EP3242963A1 - Elektrochemisches verfahren zur herstellung einer verbindung mit einem metall oder metalloid und einem peroxid, ionischer oder radikaler spezies - Google Patents

Elektrochemisches verfahren zur herstellung einer verbindung mit einem metall oder metalloid und einem peroxid, ionischer oder radikaler spezies

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Publication number
EP3242963A1
EP3242963A1 EP16700274.0A EP16700274A EP3242963A1 EP 3242963 A1 EP3242963 A1 EP 3242963A1 EP 16700274 A EP16700274 A EP 16700274A EP 3242963 A1 EP3242963 A1 EP 3242963A1
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EP
European Patent Office
Prior art keywords
catholyte
electrochemical
cathode
gas
water soluble
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EP16700274.0A
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English (en)
French (fr)
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EP3242963B1 (de
Inventor
Xochitl Dominguez Benetton
Yolanda Alvarez Gallego
Christof Porto-Carrero
Katrijn Gijbels
Sunita RAJAMANI
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Vito NV
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Vito NV
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    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25B1/00—Electrolytic production of inorganic compounds or non-metals
    • C25B1/01—Products
    • C25B1/28—Per-compounds
    • C25B1/30—Peroxides
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25B1/00—Electrolytic production of inorganic compounds or non-metals
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C25—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25B—ELECTROLYTIC OR ELECTROPHORETIC PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COMPOUNDS OR NON-METALS; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C25B11/00—Electrodes; Manufacture thereof not otherwise provided for

Definitions

  • the present invention relates to electrochemical process for recovering a metal element or a metalloid element or a mixture of two or more thereof from at least one water soluble precursor compound comprising the metal element or a metalloid element or two or more thereof, in the form of one or 5 more nano particles of at least one reaction product, according to the preamble of the first claim.
  • the present invention further relates to nano particles, in particular nano crystals obtained with that process and to a device for carrying out the process of the invention.
  • Nano particles and their composites exhibit unconventional electronic, optical, magnetic and chemical properties with respect to bulk phase particles and macroscopic crystals. Hence, they offer new or improved properties for
  • nano particle properties typically vary irregularly and are specific to each size (in Rao C.N.R., Thomas P.J., Kulkami G.U., Nano crystals: 0 Synthesis, Properties and Applications). Regardless of the method used for
  • a high quality synthesis procedure should desirably produce nano particles with a controlled size distribution, often a narrow size distribution is aimed at. The narrower 5 the size distribution, the more attractive the synthesis procedure.
  • the best synthesis procedures available today produce nano crystals with a size distribution of about 5%.
  • Shape control is also an important feature. Synthesis methods that provide crystalline nano particles are preferred, as well as the methods that provide shape stabilization. Particularly preferred are synthesis methods that do not employ hazardous solvents, thinking of environmental sustainability.
  • Modern methods for synthesizing amorphous or crystalline nano particles may include chemical reaction steps, as well as physical treatment and biological steps. Chemical methods for producing crystalline nano particles offer the advantage over physical methods that milder reaction conditions may be used. In comparison with purely biological methods, an improved control may be achieved. Chemical methods typically employ the steps of crystal seeding, permitting particle growth to take place and terminating particle growth once the desired particle size has been obtained. Since these steps are often inseparable, synthesis is often initiated by providing a nano crystal precursor, a solvent and termination (capping) agents.
  • Electrochemical synthesis is often employed for the production of zero- valent, metal nano crystals, by the steps of oxidative dissolution of an anode, migration of metal ions to the cathode and reduction to the zero valent state, nucleation followed by particle growth, addition of capping agents (typically quaternary ammonium salts containing long-chain alkanes) to inhibit growth, and precipitation of the nano crystals.
  • the size of nano crystals may be tuned a.o. by altering current density, varying the distance between the electrodes, controlling the reaction time, temperature and the polarity of the solvent.
  • Chemical and classical electrochemical methods typically result in the formation of nano crystals having an average particle size around 100 nm. In a few cases, formation of nanocrystals with an average particle size below 100 nm has been observed, however these exhibit highly polydisperse (non- uniform) size and shape distributions.
  • US20060068026 discloses a thermal electrochemical method for preparing a colloidal stable suspension of zero-valent naked metal or metal- alloy nano crystals.
  • the method comprises the steps of at least partly immersing into essentially contaminant-free water, a metallic sacrificial anode that includes an essentially contaminant-free metal starting material for the nano crystals and a cathode; and applying a voltage potential across the anode and the cathode to form a colloidally stable suspension of naked metal nano crystals composed essentially of metal from the metallic sacrificial anode.
  • the chemical precursors for the nano particles are usually present in a dissolved state in the solution that is to be treated, for example the chemical precursors are dissolved in an aqueous matrix.
  • the method for synthesizing nano particles can therefore also be regarded as a method for removing water soluble compounds from a solution and recovering them for example as a solid precipitate.
  • REE rare earth elements
  • WO 2012115273 Al discloses a method for the extraction and separation of lanthanoid and actinoid elements by contacting a solution of these elements with a nanostructure carrying a metal-adsorbent compound, capable of functioning as an adsorbent for the target metal. To recover the target metal, the adsorbent compound with the metal adsorbed to it is contacted with a back-extraction solution.
  • US2011042219 Another method for removing ionic species from fluids, for example impaired water supplies, which makes use of capacitive deionization is disclosed in US2011042219.
  • the method disclosed in US2011042219 employs an electrodialysis and/or an electrodialysis reversal system that utilizes high- surface area, porous, non-Faraday electrodes - which they do not carry out electron transfer reactions.
  • the system contains a membrane stack which includes alternating cation-transfer membranes and anion-transfer
  • a double layer capacitor with a high apparent capacitance may be thus formed on each electrode.
  • the method is typically applicable in industries in which liquids may require ionic species removal including water, pharmaceuticals and food and beverage industries.
  • US2015/0200082 Al discloses a method of manufacturing particles of metal hydroxides, such as indium, tin, copper, gallium, zinc, aluminum, iron, nickel, manganese, and lithium, or an alloy containing at least one type selected from these metals, wherein the metal particles have a uniform particle diameter of 100 nm.
  • a gas diffusion electrode is submerged in an electrolyte, for example ammonium nitrate, the anode is defined by the metal or the conductive metal oxide. Oxygen supplied to the cathode is reduced at the gas-liquid interface, thereby generating hydroxide ions (02+2H20+4e " ⁇ 40H " ), causing the pH to increase as the process continues.
  • the standard electrode potential (+0.40 V) of the reduction reaction of the oxygen being higher than the standard electrode potential (+0.01 V) of the reduction reaction of the nitrate ion, reduction of the nitrate ions rarely occurs.
  • Metal ions eluted from the anode during electrolysis react with the hydroxide ions in the electrolytic solution to form metal hydroxide particles.
  • the alkaline conditions in which the reaction is carried out cause particle diameters to increase, and obtaining the metal hydroxides as particles with a uniform desired particle diameter is hard to achieve. If so desired, pH and temperature of the electrolyte can be stabilized. When analysing the morphology of the particles, it appeared that each particle consists of a plurality of smaller particles aggregated to form a larger particle.
  • US-A-3.073.763 discloses a method for the electrolytic production of iron oxides or mixtures of metal oxides which predominantly contain iron oxide, using an iron anode and one or more other metal anodes and a cathode consisting of a conductive material, e.g. metal or carbon.
  • An alkaline salt solution the anions of which do not form insoluble salts with the metals of the anodes and have a greater affinity to hydrogen than to iron is used as the electrolyte.
  • the metals at the anode will dissolve and contact the alkaline medium which has formed adjacent the cathode.
  • the metal ions are converted in the electrolyte solution into the corresponding oxides, which precipitate in solution as particles having a large average particle size in the order of 100 nm or more. In the process of US-A-3.073.763 no reduction of oxygen takes place.
  • US-A-4.067.788 discloses a method for producing finely divided metal powders, in particular powders of nickel, silver, gold and the platinum group metals, having particles ranging in size from about 0.5 micron to about 10 micron.
  • the anode is made of the metal to be finely divided as the oxide, the hydroxide or the metal itself.
  • the anode is immersed in an alkaline solution of a salt, having a typical pH of between 8 and 12, the anion of the salt being soluble when combined with said metal.
  • the cathode is a catalyzed air electrode.
  • the particle size may be controlled by
  • the recirculation of the electrolyte In order to further increase the particle size of the oxide or hydroxide, a portion of the solid material is returned to the cell in which the process is carried out to serve as nuclei on which additional oxide or hydroxide is deposited.
  • the final step in the process is the chemical reduction of the metal oxide or metal hydroxide to the finely divided metal, for example using formaldehyde or inverted sugar.
  • UA-S-6.235.185 discloses a method and an apparatus for producing particles of a metal compound such as a metal oxide or a metal hydroxide having particle diameters of not greater than 1 micron, in particular 1 to 1000 nm, preferably 5 to 100 nm,
  • particle diameter herein means the volume average particle diameter of 200 or more particles observed by means of a transmission electron microscope and a sharp particle size distribution, starting from a less expensive starting material and using a simplified production facility.
  • an electrolytic solution which contains metal ions as a starting material for the ultrafine metal compound particles is provided in the anode chamber, an alkaline electrolytic solution is provided in the cathode chamber.
