WO2004078916A2 - Micro-organes in vitro, et utilisations correspondantes - Google Patents

Micro-organes in vitro, et utilisations correspondantes Download PDF

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Publication number
WO2004078916A2
WO2004078916A2 PCT/IL2004/000202 IL2004000202W WO2004078916A2 WO 2004078916 A2 WO2004078916 A2 WO 2004078916A2 IL 2004000202 W IL2004000202 W IL 2004000202W WO 2004078916 A2 WO2004078916 A2 WO 2004078916A2
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protein
beta
growth factor
alpha
organ
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PCT/IL2004/000202
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WO2004078916A3 (fr
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Eduardo N. Mitrani
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Yissum Research Development Company Of The Hebrew University Of Jerusalem
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Priority claimed from US10/376,506 external-priority patent/US20030152562A1/en
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Publication of WO2004078916A3 publication Critical patent/WO2004078916A3/fr

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    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N5/00—Undifferentiated human, animal or plant cells, e.g. cell lines; Tissues; Cultivation or maintenance thereof; Culture media therefor
    • C12N5/0062—General methods for three-dimensional culture
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01K—ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; AVICULTURE; APICULTURE; PISCICULTURE; FISHING; REARING OR BREEDING ANIMALS, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; NEW BREEDS OF ANIMALS
    • A01K67/00—Rearing or breeding animals, not otherwise provided for; New or modified breeds of animals
    • A01K67/027—New or modified breeds of vertebrates
    • A01K67/0271—Chimeric vertebrates, e.g. comprising exogenous cells
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01K—ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; AVICULTURE; APICULTURE; PISCICULTURE; FISHING; REARING OR BREEDING ANIMALS, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; NEW BREEDS OF ANIMALS
    • A01K2217/00—Genetically modified animals
    • A01K2217/05—Animals comprising random inserted nucleic acids (transgenic)
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01K—ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; AVICULTURE; APICULTURE; PISCICULTURE; FISHING; REARING OR BREEDING ANIMALS, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; NEW BREEDS OF ANIMALS
    • A01K2227/00—Animals characterised by species
    • A01K2227/10—Mammal
    • A01K2227/105—Murine
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01K—ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; AVICULTURE; APICULTURE; PISCICULTURE; FISHING; REARING OR BREEDING ANIMALS, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; NEW BREEDS OF ANIMALS
    • A01K2227/00—Animals characterised by species
    • A01K2227/10—Mammal
    • A01K2227/108—Swine
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12—BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12N—MICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N2510/00—Genetically modified cells
    • C12N2510/02—Cells for production

Definitions

  • Eukaryotic cell culture was first achieved in the early 1950s. Since that time, a wide range of transformed and primary cells have been cultivated using a wide variety of media and defined supplements, such as growth factors and hormones, as well as undefined supplements, such as sera and other bodily extracts.
  • fibroblasts obtained from the skin of an animal can be routinely cultivated through many cell generations as karyotypically diploid cells or indefinitely as established cell lines.
  • Epithelial cells however, have morphological and proliferative properties that differ from fibroblasts and are more difficult to cultivate.
  • epithelial cells and fibroblasts are grown in the same culture, the epithelial cells are commonly overgrown by the fibroblasts. While the growth of cells in two dimensions is a convenient method for preparing, observing and studying cells in culture, allowing a high rate of cell proliferation, it lacks the cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions characteristic of whole tissue in vivo.
  • epithelial cells For growing epithelial cells in a clonally competent manner, a variety of culture conditions have been employed. For example, epithelial cells, and in particular, skin epithelial cells (keratinocytes), have been cultivated on feeder layers of lethally irradiated fibroblasts (Rheinhardt et al. (1975) Cell 6:331-343) and on semi-synthetic collagen matrices (U.S. Patent No. 5,282,859; European Patent Application No. 0361957). In some cases, the media used to grow such cells is manipulated by adding biological extracts, including pituitary extracts and sera, and growth supplements, such as epidermal growth factor and insulin (Boisseau et al. (1992) J. Dermatol. Sci 3(2): 1 1 1-120; U.S. Patent No. 5,292,655).
  • biological extracts including pituitary extracts and sera, and growth supplements, such as epidermal growth factor and insulin
  • bio-reactors and other methods of culturing mammalian cells are also very limited in their ability to provide conditions which allow cells to assemble into tissues which simulate the spatial three-dimensional form of actual tissues in the intact organism.
  • Conventional tissue culture processes limit, for similar reasons, the capacity for cultured tissues to express a highly functionally specialized or differentiated state considered crucial for mammalian cell differentiation and secretion of specialized biologically active molecules of research and pharmaceutical interest.
  • the cells of higher organisms such as mammals form themselves into high order multicellular tissues.
  • the present invention provides an in-vitro micro-organ culture which addresses the above-cited needs.
  • Salient features of the subject micro-organ cultures include the ability to be maintained in culture for relatively long periods of time, e.g., at least about twenty four hours, preferably for at least seven days or longer, as well as the preservation of an organ microarchitecture which facilitates, for example, cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions analogous to those occurring in the source organ.
  • At least one cell of the population of cells of the micro-organ culture has the ability to proliferate.
  • the population of cells in the micro-organ culture can, overall, be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., the ratio of cell proliferation to cell loss in the population of cells is approximately one, or the cells in the micro-organ culture can be proliferating at a greater rate than they are lost, resulting in a ratio of cell proliferation to cell loss in the population of cells which is greater than one, e.g., as in a population of cells obtained from neoplastic tissue, or, e.g., a progenitor cell population induced to proliferate in an explant.
  • Preferred organs from which the cells of the micro-organ culture can be isolated include lymphoid organs, e.g., thymus and spleen; digestive tract organs, e.g., gut, liver, pancreas, gallbladder and bile duct; lung; reproductive organs, e.g., prostate and uterus; breast, e.g., mammary gland; skin; urinary tract organs, e.g., bladder and kidney; cornea; and blood-associated organs such as bone marrow.
  • lymphoid organs e.g., thymus and spleen
  • digestive tract organs e.g., gut, liver, pancreas, gallbladder and bile duct
  • lung reproductive organs, e.g., prostate and uterus
  • breast e.g., mammary gland
  • skin e.g., urinary tract organs, e.g., bladder and kidney
  • cornea e.g.,
  • the isolated population of cells of the micro-organ culture can, in certain embodiments, be encapsulated within polymeric devices, e.g., for delivery of the cells or cell products, e.g., gene products, to a subject.
  • the present invention also pertains to conditioned medium isolated from the micro-organ cultures ofthe present invention.
  • the micro-organ culture includes a population of cells which is a section of an organ.
  • the micro-organ explant includes epithelial and connective tissue cells.
  • the organ explant is obtained from a pancreas, e.g., the microarchitecture of the population of cells is substantially the same as the microarchitecture of the original pancreas from which the explant was derived, and includes pancreatic epithelial cells, e.g., islet cells, and pancreatic connective tissue cells.
  • the micro-organ explant is obtained from skin, e.g., microarchitecure of the population cells is substantially the same as the microarchitecture of skin in vivo, and includes skin epithelial, e.g., epidermal cells, and skin connective tissue cells, e.g., dermal cells.
  • the micro-organ culture which is obtained from a skin explant can also include a basal lamina supporting the epidermal cells, an extracellular matrix which includes the . dermal cells, and at least one invagination, e.g., at least one hair follicle or gland.
  • the micro-organ culture includes an isolated population of cells infected with a virus, such as a hepatitis virus, e.g., hepatitis B or hepatitis C, or a human papilloma virus (HPV), e.g., HPV-6, HPV-8, or HPV-33.
  • a virus such as a hepatitis virus, e.g., hepatitis B or hepatitis C, or a human papilloma virus (HPV), e.g., HPV-6, HPV-8, or HPV-33.
  • a virus such as a hepatitis virus, e.g., hepatitis B or hepatitis C
  • HPV human papilloma virus
  • the micro-organ culture can be used in a method for identifying an inhibitor of viral infectivity.
  • This method includes isolating a micro-organ explant according to the method of the present invention, which explant is derived from a virally-infected organ, or is subsequently infected in vitro with a virus to produce a population of virus-infected cells in the explant.
  • the explant can then be contacted with a candidate agent, e.g., agent which is being tested for anti-viral activity, and the level of infectivity (e.g., viral loading, new infectivity, etc) in the presence of the candidate agent is measured and compared to the level of infectivity by the virus in the absence of the candidate agent.
  • a decrease in the level of infectivity of the virus in the presence ofthe candidate agent is indicative of an inhibitor of viral infectivity.
  • the present invention also pertains to a method for producing a micro-organ culture.
  • This method includes isolating, from a mammalian donor subject, a micro- organ explant having dimensions which provide the isolated population of cells as maintainable in a minimal medium for at least about twenty-four hours.
  • the micro- organ explant is then placed in culture.
  • the explant includes an isolated population of cells having a microarchitecture of the organ from which the explant is isolated.
  • at least one cell ofthe explant has the ability to proliferate.
  • the cells ofthe subject micro-organ culture can be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., the ratio of cell proliferation to cell loss in the population of cells is one, or the cells in the micro-organ culture can be proliferating at a greater rate than they are lost resulting in a ratio of cell proliferation to cell loss in the population of cell loss in the population of cells which is greater than one, e.g., the micro-organ explant includes a population of cells obtained from neoplastic tissue.
  • Preferred organs from which the cells of the micro-organ culture can be isolated include lymphoid organs, e.g., thymus and spleen; digestive tract organs, e.g., gut, liver, pancreas, gallbladder and bile duct; lung; reproductive organs, e.g., prostate and uterus; breast; skin; urinary tract organs, e.g., bladder; kidney; cornea; and blood-associated organs such as bone-marrow.
  • lymphoid organs e.g., thymus and spleen
  • digestive tract organs e.g., gut, liver, pancreas, gallbladder and bile duct
  • lung reproductive organs, e.g., prostate and uterus
  • breast skin
  • urinary tract organs e.g., bladder
  • kidney e.g., cornea
  • blood-associated organs such as bone-marrow.
  • the microarchitecture of the organ is maintained by the cultured ex
  • the micro-organ culture can be a tissue section, e.g., a pancreatic tissue section which includes ⁇ -islet cells, e.g., a skin tissue section which includes epidermal and dermal cells and other skin-specific architectural features, e.g., hair follicles.
  • Cells in the micro-organ explants can also be modified to express a recombinant protein, which protein may or may not be normally expressed by the organ from which the explant is derived.
  • gene products normally produced by the pancreas and which can be augmented by the subject transgenic method, e.g., to correct a deficiency, include insulin, amylase, protease, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, carboxypeptidase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, ti ⁇ acylglycerol lipase, phospholipase A2, elastase, and amylase; likewise, gene products normally produced by the liver, and which can be complemented by replacement gene therapy, include blood clotting factors, such as blood clotting Factor VIII and Factor IX, UDP glucuronyl transferase, ornithine transcarbamoylase, and cytochrome p450 enzymes; gene products normally produced by thymus include serum thymic factor, thymic humoral factor, thymopoietin and th
  • the micro-organ culture of the present invention can be used in a method for delivering a gene product to a recipient subject.
