count of the solid fuel took into account the calculation of the corresponding incident radiant energy.

3. The H ₂ O-based solid fuel low voltage, high current ignition and plasma duration determination test samples include: (I) H ₂ O-based solid fuel 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O (all metal samples contained powder, H ₂ O was deionized) 55.9 mg Ag (10 at%) was Cu ( 87% by weight) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O (13% by weight) coated and DSC pan sealed, +30 mg H ₂ O sealed in DSC pan 80 mg Ti, NiOOH thin (thickness < 1 mm) a 1 cm 2 nickel screen conductor coated with tape cast coating, 11 wt% carbon and 27 wt% Ni powder, and (ii) a hydrocarbon-based solid fuel paraffin wax seal of DSC pan;
(Iii) 185 mg control H ₂ O based reaction mixture in +30 mg CaCl ₂ +15 mg H ₂ O, 185 mg in +30 mg ZnCl ₂ +15 mg H ₂ O, 185 mg Bi + 30 mg ZnCl ₂ +5 mg H ₂ O and 185 mg Sn + 30 mg ZnCl ₂ +5 mg H ₂ O (not catalytic to make hydrino), and (iv) pre-dried metal foil and H ₂ O like 0.0254 cm diameter gold wire loop Control conductive material and 2.38 mm diameter InSn wire loops, each wire placed in the correct position for axial flow and preheated in vacuum. Samples were placed in the electrodes of an Acme 75KVA welder that was activated to apply a high current through each. The AC current was typically in the range of 10,000-30,000A, and the peak voltage is typically less than 6V except for wire samples where there is a much lower current due to low voltage and relatively high resistance. was.

The evolution of H ₂ O-based solids temporality energizes + H ₂ O and hydrocarbon-based solid fuel paraffin waxes such as Cu + H ₂ O and Ti, all DSC pan seals are in the 350-1100 nm spectral region , Measured with a photodiode (Thorlabs, model SM05PD1A) with a sensitive wavelength of 980 nm peak, 13 mm2 active area, 10 ns uphill / fall time and 20 V 24 pF junction capacitance. The signal was magnified using an amplifier (Opto Diode model PA 100) with a gain of 1X and 10V bias, and a 60 MHz range (Pico Technology, Picscope 5442B) was recorded with a scan interval of 25 ns. The measurement distance was 25 cm. The temporal resolution of the photodiode is within specification by recording the response in a light emitting diode driven by 1, 10 and 1 ms pulses generated by a function generator (Agilent 33220A 20 MHz Arbitrary Waveform Generator). ,confirmed. In each case, a square wave with a temporal width of the pulse was observed.

The expanded plasma produced from solid fuel ignition was recorded with a phantom v7.3 high speed video camera at speeds ranging from 6500 and 150,000 frames per second. Utilizing a ruler in the video background, the plasma expansion rate was determined from the increase in distance between frames and time intervals between frames. The rate of expansion of the plasma front after ignition of a solid fuel 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in a DSC pan was also measured in a pair of spatially separated conductivity studies. The first probe was 2.54 cm from origin, and the second was 1.5875 cm, more on the heel side compared to the first. Each probe contained two copper wires separated by 1.27 cm applying a 300 V bias across the initially open circuit. The ground wire for each study pair was equipped with a terminating 100 ohm resistor. The resistor was connected in its entirety to measure the conductivity as a function of time using a floating 10X range survey using the range measured voltage through the range survey. A time scale of 10 ns was achieved using a 60 MHz range (Pico Technology, Picscope 5442B) at 125 MS / s. The range trigger voltage was 3V.

Plasma radiation of solid fuel pellets containing 55.9 mg Ag (Cu) (87 wt%) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O (13 wt%) determines the optical power relationship from the ignited fuel and input power. As a function of time, it was recorded synchronously at 17,791 frames per second with the corresponding power parameters. The sample chamber was purged with argon and filled with a krypton atmosphere. The camera used was Color Edgetronic, and the current and voltage traces as a function of time were one sample using a National Instruments USB-6210 data acquisition module and a data acquisition system (DAS) that included a PC at Labview VI. Was recorded with a time resolution of 12 microseconds per second. A Rogowski coil (model CWT600LF with 700mm cable) that was accurate to 0.3% was used as the current signal source, and the voltage attenuator has an analog input voltage up to +/- 10V range of USB-6210 Used to come. In addition, Picoscope 5442B was also used to monitor the voltage signal with a time resolution of 208 nanoseconds per sample.

  The visible spectrum above the wavelength range of 350 nm to 1000 nm shows the Ocean Optics with a visible spectrometer coupled to a fiber optic cable (ILX 511b detector, OFLV-3 filter, L2 lens, 5um slit, 350-1000 nm, Marine Optics Jaz). Was recorded using.

4). Spectroscopic measurement of visible optical power balance A solid fuel sample contains 80 mg Ti with +30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in an Al DSC pan, 1 cm ² nickel screen conductor is NiOOH, 11 wt% carbon and 27 wt% 5 mg of energetic material NH ₄ NO ₃ coated with a thin (thickness <1 mm) tape cast coating of Ni powder and encapsulated in an Al DSC pan is 60 Hz with an applied peak of 3-6V Ignited with voltage and peak current about 10,000-25,000A. Visible power density and energy density spectra were recorded on an Ocean Optics visible spectrometer. The spectrometer was tuned for optical power density using a standard light source of Ocean Optics HL-2000 and a radiometer (Deter Meter model SM206). To ensure that a solid fuel short time duration light pulse was recorded, the calibrated spectrometer recorded a duration of 5 s (much longer than the light pulse duration in less than 1 ms). It was used to time-integrate the power density spectrum of the solid fuel ignited on The background light was away during the recording. Despite the short actual collection time, the recording distance was 353.6 cm from the origin of the blast to avoid saturation, which should be given to the plasma radiation intensity larger in scale than that of the conventional lamp. The total energy density (determined by integrating the energy density spectrum over the wavelength range) was divided by careful pulse duration and modified for the recording distance. The distance is calculated from the careful inflation rate and the time duration of the small event, b. It was taken as the average spherical radius for plasma expansion, both measured by the method of the three secretary.

5. Inclusion of _{H 2} O heat sealing of the measuring 30mg of pressure that is developed from the explosion of the solid fuel overpressure side of the peaks developed in the explosion of the solid fuel that contains the DSC pan, is of _{H 2} O + 30mg to DSC pan 80 mg Ti with 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in a DSC pan was measured using a PCB Piezotronics model 137B23B ICP quartz blast pressure sensor with a PCB Piezotronics model 482C05 4-channel ICP sensor signal conditioner. The full scale of the quartz sensor was 50 PSIg. The linearity was 0.10% full scale (0.05 PSIg). The resolution was 10 mPSIg and the uncertainty was 1% +/- to a 95% confidence level. The sensor was a conditioned and traceable NIST. The signal was recorded by a data acquisition system (eg, a National Instruments USB-6210 module with sample rates up to 250 kS / s or a Picscope 5442B digital oscilloscope with sample rates up to 125 MS / s). The quartz blast sensor was placed 13 inches away from the origin of blasting.

6). Balmer width of Balmer α line of α-ray broadening measurements 656.3nm gave off of _{H 2} O Ti + 30 mg of _{between H 2} O and 80mg of plasma from + 30 mg of Cu ignited solid fuel 100mg, both DSC pan soluble The seal was recorded to determine the electron density. The plasma radiation was optically coupled to a spectrometer at Joban Yvon Horiba 1250M by a high quality UV (200-800 nm) fiber optic cable. A detector containing a Symphony model (cooled liquid nitrogen) behind lit a 2048 512 CCD array with an element size of 13.5 μm and a spectrometer with a focal length of 1250 mm with a grating of 2400 g / mm It was. As the exit slit solidified to 20 μm, the spectrometer resolution was determined using a 632.8 nm HeNe laser line in contact with the entrance. The background light was away during the recording.

7). A series of LED power balance ignitions of SF-CIHT cells with photovoltaic conversion were performed on solid fuel pellets each containing 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in a DSC pan. The pellet was attached. And a 1.9 cm spacing and strip of copper metal strip was made around the roller disk of the National Electric stitch welder (100 kVA model # 100 AOPT SPCT24), approximately 4-8V and 10,000- It was ignited with an alternating voltage of 60 Hz with an applied peak of peak current for 35,000 A. The rotational speed was adjusted so that an explosion occurred when the roller sewn each pellet at an explosion frequency of approximately 1 Hz and moved it toward the top dead center position of the welder. The sparkling glitter of white light was converted to electricity with a photovoltaic converter, and electricity was extinguished with a light emitting diode (LED) array.

As the closest separation at the rectangular chamber wall from the welder disk was approximately 20 cm, the three-sided metal frame with the attached lexan wall was the setup around the stitched welder disk. A 30 W, 12 V solar panel was attached to each of the three walls of the enclosure. Each panel was an anodized aluminum alloy frame (type 6063-T5 UL Solar) that included a high performance polycrystalline silicon cell, low iron tempered glass and EVA film in a TPT backplate in an encapsulated cell. Other solar panel specifications were as follows: cell (polycrystalline silicon): 15.6 cm × 3.9 cm; number of cells and connections: 36 (4 × 9); module size: 66.6 × 41.1 × 2.50 cm; weight: 3.63 kg. The electrical characteristics are as follows. : Power at STC: 30 W; Maximum power (Vpm): 17.3 V; Maximum power current (Ipm): 1.77 A; Open-circuit voltage (Voc): 21.9 V; Short-circuit current (Isc): 1.93 A; Tolerance Standard test conditions: Temperature 25 ° C., Radiation 1000 W / m ² , AM = 1.5; Maximum system voltage: 600 V DC; series fuse rating: 10 A; temperature coefficient isc: 0.06% / K, Voc: −0.36% / K, Pmax: −0.5% / K; Operating Temperature: −40 ° C. to + 85 ° C .; storage humidity: 90%; type of output terminal: junction box; cable: 300 cm.

  The solar cell panels were connected via an LED array. The LED array comprised a Genssi LED Off Road 4 X 4 Work Light Waterproof 27 W, 12 V, 6000 K (30 Degree Spot), an LEDwholesalers 5 m Flexible LED Light Strip with 300xSMD3528 and Adhesive Back, 12 V, White, 2026WH ( 24 W total), and a 9 W, 12 V Underwater LED Light Landscape Fountain Ponde Lamp Bull White. LED array is Genssi LED Off Road 4 X 4 Work Light Waterprof 27W, 12V, 6000K (30 Degree Spot), 300xSMD3528 and LED Wholes by HW 24h 9W (12V Underwater LED Light Landscape Fountain Pont Lamp Bulb White). The wattage of the LED was 27W + 24W + 9W = 60W and the total estimated the power output as the rated voltage. The overall output power of the three solar panels was 90 W under one Sun steady state condition.

c. Basic experiment results and discussion
1. EUV pinch plasma spectrum The number of different gratings, spectrometers and CCD image overlays are shown in FIGS. 18A-D, and the EUV emission spectrum of the electron beam activated one, the pure helium pinch discharge and hydrogen are Mo, Ta And W electrode with EUV grazing incidence spectrometer. The previous spectrum of the high purity helium discharge was taken as a reference for confirmation of the spectrum without the continuum of lack of hydrogen. Known helium ion lines were observed in the absence of any continuum radiation. Oxygen ion lines were similarly observed in all spectra including them from the hydrogen discharge due to the oxide layer on the metal electrode. In contrast to the helium spectrum, a continuum band was observed when pure hydrogen was discharged. Regardless of electrode material, spectrometer or grating with an intensity proportional to the hydrogen partial pressure, continuum radiation in the region of 10-30 nm was observed from hydrogen release. This dependence of continuum strength on H ₂ atm was also observed with a helium hydrogen mixture as shown in FIG. Traditional mechanisms of continuum radiation unique to hydrogen in areas where it was not previously known that hydrogen radiates were sought. Considering the low energy of 5.2 J per pulse, observed radiation in the energy range of approximately 120 eV to 40 eV, reference experiments and plasma gas analysis, freezing filtration to remove contaminants and the spectrum of electrode metal Was not found in plausible prior work, including pollutants, thermal electrode metal emission and braking x-rays. And ion recombination, molecular or molecular ion band radiation and instrument artifacts included groups and energetic ions reacting with CCD and H2 re-radiation in the detector chamber.