  • a voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode, to induce transfer of the metal ions from the anodic side chamber to the cathodic side chamber through an ion exchange layer.
  • Ultrafine metal compound particles are precipitated in the alkaline electrolytic solution in the cathode chamber.
  • metals suitable for use with the method of US-A-6.235.185 include lithium, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tellurium, cesium, barium, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, platinum, gold, mercury, lead, bismuth, cerium, neodymium, samarium and europium, or combinations hereof.
  • US2004/0108220 Al discloses a process for the production of amorphous and or crystalline mixed oxides of metals with mean particle diameters ranging from 1 to 500 nm, more particularly metals of the third to fifth main group or the secondary groups of the periodic system. Ions dissolved in an organic electrolyte of those metals of which the (mixed) oxide is to be produced in the electrolyte of the cathode compartment, are electrochemically reduced at the cathode in the presence of air as an oxidizing agent.
  • the cathode compartment is separated from the anode compartment by a porous partition diaphragm which is permeable to cations and anions, but prevents the passage of elemental halogen from the anode to the cathode compartment.
  • Preferred organic electrolytes include alcohols, polyalcohols or mixtures and derivatives thereof, ketones, ethers, nitrites, organic carbonates and aromatic compounds, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, acetonitrile, toluene.
  • the organic electrolyte may contain small quantities of water, for example from about 0.01 to about 2% by weight.
  • US2004/0108220 Al is said to produce particles of amorphous and/or crystalline mixed oxides of metals with mean particle diameters ranging from 1 to 500 nm, the examples do not reveal the actual particle size obtained. Moreover, the process involves the use of an organic electrolyte and is therefore not suitable for example for recovering metal ions from aqueous solutions.
  • a need remains for an electrochemical process which permits to produce such crystalline particles with a controlled particle size distribution, preferably a narrow particle size distribution or a so-called monodisperse particle size distribution.
  • This process should be suitable for recovering the commonly used metal or metalloid elements as well as those which are less commonly used.
  • the present invention therefore aims at providing an economically feasible method for isolating from at least one water soluble precursor compound comprising a metal or a metalloid element or two or more thereof, nano particles, in particular crystalline nano particles, of at least one reaction product comprising a metal or a metalloid element or two or more thereof.
  • electrochemical process of this invention comprises the steps of
  • the water diffusion electrode comprises a porous electrochemically active material having a BET surface area of at least 50 m 2 /g
  • the cathode subjecting the cathode to an electrochemical potential to cause reduction of the at least one oxidant gas to one or more of the corresponding peroxide, ionic and/or radical reactive species capable of reacting with a cation comprising the metal element, or the metalloid element or a mixture of two or more thereof, to form at least one nano particle, in particular at least one nano crystal, of the at least one reaction product with an average particle size, in particular an average crystallite size equal to or smaller than 30.0 nm.
  • the inventors have observed that subjecting the cathode to an electrochemical potential which is chosen such that it is capable of causing reduction of an oxidant gas supplied to it, permits to induce at the
  • electrochemically active surface of the gas diffusion electrode of the cathode in other words at the electrochemically active surface of the cathode, a redox transformation.
  • This redox transformation involves on the one hand a reduction of the oxidant gas, and on the other hand an in situ oxidation of the metal and/or metalloid element contained in the water soluble precursor compound, to a higher oxidation state. This is surprising, as the skilled person would typically expect a reduction reaction of the metal and/or metalloid element to occur at the cathode.
  • the assumption that an in situ oxidation of the at least one metal and/or metalloid element takes place is supported by the observation that the conductivity of the catholyte decreases with an increasing degree of recovery of metal or metalloid ion from the aqueous solution, i.e. an increasing formation of nano particles, in particular nano crystals of the reaction product.
  • the inventors have also observed that the oxidized at least one metal and/or metalloid element having a positive valence adsorb at least temporarily to the electrochemically active surface of the cathode, and thereby form an interface with the catholyte.
  • the electrochemical potential or range of electrochemical potentials at which reduction of the oxidant gas may occur is well known to the skilled person and is represented by the Nernst equation.
  • the Nernst equation is an equation that relates the reduction potential of a half-cell or the total voltage at any point in time to the standard electrode potential, temperature, activity and reaction quotient of the underlying reactions and species used.
  • the Nernst equation may be written as follows :
  • E is the half-cell reduction potential at the temperature of interest E° is the standard half-cell reduction potential
  • T the absolute temperature
  • z is the number of moles of electrons transferred in the cell reaction or half reaction
  • RTIF may be treated like a constant and replaced by 25.693 mV for cells.
  • m represents the stoichiometric coefficient as per the reaction below: aA + ⁇ + ze ⁇ - bB + cH 2 0
  • the fact that the process also occurs within the pores of the electrochemically active material has been observed when the electric polarization is stopped, by the release of the majority of the nano particles, in particular nano crystals into the electrolyte when stopping the electric polarization.
  • the inventors assume that the reduction of the oxidant gas at the cathode may give rise to the formation of one or more peroxide, ionic and/or radical species, usually polyatomic species, which are adsorbed to the electrochemically active surface of the cathode and create there a local environment confined within the pores of the electrochemically active material. Within the pores of the electrochemically active material, a characteristic pH and redox potential may develop, which are different from that of both the solution and the external electrode surface. Supersaturation of the local environment with such species may occur.
  • peroxide, ionic and/or radical species usually polyatomic species
  • the at least one water soluble precursor compound is dissolved in the electrolyte, in particular in the catholyte, in an at least partly dissociated state:
  • the at least one metal or metalloid ion or compound comprising the at least one metal element or metalloid element may have a positive valence of +1, +2, +3 or any other valence that may form for that species.
  • the cations of the dissolve water soluble precursor compound contained in the aqueous electrolyte may migrate or diffuse from the electrolyte solution towards the cathode, adhere or be adsorbed to the external surface of the electrochemically active material and be adsorbed within the pores of the electrochemically active material, in particular to the active sites thereof. Adhesion of the positively charged cations to the electrochemically active surface of the gas diffusion electrode may take place through various mechanisms, and may involve adsorption forces, mainly Van der Waals forces.
  • an electric double layer may be formed at the active surface involving the cations, thus allowing for electrostatic adsorption or capacitive adsorption at the double layer, but reversible ion exchange adsorption, complexating or chelation and any other forms of adhesion or adsorption may take place as well.
  • the inventors further believe that at least part of the functional groups present on the surface of the electrochemically active material will be present in an at least partially dissociated state (C*-R ⁇ ), especially when an
  • electrochemical potential is applied to the electrode.
  • These dissociated sites C*-R ⁇ carrying an electric charge may form ion exchange sites for the positively charged metal or metalloid ion.
  • the surface of the electrochemically active layer may for example comprise weak protonic acid sites in the form (C*-ffH), which may dissociate into C*-R ⁇ and H + , where C* represents an active site on the electrochemically active layer of the cathode.
  • electrochemically active surface may be accelerated and a local environment may be created with extreme pH and redox conditions, which are different from those found in the bulk of the electrolyte solution and on the bare electrode surface:
  • One or more positively charged ions i.e. metal or metalloid ions or a compound comprising one or more of the metal or metalloid element, may be then adsorbed either directly to a C*— R ⁇ site or to a reduced species of the oxidant gas, for example a peroxide radical, an ionic or other radical species, the peroxide radical being the most active species.
  • a (polymetal ion polyoxy radical) or a (polymetalloid ion polyoxy radical) may be formed, which once adsorbed to an electrochemically active site and supersaturating such site may on the surface of the electrochemically active material of the cathode, act as a nucleation site for the formation of an oxidized compound comprising the at least one metal and/or at least one metalloid ion.
  • a (polymetal ion polyoxy radical) or a (polymetalloid ion polyoxy radical) may be formed, which once adsorbed to an electrochemically active site and supersaturating such site may on the surface of the electrochemically active material of the cathode, act as a nucleation site for the formation of an oxidized compound comprising the at least one metal and/or at least one metalloid ion.
  • Ce 3+ cerium ion
  • the electrochemically active surface of the gas diffusion electrode and the cathode includes the external surface as well as the active surface present in the pores of the electrochemically active material.
  • the active surface present within the pores provides by far the larger part of the active surface as the porous material will usually have a high BET surface of at least 50 m 2 /g.
  • the electrochemical process of this invention i.e.
  • the formation of nano particles, in particular nano crystals of the reaction product will mainly take place in the pores of the electrochemically active material, in which supersaturation conditions may exist of the polyatomic ions or radicals which are formed during reduction of the oxidant gas.
  • formation and growth of particles of the reaction product in the pores of the porous electrochemically active material will be limited by the dimensions of those pores.
  • the average diameter of the nano particles, in particular the nano crystals will often be limited to a maximum of 5 nm.
  • a dedicated choice of the electrochemically active material in particular the pore size distribution of the electrochemically active material which is represented by the BET surface of the porous material, thus permits controlling the size of the nano particles, in particular the nano crystals of the reaction product, and thus the particle size of the reaction product.
  • the electrochemical potential to which the gas-diffusion cathode is subjected is a reducing potential relative to a reference electrode, preferably below the thermodynamic pH-potential equilibrium region of stability of the oxidant gas in water, more preferably below the region of thermodynamic stability of water but preferably not within the region of thermodynamic stability of hydrogen.