  • This method includes providing an isolated population of cells from a donor subject, the population of cells having a microarchitecture of an organ or tissue from which the cells are isolated and a surface area to volume which provides the isolated population of cells as maintainable in a minimal medium for at least about twenty-four hours.
  • a recombinant nucleic acid which encodes and directs expression of a desired gene product can then be introduced into the population of cells to produce a population of transgenic cells in the micro- organ explant, e.g., a transgenic explant.
  • the transgenic explant can be administered to a recipient subject.
  • the donor subject and the recipient subject can be of the same species or of different species.
  • the micro-organ culture of the present invention can also be used in a method for identifying agents which induce proliferation of cells of a given organ, including progenitor cells.
  • This method includes generating a micro-organ explant culture according to the present invention, which explant includes at least one cell which has the ability to proliferate. After being placed in culture, the explant is contacted with a candidate compound, e.g., a compound to be tested for cell proliferative capacity, and the level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is measured. The measured level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is then compared to the level of cell proliferation in the absence of the candidate compound. An increase in the level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is indicative of a cell proliferative agent.
  • a candidate compound e.g., a compound to be tested for cell proliferative capacity
  • Inhibitors of cell proliferation can be identified using a similar method. Specifically, when the measured level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is determined using the above- described method, it can be compared to the level of cell proliferation in the absence of the candidate compound. A decrease in the level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is indicative of an inhibitor of cell proliferation.
  • Another method in which the micro-organ culture of the present invention can be used is in a method for identifying an agent which induces, or inhibits, differentiation of one or more cell types in a given organ, or an agent which maintains a particular differentiated state (prevent dedifferentiation).
  • This method includes generating a micro-organ explant from the organ of interest, the population of cells making up the explant having a microarchitecture of that organ, as described hereonbelow, aleph of at
  • the population of cells is contacted with a candidate compound and the level of cell differentiation in the presence of this compound is measured.
  • the measured level of cell differentiation in the presence of the candidate compound is compared with the level of cell differentiation in the absence of the candidate compound.
  • An increase in the level of cell differentiation in the presence of candidate compound is indicative of cell differentiating agent.
  • Inhibitors of cell differentiation can be identified using a similar method. In particular, when the measured level of cell differentiation in the presence of the candidate compound is determined using the above-described method, it can be compared to the level of cell differentiation in the absence of the candidate compound.
  • a decrease in the level of cell differentiation in the presence ofthe candidate compound is indicative of an inhibitor of cell differentiation.
  • Yet another aspect of the present invention provides a method for identifying, and isolating, stem cell or progenitor cell populations from an organ.
  • This method generally provides isolating, in a culture, an explant of a population of cells from an organ.
  • the explant is characterized by (i) maintenance, in the culture, of a microarchitecture of the organ from which the explant is derived, (ii) a surface area to volume index (aleph) of at least about 1.55 mm- , and (iii) at least one progenitor or stem cell which has the ability to proliferate.
  • the explant is contacted with an agent which induces proliferation of the progenitor or stem cell, e.g., a growth factor or other mitogen, in order to amplify discrete populations of cells in the explant.
  • an agent which induces proliferation of the progenitor or stem cell e.g., a growth factor or other mitogen
  • the amplified progenitor cells can be isolated from the explant.
  • Such sub- populations of the explant can be identified by virtue of their proliferative response.
  • the progenitor/stem cells will proliferate spontaneously in the culture even without addition of an exogenous agent.
  • progenitor or stem cells from the explant that proliferate in response to the agent can be isolated, such as by direct mechanical separation of newly emerging buds from the rest of the explant or by dissolution of all or a portion of the explant and subsequent isolation of the amplified cell population.
  • Still another method in which the micro-organ culture of the present invention can be used is in a method for promoting wound healing in a recipient subject.
  • This method includes isolating, from a donor subject, a population of cells having an aleph of at least approximately 1.5 mm " and applying the population of cells to a wound of the recipient subject.
  • the donor subject and the recipient subject can be ofthe same species or of different species.
  • the tissue from which the cells are isolated is skin and the wound of the recipient subject is an ulcer, e.g., an ulcer associated with diabetes.
  • Figure 2 is a histogram showing cell proliferation in a guinea pig micro-organ culture as determined by BrdU labeling after incubation for different time periods.
  • Figure 3 is a histogram showing cell proliferation in a human back skin micro- organ culture as determined by BrdU labeling after incubation of cultures for 1-8 days.
  • Figures 4A-4D are micrographs showing immunofluorescence corresponding to replicating cells of mouse skin (mag. 50x) ( Figure 4A), guinea pig skin (mag. 75x) ( Figure 4B) human foreskin (mag. 50x) ( Figure 4C) and human foreskin (mag. 75x) ( Figure 4D).
  • Figures 5A-5C are transverse sections of human epidermal micro-organ explants. (mag x75) showing tissue architecture at zero ( Figure 5A), three ( Figure 5B) and six (Figure 5C) days in culture.
  • Figure 6 is a histogram demonstrating the effect on epidermal proliferation of varying thickness (x) of guinea pig skin micro-organ cultures using BrdU incorporation where (a) has been kept constant at 4mm.
  • Figure 7A-7B are micrographs showing immunofluorescence corresponding to proliferating cells in pancreas-derived micro-organ cultures (mag 75x).
  • Figure 8 is a histogram showing amounts of insulin released by adult pig pancreas micro-organ cultures.
  • Figure 9 is a histogram showing 3 H-Thymidine incorporation in proliferating cells in micro-organ cultures of the colon, liver, kidney, duodenum and esophagus, at three days, four days and six days of culture.
  • Figures 10A-10C are micrographs showing active proliferation of hair follicles in micro-organ cultures as determined by immunofluorescence. Magnification 40x (Figure 10A), 40x (Figure 10B), and 75x ( Figure 10C).
  • Figure 11 is a histogram showing the size distribution of hair shafts at the beginning and end ofthe microculture.
  • Figure 12 is a histogram showing the inhibition of mitogenesis in micro-organ cultures in the presence of 2.5 ng/ml TGF- ⁇ in guinea-pig skin cultures.
  • Figure 13 is a diagrammatic representation of a micro-organ explant for treatment of chronic skin ulcers showing incomplete sectioning of tissue slices so as to maintain a structure that can be readily manipulated in vivo.
  • Figure 14 is a photograph of the surface of a mouse after replacement of a piece of normal skin with a micro-organ culture; healing, generation of new hair shafts in the implant, and incorporation of the implant into the normal mouse skin can be observed (mag i Ox).
  • Figure 15 is a graphic representation of the expression of a luciferase reporter gene in a guinea pig skin micro-organ culture after transfection ( of the culture with a plasmid encoding the luciferase reporter gene.
  • Figure 16 is a graphic representation of the expression of a luciferase gene in rat lung and thymus micro-organ cultures after cationic lipid mediated transfection of the culture with plasmid encoding the luciferase reporter gene.
  • Figure 17 is a graphic representation of the activation of telogen follicles upon treatment with FGF in micro-organ cultures ofthe present invention.
  • Figure 18 is a graphic representation of the expression of a transgenic luciferase gene in micro-organ explants ofthe present invention.
  • the present invention is directed to a three-dimensional organ explant culture system.
  • This culture system can be used for the long term proliferation of micro-organ explants in vitro in an environment that closely approximates that found in the whole organ in vivo.
  • the culture system described herein provides for proliferation and appropriate cell maturation to maintain structures analogous to organ counterparts in vivo.
  • the micro-organ cultures of the present invention provide in vitro culture systems in which tissue or organ sections can be maintained and their function preserved for extended periods of time. These culture systems provide in vitro models in which cell differentiation, cell proliferation, cell function, and methods of altering such cell characteristics and functions can be conveniently and accurately tested.
  • the resulting cultures have a variety of applications ranging from transplantation or implantation in vivo, to screening cytotoxic compounds and pha ⁇ naceutical compounds in vitro, to the production of biologically active molecules in "bioreactors", and to isolating progenitor cells from a tissue.
  • specific embodiments of the invention include (i) micro-organ bone marrow culture implants used to replace bone marrow destroyed during chemotherapeutic treatment; (ii) micro-organ liver implants used to augment liver function in cirrhosis patients; (iii) genetically altered cells grown in the subject micro-organ culture (such as pancreatic micro-organs which express a recombinant gene encoding insulin); and (iv) dental prostheses joined to a micro-organ culture of oral mucosa.
  • the subject micro-organ cultures may be used in vitro to screen a wide variety of compounds, such as cytotoxic compounds, growth/regulatory factors, pharmaceutical agents, etc. To this end, the micro-organ cultures are maintained in vitro and exposed to the compound to be tested. The activity of cytotoxic compound can be measured, for example, by its ability to damage or kill cells in the explant.
  • the effect of growth/regulatory factors may be assessed by analyzing the cellular content of the explant, e.g., by total cell counts, and differential cell counts. This may be accomplished using standard cytological and/or histological techniques including the use of immunocytochemical techniques employing antibodies that define type-specific cellular antigens.
  • the effect of various drugs on normal cells cultured in the three-dimensional system may be assessed. For example, drugs that increase red blood cell formation can be tested on the bone marrow micro-organ cultures. Drugs that affect cholesterol metabolism, e.g., by lowering cholesterol production, could be tested on the liver micro- organs.
  • Micro-organ cultures of abnormal tissue can also be employed, such as to facilitate study of hyperproliferative or neoproliferative disorders.
  • micro- organ explants of organs invaded by tumor cell growth may be used as model systems to test, for example, the efficacy of anti-tumor agents.
  • explant refers to a collection of cells from an organ, taken from the body and grown in an artificial medium.
  • explants from an organ having both stromal and epithelial components the term generally refers to explants which contain both components in a single explant from that organ.
  • tissue refers to a group or layer of similarly specialized cells which together perform certain special functions.
  • organ refers to two or more adjacent layers of tissue, which layers of tissue maintain some form of cell-cell and/or cell-matrix interaction to generate a microarchitecture.
  • micro-organ cultures were prepared from such organs as, for example, mammalian skin, mammalian pancreas, liver, kidney, duodenum, esophagus, bladder, cornea, prostrate, bone marrow, thymus and spleen.
  • stroma refers to the supporting tissue or matrix of an organ.
  • micro-organ culture refers to an isolated population of cells, e.g., an explant, having a microarchitecture of an organ or tissue from which the cells are isolated. That is, the isolated cells together fo ⁇ n a three dimensional structure which simulates/retains the spatial interactions, e.g. cell-cell, cell-matrix and cell- stromal interactions, and the orientation of actual tissues and the intact organism from which the explant was derived.