Consider the potential catalyst and mechanism of continuous light emission. In a mixed H plasma maintained with metal electrodes each coated with H and oxide, the main catalyst candidates are mH and HOH, and both may be active. The energy released with HOH as a catalyst is intermediate from H ^* (1/4) to 122.4 eV, and the energy containing the HOH catalyst during the transition could result in emission up to 6 nm at 204 eV. is there. Similarly, in a hydrogen helium microwave plasma, H catalyzed by H (m = 1) as a catalyst, He gives a wide continuous light emission at λ ≦ 63.3 nm (19.59 eV). In the 1s12p1) transition (58.5 nm, 21.21 eV), the excitation of He (1s2) can cause coordinated energy exchange of 40.8 eV total energy. In independent replication experiments, this natural broad 63.3 nm emission and continuum radiation were observed in a helium hydrogen microwave plasma and in a hydrogen pinch plasma, respectively. However, H ^* [aH / (m + 1)] must be the dominant source of continuum radiation since the plasma contained hydrogen and some oxygen from the electrode. With mH catalyst, the possibility of continuum radiation in this range is 10.1 nm continuum (m = 3 (223-226) and (233) in the formula) and 22.8 nm continuum (Where m = 2 (223-226) and (233)). One proof against mH as a catalyst is that any 10.1 nm continuum must be lower and dramatically more intense than the emission of the 22.8 nm continuum. In contrast, evidence for HOH catalyst is that the intensity for the 10.1 nm continuum was observed due to the higher H pinch plasma content at the W and Ta electrodes. This is explained by HOH with 10.1 nm continuous light emission as the source of the 10-30 nm band. A solid fuel containing a metal oxide and a hydroxide that undergoes a hydrogen reduction reaction with HOH form a substantial surplus energy. These results, as well as those of electrochemical (CIHT) cells utilizing HOH catalysts, show that HOH catalysts have much higher kinetics than mH catalysts, and the reaction is Mo, W and form HOH It is advantageous for metal oxides such as those of Ta which advantageously undergo a hydrogen reduction reaction on the catalyst. The continuum strong oxygen ion line from the H-pinch plasma indicates the presence of metal oxides allowed by the HOH mechanism. Conversely, metal oxides that are not thermodynamically favored towards reactions of H to forms such as those of Al and Mg shown in FIGS. 20A-D are estimated to be <10 eV in our pinch plasma source. Corresponding to the electron temperature, it shows no continuum radiation under low energy conditions of 5 J per pulse.

  All high Z metals emit continuum radiation at sufficiently high electron temperatures. Specifically, Awe et al. Show that Al creates a strong metal ion continuum with much higher energy and electron temperature. A much more powerful source in the plasma than two orders of magnitude higher at the electron temperature of metal ions that are ionized higher by others, which may be scheduled for secondary emission from absorption to shape of high energy continuum radiation by metal atoms, or With a significant increase, the continuous light emission of our source and any coincidence between it achieved background emission of ambient species, typically low abundance ions, by the same mechanism. For example, an electron temperature of 163 eV is required to observe W continuum radiation with an EBIT source. Any highly ionized ion emission that requires a very low electron temperature, where our hydrogen pinch source was estimated to be <10 eV, or otherwise much higher than the actual temperature, is given by the equation (223-230) ) And (233). This ion emission is non-thermal as confirmed by the lack of required emission of these ions and the line of equilibrium species in the visible range. The same mechanism is the basis for non-thermal highly ionized ion emission as well as section c. It is shown in the solar corona as the ion emission of 9 white dwarfs. In the latter case, the actual minority-seed absorption line in the continuum background is observed (FIG. 35). Thus, the emission is not matched to the electron temperature with respect to the observed ion to emission line intensity ratio. In particular, as in the case of the W anode, if they are otherwise present in low abundance, unless the continuous light radiant energy source excites these ions, the weak atomic W visible emission and low The electron temperature is high and does not support a short wavelength continuum due to ionized W ions. This assignment of high ionization ion emission is confirmed by the same type of observation of ion emission from a plasma source that does not have a high electric field (ie, ignited solid fuel as shown in section c.6).

If the medium is optically thick over a specific wavelength range, only a broad emission portion may be observed (FIG. 18A vs. FIGS. 18B-D). Consequently, continuum radiation may be indirectly observed as highly ionized ion emission that is not aligned with the origin of heat in terms of ion and intensity ratio. Emission is by atomic and ionic cross sections due to absorption and re-emission of continuum radiation and incident continuum profiles. The latter relies on the hydrino reaction, which is also a turn. And if it is a catalyst with HOH, for example, rely on a medium in which species other than H may act as a catalyst. For example, ion radiation for catalysis may be observed with equations (223) and (227). Due to the relationship of HOH as a catalyst, the O ion afterglow is predicted by equation (227), which is 81.6 electron volts high and may cause ionized oxygen ions. In a time-resolved study using a channel electron multiplier detector and a multichannel scalar counter, continuous light emission was only observed for a short pulse; oxygen ions had a long afterglow showed that. For example, the 25.0 nm continuum had a short lifetime of approximately 0.5 μs compared to the 4 μs lifetime of the O ³⁺ ion line at 23.9 nm. Thus, in the absence of a strong metal ion line, observation of the O ion line was thought to be due to a long O-ion excited state lifetime. And in addition to the absorption and re-emission of the EUV continuum, it was excited by the catalytic reaction. This observation further supports HOH, as active with hydrogen pinch plasma radiation. Similarly, helium emission was observed due to the long afterglow at He + acting as a catalyst of 54.4 eV (2.27.2 eV).

  Uniquely, hydrogen addition alone creates or at least greatly enhances continuum and plasma intensity in cases where HOH catalyst formation is advantageous. The addition of H to the helium pinch plasma reduces the helium ion lifetime; so the H addition must be reduced for any metal ion continuum; yet the opposite is observed. The cooling effect by gas additives and impurities is reported by the travel. In contrast, for example, the continuum is not oxygen, argon, helium, nitrogen, air or a mixture. As pointed out by Phelps and Clementson, who could not rule out the hydrino explanation, the short wavelength radiation in the 10-22 nm region of the Mo anode H2 pinch plasma did not match the conventional plasma model. The sputtering proposed by Phelps and Clementson from protons for H is accelerated and attacks the cathode, and the continuum cannot be explained; yet, the continuum is independent of the cathode metal. Furthermore, since the continuum is observed in the trace H present in a non-hydrogen plasma such as an innocent helium plasma with a plasma parameter indistinguishable from 100% helium plasma, the anode The explanation of increased electrons making a sound on is excluded. This observation also removes the extended optical opacity argument for reduced transmission of the continuum in helium vs. hydrogen. Even when the light beam path between the plasma and the detector was further reduced by one half-fold, further observation that the continuum was not helium removed the extended light opacity argument. The hydrino transition is the only surviving explanation of all of the results. Furthermore, the power released by the hydrino reaction can be responsible for continuous light emission power compared to the input power based on H2 flow rate and availability, EUV emission, energy per transition and quantum yield for EUV continuum.

Similarly, especially in cases such as water vapor plasmas where the broadening is greater than 100 eV, the observed fast H may be due to the energy released in the shaped hydrino by the HOH catalyst. HOH may also be so. And be a significant contributor to the H catalyst in the hydrogen plasma that has been observed that fast H requires the surface to achieve significant effects on fractional population and energy. In favor, no line broadening is observed in a hydrogen plasma unless, for example, a metal-like surface is a present that can support atomic hydrogen or HOH formation. Glow discharges and RF release cells containing metal electrodes show strong effects. The metal typically has an oxide coat so that the catalytic mechanism may be HOH as well as mH. This is a very high energy where slow accumulation of oxygen is required to give the same broadening as H ₂ O plasma, and after a long continuous duration, in H cases the large population in the case> 100 eV I was able to explain. In addition to the continuum radiation in the 10-30 nm region and the surprisingly fast H, further confirmation that the energy released by the shaped hydrinos causes high kinetic energy H is the energy of equations (226) and (230) Is a ToF-SIM observation of an ion scheduled to arrive before m / e = 1, confirming that the release of is evident as a high kinetic energy H- of approximately 204 eV.

2. Low voltage H 2 _O-based solid fuel, packed in Acme75 KVA welder electrode was started to the metal foil is preheated in the ignition and the plasma duration determined vacuum at high current to apply a high current through each of the samples H2O-free NiOOH + Ni + C and control conductive materials such as 0.010 inch diameter gold wire loops and control conductive materials oriented for axial flow and H ₂ O based solid fuel samples (eg + H ₂ O Cu encapsulated in DSC pan, + H ₂ O encapsulated in DSC pan). Only the resistance heating method was observed for regulatory purposes. Not be catalytically to form hydrino, + additional H2O-based reaction mixture to function as a regulation, such as 185mg to CaCl ₂ in _{H 2} O to + 30 mg of 15 mg, 185mg of _{H 2} O ZnCl ₂ + 15 mg of + 30 mg, of 185mg Bi + 30 mg ZnCl ₂ +5 mg H ₂ O + 5 mg H ₂ O likewise showed just the resistance heating method behavior 185 mg Sn + 30 mg ZnCl ₂ .

The active H ₂ O based solid fuel was subjected to an explosion event with large blasts, brilliant light emission and atmospheric shock waves. As demonstrated by high speed video using a phantom v7.3 camera at 6500 frames per second (FIG. 21A), each sample was fully evaporated and appears to have been sprayed to form an ionized, expanded plasma. Looked like. With the synchronous recording of voltage as a function of plasma emission and time (FIG. 21B) of current corresponding to 17,791 frames per second, ignition of solid fuel Ag (Cu) + BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O has an input power of 1.275 ms. It was shown that the plasma remained for 21.9 ms while the plasma was zero. A plasma with approximately 100 kW power without electrical input power and as much chemical reaction as possible will react to H (1/4) by EUV spectroscopy (c.6 Secretary) and analytical characterization of the plasma product. Prove the existence of a new energy source that is shown to be planned.

The expansion velocity measured from the video at a maximum of 150,000 frames per second was the speed of sound, 343 m / s, for example greater than 900 m / s. Since the function of time after the explosion of the two solid fuels spatially separated the conductive probe as shown in FIG. 22, the expansion rate of the plasma formed by ignition of solid fuel 100 mg + 30 mg H ₂ O is the plasma It was also determined to be the speed of sound by measuring conductivity. The glowing light emission was white in color; shown in FIG. 23, compared to the white light typical of the typical solid fuel Cu + H ₂ O 5000-6000 K black body emission and the Sun 5500-6000 K black body spectrum. Ti + H ₂ O. The plasma was determined to be essentially 100% ionized by measuring the Stark broadening of the H Balmer alpha line (section c.4).

A typical blast event photodiode with solid fuel 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in a DSC pan had a duration of cautious temporality of 0.5 ms (FIG. 24). The duration of power generation based on the half width of the photoluminescence peak ranges from 25 to 40 ms by adjusting the pressure applied to the solid fuel sample by confining the electrode, the nature of the solid fuel composition and the solid fuel through It was observed that the high current flow waveform could be changed.