  • a reference electrode preferably below the thermodynamic pH-potential equilibrium region of stability of the oxidant gas in water, more preferably below the region of thermodynamic stability of water but preferably not within the region of thermodynamic stability of hydrogen.
  • the formation of hydrogen may be preferred, e.g. if the targeted application of the formed nano particles, in particular the nano crystals is related to in-situ hydrogen capture or storage.
  • the inventors have observed that the oxidized metal and/or metalloid cations formed in the process of this invention and outlined in the reaction schemes above, accumulate at the interface in the pores of the
  • the reaction product may for example accumulate as particles of a product forming a solid or colloidal phase.
  • the reaction product may for example accumulate on the interface in the form of crystalline or amorphous nano particles, which may grow with time to take a larger size as the process proceeds and form a physical state which is different from the physical state of the electrolyte, so that the nano particles of the reaction product may be isolated from the cathode and the electrolyte.
  • the reaction product may be released in a variety of physical forms, for example in the form of a precipitate, or in the form of colloidal nano particles, for example in the form of a colloidal dispersion. After having been released into the electrolyte, the particles may further aggregate to form a stable solid phase, a separable precipitate, gel-like, foam-like or a Pickering emulsion-like phase.
  • electrochemically active material and the nature of the oxidized compound release of the reaction product in the form of nano particles, in particular nano crystals, into the electrolyte may occur as such, or may need to be forced.
  • Metal and metalloid elements may take various oxidation states and may form, with the species which result from the reduction of the oxidant gas, reaction products or compounds which contain one or more monoatomic or polyatomic ions, in an oxidation state which leads to a phase that may be separated from the catholyte and from the cathode.
  • Theoretical diagrams for a wide variety of species can be constructed without undue burden based on the premises provided therein, included those for oxidant gases other than oxygen
  • the skilled person is capable of identifying the electrochemical potential at which electrochemical reduction of the oxidant gas, and the corresponding oxidation of the metal cation or metalloid cation may occur. This is illustrated in figure 18, which shows the electrochemical series of a few oxidant gases.
  • the chemical composition of the reaction product may be controlled.
  • the ionic or radical species of the oxidant gas may diffuse over the charged electrochemically active surface and cluster with other similar species, for example peroxide radicals, adhering to the active surface of the cathode.
  • This clustering may lead to local super- saturation on the active surface of the electrochemically active material including the active surface within the pores of the electrochemically active material, and the growth of the ionic or radical species present on that electrochemically active surface (for example surface peroxide) into critical nuclei, as opposed to crystal formation in the electrolyte solution known from the prior art.
  • electrochemically active material permits to obtain the nano crystals of the reaction product in a selected crystal form, and to affect their lattice parameters.
  • nano crystals of the reaction product may be obtained which are monodisperse, or at least show a small particle size distribution curve.
  • monodisperse particles where 75 % of the particles have a particle size which differs with maximum 5 %, preferably maximum 3 %, more preferably maximum 1 %.
  • the electrochemically active surface of the cathode may contain adsorbed reactive radicals and/or adsorbed oxidant gas, and although the water based electrolyte may contain some dissolved oxidant gas, this will usually not be enough to ensure full recovery of all metal or metalloid ions present in the electrolyte.
  • Supply of an oxidant gas to the cathode, in particular to the gas diffusion electrode may therefore be preferred in order to ensure maximum recovery of the reaction product comprising the at least one metal or metalloid element in an oxidized state, from the water soluble precursor compound dissolved in the water based electrolyte and optimize the reaction rate.
  • an oxidant gas supplied to the gas diffusion electrode will migrate from the hydrophobic side of the gas diffusion electrode, through the gas chamber of the gas diffusion electrode, towards, into and through the electrochemically active material of the gas diffusion electrode and cathode.
  • oxidant gases suitable for use with this invention include organic as well as inorganic oxidant gases.
  • inorganic gases suitable for use with this invention include ozone, oxygen, carbon oxide gases for example CO2, nitrogen oxides for example NO, N2O3, halogen gases, halogen oxide gases, sulfur oxide gases, air, biogas, flue gas, acid gas and combustion exhaust gas and mixtures or two or more of the afore mentioned gases.
  • oxidant gases particularly suitable for use with this invention include those capable of forming oxidant mono-atomic radicals and/or oxidant polyatomic radicals, for example oxygen, ozone, carbon dioxide etc.
  • oxidant gases are those which may be reduced so as to generate polyatomic ions, polyatomic radicals or polyatomic peroxides, for example those summarized in the table below:
  • the at least one oxidant gas is preferably selected such that one or more of the preferred polyatomic ions is generated, in particular one or more of the polyatomic ions selected from the group of acetate (CH3COO ), acetylide (C2 2 -), carbonate (CO3 2 ), peroxide (O2 2 ), phosphate (PO4 3 ), sulfate (SO4 2 ), nitrate (NO3-).
  • the at least one oxidant gas is selected from the group of organic gases, including ethers (e.g. ethylene oxide, propylene oxide), alkenes (e.g. ethylene, propylene), alkynes (e.g.
  • acetylene or conjugated dienes (e.g. butadiene) or mixtures of two or more of these gases.
  • Ethylene oxide may for example be reduced at an electrochemical potential of - 1.2V vs. SHE.
  • the electrochemical potential may easily be determined by the skilled person.
  • the at least one oxidant gas may be used as such or in a mixture with one or more inert gases, for example N2, Ar or He or a mixture of two or more of these gases.
  • the partial pressure of the at least one oxidant gas within the gas mixture is not critical to the invention and may vary within wide ranges. Yet, varying the oxidant gas partial pressure or the oxidant gas supply rate will permit to control the size of the crystals of the reaction product containing the at least one metal and/or metalloid element. Varying the oxidant gas partial pressure, in particular increasing or decreasing the partial pressure of the at least one oxidant gas, will also permit to control, in particular to increase or reduce the average lattice parameter of the reaction product crystals as measured by X-ray diffraction measured over a given crystallographic plane or measured using transmission electron microscopy imaging.
  • Varying the oxidant gas partial pressure or the oxidant gas supply rate will namely affect the amount of oxidant gas that may accumulate on the electrochemically active surface, in particular by the amount of oxidant gas present on the active surface within the pores of the porous electrochemically active material.
  • This amount of gas may in turn be controlled by controlling the gas supply rate to the gas chamber of the gas diffusion electrode, and by controlling the concentration of the oxidant gas in the gas that is supplied to the gas chamber of the gas diffusion electrode.
  • the flow rate will usually vary between 100 and 400 ml/min, preferably between 200 and 400 ml/min.
  • the concentration of the water soluble precursor compound in the electrolyte is not critical to the invention.
  • the concentration of the water soluble compound is preferably at least 100 ppm.
  • the concentration of the water soluble compound will not be higher than 10 g/liter as the efficiency of the process can hardly be improved at higher
  • the concentration of the water soluble compound in the catholyte is preferably between 100 and 500 ppm.
  • the concentration of the water soluble precursor in the catholyte may for example be varied by varying the rate with which the water soluble precursor is supplied to the catholyte. Such variation will in particular be done when variation of the particle size, in particular the crystal size of the reaction product is envisaged, since varying the concentration of the water soluble precursor permits varying the particle size, in particular the crystal size of the reaction product.
  • the inventors have observed that the particle size, in particular the crystal size may increase with increasing precursor concentration or that the particle size, in particular the crystal size may decrease with decreasing precursor concentration.
  • the nature of the compound which may be recovered from the at least one water soluble precursor compound may be varied by selecting the appropriate oxidant gas.
  • O2 or an O2 containing gas is supplied as the oxidant gas
  • the compound will usually take the form of an oxide or a mixed oxide of the metal or metalloid ion.
  • CO2 or a nitrogen oxide gas is supplied as the oxidant gas
  • the compound may take the form of a carbonate, a nitrite or a nitrate.
  • the nature of the anion of the reaction product may be varied by a proper selection of the oxidant gas.
  • the skilled person will be capable of adapting the amount of oxidant gas supplied and the gas flow rate, to the concentration of water soluble precursor compound that needs to be isolated from the electrolyte.
  • gas supply may create convective mass transfer in the catholyte and not only promote diffusion of the metal and/or metalloid ions from the water soluble precursor compound to the electrochemically active surface, but may also facilitate surface diffusion of reduction products of the oxidant gas, i.e.
  • the porous electrochemically active material for the gas diffusion electrode and the cathode is chosen such that it has an active surface which comprises a plurality of active sites provided by surface functional groups, wherein the functional groups preferably contain one or more moieties selected from the group of a nitrogen containing moiety, an oxygen containing moiety, a chlorine containing moiety or a sulfur containing moiety.
  • the pH of the electrolyte in the cathode compartment is adjusted to a pH ⁇ 7.0, preferably a pH in acidic conditions, in which the formation of a solid reaction product would not be expected by the skilled person. More preferably, before supplying the water soluble precursor compound, the pH of the electrolyte is adjusted to a pH which is below the dissociation constant of the acid or salt of the water soluble precursor compound, more preferably below 5.0. Usually the pH will be at least 1.5 as below this value the process slows down too much.
  • the inventors have observed that the pH of the catholyte gradually progresses towards alkalinity in the course of the reaction, which is often above the dissociation constant of the acid or salt of the ionic metal or metalloid compound.