  • the subject micro-organ cultures have a microarchitecture of an organ or tissue from which the cells or tissue explant are isolated.
  • the term "microarchitecture" refers to an isolated population of cells or a tissue explant in which at least about 50%, preferably at least about 60%, more preferably at least about 70%, still more preferably at least about 80 %, and most preferably at least about 90% or more of the cells of the population maintain, in vitro, their physical and/or functional contact with at least one cell or non cellular substance with which they are in physical and/or functional contact in vivo and form a cell culture of at least about one, more preferably at least about five, and most preferably at least about ten layers or more.
  • the cells of the explant maintain at least one biological activity of the organ or tissue from which they are isolated.
  • isolated refers to an explant which has been separated from its natural environment in an organism. This term includes gross physical separation from its natural environment, e.g., removal from the donor animals, e.g., a mammal such as a human or a miniature swine.
  • isolated refers to a population of cells which is an explant, is cultured as part of an explant, or is transplanted in the form of an explant.
  • isolated includes population of cells which result from proliferation of cells in the micro-organ culture ofthe invention.
  • epiderm refers to the outermost ofthe three primitive ge ⁇ n layers of the embryo; from it are derived the epidermis and epidermal tissues such as the nails, hair and glands of the skin, the nervous system, external sense organs and mucous membrane ofthe mouth and anus.
  • epithelia and epipithelium refer to the cellular covering of internal and external body surfaces (cutaneous, mucous and serous), including the glands and other structures derived therefrom, e.g., corneal, esophageal, epidermal and hair follicle epithelial cells.
  • Other exemplary epithelial tissues include: olfactory epithelium, which is the pseudostratified epithelium lining the olfactory region of the nasal cavity, and containing the receptors for the sense of smell; glandular epithelium, which refers to epithelium composed of secreting cells; squamous epithelium, which refers to epithelium composed of flattened plate-like cells.
  • epithelium can also refer to transitional epithelium, which is that characteristically found lining hollow organs that are subject to great mechanical change due to contraction and distention, e.g. tissue which represents a transition between stratified squamous and columnar epithelium.
  • epithelium can also refer to transitional epithelium, which is that characteristically found lining hollow organs that are subject to great mechanical change due to contraction and distention, e.g. tissue which represents a transition between stratified squamous and columnar epithelium.
  • epithelium can also refer to transitional epithelium, which is that characteristically found lining hollow organs that are subject to great mechanical change due to contraction and distention, e.g. tissue which represents a transition between stratified squamous and columnar epithelium.
  • epithelium refers to healing by the growth of epithelial tissue over a denuded surface.
  • skin refers to the outer protective covering ofthe body, consisting of the corium and the epidermis, and is understood to include sweat and sebaceous glands, as well as hair follicle structures.
  • cutaneous may be used, and should be understood to refer generally to attributes of the skin, as appropriate to the context in which they are used.
  • epidermis refers to the outermost and nonvascular layer of the skin, derived from the embryonic ectoderm, varying in thickness from 0.07- 1.4mm.
  • basal layer composed of columnar cells arranged perpendicularly
  • prickle-cell or spinous layer composed of flattened polyhedral cells with short processes or spines
  • granular layer composed of flattened granular cells
  • clear layer composed of several layers of clear, transparent cells in which the nuclei are indistinct or absent
  • homy layer composed of flattened, cornified non-nucleated cells.
  • the clear layer is usually absent.
  • An "epidermoid” is a cell or tissue resembling the epidermis, but may also be used to refer to any tumor occurring in a noncutaneous site and formed by inclusion of epidermal elements.
  • the "corium” or “dermis” refers to the layer of the skin beneath deep to the epidermis, consisting of a dense bed of vascular connective tissue, and containing the nerves and terminal organs of sensation.
  • the hair roots, and sebaceous and sweat glands are structures ofthe epidermis which are deeply embedded in the dermis.
  • Gland refers to an aggregation of cells specialized to secrete or excrete materials not related to their ordinary metabolic needs.
  • salivaous glands are holocrine glands in the corium that secrete an oily substance and sebum.
  • sweat glands refers to glands that secrete sweat, situated in the corium or subcutaneous tissue, opening by a duct on the body surface. The ordinary or eccrinesweat glands are distributed over most of the body surface, and promote cooling by evaporation of the secretion; the apocrine sweat glands empty into the upper portion of a hair follicle instead of directly onto the skin, and are found only in certain body areas, as around the anus and in the axilla.
  • hair refers to a threadlike structure, especially the specialized epide ⁇ nal structure composed of keratin and developing from a papilla sunk in the corium, produced only by mammals and characteristic of that group of animals. The term also refers to the aggregate of such hairs.
  • a “hair follicle” refers to one of the tubular-invaginations of the epidermis enclosing the hairs, and from which the hairs grow; and "hair follicle epithelial cells” refers to epithelial cells which are surrounded by the dermis in the hair follicle, e.g., stem cells, outer root sheath cells, matrix cells, and inner root sheath cells. Such cells may be normal non-malignant cells, or transformed/immortalized cells.
  • alopecia refers generally to baldness, e.g., the absence of hair from skin areas where it is normally present.
  • alopecia areata refers to hair loss, usually reversible, in sharply defined areas, usually involving the beard or scalp;
  • alopecia mediacamentosa refers to hair loss due to ingestion of a drug;
  • male pattern alopecia, or male pattern baldness refers to loss of scalp hair genetically determined and androgen-dependent, generally beginning with frontal recession and progressing symmetrically to leave ultimately only a sparse peripheral rim of hair.
  • proliferative skin disorder refers to any disease/disorder of the skin marked by unwanted or aberrant proliferation of cutaneous tissue. These conditions are typically characterized by epidermal cell proliferation or incomplete cell differentiation, and include, for example, X-linked ichthyosis, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis, epidermolytic hyperkeratosis and seborrheic dermatitis.
  • epidermodysplasia is a form of faulty development of the epidermis, such as “epidermodysplasia verruciformis", which is a condition due to a virus identical with or closely related to the virus of common warts.
  • epidermolysis which refers to a loosened state of the epidermis with formation of blebs and bullae either spontaneously or at the site of trauma.
  • psoriasis refers to a hyperproliferative skin disorder which alters the skin's regulatory mechanisms.
  • lesions are formed which involve primary and secondary alterations in epidermal proliferation, inflammatory responses of the skin, and an expression of regulatory molecules such as lymphokines and inflammatory factors.
  • Psoriatic skin is morphologically characterized by an increased turnover of epidermal cells, thickened epidermis, abnormal keratinization, inflammatory cells infiltrates into the dermis layer and polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration into the epidermis layer resulting in an increase in the basal cell cycle. Additionally, hyperkeratotic and parakeratotic cells are present.
  • proliferating and proliferation refer to cells undergoing mitosis.
  • progenitor cell refers to an undifferentiated cell which is capable of proliferation and giving rise to more progenitor cells having the ability to generate a large number of mother cells that can in turn give rise to differentiated, or differentiable daughter cells.
  • progenitor cell is also intended to encompass a cell which is sometimes referred to in the art as a "stem cell”.
  • progenitor cell refers to a generalized mother cell whose descendants (progeny) specialize, often in different directions, by differentiation, e.g., by acquiring completely individual characters, as occurs in progressive diversification of embryonic cells and tissues.
  • hematopoietic progenitor cell or stem cell refers to progenitor cells arising in bone marrow and other blood-associated organs and giving rise to such differentiated progeny as, for example, erythrocytes, lymphocytes and other blood cells.
  • Transformed cells refers to cells which have spontaneously converted to a state of unrestrained growth, i.e., they have acquired the ability to grow through an indefinite number of divisions in culture. Transformed cells may be characterized by such terms as neoplastic, anaplastic and/or hyperplastic, with respect to their loss of growth control.
  • immortalized cells refers to cells which have been altered via chemical and/or recombinant means such that the cells have the ability to grow through an indefinite number of divisions in culture.
  • carcinoma refers to a malignant new growth made up of epithelial cells tending to infiltrate surrounding tissues and to give rise to metastases.
  • exemplary carcinomas include: “basal cell carcinoma”, which is an epithelial tumor ofthe skin that, while seldom metastasizing, has potentialities for local invasion and destruction; “squamous cell carcinoma”, which refers to carcinomas arising from squamous epithelium and having cuboid cells; “carcinosarcoma”, which include malignant tumors composed of carcinomatous and sarcomatous tissues; “adenocystic carcinoma”, carcinoma marked by cylinders or bands of hyaline or mucinous stroma separated or surrounded by nests or cords of small epithelial cells, occurring in the mammary and salivary glands, and mucous gland of the respiratory tract; “epidermoid carcinoma”, which refers to cancerous cells which tend to differentiate in the same way as those of the epidermis; i.e.,
  • papillomas which refers to benign tumors derived from epithelium and having a papillomavirus as a causative agent; and "epidermoidomas”, which refers to a cerebral or meningeal tumor formed by inclusion of ectodermal elements at the time of closure ofthe neutral groove.
  • a "transgenic animal” is any animal, preferably a non-human mammal, bird or an amphibian, in which one or more of the cells of the animal contain heterologous nucleic acid introduced by way of human intervention, such as by transgenic techniques well known in the art.
  • the nucleic acid is introduced into the cell, directly or indirectly by introduction into a precursor of the cell, by way of deliberate genetic manipulation, such as by micro injection or by infection with a recombinant virus.
  • the term genetic manipulation does not include classical cross-breeding, or in vitro fertilization, but rather is directed to the introduction of a recombinant DNA molecule. This molecule may be integrated within a chromosome, or it may be extrachromosomally replicating DNA.
  • transgenic animals in which the recombinant gene is silent, as for example, the FLP or CRE recombinase dependent constructs described in the art.
  • Transgenic animals also include both constitutive and conditional "knock out” animals * .
  • the "non-human animals” of the invention include vertebrates such as rodents, non-human primates, swine, sheep, dog, cow, chickens, amphibians, reptiles, etc.
  • Preferred non-human animals are miniature swine, or are selected from the rodent family including rat and mouse, most preferably mouse.
  • the term "chimeric animal” is used herein to refer to animals in which the recombinant gene is found, or in which the recombinant is expressed in some but not all cells ofthe animal.
  • a salient feature of the present micro-organ cultures and methods, according to the invention is the ability to preserve the cellular microenvironment found in vivo for a particular tissue.
  • the invention is based, in part, upon the discovery that under defined circumstances growth of cells in different tissue layers of an organ explant, e.g., mesenchymal and epithelial layers, can be activated to proliferate and mature in culture.
  • the cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions provided in the explant itself are sufficient to support cellular homeostasis, e.g., maturation, differentiation and segregation of cells in explant culture, thereby sustaining the microarchitecture and function ofthe tissue for prolonged period of time.