In addition to HOH, mH atomic catalysts have been found to be effective by showing a brilliant light-emitting plasma and blast during ignition of hydrocarbon-based solid fuel paraffin wax in a DSC pan. As with the H ₂ O-based solid fuel, and blackbody radiation with temperature for 5500-6000 K (FIG. 25) was observed to match the solar spectrum shown in FIG. Using a fast photodiode, the ignition event was determined to consist of two different small emissions, the first had a duration of 500 μs and the second duration was approximately 750 μs. .

3. Measure pressure from the explosion of solid fuel Place a quartz blast sensor 13 inches away from the origin of blasting, each of the peaks developed from a 30 mg H ₂ O sealed explosion in the DSC pan Side pressure, +30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in DSC pan 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in DSC pan 80 mg Ti is 0.8 PSIg, 1.3 PSIg and 2.0 PSIg Met. The pressure increased by the solid fuel was low compared to that of the internal combustion engine, 735 PSIg and high explosive (7.35 × 10 5 PSIg). Thus, the energy of blast in the form of barometric volume work is very low. This is in line with the observation that the solid fuel plasma formed by the ignition event is essentially fully ionized, including the 5500-6000K blackbody. Power is essentially all in the form of a visible line.

4). Balmer α-ray broadening measurement High resolution, visible spectrum in the spectral region of the H-balmer α-line measured with a 1250M spectrometer with 20 μm cuts using the Joban Yvon Horba shown in FIGS. 26A-B. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the 632.8 nm HeNe laser line was 0.07 mm, which confirmed high spectral resolution. In contrast, the FWHM of the Balmer α line from the emission of ignited solid fuel 100 mg Cu + 30 mg H ₂ O encapsulated in the DSC pan was very widened and the line was shifted by +1.1 kg. Voting-fit to a phantom profile gives 22.6 Å of FWHM, and spreading it is very excessive to include significant Doppler or atmospheric pressure spreading contributions. An electron density of 4 × 1023 / m ³ was determined from the Stark broadening using the Gigosos et al. Technique with 14 corresponding full width half regions. The plasma was almost completely ionized at a black body temperature of 6000K. From the emission of solid fuel 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O enclosed in a DSC pan and ignited, the Balmer alpha line width cannot be measured due to excess width (much greater than 24 mm), corresponding to 100% It ionized the plasma at a black body temperature of at least 5000K.

5. Spectroscopic Measurement of Visible Optical Power Balance The visible energy density spectrum of the plasma after ignition encapsulated in a DSC pan recorded with solid fuel 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O in an Ocean Optic spectrometer is shown in FIG. As determined from the Stark broadening (section c.4), the plasma is essentially 100% ionized; as a result, it is a blackbody radiator. A phantom profile that closely matches that of the sun (FIG. 23) corresponds to a black body temperature of approximately 5000K. This temperature can be used to calculate irradiance R or power per unit area that can be compared to careful irradiance. In contrast, black body luminescence was not observed in the visible range where only the Al pan moved in the absence of H ₂ O based solid fuel. Only line emission was observed.

From the Wien's variation rule, the wavelength λ _max having the maximum energy density of a black body at T = 500K is as follows.
λ _max = hc / 4.965 kT = 580 nm (234)

The Stefan-Boltzmann law assumes that the power R of radiation by the object per unit area is equal to the emissivity e times the Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ times the temperature raised to the fourth power T ⁴ .

R = eσT ⁴ (235)

The emissivity e = 1, σ = 5.67 × 10 ⁻⁸ Wm ⁻² K ⁻⁴ , and the measured black body temperature for an optically thick plasma containing a black body is 5000K. Thus, the radiated power per unit area by the ignited solid fuel is as follows.
R = (1) (σ = 5.67 × 10 ⁻⁸ Wm ⁻² K ⁻⁴ ) (5000K) ⁴
= 35 × 10 ⁶ Wm ⁻² (236)

Section c. As reported in 2, the measured propagation velocity of the expanding plasma is the speed of sound.
The average radius r _ps of a 5000K plasma sphere can be calculated from the time evolution of the emission duration and the propagation velocity of the sound velocity.
Using 200 μs duration and 343 m / s sound velocity (Fig. 22) recorded with a high speed photodiode (Fig. 24) of solid fuel 80 mg Ti + 30 mg H ₂ O sealed in a DSC pan, the mean radius r _{The ps} plasma sphere is as follows.
^{_{r ps = 1 / 2νt 2 /}} t = 8.57cm (237)

The light energy density obtained by integrating the energy density spectra measured with the Ocean Optic spectrometer was 5.86 J / m ² . It was recorded at a distance of 353.6 cm. Dividing the discreet light energy density by 5 × 10 ⁻⁴ s pulse durations gives power density at a standoff distance of 353.6 cm. The power density of the mean radius of the plasma sphere is given by increasing by the square of the ratio of the squeeze radius and the mean plasma sphere radius (353.6 cm / 8.57 cm) ² . 70% in the stream behind the gas flow to remove optically thick metal powder dust, where the signal is partly blasted and some energy is further considered to be outside the wavelength range of the spectrometer The resulting cautious optical power is 21 MW / m ² , a good agreement with equation (236).

6). EUV spectrum of the ignited solid fuel and the zero-order peak in the absence of continuum and wavelength calibration emission spectrum of high voltage pulsed release of air (100 mTorr) by Al filter (Figure 28) ( 0-45 nm) showed only known oxygen. Surprisingly, the EUV emission band is observed in the same region of 17-40 nm with a strong EUV zero-order peak in the spectrum of NiOOH solid fuel ignited by high current plasma in the absence of high voltage (Figure 29). It was done. The Al filter was confirmed to be intact after recording the blast spectrum. The thickness of the “second spectrum” recorded on another ignited solid fuel sample with a quarter quartz window placed in the optical path (cutting any EUV light but passing visible light) is A flat spectrum confirming that the short-wavelength photon signal was not due to scattered visible light passing through the filter to Al was shown. The blast spectrum showed a signal cut-off at 17 nm or less with an Al filter transmission notch (FIG. 17A). Since the maximum applied voltage of the power supply was less than 15V, radiation with energy greater than 70 eV (wavelength shorter than 17 nm photons) is not possible due to field acceleration. As a confirmation, the application of high current to a stand-alone sample of solid fuel by a power source is a fast parameter that revealed to the explosion that the diagnostic method occurs at a current of approximately 10,000 A, a voltage of approximately 5 V and an input of less than 5 J Equipped with energy. When the Al pan moved without H ₂ O based solid fuel, no EUV radiation was observed. Furthermore, known chemical reactions are unable to release a significant amount of eV. As a source of plasma energy, a solid fuel containing BaI2 hydrated with Ag and Cu metal moved without known exothermic chemistry to remove any possible chemical reaction. Emission of plasma radiation of a 3 mm pellet of conductive Ag (10%)-Cu / BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O fuel ignited by a high current source recording AC peak voltage of less than 15 V with two Al filters The spectrum (0-45 nm) showed a strong EUV continuum with secondary ion emission in region 17 up to 45 nm with a characteristic Al filter notch before 17:10 nm (FIG. 30). The radiation band around 40 nm to less than 17 nm due to the short wavelength reduced by the Al filter combines the theoretically predicted transition of H with the hydrino state H (1/4) by equations (227-230) and (233). It was. While selectively blocking visible light, in order to look for a short wavelength cutoff of 10.1 nm of H (1/4) transition continuum radiation, a 150 nm thick with a transmission window around 10 nm (FIG. 17B) A Zr filter (Luxel) was placed in the optical path between the grating and the CCD detector. As predicted by equations (230) and (233) as shown in FIG. 31, a 3 mm pellet of conductive Ag (10%) — Cu / BaI ₂ 2H ₂ O fuel ignited with a high current AC power source. The emission spectrum of plasma radiation (0-45 nm) showed a strong EUV continuum with a cutoff of 10.1 nm. The line observed in the high energy EUV region (FIGS. 29-31) must be from a source other than the electric field, from the absorption of high energy, to the solid fuel material ion line. An emission line is expected on the hydrino continuum radiation due to the absorption of this background radiation and re-emission as a spectral line. The same mechanism applies plasma radiation to the H-pinch and it is described in section c. Explain the existence of ionized ions with high non-thermal properties at Sun and other astronomical sources as shown at 9.

  In addition to HOH, mH atomic catalysts were tested as evidenced by observation of EUV radiation from solid fuels that contain highly conductive materials and sources of hydrogen such as hydrocarbons. As with the H2O based solid fuel, the paraffin wax in the DSC pan exploded at low voltage (<15V) (high current (10,000-30,000A)). EUV light was not observed from Al DSC pans initially dried by heating in a vacuum or inert atmosphere. However, the EUV spectrum of the wax in the DSC pan (FIG. 32) showed EUV radiation in the zero order, which was important enough to confirm the mH functioning as a catalyst to the form hydrino. There is no conventional explanation as in the case of EUV produced with HOH. The EUV intensity may not be at all proportional to the heat observed by thermal metric due to the optically thick expanded plasma. In addition, ignition of hydrocarbon-based solid fuels has some of them present on the surface of stars such as Sun and white dwarfs (essentially liquid density of H atoms in blackbody radiators of 5500-6000K). May produce matching conditions. Thus, the kinetics of hydrino formation must be significant at the high specific gravity of H produced by the ignition plasma in the presence of the arc current. Outside the range of the Threadle incident EUV spectrometer and Al filter, the most advantageous transition based on the kinetics of the multi-body reaction is to H (1/2) with continuum radiation at λ ≧ 91.2 nm. H. The observation of lower intensity zero order EUV is in line with expectations.

7). Spectrophotometric measurement of EUV optical power balance AC peak voltage of less than 15V of the second conductive NiOOH pellets ignited with a quartz filter alone and with a high current source recorded with two more Al filters. The emission spectrum (0-45 nm) of the plasma radiation is shown in FIG. A very strong zero order peak and EUV continuum were observed due to large emission EUV photon scattering and a large slit width of 100 μm. The EUV spectrum (0-45 nm) and the zero order peak were completely cut by a quartz filter confirming that the solid fuel plasma radiation was EUV. The luminescence included 2.32 X counting 107 photons. Using a standard energy light source, the total energy of EUV emission can be determined.

In the pinch plasma, the total energy E _T is the sum of Joule heating energy E _j and radiant energy _Er . Here, the Joule heating energy E _j is approximately equal to the radiant energy _Er .

The energy E _C stored in the capacitor has a capacitance C = 104 nF and a voltage V = 10,000 volts, and is as follows:
E _c = 1/2 CV ²
= (0.5) (104 × 10 ⁻⁹ ) (1 × 10 ⁴ ) ² = 5.2J
(239)

From equation (238).
E _r = 5.2 J / 2 = 2.6 J (240)

Based on the spectrum shown in section c.1, EUV radiation is greater than 95% of the total radiation. In this way, _Er is as follows.
E _r = (0.95) (2.6J) = 2.5J (241)

This energy is discharged into hydrogen gas in a volume of approximately 14 μl such that luminescence can be considered as a point source. Next, corrections for distance and solid angle are calculated. The distance from the plasma to the spectrometer notch was 750 mm.
Thus, using equation (241), the incident EUV energy density E _i of the H ₂ pinch plasma at the slit was:
E _i = E _r / 4π (750 mm) ²
= 2.5 J / 4π (750 mm) ²
= 3.54 × 10 ⁻⁷ J / mm ² (242)

Use slit dimensions, the photon energy E _S too through 50 um slit were as follows.
E _s = (2 mm) (50 × 10 ⁻³ mm) (3.54 × 10 ⁻⁷ J / mm ² )
= 3.54 × 10 ⁻⁸ J (243)

Correction for grating for 15% EUV, CCD quantum efficiency for 90% EUV, 80% Al filter transmission (0.15 um Al foil), and 15% Al filter transmission (0. 8 um Al foil) gives the calculated detection energy E _cat . The energy is as follows.
E _cat = (0.15) (0.90) (0.80) (0.15)
(3.54 × 10 ⁻⁸ J)
= 5.73 × 10 ⁻¹⁰ J (244)

The total EUV photon count of the calibration H ₂ pinch plasma spectrum was 391759.