  • the final pH of the catholyte may raise to a value of above 4, often above 6 or 7, more preferably above 9, most preferably above 11.
  • an amount of a weak protonic electrolyte is supplied to the catholyte.
  • the inventors have found that the metal oxidation rate may thereby be
  • the weak protonic electrolyte acts as a catalyst or co -catalyst in the formation of reactive peroxide, ionic and/or radical species from the oxidant gas at the cathode and in the electrochemical reactions in which the water soluble compound is converted into a reaction product that may be separated from the cathode and the catholyte.
  • the co-catalyst has been found capable of accelerating the oxidation of the metal cation or metalloid ion towards the separable compound, by accelerating the availability of reactive species.
  • addition of the weak protonic electrolyte may not only increase the conductivity of the catholyte, but that it may also increase the current density over the cathode.
  • the presence of the weak protonic electrolyte has the effect that variations in the pH of the catholyte in the course of the oxidation reaction, may be reduced to a minimum. This contributes to minimizing the risk to the occurrence of unwanted side reactions which would lead to the formation of compounds which could not easily be separated from the cathode and/or the catholyte and for example be water soluble.
  • This separability provides an important advantage, as such a process may be suitable for use in or for direct coupling to isolate reaction products from processes employing biological material.
  • the amount of weak protonic electrolyte may vary within wide ranges but is preferably not less than a 10 mM solution and preferably not more than a 1.5 M solution, more preferably the concentration of the weak electrolyte varies between 10 and 500 mM, most preferably around 100 mM.
  • the weak protonic electrolyte may either be a weak protonic acid or a weak protonic base, depending on the pH range at which the separable compound may be formed.
  • the weak protonic electrolyte may be a weak polyprotonic acid or a weak polyprotonic base.
  • a weak protonic acid is a protonic acid which only partially dissociates in water :
  • a weak polyprotonic acid is a weak acid which has more than one ionisable proton per molecule.
  • monoprotonic acid may be represented by the formula below :
  • Preferred weak protonic acids have a pKa of between 2.0 and 8.0, preferably between 3.0 and 7.0, more preferably about 7.0.
  • weak protonic acids suitable for use with the present invention include those selected from the group of weak organic and weak inorganic acids, in particular acetic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid, gluconic acid, ascorbic acid, formic acid, glycolic acid, potassium monohydrogen phosphate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, ammonium chloride, boric acid, sodium hydrogen sulphate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, ammonium chloride, and mixtures of two or more hereof.
  • Particularly preferred weak protonic acids are those having a pKa which is at least one unit higher than the pH of the catholyte.
  • Preferred weak protonic bases haves a pKa of between 6.0 and 12.0, preferably between 7.0 and 11.0.
  • weak protonic bases suitable for use with this invention include those selected from the group of ammonia, trimethylammonia, ammoniumhydroxide, pyridine, the conjugated bases of acetic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, lactic acid, gluconic acid, ascorbic acid, formic acid, glycolic acid, potassium monohydrogen phosphate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, ammonium chloride, boric acid, sodium hydrogen sulphate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, or a mixture of two or more of the afore mentioned compounds.
  • the pH of the electrolyte in the cathode compartment is adjusted to acidic conditions, in which the formation of a solid phase is initially not anticipated. Later, the pH progressively turns more basic as the reaction progresses, wherein colloidal particles in suspension may become apparent.
  • an ionic water soluble salt is supplied to the catholyte, with the purpose of controlling, in particular of increasing the ionic strength of the catholyte.
  • Salts of chloride with an alkali metal ion are preferred, NaCl being particularly preferred.
  • other electrolytes may be used as well.
  • An amount of NaCl higher than 1 g.L-1 is preferred, more preferably the amount added will be higher than 10 g.L 1 , most preferably at least 30 g.L 1 .
  • the process of the present invention shows the advantage that the overall conductivity of the electrolyte in the cathode compartment, will vary to a minimum extent only in the course of the process. In particular, virtually no or only a minor decrease of the overall conductivity has been observed. This is probably due to adhesion or adsorption of cations containing the at least one metal element and/or metalloid element of the water soluble precursor compound, to the electrochemically active surface of the cathode, which in general is expected to attain a quasi stable level when all of the positive valenced ions to be isolated have been oxidized and transformed into a separable phase, especially in a batch-wise operated process.
  • any unwanted variations in the conductivity may be compensated by supplying additional electrolyte or by incorporating into the catholyte a binary electrolyte. This may be of particular importance when the process of this invention is operated in a continuous manner, and continuous supply of metal and/or metalloid ions to be recovered takes place.
  • the electrolytic conductivity may be increased to at least 5 mS.cm 1 , more preferably between 20 and 80 mS.cm 1 and even more preferably between 20 and 50 mS.cm 1 ' and thereby the risk to a varying conductivity as a result of the removal of metal and/or metalloid ions may be minimised.
  • the cathode may be subjected to polarization reversal.
  • Polarisation reversal may also be used to clean the cathode from any unwanted remainders adhering thereto. This will permit to recover from the solution at least 10% of the amount of metal or metalloid ion that had been supplied to the cathode, more preferably to recover at least 40% thereof and even more preferably to recover at least 80% thereof.
  • the electrochemical process of the present invention as described in the present application makes it possible to recover metal or metalloid ions or a cation containing such metal or metalloid element contained in the water soluble precursor compound.
  • recovery rates may be substantially complete, and amount to more than 99.0 wt. % thereof.
  • Recovery rates will usually be at least 20 wt. % of the initial concentration of the at least one metal or metalloid element present in the precursor compound, preferably at least 50 wt. %, more preferably at least 80% and most preferably more than 90 wt. % or even more than 99% thereof.
  • the electrochemical process of the present invention is suitable for recovering components of a wide variety of water soluble precursor compounds, in a wide variety of concentrations.
  • the present invention is suitable for isolating a wide variety of compounds from an aqueous solution of the corresponding water soluble precursor compound.
  • the precursor compound may for example be a compound of an ion of an element selected from the group of group II, III and IV elements of the periodic table of elements, C and Si excluded, the majority of the transition metal elements, the actinides and the lanthanides.
  • the water soluble compound may also be a compound of an ion of an element selected from the group of group I elements when in a compound also containing P or S.
  • the water soluble compound may also be a metal organic compound or complex, or an organic compound.
  • the at least one precursor water soluble metal compound is selected from the group of precursor compounds containing one ore more alkali metal ions, preferably one or more of Li, Na, K, Cs ions, more preferably Li and/or Na.
  • the at least one precursor water soluble ionic metal compound contains at least one metal ion selected from the group of alkaline earth metals, in particular preferably Ca and/or Mg.
  • the at metal ion contained in the least one precursor water soluble ionic metal compound is selected from the group of transition metals, preferably one ore more of Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, Tu, Re, Ir, Pt, or Au ions, more preferably one or more of V, Mn, Co, Nb, Ag, Pt or Au ions.
  • the at least one metal ion is selected from the group of post-transition metals, in particular one or more of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Tl, Bi ions.
  • the at least one precursor water soluble ionic metalloid compound is selected from the group of B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Se or C ions or mixtures of two or more hereof.
  • the at least one precursor water soluble ionic metalloid compound is selected from the group of Li, Na, Ca, Fe, Mg, Al or Zr ions.
  • the metal and/or metalloid ion is selected from the group of wherein the monoatomic cation is selected from the group of H + , Li + , Na + , K + , Cs + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , Sr 2+ , Ba 2+ , Al 3+ , Ag + , Zn 2+ , Fe 2+ , Fe 3+ , Cu 2+ , Cu + and mixtures of two or more hereof.
  • the majority of the afore mentioned metal and/or metalloid ions may be used as such within the process of this invention, for some of them, in particular Na and K may need to be used in a mixture with a further metal and/or metalloid ion.
  • the water soluble precursor compound may be supplied as a precursor compound comprising one single type of metal or metalloid ion or element with a positive valence, but it is within the scope of this invention that a
  • composition comprising a mixture of two or more metal ions or metalloid ions or elements with a positive valence may be supplied as well.
  • the reaction product that may be separated from the aqueous precursor solution is preferably a compound comprising one single metal or metalloid in an oxidized state.
  • the electrolyte comprises a mixture of two or more metal or metalloid ions or elements with a positive valence
  • the reaction product may comprise a mixture of compounds of the in an oxidized state, all reaction products for example responding to the formula MxOy, but it may also comprise mixed metal or metalloid compounds for example M x N z O y . It is however also within the scope of this invention that a matrix comprising one a precursor compounds is supplied or a matrix containing a mixture of two or more precursor compounds.
  • the reaction product that is formed from the precursor compound may contain crystalline oxide nano particles, for example, but not limited to CeOi, La203, C02O3, AI2O3, CS2O, L12O, CoFe204, FeAs04, or non- stoichiometric forms thereof or hydrated forms thereof (e.g. CeOi.75).
  • the reaction product may contain crystalline carbonate nano particles, preferably but not limited to Na3La3(C03)5, NaHCOe, or non-stoichiometric forms thereof or hydrated forms thereof.
  • the separable compound may contains a mixture of amorphous or crystalline metal oxide nano particles or mixed oxides.
  • additional ionic compounds may be supplied to the catholyte such as ionic liquids.