  • An example of physical contact between a cell and a noncellular substrate is the physical contact between an epithelial cell and its basal lamina.
  • An example of physical contact between a cell and another cell includes actual physical contact maintained by, for example, intercellular cell junctions such as gap junctions and tight junctions.
  • Examples of functional contact between one cell and another cell includes electrical or chemical communication between cells.
  • cardiomyocytes communicate with other cardiomyocytes via electrical impulses.
  • many cells communicate with other cells via chemical messages, e.g., hormones which either diffuse locally (paracrine signaling and autocrine signaling) or are transported by the vascular system to more remote locations (endocrine signaling).
  • Examples of paracrine signaling between cells are the messages produced by various cells (known as enteroendocrince cells) ofthe digestive tract, e.g., pyloric D cells which secrete somatostatin which in turn inhibits the release of gastrin by nearby pyloric gastric (G) cells.
  • enteroendocrince cells e.g., pyloric D cells which secrete somatostatin which in turn inhibits the release of gastrin by nearby pyloric gastric (G) cells.
  • this microarchitecture can be extremely important for the maintenance of the explant in minimal media, e.g., without exogenous sources of serum or growth factors, because the tissue can be sustained in such minimal media by paracrine and autocrine factors resulting from specific cellular interactions within the explant.
  • the phrase "maintain, in vitro, their physical and/or functional contact" is not intended to exclude an isolated population of cells in which at least one cell develops physical and/or functional contact with at least one cell or noncellular substance with which it is not in physical and/functional contact in vivo.
  • An example of such a development is proliferation of at least one cell of the isolated population of cells.
  • the populations of cells which make up the explant are isolated from an organ in a manner that preserves the natural affinity of one cell to another, e.g., to preserve layers of different cells if present in the explant.
  • keratinocytes of the epidermis remain associated with the stroma and the normal tissue architecture is preserved including the hair follicles and glands.
  • This basic structure is common to all organs, for instance, which contain an epithelial component.
  • such an association facilitates intercellular communication. Many types of communication take place among animal cells.
  • induction is defined as the interaction between one (inducing) and another (responding) tissue or cell, as a result of which the responding cells undergo a change in the direction of differentiation.
  • inductive interactions occur in embryonic and adult cells and can act to establish and maintain morphogenetic patterns as well as induce differentiation (Gurdon (1992) Cell 68: 185-199).
  • the micro-organ cultures prepared according to the invention preserve normal tissue architecture even when cultured for prolonged periods of time. This includes the maintenance of hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous glands in skin micro-organs in vitro according to their normal occurrence in vivo (see Examples VIII and Figures 10A -10C), or islets of Langerhans in the pancreas according to the normal occurrence in vivo (see Examples IV, V and VI). Because these cultures can be maintained in controlled and uniform conditions and yet closely resemble tissue in vivo, they provide a unique opportunity to observe, measure and control natural phenomena and the perturbation of natural phenomena arising from disease, aging or trauma. Furthermore, the ready availability of techniques to study individual cells at identified sites on the culture provide insights into the functioning of individual components ofthe tissue as they interact with each other as well as the whole tissue.
  • micro-organ cultures prepared according to the invention are described in the appended Examples, and can include a population of cells grouped in a manner that may include a plurality of layers so as to preserve the natural affinity of one cell to another.
  • the proliferation of individual cells or groups of cells can be observed and followed by autoradiography or immunofluorescence.
  • the appended examples demonstrate that the subject culture system provides for the replication of epithelial and stromal elements in vitro, in a system comparable to physiologic conditions. Importantly, the cells which replicate in this system segregate properly to form morphologically and histologically normal epidermal and dermal components.
  • the dimensions of the explant are important to the viability of the cells therein, e.g., where the micro-organ culture is intended to be sustained for prolonged periods of time, e.g., 7-21 days or longer. Accordingly, the dimensions of the tissue explant are selected to provide diffusion of adequate nutrients and gases, e.g., 02 , to every cell in the three dimensional micro- organ, as well as diffusion of cellular waste out ofthe explant so as to minimize cellular toxicity and concomitant death due to localization of the waste in the micro-organ.
  • the size of the explant is determined by the requirement for a minimum level of accessibility to each cell in the absence specialized delivery structures or synthetic substrates. It has been discovered, as described herein, that this accessibility can be maintained if Aleph, an index calculated from the thickness and the width of the explant, is at least greater than approximately 1.5 mm "
  • the aleph of an explant is in the range of 1.5 to 25mm “ , more preferably in the range of 1.5 to 15 mm “ , and even more preferably in the range of 1.5 to 10 mm “ , though alephs in the range of 1.5 to 6.67 mm " , 1.5 to 3.33 mm are contemplated. Accordingly, the present invention provides that the surface area to volume index of the tissue explant is maintained within a selected range.
  • This selected range of surface area to volume index provides the cells access to nutrients and to avenues of waste disposal by diffusion in a manner similar to cells in a monolayer. This level of accessibility can be attained and maintained if the surface area to volume index, defined herein as "Aleph or Aleph index" is at least about 1.5 mm .
  • the third dimension has been ignored in determining the surface area to volume index because variation in the third dimension causes radiometric variation in both volume and surface area.
  • a and x should be defined as the two smallest dimensions of the tissue slice. Examples of Aleph are provided in Table I wherein, for example, a tissue having a thickness (x) of 0.1 mm and a width (a) of 1mm would have an Aleph index of 11.
  • x is varied and a is constant at 4 mm.
  • proliferative activity is substantially reduced as the thickness of the explant increases. Accordingly, at 900 ⁇ m thickness, the number of proliferating cells in a micro-organ culture is about 10 fold less then in tissue from a similar source having a thickness of 300 ⁇ m.
  • the Aleph index for a tissue having a thickness of 900 ⁇ m is 1.36 mm , below the minimum described herein whereas the Aleph index for tissue having a thickness of 300 ⁇ m is 3.58 mm " , which is well within the range of defined herein.
  • three-dimensional culture system may contribute to its success: (a) The appropriate choice of the explant size, e.g., by use of the above Aleph calculations, three-dimensional matrix provides appropriate surface area to volume ratio for adequate diffusion of nutrients to all cells of the explant, and adequate diffusion of cellular waste away from all cells in the explant.
  • micro-organ cultures from animals such as derived from skin, pancreas, liver, kidney, duodenum, esophagus, bladder, bone marrow, thymus or spleen, have been isolated and grown for up to 21 days in culture. However, it is within the scope of the invention to maintain cultures for extended periods of time beyond 21 days.
  • the subject micro-organ culture can be derived using explants isolated from, for example: skin and mucosa (including oral mucosa, gastrointestinal mucosa, nasal tract, respiratory tract, cervix and cornea); pancreas; liver; gallbladder; bile duct; lung; prostate; uterus; mammary gland; bladder tissue; and blood-associated organs such as thymus, spleen and bone marrow. Accordingly, in vitro culture equivalents of such organs can be generated.
  • the tissue forming the explants can be diseased or normal (e.g., healthy tissue).
  • the organs from which the micro-organ explants of the invention are isolated can be affected by hyperproliferative disorders, e.g., psoriasis or keratosis; proliferation of virally-infected cells, e.g., hepatitis infected or papillomavirus infected; neoproliferative disorders, e.g., basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, sarcomas, or Wilm's tumors; or fibrotic tissue, e.g., from a cirrhotic liver or a pancreas undergoing pancreatitis.
  • animals from which the cells of the invention can be isolated include humans and other primates, swine, such as wholly or partially inbred swine (e.g., miniature swine and transgenic swine), rodents, etc.
  • tissue culture media that exist for culturing cells from animals. Some of these are complex and some are simple. While it is expected that micro-organ cultures may grow in complex media, it has been shown here that the cultures can be maintained in a simple medium such as Dulbecco's Minimal Essential Media. Furthermore, although the cultures may be grown in a media containing sera or other biological extracts such as pituitary extract, it has been shown here that neither serum nor any other biological extract is required. Moreover, the organ cultures can be maintained in the absence of serum for extended periods of time. In preferred embodiments of the invention, growth factors are not included in the medium during maintenance ofthe cultures in vitro.
  • minimal medium refers to a chemically defined medium which includes only the nutrients that are required by the cells to survive and proliferate in culture.
  • minimal medium is free of biological extracts, e.g., growth factors, serum, pituitary extract, or other substances which are not necessary to support the survival and proliferation of a cell population in culture.
  • minimal medium generally includes at least one amino acid, at least one vitamin, at least one salt, at least one antibiotic, at least one indicator, e.g., phenol red, used to determine hydrogen ion concentration, glucose, and other miscellaneous components necessary for the survival and proliferation of the cells.
  • Minimal medium is serum- free.
  • a variety of minimal media are commercially available from Gibco BRL, Gathersburg, MD, as minimal essential media.
  • growth factors and regulatory factors need not be added to the media, the addition of such factors, or the inoculation of other specialized cells may be used to enhance, alter or modulate proliferation and cell maturation in the cultures.
  • the growth and activity of cells in culture can be affected by a variety of growth factors such as insulin, growth hormone, somatomedins, colony stimulating factors, erythropoietin, epidermal growth factor, hepatic erythropoietic factor (hepatopoietin), and liver-cell growth factor.
  • the micro-organ cultures may be maintained in any suitable culture vessel such o as 24 or 96 well microplates and may be maintained at 37 C in 5% CO 2 .
  • the cultures may be shaken for improved aeration, the speed of shaking being for example 12 rpm.
  • the culture vessel in/on which (optionally) the subject micro- organ cultures are provided it is noted that in the preferred embodiment such vessel may generally be of any material and/or shape.
  • a number of different materials may be used to form the vessel, including but not limited to: nylon (polyamides), dacron (polyesters), polystyrene, polypropylene, polyacrylates, polyvinyl compounds (e.g., polyvinylchloride), polycarbonate (PVC), polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE; teflon), thermanox (TPX), nitrocellulose, cotton, polyglycolic acid (PGA), cat gut sutures, cellulose, gelatin, dextran, etc. Any of these materials may be woven into a mesh.
  • nylon polyamides
  • dacron polymers
  • polystyrene polypropylene
  • polyacrylates polyvinyl compounds (e.g., polyvinylchloride), polycarbonate (PVC), polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE; teflon), thermanox (TPX), nitrocellulose, cotton, polyglycolic acid (PGA), cat gut sutures, cellulose, gelatin, de
  • biodegradable matrices such as poly glycolic acid, catgut suture material, or gelatin, for example.
  • non-degradable materials such as nylon, dacron, polystyrene, polyacrylates, polyvinyls, teflons, cotton, etc. may be preferred.
  • a convenient nylon mesh which could be used in accordance with the invention is Nitex, a nylon filtration mesh having an average pore size of 210 ⁇ m and an average nylon fiber diameter of 90 ⁇ m (#3-210/36, Tetko, Inc., N.Y.). Yet other embodiments are discussed below.