Where the Al filter has a bandpass of 17 to 80 nm, using a mean photon wavelength of 40 nm, the corresponding measured or observed energy E _obs was:
E _obs = (391759 photons)
(4.97 × 10 ⁻¹⁸ J / photon)
= 1.95 × 10 ⁻¹² J (245)

The calibration factor C ₀ , which is the ratio of the calculated value (E _cal ) to the observed energy (E _obs ) given by equations (244) and (245), is as follows:
C ₀ = E _cal / E _obs
= 5.73 × 10 ⁻¹⁰ J / 0.95 × 10 ⁻¹² J
= 294 (246)

  This factor explains the inefficiency in detection.

The total EUV photon count of the NiOOH ignition plasma spectrum (FIG. 33) was 23170428.

E _obs = (23170428 photons)
(4.97 × 10 ⁻¹⁸ J / photon)
= 1.15 × 10 ⁻¹⁰ J (247)

Correction of E _obs equation (247) by C ₀ (Equation (246)), and grating efficiency, CCD QE, two Al foils (Equation (244)), photon energy E _S passing through slit It became as follows.
E _s = C ₀ E _obs /(0.15)(0.90)(0.80)
(0.15)
= (294) 1.15 × 10 ⁻¹⁰ J / (0.15)
(0.90) (0.80) (0.15)
(248)

Using equations (248) and (243), the EUV incident energy density of the ignition plasma at the 100 um slit was:
E _i = E _s / (2 mm) (100 × 10 ⁻³ mm)
= 2.09 × 10 ⁻⁶ J / (2 mm)
(100 × 10 ⁻³ mm)
= 1.05 × 10 ⁻⁵ J / mm ² (249)

When the average radius of the plasma was 85.7 mm (formula (237)), the blast energy density _{Er (ps)} at the radius of the light-emitting plasma was as follows.
_{Er (ps)} = 1.05 × 10 ⁻⁵ J / mm ²
(750mm / 85.7mm) ²
= 8.08 × 10 ⁻⁴ J / mm ² (250)

The equation (238) takes into account that approximately half of the energy input to a plasma such as H2 pinches the plasma, and is canceled by Joule heating from the plasma resistant power (I2R). In the case of ignition plasma, there is no such resistance heating method to reduce the radiant energy component of the total energy. However, the loss of irradiative energy is due to absorption. An explosive plasma that is initiated at optically thick conditions at atmospheric pressure and expanded to a vacuum in the chamber of an EUV spectroscopy setup to become optically thin. However, EUV radiation was downconverted to visible radiation until the plasma was at least partially transparent to EUV. The total energy E _T is given by the integration of E _{r (ps)} (Equation (250)) above the solid angle with a radius R _ps given by Equation (237).

Using Equation (237) and Equation (242), with a reasonable correction to count only the transmitted EUV radiant energy, the total EUV energy E _T is:
E _T = (2) (4πr _ps ² E _{r (ps)} )
= 8π (85.7 mm) ² 8.04 × 10 ⁻⁴ J / mm ²
= 148J (251)

Section c. As discussed in 6, field ionization of charged particles in the EUV energy region and subsequent recombination luminescence is not possible due to the low applied field and the high collision nature of atmospheric conditions. Conventional reactions cannot produce light in this high energy region. Furthermore, the decomposition of 2NiOOH to Ni ₂ O ₃ + H ₂ O is endothermic; so even energy is not expected. Large EUV emission is a source of ionization that forms highly ionized ions with fully ionized plasma (section c.2), as shown in FIGS. 29-31, which are stunning given atmospheric pressure conditions. Highly ionized ions are also formed by the continuum radiation background shown in FIGS. 18A-D and the absorption of FIG. 19 where the plasma is optically thin with an otherwise low electron temperature <10 eV.

5 mg of energetic material NH ₄ NO ₃ in a conductive Al DSC pan that is ignited with a high current source with AC peak voltage of less than 15 V recorded alone with a quartz filter and two more Al filters. The emission spectrum (0-45 nm) of the sealed plasma radiation is shown in FIG.
A very strong zero order peak is shown in section b. Using the method of 1, the H ₂ pinch release luminescence (bottom sweep line) was recorded and observed as shown in the comparison. The EUV spectrum (0-45 nm) and the zero order peak were completely cut by a quartz filter confirming that the solid fuel plasma radiation was EUV. The luminescence included a number of photons of 9.82 × 10 ⁶ . Using the calibration factor C ₀ (Equation (246)) and the correction of efficiency and dimensions, the total energy of the EUV emission can be determined.

The total EUV that the photon counts in the NH 4 NO 3 ignition plasma spectrum (FIG. 34) is 9818041.
Using equation (245), the observed energy E _obs is:
E _obs = (9818041 photons)
(4.97 × 10 ⁻¹⁸ J / photon)
= 4.88 × 10 ⁻¹¹ J (252)

C ₀ by correcting the expression (252) by (equation (246)), and the efficiency of the grating, from the CCD QE, and Al foil (formula (244)), the photon energy _{E S} passing through the slit, the following It became like this.
E _s = C ₀ E _obs /(0.15)(0.90)
(0.80) (0.15)
= (294) 4.88 × 10 ⁻¹¹ J /
(0.15) (0.90) (0.80) (0.15)
(253)

Using equations (253) and (243), the EUV incident density E _i of the ignition plasma at the 50 um slit was:
E _i = E _s / (2 mm) (50 × 10 ⁻³ mm)
= 8.86 × 10 ⁻⁷ J / (2 mm)
(50 × 10 ⁻³ mm)
= 8.86 × 10 ⁻⁶ J / mm ² (254)

When the average radius of the plasma was 85.7 mm (formula (237)), the blast energy density _{Er (ps)} at the radius of the luminescent plasma was as follows.
_{Er (ps)} = 8.86 × 10 ⁻⁶ J / mm ²
(750mm / 85.7mm) ²
= 6.79 × 10 ⁻⁴ J / mm ² (255)

The total energy E _T is given by the integration of E _{r (ps)} (Equation (255)) above the solid angle with the radius r _ps given by Equation (237).
Using Equation (238) and Equation (242), which are reasonably corrected to count only the transmitted EUV radiant energy, the total EUV energy E _T is:
E _T = (2) (4πr _ps ² E _{r (ps)} )
= 8π (85.7 mm) ² 6.79
× 10 ^-4 J / mm ²
= 125J (256)

Solid fuel NH ₄ NO ₃ is a famous energetic material that releases energy for pyrolysis.
The decomposition reaction in which NH ₄ NO ₃ calculated from the heat of formation becomes N ₂ O and H ₂ O is an exothermic reaction of ΔH = −124.4 kJ / mole NH ₄ NO ₃ .
NH ₄ NO ₃ → N ₂ O + 2H ₂ O (257)

At higher temperatures, further decomposition occurs.
The decomposition reaction in which NH ₄ NO ₃ calculated from the heat of formation becomes N ₂ and O ₂ is an exothermic reaction of ΔH = −206 kJ / mole NH ₄ NO ₃ .

NH ₄ NO ₃ → N ₂ + 1 / 2O ₂ + 2H ₂ O (258)

For 5 mg NH ₄ NO ₃ , the theoretical energy release is 12.8 J (Equation (258)). If the slow kinetics for the oxidation of Al metal pan, then a cautious energy balance with experimental thermal metric is 442.7 J (34.6 of the most exothermic conventional chemical reaction given by equation (234)). Times). A high excess energy balance was confirmed by replacing the conductive Al matrix with unreacted Ag.
The soft X-ray generation energy of 125J (formula (256)) is 10 times the theoretical energy considering this component alone. Further energy is attributed to the formation of hydrinos. Large soft X-ray observations confirm that hydrogen has a lower energy level. The hydrino reaction produces 200 times the energy of the conventional chemistry of high explosives, which favors the CHNO structure to make HOH and H (formulas (227-230)). Soft X-ray emission from the energetic material NH4NO3 is due to the formation of H2 (1/4) due to the mechanism of shock wave production of HOH, such as those with higher explosives containing the source of H and those with the elemental composition CHNO. There is very strong evidence that it is based on the extraordinary energy released. Indeed, H2 (1/4) was observed on the spectrometer as a reaction of the product of the Gunpowder reaction with NH4NO3, and EUV continuum radiation (1500 counts of zero-order radiation) is a cancer in the current study.・ Observed from powder. The extraordinary energy and hydrino product discrimination has consequences for approaches that utilize the shock wave hydrino mechanism of energetic materials to enhance this property. Section C. All of the H2O-based solid fuels ignited shock waves behaving as energetic materials with the exception that all power was in the form of visible rays rather than atmospheric volume, as given in did.

8). LED power balance of SF-CIHT cell with photovoltaic conversion Solid fuel 80mg Ti + 30mg H2O explosion in white color matched to the same careful black body temperature as Sun (5500-6000K (section c.2)) , Produced glitters of light. A series of sequential explosions of 1 Hz Ti + H 2 O pellets maintained the LED array in essentially continuous operation with maximum light output. Consider the balance of energy collected by three solar panels and released by a solid fuel-pellet explosion. The LED output approximately 1 s approximately 60 W, even if the blast was even shorter (500 μs (section c.2)) above the average per fuel pellet. Polycrystalline photovoltaic materials had response times and maximum powers that were not well suited for 1 megawatt short bursts. However, due to some capacitance, the solar cell functioned as a load equalization of approximately 60 J energy for a 1 s time interval per pellet explosion. The light reflection of Lexan was determined to be approximately 40% with a corresponding transmission of 60%, and the polycrystalline cell was evaluated for having a maximum efficiency of 12% by converting 5800K light into electricity. It was. Thus, the effective efficiency was approximately 7.2%. Modifying 60J for an efficiency of 7.2%, which does not include light lost from the back, top and bottom of the plasma, corresponds to 833J. The corresponding optical power incidence on the solar panel for a 500 μs ignition event was 1.67 MW (833 J / 500 μs) c. This energy matches the careful calorimeter energy balance and optical power balance given by the five secretaries. The typical energy that caused the explosion was approximately 60 J for these DSC pellets where the required melting was followed by the explosion. The corresponding energy gain was approximately 14X. 25 years with a warranty card (manufacturer / distributor on the product), triple junction concentrator photovoltaic (PV) with high power irradiation achieved 50% conversion efficiency above 1 MW / m ² and new Generation PV cells have been developed at 10 times this strength capability. Commercial viability is demonstrated by these results.

9. Astrophysical data in support of the mH catalytic mechanism Amazing temperature and power sources for solar corona problems, causes of sunspots and other solar activity and X-ray ((b) radiation sources heating hydrino-transition radiation WHIM And hydrinos in support of the observation that the diffuse Hα emission is 912Å and ubiquitous throughout the galaxy in need of a wide range of sources of short-circuit flow and dark matter identity (c)), That is why Sun emits, the disclosed EUV continuum results provide (a) resolution from hydrino to radiation to many otherwise mysterious astronomical measurements and radiation.

  The stars also contain a plasma of hydrogen on the surface consisting essentially of atomic hydrogen allowed by the multi-body H interaction to propagate the H transition to H (mH functions as a catalyst 1 / ( m + 1) Such a transition is expected to emit EUV continuum radiation according to equations (223-226) and (233) Emissions from white dwarfs resulting from very high concentrations of hydrogen are mainly hydrogen and helium. Modeled as an optically thick blackbody of gas containing ~ 50,000 K. Full spectral range model from 10 nm to> 91.2 nm with large amounts of He / H = 10-5 from Barstow and Horvea The combined composite spectrum is shown in Figure 35. Curves and light and EUV spectra with the white inertia spectrum fit using stratification and adjustable He and H column densities and the latter Comparing the spectrum at short wavelengths while being an ionized fraction that removes some mismatches between dependent measurements is problematic, or the emission shown in Figures 18A-D at a continuum of 91.2 nm. Is a continuum with an end at 10.1 nm (22.8), giving a spectrum nm and 91.2 nm, comparable to the white inertia spectrum, but the plasma proposed The nature and mechanism are very different: the luminescence of our study is a cold gas (optically thin plasma without any helium) and is assigned to the hydrino transition.White fertility and celestial models need revision May benefit from our discovery of high energy H-continuum emission.