  • the structure of the reaction product may comprise the ionic liquid products of its decomposition, for example but not limited to terbutylammonium chloride or terbutylammonium chloride.
  • the particles of the reaction product may be released in a variety of physical forms, for example in the form of colloidal nano particles, for example in the form of a colloidal dispersion, a separable precipitate of particles or a gel-like, foam-like or Pickering emulsion-like phase.
  • a stable dispersion or gel will be obtained.
  • the dispersion or suspension of the particles may be subjected to sonication or ultrasonication.
  • one or more additives may added to the water soluble precursor compound, the electrolyte at the cathode, the suspension or dispersion at any convenient point of time.
  • the additives may be selected from the group of dispersants, stabilizers, surfactants, polymers, copolymers, emulsifiers, cross-linking agents, capping agents and free flow agents or mixtures thereof. Such addition may done to stop growth of the nano particles in particular the nano crystals, to reduce the risk to agglomeration of the nano particles, to provide a stable dispersion.
  • the electrochemically active material of the gas diffusion electrode which forms part of the cathode preferably comprises an active surface having a plurality of active sites with a weak protonic acid functionality, i.e. active sites which only partially dissociate in water.
  • a weak protonic acid functionality i.e. active sites which only partially dissociate in water.
  • electrochemically active materials may be used to achieve this. Preferred are those materials which have a surface comprising protonic acid functional groups. Particularly preferred are those materials which comprise electrically conductive particles of carbonaceous origin, more preferably those comprising electrically conductive particles of carbonaceous origin with a catalytically active surface comprising a plurality of protonic acid groups.
  • the protonic acidic functional groups present on the catalytically active surface may partly dissociate at a corresponding pH.
  • the inventors also believe that the thus dissociated surface groups C-R* " have a high oxygen affinity and thus intervene in the oxidation of the metal ion or the metalloid ion.
  • porous materials in particular those which contain weak protonic acid functional groups.
  • porous metals and metalloids for example porous nickel or copper, porous carbon based materials, porous ion exchange resins, carbon aerogels, silicon, conductive polymers, conductive foams or conductive gels, among others.
  • porous carbon based material as or in the electrochemically active surface is preferred, because of its catalytic activity in combination with a reasonable cost and abundant availability in comparison to other materials.
  • Suitable materials include graphite, carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon black, acetylene black, activated carbon or synthetic carbons such as vulcan.
  • Other electrochemically active materials suitable for use with this invention include carbonaceous materials the surface of which has been chemically modified to adapt its catalytic activity and compatibility with the reaction medium.
  • Particularly preferred carbon materials have a surface with quinone-type functional groups.
  • Suitable porous material for use as the electrochemically active layer preferably have a high specific surface area as measured by the BET method described in ASTM D5665, in particular a BET surface area of at least 50 m 2 /g, preferably at least 100 m 2 /g, more preferably at least 200 or 250 m 2 /g, most preferably at least 400 or 500 m 2 /g, but those having a surface area larger than 750 or 1000 m 2 /g or even more may be particularly preferred.
  • Porous materials particularly suitable for use as the electrochemically active layer include particles of carbonaceous origin, also those having a small BET surface area, but preferred are those with a high specific surface area as measured by the BET method, in particular carbonaceous particles selected from the group of graphite, carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon black, activated carbon or synthetic carbons.
  • Preferred conductive carbonaceous particles have a BET surface area of at least 50 m 2 /g, preferably at least 100 m 2 /g, more preferably at least 200 or 250 m 2 /g, most preferably at least 400 or 500 m 2 /g, but those having a surface area larger than 750 or 1000 m 2 /g or even more may be particularly preferred.
  • the activated carbon preferably has a particle size in the range of 75 to 300 microns, preferably from 100 to 250 microns.
  • Suitable porous material for use as the electrochemically active layer preferably form a continuous layer on the cathode.
  • use can be made of a polymer material which functions as a support for the electrochemically active material.
  • the electrochemically active porous material is a solid which is dispersable or flowable in the water based electrolyte.
  • the solid may be made of one or more of the above described materials.
  • a cathode comprising a porous gas diffusion electrode, wherein one side of the gas diffusion electrode comprises a layer of at least one electrochemically active material active for or capable of catalyzing the reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide.
  • electrochemically active material for or capable of catalyzing the reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide.
  • Preferred active materials have been described above.
  • convective mass transfer may also be created at least in the cathodic gas compartment.
  • the process of the present invention is suitable for use in a wide variety of applications.
  • the process of the present invention may for example be used to produce nano crystals of selected materials in a selected particle size distribution, with a selected crystal form, with selected lattice parameters.
  • the process of the present invention may also be used to recover metal ions or metalloid ions from an aqueous solution, and provides a suitable method for recovering for example precious metals, in particular resulting from
  • the reaction product obtained according to the present invention may have a wide variety of uses.
  • the CeOi or sub-oxides such as CeOi.75 maybe formed which are particularly suitable for the scavenging of oxidizing agents such as oxygen or hydrogen peroxide.
  • oxygen scavenging agents may be of particular interest to the electronics industry as additives for screen-sealing agents.
  • Their use as hydrogen peroxide scavenging agents may be of particular interest to the cosmetic industry, for example but not limited to scavenging naturally-produced peroxides in hair follicles to prevent or revert white hair.
  • Other compositions, for instance those issued with the reaction with ionic liquids may have use as hydrogen or CO2 scavengers, among many other numerous applications.
  • the present invention also relates to a composition
  • a composition comprising at least one aggregate particle of nano crystals obtained by the above described process wherein, the nano particles in particular the nano crystals have a particle size, in particular a crystal size of between 0.2 and 30.0 nm.
  • the nano crystals will usually have a lattice parameter of between 1.0 and 18.0 nm, and any aggregate particles formed will have an average particle size of ⁇ 30 nm.
  • the reaction product may take the form of a dispersion of the reaction product in an aqueous medium, with a solids content of between 1.0 and 30.0 wt. %, preferably between 5.0 and 10.0 wt. %.
  • the aqueous medium may comprise the electrolyte, water or an aqueous solution.
  • the present invention also relates to a method for selectively isolating at least one metal element or a metalloid element or two or more thereof from an aqueous solution comprising a water soluble precursor compound thereof, wherein use is made of the process as described above.
  • the present invention further relates to a device for recovering a metal element or a metalloid element or two or more thereof from at least one water soluble precursor compound comprising a metal element or a metalloid element or two or more thereof, in the form of one or more nano particles, in particular nano crystals of at least one reaction product, wherein the device comprises
  • the catholyte has a pH which is smaller than the pKa of the water soluble precursor compound
  • the cathode has an electrochemical potential which is such that it is capable of causing reduction of the at least one oxidant gas to one or more corresponding peroxide, ionic and/or radical reactive species capable of reacting with the metal element, the metalloid element or a cation comprising such a metal or metalloid element or two or more thereof, to form at least one nano particle, in particular at least one nano crystal of the at least one reaction product with an average crystallite size equal to or smaller than 30.0 nm.
  • Figure la shows a schematic representation of the experimental
  • FIG. lb shows the process of the present invention including the reactions and nano crystal formation within the pores of the electrochemically active material.
  • Figure 2 shows the removal efficiency in % of Ce 3+ ions from the bulk solution in the presence of N2 supplied through the gas-diffusion cathode, in the absence of oxidant gas, of example 1.
  • Figure 3 shows the electrochemical response in case no oxidant gas is supplied through the gas-diffusion electrode, but only N2.
  • Fig. 3a Frequency response obtained in example 1 by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) recorded at 20 mV amplitude, in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 3 mHz.
  • EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
  • Fig. 3b shows the cyclic voltammetry response obtained at a scan rate of 1 mV.s ⁇ in example 1.
  • Fig. 3c and d show typical EIS responses for diffusional limitation across a film of infinite thickness (left) and limitations by finite diffusion through a film with fixed amount of electroactive substance, which once consumed is not replenished at the electrode or is only replenished very slowly (right), in example 1.
  • Fig. 3e shows a typical capacitive and pseudo-capacitive CV responses, in example 1.
  • Figure 4 shows the extent of removal of the Ce 3+ ions from the bulk solution in the presence of O2 as the oxidant gas supplied to the gas diffusion electrode in example 1 .
  • Figure 5 shows the recovery efficiency (%) of the Ce 3+ ions transformed into a solid product recovered as precipitate after being released from the electrode and sedimented in solution, in the presence of O2 as the oxidant gas supplied through the gas-diffusion cathode, on the basis of dry weight of the recovered product, in example 1.
  • Figure 6 shows the electrochemical response obtained for the experiments where air was supplied through the gas-diffusion electrode, in example 1:
  • Fig. 6a shows the frequency response obtained by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) recorded at 20 mV amplitude, in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 3 mHz.
  • EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
  • Fig. 6b shows the cyclic voltammetry response obtained at a scan rate of 1 mV.s 1 .
  • Fig 6c and d show typical EIS responses for adsorption limited processes linked to charge transfer reactions.
  • Figure 7 shows the crystallite size and lattice parameter found for the different initial Ce 3+ concentrations studied, in example 1.
  • Figure 7a shows the crystallite size (220) for CeOi and NaCl.
  • Figure 7b shows the lattice parameter CeOi and NaCl. There was a limit in detection for both parameters at Ce below 20 mg.