  • pancreatic micro-organs containing islets of Langerhans are prepared as cultures of the present invention.
  • the cultures are then provided in encapsulated form so as to avoid immune rejection.
  • Three general (exemplary) approaches for encapsulation might be used.
  • a tubular membrane is coiled in a housing that contains the micro-organ explants.
  • the membrane is connected to a polymer graft that in turn connects the device to blood vessels.
  • hollow fibers containing the pancreatic explants are (optionally) immobilized in the polysaccharide alginate.
  • blood glucose levels can be lowered and good tissue compatibility observed (Lacey et al. (1991) Science 254:1782; see also Example VI).
  • fibers can be pre-spun and subsequently loaded with the micro- organexplants (Aebischer et al. U.S. Patent No. 4,892,538; Aebischer et al. U.S. Patent No. 5,106,627; Hoffman et al. (1990) Expt. Neurobiol. 110:39-44; Jaeger et al.
  • micro-organ islet explants can be placed in microcapsules composed of alginate or polyacrylates (see, for example, Lim et al. (1980) Science 210:908; O'Shea et al. (1984) Biochim. Biochys. Acta 840:133; Sugamori et al (1989) Trans Am. Soc. Artifi Intern. Organs 35:791; Levesque et al. (1992) Endocrinology 130:644; and
  • the culture medium in which the micro-organ cultures of the present invention are maintained can be collected as a source of conditioned medium.
  • conditioned media refers to the supernatant, e.g. free of the cultured cells/tissue, resulting after a period of time in contact with the cultured cells such that the media has been altered to include certain paracrine and/or autocrine factors produced by the cells and secreted into the culture. Examples of such products are insulin, various growth factors, and hormones.
  • This conditioned medium can be used as culture medium for other types of cell and tissue culture. Alternatively, the conditioned medium can be employed as a source of novel cell products such as growth factors.
  • Such products can be fractionated and purified or substantially purified from the conditioned medium.
  • micro-organ cultures of the present invention derived from normal tissue have been shown to maintain a state of homeostasis with proliferation of constituent cells without overall growth ofthe tissue.
  • Methods of measuring cell proliferation are well known in the art and most commonly include determining DNA synthesis characteristic of cell replication. There are numerous methods in the art for measuring DNA synthesis, any of which may be used according to the invention. In an embodiment ofthe invention, DNA synthesis has
  • Micro-organ cultures can be formed and maintained not only by the proliferation of mature cells but also by the active participation of precursor cells including in some instances, embryonic cells.
  • the micro-organ cultures have been shown to present a suitable environment for preserving, identifying, isolating and facilitating the natural evolution of these precursor cells.
  • the immature cells of the basal layer have been observed to become mature keratinocytes in skin micro-organ cultures.
  • embryonic pancreatic cells can provide a mature pancreatic epithelium in micro-organ cultures.
  • the maturation of precursor cells and their subsequent functioning as adult cells can be monitored by measuring secretion of specialized products such as specific keratins in epidermal cells and insulin, Glut 2 and glucagon in pancreatic epithelia, and albumin and Factor VIII in liver micro-organ cultures.
  • specialized products such as specific keratins in epidermal cells and insulin, Glut 2 and glucagon in pancreatic epithelia, and albumin and Factor VIII in liver micro-organ cultures.
  • the micro-organ cultures prepared according to the invention preserve the normal tissue architecture that is present in vivo. As set out above, this includes maintenance of hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous glands in skin micro-organs in vitro, according to the normal occurrence in vivo and insulin and glucagon secreting cells in pancreatic micro-organs. Because these cultures can be maintained in controlled and uniform conditions and yet they closely resemble the microarchitecture ofthe organ in vivo, they provide a unique opportunity to observe, measure and control natural phenomena and the perturbation of natural phenomena arising from disease, aging or trauma. Furthermore, the ready availability of techniques to study individual cells at identified sites on the culture, provides insights into the functioning of individual components ofthe organs and their interact with each other as well as the whole organ.
  • the subject micro-organ cultures are maintainable in culture for extended periods of time.
  • the micro-organ cultures are maintainable in culture for at least about twenty-four hours, more preferably for at least about two days, yet more preferably for at least about five days, still more preferably at least about seven days, still further preferably for at least about two weeks or more.
  • the micro- organ cultures of the invention are typically maintained in culture for at least seven days.
  • skin micro-organ cultures from human, mouse, guinea pig, and rat skin have been maintained in culture for at about least twenty-one days.
  • the language “maintainable in culture” refers to the population of cells of a tissue explant of which at least about 60%, preferably at least about 70%, more preferably at least about 80%, yet more preferably at least about 90%, most preferably 95% or more of the cells remain viable in culture after a certain period of time.
  • the ratio of cell proliferation to cell loss, e.g., by death or sloughing, of the cells in the micro-organ cultures is equal to one, i.e., the number of cells proliferating is equal to the number of cells lost.
  • the ratio of cell proliferation to cell loss of the cells in the micro-organ cultures is greater than one, i.e., the cells are proliferating at a greater rate than the cells are being lost.
  • the micro-organ culture is understood to include a population of cells which is being amplified.
  • Exemplary applications for the micro-organ cultures of the present invention include the following: (a) identification of factors involved in normal homeostasis of tissues and organs; (b) studying the effect on the normal homeostasis of tissues and cells of an organ with respect to changes in the environment including changes in nutrients and the presence of potentially toxic agents;
  • (h) as a tissue/organ equivalent for drug screening and cytotoxicity studies; (i) as a diagnostic assay for proliferative disorders; (j) as a source of novel growth factors; (k) as a source of stem/progenitor cells; (1) as a source of inducing molecules;
  • the present method can be used to generate skin equivalents in the fo ⁇ n of micro-organ cultures.
  • the skin consists of two types of tissue. These are: (1) the stroma or dermis which includes fibroblasts that are loosely dispersed within a high density collagen matrix as well as nerves, blood vessels and fat cells; (2) the epidermis which includes an epidermal basal layer of tightly packed, actively proliferating immature epithelial cells.
  • the cells of the basal layer replicate, some of the young cells remain in the basal layer while others migrate outward, increase in size and eventually develope an envelop resistant to detergents and reducing agents.
  • a cell bom in the basal layer takes about 2 weeks to reach the edge or outer layer after which time the cells die and are shed.
  • the skin contains various structures including hair follicles, sebaceous glands and sweat glands. Hair follicles are formed from differentiating keratinocytes that densely line invaginations of the epidermis. The open ended vesicles that formed from such imaginations collect and concentrate the secreted keratin and a hair filament results.
  • epidermal cells lining an invagination may secrete fluids (sweat gland) or sebum (sebaceous gland).
  • fluids sweat gland
  • sebum sebum
  • the microarchitecture of the micro-organ culture mimics or is substantially the same as that of skin in vivo, e.g., it has an epithelial tissue/connective tissue structure.
  • skin micro-organ cultures keratinocytes of the epidermis remain associated with the connective tissue and the normal tissue architecture is preserved including the hair follicles.
  • the micro-organ culture which is obtained from a skin tissue section can also include a basal lamina supporting the epidermal cells, an extracellular matrix which includes the dermal cells, and at least one invagination, e.g., at least one hair follicle.
  • the association between skin epithelial tissue and the skin connective tissue facilitates intercellular communication.
  • full thickness skin can be grown in a variety of ways allowing an air interface. Exposure of the keratinocytes of the explant to air promotes a more rapid differentiation of keratinocytes and more extensive secretion of keratin layers, which may be very important in skin penetration studies. Finally, it is noted that recent studies have indicated that the skin is an integral and active element of the immune system (Cooper et al., (1987) The mechanobullous disease. In: Dermatology in General Medicine, 3d. Ed., McGraw Hill, NY (pp.610- 626). One of the major cell types in the skin which is responsible for various immune activities is the Langerhans cell.
  • These cells may be prepared from fresh skin samples and added to the three-dimensional skin culture to produce an immunologically complete tissue system. Growth of these cells in the culture for long periods of time by conventional tissue culture techniques is difficult. The ability to grow these cells in a three-dimensional system would be of great importance in all aspects of study including engraftment, cytoxicity, and disease mechanisms. This type of skin culture system would have the greatest impact on research involving auto-immune disorders which have direct or indirect cutaneous involvement (lupus erythematosis, bullous pemphigoid, etc.). Accordingly, the micro-organ cultures ofthe present invention can be used to study proliferative/differentiative disorders under conditions in which immunological aspects of the disease are minimized.
  • An exemplary drag screening assay can be derived using psoriatic skin explants in order to identify agents which can inhibit proliferation ofthe hyperplastic epithelial cells.
  • the skin is merely an example of a tissue which can be grown as a micro-organ culture having epithelial tissue which is supported by stromal tissue.
  • Other tissues including epithelial tissue can be grown as micro-organ cultures of the present invention.
  • Epithelial tissues are found in every part of the body where an interface between an organ and the environment arise. Epithelial cells cycle continuously in an uninjured body and form the covering tissue for all the free surfaces in the body including the skin. In some cases, such as in the pancreas, the epithelial cells line numerous invaginations and secrete enzymes into open spaces that enable the organ, to function.
  • the lung is another example of a highly invaginated organ, each invagination in the lung being lined with epithelial cells through which air diffuses from the environment in to the body. Once again, these epithelial cells have characteristic properties.
  • the lining of the gut is also composed of specialized epithelial cells that not only form a barrier but also contain specialized structures for selectively absorbing food. All the epithelia are supported by connective tissue. Still another organ comprising important cell-stromal interactions is the bone marrow.
  • microarchitecture of a micro-organ pancreas culture mimics or is substantially the same as that of the source pancreas in vivo, e.g., it has an epithelial tissue/connective tissue structure.
  • pancreas micro-organ cultures include pancreatic epithelial cells, e.g., islet cells, remain associated with the pancreatic connective tissue.
  • pancreas micro- organ culture therefore, the normal tissue architecture is preserved and the normal pancreatic epithelial cell products, e.g., insulin and glucagon are produced.
  • the present invention provides for the generation of micro-organ cultures derived from the bone marrow, which cultures preserve the microarchitecture of the in vivo organ.
  • bone marrow micro-organs have been isolated in culture to derive a system comparable to physiologic conditions.
  • the bone marrow cultures of the present invention may be used for treating diseases or conditions which destroy healthy bone marrow cells or depress their functional ability.
  • Implantation of the subject micro-organs can be effective in the treatment of hematological malignancies and other neoplasias which involve the bone marrow.
  • This aspect of the invention is also effective in treating patients whose bone marrow has been adversely affected by the environmental factors (e.g., radiation, toxins, etc).
  • explants derived from the patients own marrow are generally preferable, it is noted that such explants can be allogenic, e.g., from another member of the same species, or xenogenic, e.g., from another organism.