For example, there are no existing physical models that can link temperature and density conditions in different separate regions of the coronal / chromospheric source upper atmosphere (chromosphere, transition region and corona). Typically, the corona is modeled to be three orders of magnitude hotter than the surface that is the source of coronal heating, ignoring the second law of surface thermodynamics. Reconciliation is provided by the mechanism of linear absorption and re-emission of m ² · 13.6 eV (Equation (233)) continuum radiation. The 91.2 nm continuum to longer wavelengths is to be prominent (not reduced from the 10.1 and 22.8 nm bands) and as shown in FIG. 36 despite attenuation by the coronary gas. Observed in the extreme ultraviolet frequency range of the sun. The high energy-photon excitement is more than the thermal mechanism by observation of the 4.7 μm CO absorption band of the solar atmosphere where T-106 and CO cannot be present above 4000 K given an outside air temperature of 4000 K. It seems. Taking the 10.1 nm band as the source, the maximum coronary temperature dimension based on an excitation of approximately 106 K is comparable to energy. In addition to temperature, another extraordinary observation is that the total average energy output of the Sun outer layer is ≈0.01% of the photospherical radiation, but local transients are the photospherical flow rate. This means that it is possible to produce an energy bundle that exceeds. The latter energy source may be magnetic in nature, but the identity of a highly ionized coronary source is not established. The total energy balance of the sun was not reconciled. The possibility of discovering a revolution in a new source of Sun's energy based on a previously undiscovered process, as discussed by Bacol in his noble lecture, is an open question. Star and Sun [N. Craig, M.C. Abbott, D.C. Finley, H.C. Jeshop, S. B. Howell, M.C. Mathioudakis, J. et al. Somers, J .; V. Vallerga, R.A. F. Marina, “Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer Spectral Chart”, Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, Vol. 113, (1997), pp. 11-27. 131-193], whose mH caused the hydrino transition to occur, is evident by the corresponding continuum in the spectrum, which is the cause of the solar corona problem, sunspots and other solar activities and why Sun emits X-rays Solve.

  As reported by Labov and Boywer, an extensive source of flow in the short-circuit direction at 912 mm is required [S. Labov, S .; Bower, “Phantom Observation of Ultra-UV Background”, Astrophysical Journal, 371, (1991), pp. 810-819] and the identity of the radiation source after observation diffusing Hα emission is ubiquitous throughout the galaxy, and the disclosed EUV continuum results further include the decomposition of dark matter identity operators There is. The identity of dark matter was a cosmological mystery. It is expected that the emission spectrum of the interstellar ultra-ultraviolet background possesses distinguishing properties like dark matter phantoms. Labov and Bower designed a grazing incidence spectrometer to measure and record the extended extreme ultraviolet background. The instrument was transmitted on the observation rocket, and data was obtained between 80 and 650 kilometers (data shows approximately every 1.5 kilometers). Several lines, including the strong 635 あ っ た where the luminescence associated with dark matter was, observed which has significant astrophysical significance, as shown by the author.

  “Regardless of origin, the 635 し た observed luminescence could be the major source of ionization. Reynolds (1983, 1984, 1985) showed that diffuse Hα emission was ubiquitous throughout the galaxy, and An extensive source of flow rate in the short-circuit direction at 912 mm is required The Pulsar Dispersion procedure (Reynolds 1989) exhibits a high scale height due to the accompanying ionization material. Since it is low, this means that the ionizing source must also have a large scale height and must be in a wide range.The steady state where the ionization rate is above is cosmic rays, soft X Line background radiation, which can be provided by a B star, and transient heating will appear unlikely Is a hot white dwarf, (Reynolds 1986; Brushweiler and Cheng 1988). Shiama (1990), Salucci and Siama (1990) are explained by the presence of dark matter in galaxies where various observations decay under 912 mm. Insisted that you can.

The flux of 635Å radiation required to produce hydrogen ionization is given by F = = ζ H / σ λ 4.3 × 10 4 ζ -13 photons _{^{cm -2 s -1, where ζ -13}} is the ionizing rate in units of 10 ^-13 s ^-1 per Hatom.
Reynolds (1986) estimates that a steady state ionizing velocity ζ- ₁₃ between 0.4 and 3.0 is required in the immediate vicinity of Sun. In order to produce this range of ionization, the 635 Å strength we observe must be distributed in the 7% -54% sky. "

The 63.5 ± 0.47 nm line is catalyzed by H (m = 1) as the catalyst causing the hydrino to undergo coordinated energy exchange of 40.8 eV total energy with the excitation of He 1s ² → 1s1 ² p ¹ Find the one that fits the expected transition for H receiving. The predicted 63.3 nm emission associated with dark matter was observed with the addition of hydrogen to the helium microwave plasma. Another mission proposed by Labov and Bower is the 63.0 nm line of OV that requires a large non-thermal radiation source of ionization. Continuum radiation from a transition to a low level hydrino state can provide this radiation. Indeed, the observation of the 63.3 nm line is also related to the presence of interstellar X-ray background radiation.

  The first soft X-ray background radiation was found and reported approximately 25 years ago [S. Bauer, G. Field and J.C. Mac, “Discovery of non-nutritive soft X-ray background radiation flow”, Nature, Vol. 217, (1968), p. 32]. Of course, it was assumed that these soft X-ray generations were from ionized atoms in the hot gas. Labov and Bower also interpreted the data as emission from hot gas. However, the authors left the door open to some other interpretations with the following statement from their introduction.

  “It is now usually assumed that this extended soft X-ray background radiation is produced by high-temperature parts of the interstellar medium, but it is not related to the observation of line emission, but to some components of observation evidence. The evidence for the thermal nature of this luminescence is indirect, in that a plausible non-thermal mechanism that does not collide is based on indirect evidence that has not been proposed. "

The author also states that "if this interpretation is correct, there are gases at several temperatures". Specifically, the emission was attributed to gas in three ranges: 5.5 <log T <5.7; log T = 6; 6.6 <log T <6.8. Observation of ultraviolet rays by HST and FUSE [C. W. Danforth, J.M. M.M. Shall, “Low-z intergalactic medium. III.HI and 194-219z <0.4, Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 679, (2008), pp., Metal Absorber], XMM-Newton, [N Warner, A. Finoguenov, JS Kaastra, A. Simonescu, JP Dietrich, J Vink, H. Bohringer, "Discovery of Hot Gas in Filaments Connecting Galactic Cluster Abel 222 and Abel 223" Astronomic and Astrophysics Letters, 482, (2008), pp. L29-L33], confirm these phenomenal temperatures of the spread intergalactic medium (IGM), and reveal that a major component of the cosmic valvallic acid problem is in the form of WHIM (warm hot ionization medium) . Mysteries of dark matter identity, moderate spectrum of observed dark interstellar, extended X-ray background radiation sources and IGM ionization sources emit EUV, continuum X according to state transitions and conditions Solved by the formation of hydrinos that take line pictures; the continuum produces highly ionized ions that emit non-thermally generated ion radiation; the hydrino transition H to H (1/2) results in a line of 63.3 nm And He + acting as a 54.4 eV (2.27.2 eV) catalyst will inject the intensity of the helium ion line, such as the 30.4 nm line, for observation. The medium between stars, required third body, not to take collision coupled energy for alternative 2H to H _2.

  The product of the catalytic reaction has a binding energy of m · 27.2 eV so that they may further act as a catalyst. Thus, further catalyst migration may occur: n = 1/3 → 1/4, 1/4 → 1/5, etc. Thus, the lower energy hydrogen atom (hydrino) can act as a catalyst by the resonating and non-radiatively accepted energy m · 27.2 eV from another H or hydrino atom. it can. Such a disproportionation reaction in hydrinos is expected for a given ascent to the feature in the X-ray region. As shown in Formula (230), the reaction product of the HOH catalyst is H [aH / 4]. The likely transfer reaction of a hydrogen cloud containing H2O gas is to H [aH / 17], where H [aH / 4] functions as a catalyst giving a broad peak with a short wavelength cutoff at E = 3481.6 eV. H atom migration of 0.35625 nm. A broad X-ray peak with a cutoff of 3.48 keV was observed in Perseus Cluster recently by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and by XMM-Newton [E. Bullbul, M.M. Markevich, A. Foster, R.D. K. Smith, M.C. Leeuwenstein, S.W. W. Randall, “Detecting unidentified emission lines of stacked X-ray spectra of galaxy clusters”, Astrophysical Journal, Volume 789, Number 1, (2014); Boyarsky, O. Ruchasky, D.C. Iakubovskyi, J. et al. France, “Unidentified spectral lines of the X-ray spectrum of the Andromeda Nebula and Perseid Galaxy” (2014), arXiv: 1402.4119 [Universal ph. CO]]. Other than the 3.48 keV function assigned to dark matter of unknown identity by BulBul, it matches the transition of H [aH / 4] + H [aH / 1] → H [aH / 17]. Ensure identity.

Evidence of EUV emission from the hydrino transition also comes from the interstellar medium (ISM) since it provides a source of ubiquitous EUV cosmic background. Specifically, the 10.1 nm continuum matches the observed strong 11.0-16.0 nm band [M. A. Barstow and J.H. B. Holbea, Extreme Ultraviolet Astronomical, Cambridge Astrophysics Series 37, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (2003); Stern, S. Bower, “Apollo-Soyuz Survey of Ultra-UV / Soft X-ray Background”, Astrophys. J. et al. 230, (1979), pp. 755-767]. Furthermore, it provides a mechanism for high ionization of helium with ISM and excess EUV radiation from galaxy clusters that cannot be explained thermally [S. Bower, J.H. J. et al. Drake, S.M. Vennes, “Ultra-Ultraviolet Spectroscopy”, Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys, 38, (2000), pp. 231-288]. Furthermore, recent data reveal that X-rays from distant active galactic central nuclei are selectively absorbed by oxygen ions near the galaxy [A. Gupta, S. Myrtle, Y. Klongold, F.M. Nicastro, M.C. Galeazzi, “A huge reservoir of ionized gas around the Milky Way:
Accounting for Missing Mass? ”Astrophysical Journal Letters, Volume 756, Number 1, (2012), p. L8, doi: 10.1088 / 2041-8205 / 756/1 / L8]. Interesting afterglow temperatures are between 1 and 2.5 million Kelvin, or hundreds of times hotter than the Sun's surface. The corresponding energy range is 86 eV to 215 eV in the region of energy released for H transition to H (1/4). Further astrophysical evidence is in the form of WHIM (warm hot ionization medium) where a major component of the cosmic valvallic acid problem is not comparable to the conventional ionizing energy source and hydrino in the dark matter identity. It is an observation that there is. The latter case is further supported by observation of the discriminating characteristic electron-positron annihilation energy.