  • Figure 8 shows transmission electron micrographies evidencing the
  • Figure 9 shows transmission electron micrographics evidencing the
  • Figure 10 shows shows the removal efficiency (%) of the different metal ions from the bulk solution in the presence of air supplied through the gas-diffusion cathode.
  • Figure 11 shows a device suitable for carrying out the process of the present invention.
  • Figure 12 shows High-resolution transmission microsocopy (HRTEM) of nanoparticles obtained with example 1.
  • Figure 13 shows IR spectra of the precipitates obtained under different experimental conditions with TBAB (fig. 13a) and IR spectra of the initially employed reagents for the TBAB experiment (fig. 13b). The IR spectra for the TBAC cases are shown in fig. 13c.
  • Fig. 14 shows nanocrystals precipitated in the presence of excess IL in
  • Example 7 and under in- situ hydrogen electrosynthesis. Small bubbles in the size range of 0.1 mm were visible, occupying more than 10% of the volume of the material floating.
  • Figure 15 shows the XRD pattern for the nano crystalline product obtained with TBAB 30.
  • Figure 16 shows the charge in Coulombs, consumed during the experiments carried out at different concentrations (molar ratios) of TBAB.
  • Figure 17 shows TGA characteristic of the nanocrystaline product formed with TBAB in a molar ratio of 20.
  • Fig. 18 shows electrochemical series of a few oxidant gases, the current density distribution over different gas-diffusion cathode materials (different types of carbon), registered at different steady state reduction potentials.
  • a device suitable for carrying out the process of the present invention is shown in fig. 11.
  • the device shown in fig. 1 comprises an electrochemical cell, comprising at least one anodic compartment 5 and at least one cathode compartment 15. If so desired a plurality of anodic and cathode compartments may be present as well. If a plurality of anode and cathode compartments is provided, they are preferably arranged in a unipolar arrangement, with a plurality of alternating positive and negative electrodes forming a stack separated by ion permeable membranes. In a unipolar design, electrochemical cells forming the stack are externally connected, the cathodes are electrically connected in parallel as well as the anodes.
  • the anode or anodes 1 are immersed in an anode compartment comprising an aqueous anolyte fluid 2.
  • the cathode or cathodes 10 are immersed in a cathode compartment comprising an aqueous catholyte fluid 12.
  • the anodic compartment and cathodic compartment are in fluid
  • anolyte fluid any anolyte considered suitable by the skilled person may be used.
  • any aqueous electrolyte conventionally used in electrochemical reduction reactions may be used.
  • the anolyte may for example comprise an aqueous solution of an electrolyte selected from the group of sulphates, phosphates, chlorides and mixtures of two or more of these compounds.
  • the anolyte chamber may comprise a supply member for feeding anolyte fluid.
  • the catholyte chamber may comprise a supply member for feeding catholyte fluid.
  • the catholyte may be different from the anolyte, but anolyte and catholyte may also be the same.
  • Suitable catholyte materials include those well known to the skilled person, such as an aqueous solution of an electrolyte selected from the group of sulphates, phosphates, chlorides and mixtures of two or more of these compounds
  • the anode and cathode compartment 5, 15 may be made of any material considered suitable by the skilled person, but are preferably made of a polymeric material. Suitable materials include polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (EFTE), polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), polyacrylate, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polypropylene (PP), high density
  • PVDF polyvinylidene difluoride
  • PTFE polytetrafluorethylene
  • EFTE ethylene tetrafluoroethylene
  • PVC polyvinylchloride
  • CPVC chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
  • PMMA polymethylmethacrylate
  • PP polypropylene
  • polytethylene polytethylene, polycarbonate and blends or composites of two or more of these compounds.
  • the at least one anode and the at least one cathode compartment 5, 15 are preferably separated from each other by an ion permeable membrane 11 to control exchange of cations and anions between both compartments.
  • Preferred ion permeable membranes comprise synthetic polymer materials.
  • the ion permeable membrane on the one hand ensures that cations, in particular protons, may migrate from the anode to the cathode compartment, and on the other hand serves as a gas barrier and therewith counteracts the occurrence of so-called chemical short cuts.
  • the ion permeable membrane also counteracts the occurrence of a pH reduction of the catholyte in the cathodic compartment.
  • Suitable materials for use as ion permeable membrane include polyvinyldifluoride (PVDF), polytetra-fluoroethylene (PTFE or Teflon), poly(ethene-co-tetrafluoroethene (EFTE), polyesters, aromatic polyamides, polyhenylenesulfide, polyolefin resins, polysulphone resins, peril tiolorovinyl ether (PFVE), tripropylene glycol, poly-l,3-butanediol or blends of two or more of these compounds, or composites containing one or more of these compounds and being obtained by dispersion of a metal oxide and/or a metal hydroxide in a solution of the polymer to increase the ionic conductivity.
  • the ion permeable membrane may also comprise an ion exchange material if so desired.
  • the ion-permeable membrane 11 separating the anode and cathode compartment 5, 15 may be reinforced with a rigid support, for example a rigid support made of a sheet, a fleece, which may be woven or non- woven or otherwise made of a porous polymer or a web or a mesh of metal fibres or metal fibres arranged in a woven or non-woven structure.
  • a rigid support for example a rigid support made of a sheet, a fleece, which may be woven or non- woven or otherwise made of a porous polymer or a web or a mesh of metal fibres or metal fibres arranged in a woven or non-woven structure.
  • the cathode 10 used in the device of this invention is preferably a gas diffusion electrode, to ensure a sufficiently high mass transfer of oxidant gas to the electrochemically active surface present at the cathode, and a sufficiently high reaction yield, taking into account the limited solubility of oxygen in water.
  • the gas diffusion electrode is preferably a multilayered electrode comprising a current density distributor 3 for supplying electric current to an electrochemically active surface 4 deposited on top of the current distributor.
  • the electrochemically active material 4 is preferably a material which has a high electric conductivity. This permits the electrochemically active material to take away or bring the electron from and to the current density distributor.
  • the electrochemically active surface may be formed of any conductive materials or composite materials with a high surface area.
  • Electrode materials include carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphite, carbon fiber, carbon cloth, carbon aerogel, graphene, metallic powders, for example nickel, metal oxides, for example ruthenium oxide, conductive polymers, and any mixtures of any of the above. It should be appreciated that the entire electrodes may be porous and conductive enough so that a substrate is not needed. It should also be appreciated that the substrate may be formed of a non-conductive material that is coated with a conductive coating, such as, for example, platinum, rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir), or alloys of any of the above metals. The high surface area enables the voltage to be minimized. By contacting the porous portion with the ionic electrolyte, the apparent capacitance of the electrodes can be very high when charged.
  • the gas diffusion electrode that is used as the cathode 10 in the device of this invention preferably comprises a current density distributor 3, which may be made of any material and form considered suitable by the skilled person.
  • a current density distributor Preferably however, use is made of a mesh type current density distributor, having a mesh received in a circumferential electrically conductive frame or an array of several meshes.
  • the current density distributor is connected to a source of electric energy along a current feeder, for supplying electrical energy to the current density distributor.
  • the mesh comprises a plurality of electrically conductive paths.
  • the mesh may be formed of any suitable metallic structure, such as, for example, a plate, a mesh, a foil, or a sheet having a plurality of perforations or holes.
  • the mesh may be formed of suitable conductive materials, such as, for example, stainless steel, graphite, titanium, platinum, iridium, rhodium, or conductive plastic.
  • the metals may be uncoated or coated.
  • One such example is a platinum coated stainless steel mesh.
  • the mesh is a titanium mesh.
  • use is made of a stainless steel mesh, a graphite plate, or a titanium plate.
  • the wording "mesh" is meant to include a square meshes with a substantially rectangular shape and orientation of the conductive wires and insulating threads, but the mesh may also be tubular, or a coil film, or a otherwise shaped three-dimensional materials.
  • Still other types of meshes suitable for use with this invention include perforated sheets, plates or foils made of a non-conductive material, having a plurality of wires or threads of a conductive material interlaced in the direction parallel to the current flow.
  • a further type of mesh suitable for use with the present invention includes lines/wires of a conductive material, which extend parallel to the current flow direction, printed on a perforated sheet, foil or plate.
  • One side of the current density distributor 3 may be coated with an electrochemically active surface 4 capable of catalyzing the reduction of the oxidant gas.
  • the layer of electrochemically active material 4 i.e. the layer which is catalytically active in the reduction of the oxidant gas as described above, is preferably applied to the side of the current density distributor facing the gas phase.
  • the electrochemically active surface usually has an interface with the electrolyte on one surface (i.e. the side facing the current distributor) and a water repellant (hydrophobic gas diffusion) layer 13 on the other side.
  • the device preferably comprises a supply member for supplying an oxidant gas to the side of the cathode comprising the electrochemically active layer.
  • the cathode compartment may comprise, preferably on a side opposite the side of the cathode comprising the electrochemically active layer, an inlet for supplying at least one weak protonic electrolyte, preferably an aqueous electrolyte.
  • the flow rate with which the weak protonic electrolyte is variable.
  • the electrochemically active surface 4 may be coated on the side facing the gas phase 13, with a water repellant layer 13 or a hydrophobic gas diffusion layer to minimize the risk of water leaking through the electrode into the gas phase. This hydrophobic layer or water repellant layer 13 may also be deposited on top of the electrochemically active surface 4.