  • An exemplary xenogenic implant could be a micro-organ culture derived from a miniamre swine for implantation in a human.
  • hematopoietic progenitor cells of the marrow colonize ("seed") the natural packets formed in the stromal matrix of the bone marrow micro-organ.
  • seed hematopoietic progenitor cells of the marrow colonize
  • the primary rate limiting factor in the growth of marrow stromal cells is the relatively low mitotic index of the fibroblasts included among the marrow stromal cells. Accordingly, where the growth of these cells and their disposition of extracellular matrix components is desired to be enhanced, the explant can be contacted with such agents as hydrocortisones or other fibroblast growth factors.
  • the bone marrow is to be cultured in order to treat certain patients with metastatic disease or hematological malignancies, the marrow obtained from the patients should be "purged" of abnormally proliferating cells by physical or chemotherapeutic means prior to culturing.
  • the conditioned medium from a bone marrow micro-organ culture ofthe present invention can be used as a source of novel or known lymphokines, e.g., as a source of interleukins.
  • the invention contemplates, in one aspect, the use of the subject micro-organ cultures for transplantation in an organism.
  • administering introducing
  • transplanting are used interchangeably and refer to the placement ofthe cell populations ofthe invention into a subject, e.g., an allogeneic or a xenogeneic subject, by a method or route which results in localization of the cells to a desired site.
  • the cell populations can be administered to a subject by any appropriate route which results in delivery ofthe cells to a desired location in the subject where at least a portion ofthe cells remain viable.
  • At least about 5%, preferably at least about 10%, more preferably at least about 20%, yet more preferably at least about 30%, still more preferably at least about 40%, and most preferably at least about 50% or more of the cells remain viable after administration to a subject.
  • the period of viability of the cells after administration to a subject can be as short as a few hours, e.g., twenty-four hours, to a few days, to as long as a few weeks to months.
  • Methods of administering populations of cells ofthe invention include implantation of cells into the visceral or the parietal peritoneum, for example into a pouch of the omentum, implantation of cells into or onto an organ of the recipient subject, e.g., pancreas, liver, spleen, skin.
  • the micro- organs of the invention can also be administered to a subject by implantation under, e.g., a kidney capsule.
  • the term "subject” refers to mammals, e.g., primates, e.g., humans.
  • a "xenogeneic subject” as used herein is a subject into which cells of another species are introduced or are to be introduced.
  • An “allogeneic subject” is a subject into which cells of the same species are introduced or are to be introduced.
  • Donor subjects are subjects which provide the cells, tissues, or organs, which are to be placed in culture and/or transplanted to a recipient subject. Recipient subjects can be either xenogeneic or allogeneic subject.
  • Donor subjects can also provide cells, tissues, or organs for reintroduction into themselves, i.e. for autologous transplantation.
  • the micro-organ can be inserted into or encapsulated by rechargeable or biodegradable devices and then transplanted into the recipient subject.
  • Gene products produced by such cells can then be delivered via, for example, polymeric devices designed for the controlled delivery compounds, e.g., drugs, including proteinaceous biopharmaceuticals.
  • a variety of biocompatible polymers including hydrogels), including both biodegradable and non-degradable polymers, can be used to form an implant for the sustained release of a gene product ofthe cell populations of the invention at a particular target site.
  • Cell populations of the invention can be administered in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent, such as sterile saline and aqueous buffer solutions.
  • a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent such as sterile saline and aqueous buffer solutions.
  • the micro-organ cultures of the present invention can be employed for wound healing. Repair of skin lesions is known to be a highly complex process that includes primary epithelial cell migration as well as replication of epidermal cells in response to molecular signals from underlying connective tissue. Skin micro-organ cultures are described herein as a model for wound healing. Under controlled culture conditions, factors controlling healing can be carefully monitored. Furthermore, because the micro-organ culture is isolated from the natural blood supply, analysis of the healing process can be done without the additional complexity of blood bome factors or cells. Normal epidermis has a low mitotic activity with cells cycling every 200-300 hours.
  • Example II skin micro-organ cultures show increased proliferation of up to 10 fold for several days.
  • the edge of a wound is comparable to the micro-organ culture.
  • This increased proliferation mimics the events that are associated with wounding and provides a unique opportunity to study the process of wound healing.
  • the appended examples demonstrate in vivo that the epidermal explants of the present invention can be applied to chronic wounds (example IX) and can form a viable implant capable of growing hair (example XI).
  • the subject epidermal micro-organs can be used in the treatment of bum patients.
  • the need for a skin replacement for bum patients is evident.
  • Several centers in the United States and Europe have utilized cultured human keratinocyte allografts and autografts to permanently cover the wounds of bums and chronic ulcers (Eisinger et al., (1980) Surgery 88:287-293; Green et al., (1979) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76:5665-5668; Cuono et al., (1987) Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 80:626-635).
  • the micro-organ culture system of the invention may afford a vehicle for introducing genes and gene products in vivo for use in gene therapies. For example, using recombinant DNA techniques, a gene for which a patient is deficient could be placed under the control of a viral or tissue-specific promoter. The recombinant DNA construct can be used to transform or transfect all or certain of the cells in the subject micro-organ culture system. The micro-organ culture which expresses the active gene product could be implanted into an individual who is deficient for that product.
  • the use of the subject micro-organ culture in gene therapy has a number of advantages. Firstly, since the culture comprises eukaryotic cells, the gene product will be properly expressed and processed in culture to form an active product. Secondly, gene therapy techniques are useful only if the number of transfected cells can be substantially enhanced to be of clinical value, relevance, and utility; the subject cultures allow for expansion ofthe number of transfected cells and amplification.
  • the transgenic micro-organ cultures may be used to facilitate gene transduction.
  • a micro-organ culture comprising a recombinant virus expression vector may be used to transfer the recombinant virus into cells brought into contact with the culture, e.g., by implantation, thereby simulating viral transmission in vivo. Accordingly, this system can be a more efficient way of accomplishing gene transduction than are current techniques for DNA transfection.
  • the cells of the micro-organ cultures of the present invention can be modified to express a gene product.
  • gene product refers to proteins, peptides and functional RNA molecules.
  • the gene product encoded by the nucleic acid molecule is the desired gene product to be supplied to a subject. Examples of such gene products include proteins, peptides, glycoproteins and lipoproteins normally produced by an organ of the recipient subject.
  • gene products which may be supplied by way of gene replacement or addition to defective organs in the pancreas include insulin, amylase, protease, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, carboxypeptidase, ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, triacylglycerol lipase, phospholipase A2, elastase, and amylase; gene products normally produced by the liver include blood clotting factors such as blood clotting Factor VIII and Factor IX, UDP glucuronyl transferase, omithine transcarbanoylase, and cytochrome p450 enzymes, and adenosine deaminase, for the processing of serum adenosine or the endocytosis of low density lipoproteins; gene products produced by the thymus include serum thymic factor, thymic humoral factor, thymopoiet
  • the encoded gene product is one which induces the expression of the desired gene product by the cell (e.g., the introduced genetic material encodes a transcription factor which induces the transcription ofthe gene product to be supplied to the subject).
  • the recombinant gene can provide a heterologous protein, e.g., not native to the cell in which it is expressed.
  • various human MHC components can be provided to non-human micro-organs to support engraftment in a human recipient.
  • the transgene is one which inhibits the expression or action of a donor MHC gene product normally expressed in the micro-organ explant.
  • Additional protein families useable in context of the micro- organs of the present invention include cytokines, interleukins, bmp, chemokines, growth factors, hormones, enzymes, monoclonal antibodies, single chain fvs antibodies, oxidoreductases, p450, peroxydases, hydrogenases, dehydrogenases, catalase, transferases such as, for example, glycosyltransferases, mannosyltransferases; hydrolases, such as, for example, esterases, glucoamylases, glycosyl hydrolases, transcarbamylases, ribonucleases, atpases, peptidases, phosphodiesterases, lyases; isomerases, such as, for example, topoisomerases; ligases, aminoacyl-trna synthetases, kinases, phosphoproteines, mutator transposons, oxidoreductases, cholinesterases,
  • a nucleic acid molecule introduced into a cell is in a form suitable for expression in the cell of the gene product encoded by the nucleic acid.
  • the nucleic acid molecule includes coding and regulatory sequences required for transcription of a gene (or portion thereof) and, when the gene product is a protein or peptide, translation of the nucleic acid molecule include promoters, enhancers and polyadenylation signals, as well as sequences necessary for transport of an encoded protein or peptide, for example N-terminal signal sequences for transport of proteins or peptides to the surface ofthe cell or secretion.
  • Nucleotide sequences which regulate expression of a gene product are selected based upon the type of cell in which the gene product is to be expressed and the desired level of expression of the gene product. For example, a promoter known to confer cell-type specific expression of a gene linked to the promoter can be used. A promoter specific for myoblast gene expression can be linked to a gene of interest to confer muscle-specific expression of that gene product. Muscle-specific regulatory elements which are known in the art include upstream regions from the dystrophin gene (Klamut et al., (1989) Mol. Cell Biol.9:2396), the creatine kinase gene (Buskin and Hauschka, (1989) Mol. Cell Biol.
  • keratin genes mediate transcriptional repression (Jho Sh et al, (2001). J Biol Chem).
  • Regulatory elements specific for other cell types are known in the art (e.g., the albumin enhancer for liver-specific expression; insulin regulatory elements for pancreatic islet cell-specific expression; various neural cell-specific regulatory elements, including neural dystrophin, neural enolase and A4 amyloid promoters).
  • a regulatory element which can direct constitutive expression of a gene in a variety of different cell types, such as a viral regulatory element can be used.
  • viral promoters commonly used to drive gene expression include those derived from polyoma virus, Adenovirus 2, cytomegalovirus and Simian Virus 40, and retroviral LTRs.
  • a regulatory element which provides inducible expression of a gene linked thereto can be used.
  • the use of an inducible regulatory element e.g., an inducible promoter
  • examples of potentially useful inducible regulatory systems for use in eukaryotic cells include hormone-regulated elements (e.g., see Mader, S. and White, J.H. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
  • the nucleic acid is in the form of a naked nucleic acid molecule.
  • the nucleic acid molecule introduced into a cell to be modified consists only of the nucleic acid encoding the gene product and the necessary regulatory elements.
  • the nucleic acid encoding the gene product (including the necessary regulatory elements) is contained within a plasmid vector. Examples of plasmid expression vectors include CDM8 (Seed, B. (1987) Nature 329:840) and pMT2PC (Kaufman, et al. (1987) EMBO J. 6:187-195).
  • the nucleic acid molecule to be introduced into a cell is contained within a viral vector.
  • the nucleic acid encoding the gene product is inserted into the viral genome (or partial viral genome).
  • the regulatory elements directing the expression ofthe gene product can be included with the nucleic acid inserted into the viral genome (i.e., linked to the gene inserted into the viral genome) or can be provided by the viral genome itself.