  Dark matter includes the majority of masses in the universe as well as in galaxies [F. Bournaud, P.A. A. Duc, E .; Brinks, M.M. Boquien, P.M. Amram, U.S. Lisenfeld, B.M. Koribalski, F.A. Walter, V. Charmandaris, “Missing Mass of Collision Fragments from the Galaxy”, Science, Vol. 316, (2007), pp. 1166-1169; G. Elmegreen, “Dark Matter of Galactic Collision Fragments”, Science, Vol. 316, (2007), pp. 32-33]. It is expected that the material will fall into it and concentrate in the center of the Milky Way galaxy due to high gravity from the presence of a very large blackhole at the center emitting gamma rays. Since each hydrino is in the hydrogen state with a proton nucleus, the high energy gamma rays hitting the dark matter result in electron pair production. Corresponding observed characteristic discriminating properties hydrinos confirming the emission of 511 keV annihilation energy of electron pair production dark matter [P. Gene et al. , “Early SPI / INTEGAL measurement of 511 keV line emission from the fourth quadrant of the galaxy”, Astron, Astrophys. 407, (2003), pp. L55-L58; Choun, “Astronomers Insist on Dark Matter Evolution,” New Scientific. com, Oct. 3, (2003), http: // www. newscientist. com / article / dn4214-astronomer-claims-dark matter-breakthrough. html; C.I. Baume, D.C. Hooper, J.H. Silk, M.M. Case, J. et al. Paul, “MeV Dark Matter: Was It Found”, Physical Review Letters, Vol. 92, (2004), 101301]. Interstellar media, gamma-ray bursts and solar flares also emit 511 keV line radiation. The dominant source of positrons in gamma-ray bursts is the generation of electron pairs likely to be caused by photons or by photons above a high magnetic field. Solar flare emission is likely due to the production of radioactive positron emitters with accelerated charge interactions; 511 keV radiation spread by the interstellar medium plays the role of hydrinos as dark matter in electron pair production from incident cosmic radiation To match.

  The distinctive properties and characteristics of Hydrino's characteristic vision match those attributed to the dark matter of the universe. Universe mainly consists of hydrogen and a little helium. These elements are present in the interstellar region of space, and they are to contain the majority of interstellar matter. However, the observed constant angular velocity of many galaxies as a distance from bright galactic center increases can only be accounted for by the presence of non-luminescent, slightly interacting problems (dark matter) . It was previously recognized that dark matter was present in the cold periphery of the galaxy and in the cold interstellar space. This is disproved by the observations of Bournaud et al. [F. Bournaud, P.A. A. Duc, E .; Brinks, M.M. Boquien, P.M. Amram, U.S. Lisenfeld, B.M. Koribalski, F.A. Walter, V. Charmandaris, “Missing Mass of Collision Fragments from the Galaxy”, Science, Vol. 316, (2007), pp. 1166-1169; G. Elmegreen, “Dark Matter of Galactic Collision Fragments”, Science, Vol. 316, (2007), pp. 32-33], it proved that galaxies consist mostly of dark matter, and dark matter will probably occupy most of the general mass as the data sustains it.

  As evidenced by the large gravitational mass source lent to the gravity of background galaxies that do not emit or absorb light, as shown in Figure 37, the best evidence to date is due to the presence of dark matter. That is a direct observation. There were announcements of some unexpected astrophysical results supporting the existence of hydrinos. Bouraud et al. Suggest that dark matter is a dense molecular hydrogen that behaves differently from a point of view that is not perceptible unless it is due to its gravitational effects. Theoretical model predicts that comets made from large galaxy collision fragments must be free of nonbaronic dark matter. So their gravity must match stars and gas within their limits. By analyzing the observed gas kinematics of such recycled galaxies, Bournaud et al. Described the gravitational mass of a series of dwarf galaxies that have been looped around large galaxies that have recently experienced collisions. Was measured. Contrary to the predictions of Cold-Dark-Matter (CDM) theory, their results prove that they contain large dark components that reach approximately twice the problem they see. This valcarboxylic acid dark matter is shown to be cold molecular hydrogen, but it is distinguished from ordinary molecular hydrogen in that it is not traced at all by conventional methods. These results are consistent with the prediction of dark matter that is a molecular hydrino.

  Furthermore, astronomer Jee at al. [M. J. et al. Jee, A.M. Mahdavi, H .; Hookstra, A. Babul, J. et al. J. et al. Dalcanton, P.M. Carol, P.A. Capak, “Study of the dark core of A520 with the Hubble Space Telescope: The Mystery Deepens,” Astrophys. J. et al. 747, No. 96, (2012), pp. 96-103], NASA's Hubble telescope uses data from dark matter at the center of the mixed galaxy cluster Abel 520 created from intense collisions of large galaxy clusters, and the distribution of galaxies and hot gases. Determined that the galaxies gathered together and collected in a dark center containing much less galaxies than would be expected if the dark matter was dark matter and collision free. As hydrogen (another sign that the dark matter identity is a molecular hydrino) did, the fragments of the collision left behind by the galaxy leaving the zone of influence ceased.

  In addition, detection of other hypothesized identities for dark matter such as supersymmetric particles such as neutralinos failed with Large Hadron Collider; One event was not observed due to invisible particles. Potentially, the HADES search for dark matter excluded major candidates, “dark photons” or U-boose particles.

d. Summary of Example Results Continuum radiation in the 10-30 nm region, combining the expected transition of H with the hydrino state H (1/4), thermodynamics because hydrogen undergoes H reduction to form HOH catalyst. Observed only from a pulsed pinch that discharges with a metal oxide that is advantageous in nature; even if the low melting point metal being tested is a much stronger plasma source with a strong short wavelength continuum, Even though it was very advantageous to form a plasma, they were disadvantageous and did not show any continuum. A plasma that does not show a continuum demonstrates that the pinch source is too low energy to produce high ionized metal continuous light radiation, consistent with analysis by Bykanov. Any high energy ion radiation must be due to non-thermal secondary emission from the absorbed hydrino continuum. Of the two possible catalysts, mH and HOH, the latter is an oxide-coated electrode based on an intensity profile in dependence on the short wavelength and the thermodynamically favorable reaction of the metal oxide to HOH at the anode, More likely in behavior. A similar mechanism is functional in CIHT cells. In addition to the characteristic continuum radiation that causes a short wavelength cut-off of m ² · 13.6 eV due to HOH for the hydrino transition H to H (1/4), the transition also causes the Balmer alpha line to The predicted selective and surprisingly high kinetic energy H observed by corresponding and spreading was produced.

  Laboratory experiments have a heavenly implication. A hydrogen continuum from a transition to a hydrino-comparable form that emits less light from white, providing a mechanism that may link the temperature and density conditions of different layers of the coronal / chromospheric source, and 10 The .1 nm continuum provides a source of an extended ubiquitous EUV cosmic background that matches the observed strong 11.0-16.0 nm band in addition to resolving other cosmological mysteries. The mH catalyst has been shown to be active at astronomical sources. The discovery that radiation from hydrogen as that of the high energy continuum creates more stable states is a candidate for dark matter identities that include astrophysics such as hydrinos and the corresponding luminescent high energy wonderfully Be a source of continuum radiant energy of stars. For example, the EUV spectrum of a white dwarf is comparable to the continuum at H (1/2), H (1/3) and H (1/4), and 10 of the transition of H to H (1/4). The 1 nm continuum is observed from the interstellar medium. A major component of the cosmic varicolic acid problem after the observation that an extensive source of flow in the short-circuit direction at 912 Å is needed and the cosmic background, diffuse Hα emission is ubiquitous throughout the galaxy In the absence of a conventional ionizing energy source, hydrino continuum radiation is a source of ionization of interstellar medium (ISM), which is in the form of WHIM (warm hot ionization medium), and ubiquitous EUV and soft X Find what fits the line. Furthermore, recent X-ray absorption data reveals that the temperature of the galactic halo gas is in the range of 86 eV to 215 eV, in the region of energy released for H transition to H (1/4). . Indirect emission from non-thermally generated ions is a great source of positive valence electrodes and solid fuel plasmas in our laboratory, and continuum radiation emitted from hydrino transitions in hydrogen pinch plasmas. It is a feature.

  Rather, as a source of 10-30 nm continuum radiation of hydrogen plasma, the ion line emission above the continuum is as in the case of astronomical sources, due to the mechanism of the electric field acceleration of ions that cause intense emission of highly ionized ions. Determined by secondary emission of absorbed continuum radiation. In any case, the emission was determined to be non-thermal. Furthermore, a 10-30 nm EUV continuum was observed in our laboratory from an essentially fieldless plasma. 10.1 nm short wavelength cut-off EUV of the same nature in a pinch plasma by igniting a solid fuel source of H and HOH catalyst by passing an ultra-low voltage (high current through the fuel producing the explosive plasma) It was further shown that the HOH catalyst formed in the SF-CIHT cell to emit continuum radiation.

The chemical reaction cannot release such high energy light, and the electric field corresponded to a voltage of less than 15V due to the atmospheric collision plasma. We were a time frame for an optically thin plasma where any reactive voltage overhang occurred within 1 and the plasma was essentially a solid density at this point. The electric field was confined between the electrodes and larger or the plasma expanded at the speed of sound. The plasma had to be expanded to a vacuum away from sufficiently light-lighted electrodes to observe soft x-ray generation. Thus, essentially all of the emission occurred outside the electrode area. For 1 eV, the electron temperature was low as a result. And it was not required to support> 100 eV continuum radiation where 100 factors were observed. It is difficult to achieve such a high electron temperature due to lack of concentration, and it is very unlikely that the solid fuel plasma will be made of solid at high specific gravity of the atmosphere by conventional means. A high magnetic field was not present to form highly ionized ions that could emit in this region. Further, as shown in FIG. 21B, after ignition, a high power plasma was observed without input. In the case, the amount of soft x-ray energy exceeded the total input energy to the plasma. A black body temperature of 3500-5500 K requires an ionization mechanism (high energy source) other than electrical input. The control showed no soft X-ray generation. This plasma source serves as evidence of the presence of H transfer to hydrino H (1/4) by HOH as strong as the catalyst as a new energy source. H ₂ O based solid fuels behave as high power density energetic materials that release most of the energy as unusually high energy light versus atmospheric volume work. This aspect can be appreciated by comparing high speed video recordings of hydrino bases (imagined 21A-B) and conventional explosives, which show puffy smoke and fire.

Based on careful stark line broadening in the spectrometer, H ₂ O-based fuel ignition produces a brilliant light-emitting plasma. And the physical state of the ionized gas essentially completely of the fuel contains essentially positive ions and free electrons. Since the heating mechanism is the same anyway (H catalysis of hydrino), Sun's 5800K blackbody temperature and that of the ignition plasma are almost the same. The temperature of high-performance explosives is as high as 5500K. Hydrino formation supported by large soft X-ray generation and excess EUV energy balance (C.6 Secretary) observed high temperature sources, typical of about 200-300 J per ignition energy of about 5 J and 40 mg of solid fuel This is expected if there is a careful energy balance and hydrino's spectroscopic signature with an excess of heat metric with a certain excess of energy. As the solar cell has been optimized to convert 5800K blackbody radiation into electricity, as verified by these tests, photovoltaic conversion using solar cells is appropriate for power conversion of SF-CIHT generators. Means. Simply replacing the consumed H ₂ O regenerated the fuel, and the fuel can be continuously put into the electrode to continuously output power.