  • Suitable materials for use as the water repellant layer include polyvinyldifluoride (PVDF), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE or Teflon), PSU, but other materials considered suitable by the skilled person may be used as well.
  • the anode 1 used in the device of this invention may be a
  • the pH of the anolyte is preferably acidic, preferably ⁇ 7.0, more preferably ⁇ 5.0, most preferably ⁇ 3.0 but no lower than 1.5.
  • the electrolyte will usually have an ionic conductivity of at least 1.0 mS/cm, but it may amount to 70-100 mS/cm in practice.
  • Activated carbon employed was Norit ® SX1G from Norit Americas Inc.
  • Fluorinated ethylene propylene resin (Teflon® FEP 8000) was obtained from Dupont. Crystalline ultradry CeCh 99.9% (REO) ampouled under argon was received from Alfa Aesar. K2HPO4 was procured from Merck. HC1 at 35%, CeN309 - ⁇ 99.99% trace metal basis, and analytical grade KI were purchased from Aldrich. 50% NaOH, analytical grade potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP), and analytical grade ( ⁇ 4) ⁇ 7 ⁇ 24 -4H20 were acquired from Merck.
  • KHP analytical grade potassium hydrogen phthalate
  • ⁇ 4 ⁇ 7 ⁇ 24 -4H20 were acquired from Merck.
  • the cathode half-cell consisted of a cathode, a reference electrode and a counter-electrode.
  • Ag/AgCl 3 M KCl (+200 mV vs SHE) was used as a reference electrode (Koslow Scientific), whereas a Pt disk fixed by laser welding over a titanium (Ti) plate was used as a counter-electrode. All potentials here reported stay true for the Ag/AgCl 3 M KCl reference electrode.
  • Cathode and counter electrode were separated by liquid electrolyte and the separating membrane, Zirfon ® (AGFA). Working and counter-electrode were separated from each other by a distance of 4 cm, whereas the membrane was
  • a multilayered VITO CORETM electrode which consists of a current collector (metal gauze), an active layer made of activated carbon embedded in a porous polymer matrix, and a hydrophobic gas- diffusion layer.
  • PVDF was used as polymer binder, both for the active layer and the hydrophobic gas- diffusion layer (GDL).
  • the hydrophobic particles in the hydrophobic backing were FEP 8000.
  • a typical GDL is composed of 50 wt% PVDF and 50 wt% FEP 8000.
  • the composition of the active layer for the uncatalyzed cathode was 20% PTFE with 80 wt% activated carbon. Otherwise, a catalyzed electrode may be employed, e.g. it was 20 wt% PTFE with 76 wt% activated carbon and 4 wt% CeOi, which may improve the efficiency of the process but is not essential to carry out the targeted synthesis.
  • Electrolyte composition was 20% PTFE with 80 wt% activated carbon.
  • CeN309 ⁇ was added to the cathodic electrolyte, composed of 30 g/L NaCl and 10 mM sodium acetate dissolved in demineralized water and adjusted at pH 2.7 with HC1. Sodium acetate is not essential to carry out the targeted synthesis, however it may impact its rate. Different concentrations of CeN309 ⁇ were
  • a Bio-Logic VMP3 potentiostat/galvanostat and frequency response analyzer was used in order to perform the electrochemical measurements.
  • EC- Lab v.10.23 software was used for data acquisition.
  • Chronoamperometric experiments were carried out at -0.350 V vs the reference electrode during a period of 120 min. Within that period steady state was achieved.
  • Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) were registered before and after the polarization, in order to indirectly evaluate the effectiveness of the metal recovery process.
  • Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy was recorded at the steady state polarization potential (-0.350 V) a frequency range from 3 kHz to 3 mHz, with 6 points per logarithmic decade, using an amplitude of 10 mV. Careful attention was paid to guarantee stability, linearity, causality and finiteness, so that reliable and valid impedance data were obtained.
  • the EIS response was only recorded when the variation of current was detected to be ⁇ ⁇ 10 ⁇ during a period of at least one hour. The time of a whole impedance scan was of about 19 minutes. Linearity was verified by real time monitoring of non- distortions in Lissajous plots, which were observed via an on-line connected oscilloscope.
  • Reagent A was prepared by mixing 33 g KI, 1 g NaOH and 0.1 g ( ⁇ 4) ⁇ 7 ⁇ 24 -4H20 into 500 mL deionized water. This solution was kept in dark conditions to inhibit oxidation of I.
  • Reagent B was prepared with 10 g KHP dissolved into 500 mL deionized water. The standard calibration curve (not shown) was prepared from known H2O2 concentrations from 0 to 3 mg L 1 , dissolved into the same electrolyte used for the experiments, without cerium.
  • the concentrations calculated of H2O2 are the average of the quantitative results obtained with 5 averaged calibration curves, described by the following equation :
  • CH202 refers to the concentration of hydrogen peroxide (mg L 1 ) and A351 denotes the absorbance registered at 351 nm.
  • ⁇ is the wavelength of the X-ray beam (1.5405A)
  • ⁇ /2 is the full width at half maximum of the diffraction peak
  • ⁇ is the diffraction angle
  • N2 or air were supplied for each independent experiment, at a constant flow rate ( ⁇ 400 mL.min 1 ). Under such operational conditions water electrolysis is avoided; however, when air is supplied through the GDE, O2 electrochemically reduces to H2O2, upon availability of protons and electrons. The overall solution was considered to be electroneutral before the electrochemical polarization was applied. Given the high concentration of NaCl, ion transport by migration is unlikely to occur.
  • Figure 2 shows the extent of transport of the Ce 3+ ions (removal efficiency in %) from the bulk solution in the presence of N2 supplied through the gas-diffusion cathode and in the absence of oxidant gas.
  • the removal efficiency (%) was calculated as a function of the initial content of Ce 3+ in solution (CeT,i / mg):
  • CeT,f (mg) stands for the final content of Ce 3+ in solution.
  • FIG. 3 shows the electrochemical response obtained for the experiments where no oxidant gas was supplied through the gas-diffusion electrode and only N2 was provided.
  • Fig. 3a Frequency response obtained by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) recorded at 20 mV amplitude, in the frequency range from 100 kHz to 3 mHz.
  • Fig. 3b shows the cyclic voltammetry response obtained at a scan rate of 1 mV.s 1 .
  • Fig. 3c and d shows typical EIS responses for diffusional limitation across a film of infinite thickness (left) and limitations by finite diffusion through a film with fixed amount of electroactive substance, which once consumed is not replenished at the electrode or is only replenished very slowly (right).
  • Fig. 3e shows a typical capacitive and pseudo-capacitive CV responses.
  • VITO CORETM cold-rolled gas-diffusion electrodes GDE
  • porous activated carbon NORIT SX 1G
  • the specific surface area for the powder of which the electrodes are made is of about 1000 m ⁇ g 1 .
  • the active carbon layer typically has a specific surface area as measured according to the BET method of between 621 m ⁇ g 1 to 745 m ⁇ g 1 (Alvarez-Gallego et al 2012 Electrochim Acta 82:415, Sharma et al., 2014 Electrochimica Acta 140 191)
  • Figure 4 shows the extent of transport of the Ce 3+ ions (removal efficiency %) from the bulk solution in the presence of O2 as the oxidant gas supplied through the gas-diffusion cathode and flowing through the gas compartment and diffusing through the gas-diffusion electrode. In this case, about the entire amount of Ce 3+ was removed from solution (average
  • Figure 5 shows the recovery efficiency (%) of the Ce 3+ ions transformed into a solid product recovered as precipitate after being released from the electrode and sedimented in solution, in the presence of O2 as the oxidant gas supplied through the gas-diffusion cathode, on the basis of dry weight of the recovered product.
  • the solid phase is composed of Ce02 isotropic nanocrystals, as identified by XRD and microscopic evidence described later, which precipitated at the interface between the porous activated carbon gas-diffusion electrodes (GDE) and the adjacent aqueous electrolyte. These were initially identified as colloidal nano particles dispersed in solution, which aggregate and precipitate as the process keeps running. Some of these are released into the bulk electrolyte whereas others stay attached to the electrode and are only released after stopping or reverting the electric polarization.
  • GDE porous activated carbon gas-diffusion electrodes
  • the intermediates, byproducts e.g. an adsorbed form of superoxide
  • Fig. 6a shows the frequency response obtained by Electrochemical
  • EIS Impedance Spectroscopy
  • Fig. 6b shows the cyclic voltammetry response obtained at a scan rate of 1 mV.s 1 .
  • Fig 6c and d show typical EIS responses for adsorption limited processes linked to charge transfer reactions.
  • Figure 7 shows the crystallite size and lattice parameter found for the different initial Ce 3+ concentrations studied.
  • Figure 7a shows the crystallite size (220) for CeOi and NaCl.
  • Figure 7b shows the lattice parameter CeOi and NaCl. There was a limit in detection for both parameters at Ce below 20 mg.
  • Fig. 8 shows the steady state current density as a function of time for different oxygen-reducing gas- diffusion cathodes, with and without CeOi catalyst, after 120 min of electrocatalytic production of hydrogen peroxide.
  • N Norit
  • V Vulcan-Norit
  • AB Acetylene Black-Norit. All electrodes were composed of a combination of 80% carbon mixture and 20% polymer (PVDF).