  • Naked nucleic acids can be introduced into cells using calcium-phosphate mediated transfection, DEAE-dextran mediated transfection, electroporation, liposome- mediated transfection, direct injection, and ultrasound mediated transfection receptor- mediated uptake.
  • Naked nucleic acid e.g., DNA
  • a precipitate containing the nucleic acid and calcium phosphate For example, a HEPES- buffered saline solution can be mixed with a solution containing calcium chloride and nucleic acid to form a precipitate and the precipitate is then incubated with cells.
  • a glycerol or dimethyl sulfoxide shock step can be added to increase the amount of nucleic acid .taken up by certain cells.
  • CaPO4-mediated transfection can be used to stably (or transiently) transfect cells and is only applicable to in vitro modification of cells.
  • Naked nucleic acid can be introduced into cells by forming a mixture of the nucleic acid and DEAE-dextran and incubating the mixture with the cells.
  • a dimethylsulfoxide or chloroquine shock step can be added to increase the amount of nucleic acid uptake.
  • DEAE-dextran transfection is only applicable to in vitro modification of cells and can be used to introduce DNA transiently into cells but is not preferred for creating stably transfected cells. Thus, this method can be used for short term production of a gene product but is not a method of choice for long-term production of a gene product. Protocols for DEAE-dextran-mediated transfection can be found in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel, F.M. et al.
  • nucleic acid can also be introduced into cells by incubating the cells and the nucleic acid together in an appropriate buffer and subjecting the cells to a high- voltage electric pulse.
  • the efficiency with which nucleic acid is introduced into cells by electroporation is influenced by the strength of the applied field, the length of the electric pulse, the temperature, the conformation and concentration of the DNA and the ionic composition of the media. Electroporation can be used to stably (or transiently) transfect a wide variety of cell types.
  • liposome-mediated transfection Another method by which naked nucleic acid can be introduced into cells includes liposome-mediated transfection (lipofection).
  • the nucleic acid is mixed with a liposome suspension containing cationic lipids.
  • the DNA/liposome complex is then incubated with cells.
  • Liposome mediated transfection can be used to stably (or transiently) transfect cells in culture in vitro. Protocols can be found in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel F.M. et al. (eds.) Greene Publishing Associates, (1989), Section 9.4 and other standard laboratory manuals. Additionally, gene delivery in vivo has been accomplished using liposomes. See for example Nicolau et al (1987) Meth. Enz.
  • Naked nucleic acid can also be introduced into cells by directly injecting the nucleic acid into the cells.
  • DNA can be introduced by microinjection. Since each cell is microinjected individually, this approach is very labor intensive when modifying large numbers of cells.
  • microinjection is a method of choice is in the production of transgenic animals (discussed in greater detail below).
  • the DNA is stably introduced into a fertilized oocyte which is then allowed to develop into an animal.
  • the resultant animal contains cells carrying the DNA introduced into the oocyte.
  • Direct injection has also been used to introduce naked DNA into cells in vivo (see e.g., Acsadi et al.
  • a delivery apparatus e.g., a "gene gun" for injecting DNA into cells in vivo can be used.
  • a delivery apparatus e.g., a "gene gun”
  • Such an apparatus is commercially available (e.g., from BioRad).
  • Naked nucleic acid can be complexed to a cation, such as polylysine, which is coupled to a ligand for a cell-surface receptor to be taken up by receptor-mediated endocytosis (see for example Wu, G. and Wu, CH. (1988) J. Biol. Chern. 263: 14621; Wilson et al. (1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267:963-967; and U.S. Patent No. 5,166,320). Binding ofthe nucleic acid-ligand complex to the receptor facilitates uptake ofthe DNA by receptor-mediated endocytosis.
  • Receptors to which a DNA-ligand complex have targeted include the transferrin receptor and the asialoglycoprotein receptor.
  • a DNA- ligand complex linked to adenovirus capsids which naturally disrupt endosomes, thereby releasing material into the cytoplasm can be used to avoid degradation of the complex by intracellular lysosomes (see for example Curiel et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:8850; Cristiano et al. (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:2122- 2126).
  • Receptor-mediated DNA uptake can be used to introduce DNA into cells either in vitro or in vivo and, additionally, has the added feature that DNA can be selectively targeted to a particular cell type by use of a ligand which binds to a receptor selectively expressed on a target cell of interest.
  • Ultrasound mediated transfection can also be used as a transformation method according to the present invention.
  • telomeres when naked DNA is introduced into cells in culture (e.g., by one of the transfection techniques described above, only a small fraction of cells (about 1 out of 10 ) typically integrate the transfected DNA into their genomes (i.e., the DNA is maintained in the cell episomally).
  • a selectable marker in order to identify cells which have taken up exogenous DNA, it is advantageous to transfect nucleic acid encoding a selectable marker into the cell along with the nucleic acid(s) of interest.
  • selectable markers include those which confer resistance to drugs such as G418, hygromycin and methotrexate. Selectable markers may be introduced on the same plasmid as the gene(s) of interest or may be introduced on a separate plasmid.
  • a preferred approach for introducing nucleic acid encoding a gene product into a cell is by use of a viral vector containing nucleic acid, e.g. a cDNA, encoding the gene product.
  • a viral vector containing nucleic acid e.g. a cDNA
  • Infection of cells with a viral vector has the advantage that a large proportion of cells receive the nucleic acid which can obviate the need for selection of cells which have received the nucleic acid.
  • molecules encoded within the viral vector, e.g. a cDNA contained in the viral vector are expressed efficiently in cells which have taken up viral vector nucleic acid and viral vector systems can be used either in vitro or in vivo.
  • Defective retroviruses are well characterized for use in gene transfer for gene therapy pu ⁇ oses (for review see Miller, A.D. (1990) Blood 76:271).
  • a recombinant retrovirus can be constructed having a nucleic acid encoding a gene product of interest inserted into the retroviral genome. Additionally, portions of the retroviral genome can be removed to render the retrovirus replication defective. The replication defective retrovirus is then packaged into virions which can be used to infect a target cell through the use of a helper virus by standard techniques. Protocols for producing recombinant retroviruses and for infecting cells in vitro or in vivo with such viruses can be found in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Ausubel, F.M. et al.
  • retroviruses include pLJ, pZIP, pWE and pEM which are well known to those skilled in the art.
  • suitable packaging virus lines include ⁇ Crip, ⁇ 2 and ⁇ Am. Retroviruses have been used to introduce a variety of genes into many different cell types, including epithelial cells endothelial cells, lymphocytes, myoblasts, hepatocytes, bone marrow cells, in vitro and/or in vivo (see for example Eglitis, et al. (1985) Science 230:1395-1398; Danosand Mulligan (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad.
  • Retroviral vectors require target cell division in order for the retroviral genome (and foreign nucleic acid inserted into it) to be integrated into the host genome to stably introduce nucleic acid into the cell. Thus, it may be necessary to stimulate replication of the target cell.
  • adenovirus The genome of an adenovirus can be manipulated such that it encodes and expresses a gene product of interest but is inactivated in terms of its ability to replicate in a normal lytic viral life cycle. See for example Berkner et al. (1988) BioTechniques 6:616; Rosenfeld et al. (1991) Science 252:431-434; and Rosenfeld et al. (1992) Cell 68: 143-155.
  • Suitable adenoviral vectors derived from the adenovirus strain Ad type 5 dl324 or other strains of adenovirus are well known to those skilled in the art.
  • Recombinant adenoviruses are advantageous in that they do not require dividing cells to be effective gene delivery vehicles and can be used to infect a wide variety of cell types, including airway epithelium (Rosenfeld et al. (1992) cited supra), endothelial cells (Lemarchand et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:6482-6486), hepatocytes (Herz and Gerard (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:2812-2816) and muscle cells (Quantin et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:2581-2584).
  • introduced adenoviral DNA (and foreign DNA contained therein) is not integrated into the genome of a host cell but remains episomal, thereby avoiding potential problems that can occur as a result of insertional mutagenesis in situations where introduced DNA becomes integrated into the host genome (e.g., retroviral DNA).
  • the carrying capacity of the adenoviral genome for foreign DNA is large (up to 8 kilobases) relative to other gene delivery vectors (Berkner et al. cited supra; Haj-Ahmand and Graham (1986) J. Virol 51:261).
  • Most replication- defective adenoviral vectors currently in use are deleted for all or parts of the viral El and E3 genes but retain as much as 80% ofthe adenoviral genetic material.
  • Adeno-associated virus is a naturally occurring defective virus that requires another virus, such as an adenovirus or a he ⁇ es virus, as a helper virus for efficient replication and a productive life cycle.
  • another virus such as an adenovirus or a he ⁇ es virus
  • AAV Adeno-associated virus
  • It is also one of the few viruses that may integrate its DNA into non-dividing cells, and exhibits a high frequency of stable integration (see for example Flotte et al. (1992) Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol. 7:349-356; Samulski et al. (1989) J. Virol.
  • AAV vector such as that described in Tratschin et al. (1985) Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251- 3260 can be used to introduce DNA into cells.
  • a variety of nucleic acids have been introduced into different cell types using AAV vectors (see for example Hermonat et al. (1984)Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:6466-6470; Tratschin et al. (1985) Mol. Cell Biol.
  • DNA introduced into a cell can be detected by a filter hybridization technique (e.g., Southern blotting) and RNA produced by transcription of introduced DNA can be detected, for example, by Northern blotting, RNase protection or reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).
  • the gene product can be detected by an appropriate assay, for example by immunological detection of a produced protein, such as with a specific antibody, or by a functional assay to detect a functional activity of the gene product, such as an enzymatic assay. If the gene product of interest to be interest to be expressed by a cell is not readily assayable, an expression system can first be optimized using a reporter gene linked to the regulatory elements and vector to be used.
  • the reporter gene encodes a gene product which is easily detectable and, thus, can be used to evaluate efficacy of the system.
  • Standard reporter genes used in the art include genes encoding ⁇ -galactosidase, chloramphenicol acetyl transferase, luciferase, GFP/EGFP and human growth hormone.
  • a homogenous population of identically modified cells from a single modified cell to isolate cells which efficiently express the gene product.
  • Such a population of uniform cells can be prepared by isolating a single modified cell by limiting dilution cloning followed by expanding the single cell in culture into a clonal population of cells by standard techniques.
  • transgenic cell referced to a cell into which a nucleic acid sequence which is partially or entirely heterologous, i.e., foreign, to the cell in which it has been inserted or introduced.
  • a transgenic cell can also be a cell into which an nucleic acid which is homologous to an endogenous gene of the cell has been inserted. In this case, however, the homologous nucleic acid is designed to be inserted, or is inserted, into the cell's genome in such a way as to alter the genome of the cell into which it is inserted.