Claims (98)

A power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy,
At least one tank;
A shot containing a reactant, where the reactant is
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O;
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
d) including at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;
At least one shot injection system;
At least one shot ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and an exothermic plasma;
A system for recovering the reaction products of the reactants;
At least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the reaction product and forming additional shots;
Where the additional reactant is
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O;
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
d) including at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix;
At least one output system of light and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power or at least one of a power converter.   The power system of claim 1, wherein the vessel is capable of a pressure below atmospheric pressure. The shot ignition system is
a) at least one of a set of electrodes confining the shot; and
and b) a source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high current electrical energy.   4. The power system of claim 3, wherein a short burst of high current electrical energy is sufficient to cause a reaction of the shot reactant to form a plasma.   The power system of claim 3, wherein the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter.   The shot ignition system includes at least one of a set of electrodes that are separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit causes the high current to flow to achieve ignition. The power system according to claim 3, wherein the power system is closed by a shot injection. A source of electrical power to deliver short bursts of high current electrical energy
Selected to cause high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA The voltage to be applied;
Within at least one range of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² DC or peak AC current;
The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, where the voltage is given by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample by the desired current;
The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one range of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and
The AC frequency includes at least one of within a range of at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 KHz, and 100 Hz to 10 KHz. 3. The power system according to 3.   Its ignition system consists of electrical power source, bus bar, slip ring, shaft, bearing, electrode, bearing structure support, base support, roller drive pulley, motor drive pulley, belt, belt tensioner, electric motor The power system of claim 1, comprising a shaft, a roller pulley bearing, a motor bearing, and at least one motor.   The electrode includes a pair of rollers mounted on a shaft suspended by a bearing attached to a structural support mounted on a base support, the shaft and the attached electrode comprising a motor, 9. Power according to claim 8, characterized in that it is rotated by a motor drive pulley and motor shaft suspended on a bearing and a roller drive pulley driven by a belt each having a belt tensioner. ·system.   The power system of claim 9, wherein the motor is a computer controlled servo motor.   The power system of claim 1, wherein the shot includes at least one of silver, copper, and hydrate.   The power system of claim 11, wherein the hydrate comprises at least one of alkaline hydrate, alkaline earth hydrate, and transition metal hydrate. The power system according to claim 12, characterized in that the hydrate comprises at least one of MgCl ₂ · 6H ₂ O, BaI ₂ · 2H ₂ O, and ZnCl ₂ · 4H ₂ O.   The power system of claim 1, wherein the shot comprises at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water.   The injection system includes at least one of an augmented rail gun and a compressed air injector, the compressed air injector including a source of high pressure flow gas that propels the shot. Power system as described in   The augmented railgun includes a magnet that generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail and an isolated current that is passed through the rail, and the circuit between the rails is in contact with the rail and the shot. The power system of claim 15, wherein the power system is open until closed.   The shot contact with the rail causes the current to flow through the shot, and the resulting current generates a Lorentz force that causes the shot to be propelled along the rail. The power system of claim 16, wherein the power system interacts with a magnetic field.   The power system of claim 16, wherein the injection system further comprises at least one transporter for supplying shots to at least one of the augmented rail gun and the compressed air injector. .   The power system of claim 18, wherein the transporter includes at least one helical cutting edge.   The power system of claim 17, wherein the applied magnetic field of the augmented railgun injector includes an element parallel to the direction of the pellet motion and perpendicular to the current through the shot.   The current is used to generate a Lorentz force that causes the shot to be forced to fall on the rail to create and maintain good electrical contact between the shot and the rail. 21. A power system according to claim 20, characterized by interacting.   21. Power system according to claim 16 or 20, characterized in that the magnetic field parallel to the motion and the magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail is supplied by at least one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet.   A system for recovering a product of a reactant includes at least one of a system for generating a Lorentz force in a plasma and directing the recovered product to a collection region and gravity. The power system according to claim 1.   24. The power system of claim 23, wherein the system for generating Lorentz force in the plasma and directing the recovered product to the collection region includes an augmented plasma railgun recovery system. system.   25. The power system of claim 24, wherein the enhanced plasma railgun recovery system includes at least one of a vector cross product current element and a magnet that provides a magnetic field.   26. The power system of claim 25, wherein the at least one magnet includes at least one of a Helmholtz coil and a permanent magnet.   The enhanced plasma railgun recovery system further includes at least one additional set of electrodes peripheral to the ignition electrode, wherein the current source includes at least one of the additional set of electrodes. 27. The power system of claim 26, comprising at least one of a current between and a current flow between ignition electrodes.   The system for recovering the reactant product includes at least one of a translucent window and a translucent baffle, wherein the translucent window may include a coating on the power converter. The power system according to claim 1, wherein:   29. The power system of claim 28, wherein the translucent baffle and window are transparent to ultraviolet light. Translucent baffles and windows are made of sapphire, LiF, MgF ₂ and CaF ₂ , other alkaline earth halides, alkaline earth fluorides, BaF ₂ , CdF ₂ , quartz, quartz glass, UV glass, borosilicate, 30. The power system of claim 29, comprising at least one of a group selected from Infrasil (ThorLabs).   29. The power system of claim 28, wherein at least one of the light transmissive baffle and the window includes a lens for focusing light emitted by ignition of the shot on the power converter.   Further, a power system comprising a removal system for removing ignition products from the surface of the light transmissive baffle and the light transmissive window, wherein the light transmissive window is a razor blade mechanical scraper or knife or ion sputtering 29. The power system of claim 28, wherein the power system may include a coating on the power converter that includes the beam.   The power system of claim 1, wherein the system includes a regeneration system for regenerating an initial reactant from the reaction product and forming a shot. The regeneration system includes a pelletizer including a coolant for forming shots, a melt dripper, a system for adding H ₂ and H ₂ O to the molten reactants, and a blast furnace for forming the molten reactants. The power system of claim 1, comprising:   35. The power system of claim 34, wherein the coolant forming the shot includes a water reservoir and / or a bath.   The power system of claim 1, further comprising a system for maintaining a vacuum.   37. A power system according to claim 35 or 36, wherein the system for maintaining the vacuum comprises at least one of a vacuum pump and a water reservoir and / or a bath chiller.   35. The power system of claim 34, wherein the blast furnace includes an insulated bath and heater.   The heater comprises at least one of an inductively coupled heater, a heat exchanger that transfers thermal power sourced from the reaction of the reactants, and an optical element that transfers optical power sourced from the reaction of the reactants. 40. The power system of claim 38, comprising one.   The pelletizer includes a first thermal insulation tank heated by an inductively coupled heater, a second thermal insulation tank that receives melt for the first thermal insulation tank, a dripper, and a water reservoir for forming shots 40. The power system of claim 39, comprising:   The second tank recycles the molten ignition product, the hydrogen and steam lines entering the interior of the second tank, the molten hydrogen and steam bubbler connected to the hydrogen and steam lines, and the hydrogen and steam. 41. The power system of claim 40, comprising at least one gas outlet line connected to a pump for circulation.   A hydrogen and vapor line entering the interior of the second vessel passes through the melt so that excess gas exiting through at least one outlet line recirculated through the second vessel by at least one pump is taken into the melt. 42. The power system of claim 41, carrying bubbling hydrogen and steam, and the gas-treated melt flows to a dripper for dripping into a water reservoir to form a shot. .   43. The power system of claim 42, wherein the pelletizer includes a heat recovery device.   The heat recovery device recovers or reuses at least some of the heat from the chilled shot, to preheat the ignition product that enters as the ignition product enters the blast furnace or first tank, 44. The power system of claim 43, wherein the power system is moved to its incoming ignition product.   Hydrogen is supplied from a tank that is replenished by electrolysis of water, and the water is supplied from a water tank, where in both cases the water is replenished periodically as it is used. 42. The power system of claim 41, wherein:   36. The power system of claim 35, wherein the water reservoir includes a stirrer for supplying shots into the injection system.   The power system of claim 15 further comprising at least one agitator for delivering shots into the augmented railgun injector.   48. The power system according to claim 46 and 47, wherein the agitator includes at least one of a helical cutting edge and a water jet.   49. The power system of claim 48, wherein the water reservoir includes a transporter that supplies shots into the injection system.   The transporter includes a first helical cutting edge that carries the shot from the water bath to the shot hopper, where the second helical cutting edge, the shot helical cutting edge, feeds the shot into the injection system. 50. The power system of claim 49, wherein:   51. The power system of claim 50, wherein the injection system includes at least one of an increased rail gun and a compressed air injection device. (1) at least one of the recovered ignition product and at least one missing shot of hydrogen and H ₂ O, (2) the injection system, (3) the ignition system, and (4) the original form of the electrode 43. The power system of claim 42, comprising a roller electrode regeneration system comprising: a milling system for regenerating the electrode into the heel. Hydrogen and H ₂ O deficient shots include shots formed from ignition products that are melted by a pelletizer without treatment of the melt with hydrogen or steam;
Wherein at least one of the H ₂ O deficient shot and the recovered ignition product is injected into the roller electrode by an injection system;
The high current flow of the ignition system causes the hydrogen deficient shot or powder to weld or bond to the roller electrode, and the milling system is overcoupled to regenerate the electrode into the original form of the electrode. 53. The power system of claim 52, wherein the power system is removed.   54. The power system of claim 53, wherein the milling system includes at least one of a dressing wheel, a grinder, a lathe, a mill, and an electrical discharge machining tool.   At least one power converter with reactive power output is a photovoltaic converter, an optoelectronic converter, a plasma dynamic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine. The power system of claim 1, comprising at least one of the group and a heater.   The power system of claim 1, wherein the vessel includes a wall that reflects at least one of near infrared light, visible light, and ultraviolet light emitted by the plasma.   56. The power system of claim 55, wherein the photovoltaic converter includes a transparent window.   56. The power system of claim 55, wherein the photovoltaic cell is covered with a transparent window.   The power system of claim 1, wherein the light emitted by the cell is mostly ultraviolet light.   59. Power system according to claim 57 and 58, characterized in that the window shifts the spectrum of the light of the cell emission to that which the photovoltaic cell of the photovoltaic converter reacts selectively.   61. The power system of claim 60, wherein the photovoltaic cell comprises a visible light and infrared light collection photovoltaic cell.   60. The power system of claim 59, wherein the power converter comprises a photovoltaic converter and the photovoltaic cell comprises an ultraviolet light concentrating photovoltaic cell.   64. The power system of claim 62, wherein the photovoltaic cell comprises at least one compound selected from Group III nitride, GaAlN, GaN, and InGaN.   A photovoltaic cell is a multi-junction cell that includes multiple junctions that may be stacked in series, or the junctions are independent or electrically in parallel, where independent junctions are mechanically 64. The power system of claim 63, wherein the power system can be a substrate, grid connection, and cooling system that are stacked or wafer bonded. A multi-junction photovoltaic cell includes at least one of a two-junction, a three-junction, and a larger than three junction, each junction including a semiconductor that is np-doped from a group of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN, where , N dopant of GaN may include oxygen, and p dopant may include Mg,
A multi-junction photovoltaic cell includes InGaN // GaN // AlGaN, where // means transparent wafer bonding layer or mechanical stacking to be isolated,
The substrate of the multifunctional cell may include at least one of sapphire, Si, SiC, and GaN, where the latter two provide the best grating to match for concentrating photovoltaic applications You can,
The layer may be deposited using a metal organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) method,
The coolant system may include a cold plate, a heat exchanger, and a chiller, and