  • Figure 8 shows transmission electron micrographies evidencing the characteristic morphology of Ce02 nano particles with crystallite sizes matching those obtained by XRD .
  • Figure 9 shows transmission electron micrographies evidencing the aggregation of the small crystalline nano particles of Figure 8 into larger size nano particles.
  • Fig. 8 and 9 in fact show characteristic fingerprints of the materials formed by the method of this invention, whose properties can be tuned as per controlled variations in the physicochemical or electrochemical conditions provided.
  • Suitable techniques include reversing the polarity of the electrode, accelerating the electrolyte flow rate.
  • the fact that these techniques cause release of the nano crystals into the catholyte, is an additional proof of the process taking place in the pores of the electrochemically active layer and not in the electrolyte solution.
  • a difference is clear. Nano crystals are not obtained and instead an amorphous product is visible as appreciated by XRD.
  • nanocrystal product obtained by this invention shows a characteristic monodisperse foam-like morpohology (see Figure 12 and 14 HRTEM) whereas the product obtained by simple addition of a base until an alkaline pH is reached shows high non-uniformity.
  • Table A Composition of catholyte in demineralized water.
  • the concentration of the different metals was quantitatively analyzed by means of ICP-MS.
  • the process was applied at constant polarization at -0.350 mv vs the previously referred reference electrode for a period of 2 hours. After few minutes of processing ( ⁇ 20 min), the color of the electrolyte progressively shifted from transparent towards white in one appreciable turbid phase. The process showed a gradual change in pH up to 11. Current densities above 40 mA.cm 2 were registered under the constant cathodic polarization conditions. After the process was stopped, the solid particles formed aggregated and sedimented leaving a clear liquid medium and a separable solid precipitate phase.
  • Figure 10 shows the removal efficiency (%) of the different metal ions from the bulk solution in the presence of air supplied through the gas-diffusion cathode.
  • REE content were recuperated which correspond to about 25% of the total ionic (dissolved) REE content in the original aqueous matrix.
  • the isolated products showed crystalline properties matching with crystallite sizes of 1.97 nm, 1.71 nm and 2.29 nm, respectively.
  • composition of the electrolyte was identical to that explained for example 1, but lanthanum nitrate was used instead of cerium nitrate, in concentrations of 0 ppm, 100 ppm, 500 ppm, 1000 ppm and 5000 ppm.
  • the initial pH and conductivity of the catholytes containing the different concentrations of the metal are disclosed in Table b.
  • the operational volume of the catholyte in each experiment was 125 mL.
  • Table b Measured pH and conductivity of the catholytes with different concentrations of lanthanum nitrate La(N03)3 ⁇ by the start of
  • the concentration of lanthanum was quantitatively analyzed by means of ICP-MS.
  • Table c pH and conductivity of the catholytes for different concentrations of La(N03)3 - ⁇ at the end of the experiment.
  • the composition of the electrolyte was identical to that explained for example 1 but instead of cerium nitrate a boric acid was supplied in the catholyte. The concentration of boric acid was kept constant for all
  • Table D pH and conductivity of the catholyte at the start of experimentation at different cathode potentials.
  • Table E Measured pH and conductivity of the catholytes by the end of experimentation at different applied cathode potentials.
  • a crystalline product could be recuperated matching the characteristics of sassolite, except for that formed at -0.950 V which had characteristics of nanocrysaline borax Na2B4Ovl0H2O.
  • the latter product may have application as dopant in flexible and fluorescent electronics.
  • the example below show the electrochemical series showing the reduction potential of different oxidizing gases to peroxides or their polyatomic ions or radicals.
  • the potentials reported in this table refer to the normal hydrogen electrode (NHE). These potentials are calculated by Nernst equation.
  • a catholyte was prepared, identical to that explained for example 1 but instead of cerium nitrate, arsenic acid was employed in a solution containing 72 g/L of arsenic and iron chloride considering a Fe/As ratio of 1.5 and sulfuric acid considering 5.61 g/L of S. The process was carried out in the same
  • IL ammonium-based ionic liquids
  • TBAB Tetrabutylammonium bromide
  • TBAC tetrabutylammonium chloride
  • nanoparticle-stabilized ILs may behave as Pickering emulsions in water (Huan Ma and Lenore L. Dai. Particle Self- Assembly in Ionic Liquid-in- Water Pickering Emulsions. Langmuir, 2011, 27 (2), pp 508-512) i.e. they assemble themselves to fom cage-like structures wherein some gas may be trapped in. These emulsions are typically stable as long as the medium is undisturbed. Otherwise ILs can be used as electrolytes due to their conducting properties (Chiappe and Rajamani 2012; Chiappe et al 2011 and Andrzej
  • Demineralized water was used throughout the study.
  • Activated carbon employed was Norit ® SX1G from Norit Americas Inc.
  • Fluorinated ethylene propylene resin (Teflon® FEP 8000) was obtained from Dupont.
  • Two ILs based on ammonium base i.e. TBAB (Sigma-Aldrich >98.0%) and TBAC (Aldrich >97.0% (NT)) were purchased.
  • the reacting (oxidant) gas flows (air or CO2, respectively) were fed through the cathode gas compartment on each individual experiment.
  • Gas flow rate was set at 200 mL/min (excess) in all cases and an overpressure of 30 mbarg was applied.
  • Electrolyte feeds were independently circulated through the cathode and counter-electrode compartments with a dual-head peristaltic pump, at a flow rate of approximately 20 rpm (Watson-Marlow).
  • An acidic basal electrolyte was employed in all experiments related to this example, consisting of demineralized water supplemented with HCl to achieve a starting pH of 2.7.
  • the effect of two independent oxidant gases was investigated, aka air (composition is Nitrogen: 78%; Oxygen: 20%; CO2: 0.03%, inert gases mainly argon: 0.97%; water vapor: 1%) and CO2/N2 80%/20%, respectively.
  • La(N03)3 6H2O was added to the cathodic electrolyte, at a concentration of 500 ppm. Different molar ratios between the IL and
  • La(N0 3 ) 3 -6H 2 0 were investigated, as follows: 0, 0.1, 1, 10, 20, 30 and 86.5. The last molar ratio corresponds to a concentration of 0.1 M for the ILs.
  • the electrolyte at the counter-electrode compartment was identical to that of the catholyte (acidic basal electrolyte), but without the addition of lanthanum nitrate or IL.
  • the concentration of La was quantitatively analyzed in samples from the catholyte and anolyte solutions, respectively, by means of ICP-MS.
  • the sample solutions were pipetted from the supernatans. Each sample was diluted by a factor x and acidified prior to analysis.
  • 1 ml of sample solution was mixed with 1 ml HNO3 and the result diluted to 10 ml with Milli-Q water.
  • Calibration standards of 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 ppb, 100, 200, 500, 1000 and 2000 ppb were prepared. All measurements were performed with a Varian 820 ICP- MS. On a daily basis, a mass calibration was performed; ion lenses and gasflows were optimized to obtain a maximal signal-to-noise ratio with a 10 ppb multi-element standard provided by Varian.
  • the product formed is believed to be a metal-organic compound with characteristics of both the IL and the nanocrystals.
  • peak a is related to the bonding of lanthanum and nitrogen in case of original La-nitrate. This peak becomes broader when lanthanum is bonded to nitrogen of TBA. Peak b relates to N-CH2 bonding. This peak however appears in the first Figure (unwashed part) but disappears in the second Figure indicating that some TBAB molecules that lied as surfactants on these compounds.
  • the peak c (many peaks) are seen in case of original TBAB (lower blue curve in figure 13b). These refer to the C-N bonds in aliphatic amines. In the Figure corresponding to the washed samples (P3) it can be observed that some of these peaks are lost however not all indicating that there are some changes in the bonding between the nitrogen and methylene groups.
  • the amount of hydrogen sequestrated in the nanocrystaline product formed was estimated to be above 10% in volume with respect to the solid precipitate.
  • Figure 14 shows nanocrystals precipitated in the presence of excess IL and under in-situ hydrogen electrosynthesis. Small bubbles in the size range of 0.1 mm were visible, occupying more than 10% of the volume of the material floating.
  • the XRD patterns of the precipitate product washed were registered. Although the XRD pattern did not correspond to any correspondence in the databases available, the product showed characteristic features of high crystallinity and of a nanomaterial with small crystallite size (e.g. ⁇ 10-5 nm). A characteristic XRD spectrum is shown for TBAB 30 in figure 15 below.
  • the TGA characterization (see figure 12) of the precipitates obtained indicate that the nanocrystaline product contains not the full ionic liquid but only fractions of it, which may be incorporated after partial degradation of the IL during the process. It is believed that the polyatomic ion radicals issued from the reduction of the oxidizing gas contribute to this IL degradation process and ultimately on the linkage of the IL fractions to the final precipitate structure. Although the structure of the nanocrystaline product cannot be fully established at this moment, the authors support the rationale that at least part of IL is found in the final nanocrystals, these being a metal-organic product.
  • More than 83% of the initial La precursor could be removed when CO2 was used solely as the oxidizing gas, whereas more than 98% was removed then the oxidant gas comprised air.
  • the use of pure CO2 led to the formation of lanthanum carbonates, whereas the use of air led to the formation of the above described metal-organic nanocrystaline product.

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