65. The power system of claim 64, wherein the grid contacts may include ultra fine wires mounted on the front and back surfaces of the cell.   A photovoltaic converter is a semi-reflective and translucent device that directs some of the incident light on each mirror in the stack to the corresponding photovoltaic cell where the remaining light travels to the next mirror in the stack. 56. The power system of claim 55, comprising a light distribution system comprising a stacked series of:   Each of the translucent and semi-reflective mirrors includes a window that is transparent to incident light, and the window is partially mirrored to reflect a portion of the incident light 68. A power system according to claim 66.   68. The power system of claim 67, wherein each of the translucent and semi-reflective mirrors includes a dichroic mirror or a beam splitter.   Each of the translucent and semi-reflective mirrors includes a window that is transparent to the incident light, and the window is a portion of the incident light on the photovoltaic cell that selectively reacts to the reflected wavelength. 69. The power system of claim 68, wherein the power system is partially mirror-finished with a dichroic film to selectively reflect portions.   70. Each of the dichroic mirror and the corresponding photovoltaic cell is arranged to increase power conversion efficiency when distributing light over the surface area of the photovoltaic converter. Power system.   The power system of claim 70, wherein the translucent and semi-reflective mirrors comprise UV transparent and UV reflective materials. At least one of the UV transparent window, the UV transparent window of the photovoltaic cell, and the UV transparent mirror material is sapphire, LiF, MgF ₂ , and CaF ₂ , other alkaline earth halides, alkaline earth fluorides, BaF _2, CdF _2, quartz, quartz glass, UV glass, borosilicate, and, according to claim 57, 58, and 71, characterized in that it comprises at least one compound of infrastructure group sill (Sorabo) Power system. At least one of the UV reflective wall coating and UV reflective mirror material, Ag, Al, Ag thin film on Al, a material capable of highly reflective at the UV wavelength, a thin fluoride film, MgF ₂ - coated Al, Al power system according to claim 56 and 71 MgF ₂ film, characterized in that it comprises one of the group of SiC film on LiF film, and Al on Al above.   56. The power system of claim 55, wherein the photovoltaic converter further includes a heat exchanger and a chiller.   The photoelectric converter includes a plurality of photoelectric cells (each photoelectric cell includes a photocathode having a work function greater than 1.8 eV), an anode, a vacuum space between the electrodes, and a window. 56. The power system of claim 55, comprising:   76. The power system of claim 75, wherein the photoelectric cell comprises at least one of a group of photoelectronic cells of transmissive or translucent type, or opaque or reflective type.   77. The power system of claim 76, wherein the transmissive or translucent type photoelectric cell includes a photocathode, an anode, and a separating gap between the electrodes.   Opaque or reflective type photoelectronic cells include a photocathode material formed on an opaque metal electrode base (where light enters and electrons exit from the same side) and a double reflective type, where 77. The metal base causes the light passing through the photocathode to be bounced back to the second pass with absorption and photoemission without causing emission, like a mirror. Power system as described in   Opaque or reflective photoelectronic cells consist of a transparent casing, a photocathode, a transparent anode, a space between electrodes separated by vacuum or vacuum, and the exterior between the anode and cathode through a load. Where radiation enters the cell and is incident directly on the photocathode, radiation enters the cathode at the gap interface, and electrons are emitted from the same interface. 79. The power system of claim 78, wherein:   80. The gap between the electrodes is in at least one of the following ranges: 0.1 um to 1000 um, 1 um to 100 um, 1 um to 10 um, and 1 to 5 um Power system.   80. The power photonic cell of claim 79, wherein the opaque or reflective photoelectronic cell comprises a transparent window, and light enters the cell through a transparent window having a grid anode on the inside surface of the window. system. The windows are sapphire, LiF, MgF ₂ and CaF ₂ , other alkaline earth halides, other alkaline earth fluorides, BaF ₂ , CdF ₂ , quartz, quartz glass, UV glass, borosilicate, and 80. The power system of claims 77 and 79, comprising at least one of infrasil.   The photocathode work function is greater than 1.8 eV for radiation shorter than 690 nm, greater than 3.5 eV for radiation shorter than 350 nm, and 0.1 V to 100 V, 76. The power system of claim 75, wherein the power system can be at least one of a group within at least one range of 0.5 V to 10 V, and 1.85 eV to 6V. The photocathode of the photoelectric cell
GaN, GaN alloy, Al _x Ga _1-x N, In _x Ga _1-x N, alkali halide, KI, KBr, CsI, multi-alkali, S20 Hamamatsu including Na—K—Sb—Cs, GaAs, CsTe, One of the group of diamond, Sb—Cs, Au, Ag—O—Cs, bialkali, Sb—Rb—Cs, Sb—K—Cs, Na—K—Sb, InGaAs,
An opaque photocathode comprising at least one of GaN, CsI, and SbCs;
A translucent photocathode, including a UV photocathode of CsTe, type III-V material, with a reasonably large band gap in the range of 3.5 eV for GaN and 6.2 eV for AlN;
A photocathode having a finely tuned energy or wavelength response region by changing the material composition of the photocathode;
A photocathode having a finely tuned energy or wavelength response region by changing the ratio of GaN to AlN in Al _x Ga _1-x N;
A thin film of p-doped material that is activated to negative electron affinity by appropriate surface treatment;
A thin film of p-doped material that is activated to negative electron affinity by appropriate surface treatment with cesium or Mg and oxygen;
A photocathode comprising a thin film of MgO on Ag, MgF ₂ , MgO, CuI ₂ ;
A metal photocathode;
A metal photocathode comprising at least one of Cu, Mg, Pb, Y, and Nb;
A coated metal photocathode;
_{Cu-CsBr, Cu-MgF 2} , Cu-Cs, and Cu-CsI, a metal photocathode coated comprising at least one of,
A metal alloy photocathode;
A coated metal alloy photocathode;
A metal alloy photocathode containing CsAu;
A photocathode comprising a pure metal alloy of Al, Mg and Cu;
A photocathode comprising an alloy of pure metals of Al, Mg, and Cu, each with a small amount of Li, Ba, and BaO;
A semiconductor photocathode;
A semiconductor photocathode comprising CsTe, RbTe, alkali / antimonide, Cs ₃ Sb, K ₂ CsSb, Na ₂ KSb, NaK ₂ Sb, CsK ₂ Sb, Cs ₂ Te, super alkali, and
A positive erection affinity (PEA) type photocathode;
A doping photocathode having a gradient of Cs: GaAs, Cs: GaN, Cs: InGaN, Cs: GaAsP;
Tertiary structure photocathode, and
84. The power system of claim 83, comprising a photocathode comprising a negative electron affinity (NEA) type. The semiconductor photocathode may be maintained at a high vacuum in at least one range lower than 10 ⁻⁹ Pa, 10 ⁻⁷ Pa, 10 ⁻⁵ Pa, 10 ⁻³ Pa, and 10 ⁻¹ Pa. 85. The power system of claim 84. A power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy,
At least one tank;
A slurry comprising a reactant, wherein the reactant is
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O;
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and
d) including at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;
At least one slurry injection system including a rotating roller electrode including a rotary slurry pump;
At least one slurry ignition system that causes the shot to form a luminous plasma;
A system for recovering reaction products of the reactants;
At least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the reaction product to form an additional slurry, wherein the additional slurry is:
a) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H ₂ O;
b) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O;
c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and
d) including at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;
A power system comprising at least one of an optical power and / or thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power, at least one of an output system or a power converter.   87. The power system of claim 86, wherein the ignition system for triggering the shot to form a luminescent plasma includes a source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high current electrical energy. . A source of electrical power to deliver short bursts of high current electrical energy
Voltage selected to cause high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixing of currents in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 kA, 10 kA to 50 kA When;
Within at least one range of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² DC or peak AC current density at;
The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, where the voltage is given by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material by the desired current;
DC or peak AC voltage in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 90. The power system of claim 87, comprising at least one of: an AC frequency in the range of at least one of 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.   Its ignition system consists of electrical power source, bus bar, slip ring, shaft, bearing, electrode, bearing structure support, base support, roller drive pulley, motor drive pulley, belt, belt tensioner, electric motor 90. The power system of claim 86, comprising a shaft, a roller pulley bearing, a motor bearing, and at least one motor.   The electrode includes a pair of rollers mounted on a shaft suspended by a bearing attached to a structural support mounted on a base support, the shaft and the attached electrode comprising a motor, 90. The power pulley of claim 89, wherein the power pulley is rotated by a roller drive pulley driven by a belt each having a belt and a motor pulley and motor shaft suspended on a bearing. system.   87. The power system of claim 86, wherein the slurry includes at least one of a metal and a hydrate.   92. The power system of claim 91, wherein the hydrate comprises at least one of an alkaline hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate includes at least one of MgCl ₂ · 6H ₂ O, BaI ₂ · 2H ₂ O, and ZnCl ₂ · 4H ₂ O, and the metal is a transition metal, Ti, Cu, and Ag. 94. The power system of claim 92, comprising at least one.   At least one power converter with reactive power output is a photovoltaic converter, an optoelectronic converter, a plasma dynamic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine. 87. The power system of claim 86, comprising at least one or more of the following groups.   90. The power system of claim 86, wherein the system for recovering the product of the reactants comprises a water jet and a slurry tank.   A system for regenerating initial reactants from reaction products to form a slurry includes at least one of a sieve, mesh, or filter, at least one of a water suction pump on the wall of the slurry trough, and a rotary pump. 90. The power system of claim 86. A power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising:
At least one tank capable of lower than atmospheric pressure;
A shot containing the reactants, where the reactants are
e) at least one of a catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent H ₂ O;
f) at least one source of H ₂ O or H ₂ O;
g) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and
h) including at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;
At least one of a shot injection system comprising at least one augmented railgun, wherein the augmented railgun is separated by a magnet that generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail and the current being passed through the rail Contains and is open until the circuit between the rails is closed by contact of the rail and the shot;
At least one ignition system for triggering the shot to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and an exothermic plasma, wherein the at least one ignition system comprises:
a) at least one set of electrodes for confining the shot; and b) a source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high current electrical energy;
At least one set of electrodes forms an open circuit, which is closed by a shot shot that causes a high current to flow to achieve ignition, and a short burst of high current electrical energy The source of electrical power that delivers
Voltage selected to cause high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixing of current in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA ;
Within at least one range of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² DC or peak AC current density at
The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, where the voltage is given by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material by the desired current;
DC or peak AC voltage in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 At least one of an AC frequency in the range of at least one of Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz;
An enhanced plasma railgun recovery system that includes at least one magnet that provides a current element and a magnetic field of the cross product of the ignition electrode vector and a system for recovering the reaction product of the reactant including at least one of gravity; and ;
Regenerating additional reactants from the reaction product and forming a molten reactant, a blast furnace, a system for adding H ₂ and H ₂ O to the molten reactants, a molten dripper, and a shot At least one regeneration system for forming an additional shot including a pelletizer including a water reservoir for forming;
Where the additional reactant is
e) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent H ₂ O;
f) at least one of H ₂ O or a source of H ₂ O,
g) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and
h) including at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix; and
With at least one or more of the group of photovoltaic converters, optoelectronic converters, plasma dynamic converters, thermoelectric converters, thermoelectric converters, Stirling engines, Brayton cycle engines, Rankine cycle engines, and heat engines, and At least one output system or power converter of light and heat output to electrical and / or thermal power, including a heater, and
Including power system. A power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising:
At least one tank capable of a pressure below atmospheric pressure;
A shot containing a reactant, wherein the reactant comprises at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water;
At least one shot injection system including at least one augmented railgun, wherein the augmented railgun is separated by a magnet that generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail and the current being passed through the rail Contains and is open until the circuit between the rails is closed by contact of the rail and the shot;
At least one ignition system for triggering the shot to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and an exothermic plasma, wherein the at least one ignition system comprises:
a) at least one set of electrodes for confining the shot; and b) a source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high current electrical energy;
The at least one set of electrodes is separated to form an open circuit, the open circuit is closed by a shot injection that causes a high current to flow to achieve ignition, and a high current electrical A source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of energy
Voltage selected to cause high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixing of current in at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA ;
Within at least one range of 100 A / cm ² to 1,000,000 A / cm ² , 1000 A / cm ² to 100,000 A / cm ² , and 2000 A / cm ² to 50,000 A / cm ² DC or peak AC current density at
The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, and that voltage is given by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material by the desired current;
DC or peak AC voltage in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 At least one of an AC frequency in the range of at least one of Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz;
An enhanced plasma railgun recovery system that includes at least one magnet that provides a current element and a magnetic field of the cross product of the ignition electrode vector and a system for recovering the reaction product of the reactant including at least one of gravity; and ;
Regenerating additional reactants from the reaction product and forming a molten reactant, a blast furnace, a system for adding H ₂ and H ₂ O to the molten reactants, a molten dripper, and a shot At least one regeneration system for forming an additional shot including a pelletizer including a water reservoir for forming;
Wherein the additional reactant comprises at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water;
At least one of an output system or power converter including a concentrating ultraviolet photovoltaic converter, wherein the photovoltaic cell comprises at least one compound selected from Group III nitride, GaAlN, GaN, and InGaN. Including;
Including power system.