  • the homologous nucleic acid is inserted at a location which differs from that of the natural gene or the insertion of the homologous nucleic acid results in a knockout of a particular phenotype.
  • the nucleic acid inserted into the cells can include one or more transcriptional regulatory sequences and any other nucleic acid, such as an intron, that may be necessary for optimal expression of a selected nucleic acid.
  • the subject micro-organ cultures may be used to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of malignancies and diseases. For example, a biopsy of an organ (e.g. skin, kidney, liver, etc.) may be taken from a patient suspected of having a hype ⁇ roliferative or neoproliferative disorder.
  • the biopsy explant is cultured according to the present method, proliferative cells of the explant will be clonally expanded during culturing. This will increase the chances of detecting such disorders, and, therefore, increase the accuracy of the diagnosis.
  • the patient's micro-organ culture could be used in vitro to screen cytotoxic and/or pharmaceutical compounds in order to identify those that are most efficacious; i.e. those that kill malignant or diseased cells, yet spare the no ⁇ nal cells. These agents could then be used to therapeutically treat the patient.
  • a further aspect ofthe mvention pertains to a method of using the subject micro- organ cultures to screen a wide variety of compounds, such as cytotoxic compounds growth/regulatory factors, pharmaceutical agents, etc.
  • compounds such as cytotoxic compounds growth/regulatory factors, pharmaceutical agents, etc.
  • the micro-organ cultures described herein permits the use of a tissue-equivalent as an assay substrate and offers the advantages of normal cell interactions in a system that closely resembles the in vivo state. To this end, the cultures are maintained in vitro and exposed to the compound to be tested.
  • the activity of a cytotoxic compound can be measured by its ability to modulate the phenotype (including killing) of cells in the explant. This may readily be assessed by vital staining techniques, expression of markers, etc. For instance, the effect of growth/regulatory factors may be assessed by analyzing the cellular content of the culture, e.g., by total cell counts, and differential cell counts. This may be accomplished using standard cytological and/or histological techniques including the use of immunocytochemical techniques employing antibodies that define type-specific cellular antigens. The effect of various drugs on normal cells cultured in the present system may be assessed. For example, drugs that decrease proliferation of psoriatic tissue can be identified.
  • the method includes isolating a tissue explant from a subject, wherein the population of cells of the explant retains a microarchitecture of the organ or tissue from which the explant was isolated, e.g., the explant is characterized by Aleph of at least about 1.5 mm " , and includes at least one cell which has the ability to proliferate.
  • the explant is cultured and contacted with a candidate compound.
  • the level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is then measured and compared with the level of cell proliferation in the absence of the candidate compound. A statistically significant increase in the level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is indicative of a cell proliferative agent.
  • candidate compound or “candidate agent” as used herein refers to an agent which is tested or to be tested for proliferative, anti-proliferative, differentiating, anti-differentiating, or anti-viral activity.
  • agents can be, for example, small organic molecules, biological extracts, and recombinant products or compositions.
  • Methods of measuring cell proliferation are well known in the art and most commonly include determining DNA synthesis characteristic of cell replication. There are numerous methods in the art for measuring DNA synthesis, any of which may be used according to the invention. In one embodiment of the invention, DNA synthesis
  • FIG. 3 has been determined using a radioactive label ( H-thymidine) or labeled nucleotide analogues (BrdU) for detection by immunofluorescence.
  • H-thymidine labeled nucleotide analogues
  • BrdU labeled nucleotide analogues
  • Yet another embodiment provides a method for identifying an inhibitor of cell proliferation. This method includes providing a tissue explant as above, contacting that explant with a candidate compound, and measuring the level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound. A statistically significant decrease in the level of cell proliferation in the presence of the candidate compound is indicative of an inhibitor of cell proliferation.
  • both potentiators and inhibitors of cell proliferation can be used, for example to control hair growth depending on the desired effect.
  • the growth of hard keratin fibers such as wool and hair is dependent on the proliferation of dermal sheath cells.
  • Hair follicle stem cells of the sheath are highly active, and give rise to hair fibers through rapid proliferation and complex differentiation.
  • the hair cycle involves three distinct phases: anagen (growing), catagen (regressing), and telogen (resting).
  • the epidermal stem cells of the hair follicle are activated by dermal papilla during late telogen. This is termed "bulge activation".
  • stem cells are thought to be pluripotent stem cells, giving rise not only to hair and hair follicle structures, but also the sebaceous gland and epidermis.
  • Cell proliferative agents and inhibitors of cell proliferation provide means for altering the dynamics ofthe hair growth cycle to, for example, induce quiescence of proliferation of hair follicle cells, particularly stem cells ofthe hair follicle.
  • Inhibitors of hair follicle cell proliferation can be employed as a way of reducing the growth of human hair as opposed to its convention removal by cutting, shaving, or depilation.
  • inhibitors of hair follicle cells identified using the method of the present invention can be used in the treatment of trichosis characterized by abnormally rapid or dense growth of hair, e.g., hypertrichosis.
  • such inhibitors can be used to manage hirsutism, a disorder marked by abnormal hairiness. Use of such inhibitors can also provide a process for extending the duration of depilation.
  • Inhibitors of hair follicle cell proliferation can also be used to protect hair follicle cells from cytotoxic agents which require progression into S-phase of the cell- cycle for efficacy, e.g. radiation-induced death. Treatment with such inhibitors provides protection by causing the hair follicle cells to become quiescent, e.g., by inhibiting the cells from entering S phase, and thereby preventing the follicle cells from undergoing mitotic catastrophe or programmed cell death.
  • inhibitors of hair follicle cell proliferation can be used for patients undergoing chemo- or radiation-therapies which ordinarily result in hair loss. By inhibiting cell-cycle progression during such therapies, the inhibitor treatment can protect hair follicle cells from death which might otherwise result from activation of cell death programs. After the therapy has concluded, inhibitor treatment can also be removed with concomitant relief of the inhibition of follicle cell proliferation.
  • the subject method is used to generate hair follicle micro-organ explants which retain the microarchitecture of the follicle, e.g., the interaction between the hair follicle epithelial layer and stromal components (the dermal papilla) of the hair follicle, e.g., one or more of the stem cells, outer root sheath cells, matrix cells, and inner root sheath cells.
  • hair growth can be observed in these micro- organ cultures even in the absence of serum, e.g., in a minimal media.
  • the present invention also provides a hair follicle culture which provide the hair follicles in a substantially telogenic phase, e.g., resting.
  • the telogenic hair follicle explants can be activated in the in vitro culture to growing anagen follicles, and in a certain embodiment, in a synchronized manner.
  • the early transient proliferation of the epidemial stem cells of the follicle provide a unique opportunity to understand the activation of anagenic phase as mediated, for example, by paracrine and/or autocrine factors produced by the various tissues ofthe hair follicle organ.
  • the subject micro-organ cultures supply a system for identifying agents which modulate the activation or inactivation ofthe hair follicles, e.g., to identify agents which can either promote or inhibit hair growth.
  • telogenic (resting) hair follicle explants such as described in Example XVIII below, are contacted with various test agents, and the level of stimulation ofthe hair follicles is detected.
  • transition of the hair follicle stem cells from telogen to anagen can be monitored by observing the mitotic index of the cells of the follicle, or some other similar method of detecting proliferation.
  • Figure 17 shows that thymidine inco ⁇ oration can be used to measure the relative levels of stem cell activation in the explant in the absence or presence of the test compound (FGF in the figure) with increased proliferation indicative of a test agent having hair growth promoting activity.
  • anagenic micro-organ explants are provided in culture, e.g., such as the activated Sencar explants described in the appended examples, or growth factor stimulated explants (e.g., FGF stimulated).
  • Test agents which inhibit proliferation of the hair follicle stem cells, e.g., relative to the untreated anagen explants, could be considered further for use as telogenic agents that prevent hair growth.
  • inhibitors of cell proliferation identified by the subject assay can be employed to inhibit growth of neoplastic or hype ⁇ lastic cells, e.g., tumor formation and growth.
  • a preferred embodiment of the invention is directed to inhibition of epithelial tumor formation and growth.
  • Tumor formation arises as a consequences of alterations in the control of cell proliferation and disorders in the interactions between cells and their surroundings that result in invasion and metastasis.
  • a breakdown in the relationship between increase in cell number resulting from cell division and withdrawal from the cell cycle due to differentiation or cell death lead to disturbances in the control of cell proliferation.
  • TGF- ⁇ was tested and found to act as an inhibitor of cell proliferation.
  • Activin a protein which is a member of the TGF- ⁇ superfamily, has also been shown to inhibit proliferation of epidermal cells.
  • Another aspect of the present invention pertains to a method for identifying a cell differentiating agent, i.e., a compound which causes cell differentiation.
  • This method includes isolating a population of cells from a subject wherein the population of cells having a microarchitecture of an organ or tissue from which the cells are isolated, a surface area to volume index of at least about 1.5mm , and includes at least one cell which has the ability to differentiate.
  • the cells are then placed in culture for at least about twenty -four hours and contacted with a candidate compound.
  • the level of cell differentiation in the presence of the candidate compound is then measured and compared with the level of cell differentiation in the absence of the candidate compound. A statistically significant increase in the level of cell differentiation in the presence ofthe candidate compound is indicative of a cell differentiating agent.
  • Differentiation refers to cells which have acquired mo ⁇ hologies and/or functions different from and/or in addition to those that the cells originally possessed. Typically, these mo ⁇ hologies and functions are characteristic of mature cells.
  • the differentiation of populations of cells of the present invention can be monitored by measuring production and/or secretion of specialized cell products.
  • the present invention also pertains to a method for identifying an inhibitor of cell differentiation. Following the same protocol as above, the level of cell differentiation in the presence of the candidate compound is measured and compared with the level of cell differentiation in the absence of the candidate compound. A statistically significant decrease in the level of cell differentiation in the presence ofthe candidate compound is indicative of an inhibitor of cell differentiation.
  • the subject cultures permit the generation of in vitro models for viral infection.
  • epidermal or squamous tissue can be isolated, and infected with such viruses as he ⁇ es viruses, e.g., he ⁇ es simplex virus 1, he ⁇ es simplex virus 2; varicella-zoster virus; or human papilloma viruses, e.g., any of human papilloma viruses 1-58, e.g., HPV-6 or HPV-8.
  • hepatic models can be provided for hepatitis infection, e.g., an explant infected with hepatitis viruses, e.g., hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, or hepatitis C virus.
  • the virally-infected tissue explants can be used to identify inhibitors of viral infectivity by method of the present invention.
  • the particular micro-organ culture is provided, and contacted (optionally) with a virus which infects the cells to produce a population of virus- infected cells.
  • the virus-infected cells can then be contacted with a candidate compound and the level of infectivity of the virus in the presence of the candidate compound measured.
  • the measured level of viral infectivity in the presence of the candidate compound is then compared to the level of viral infectivity in the absence of the candidate compound.
  • a statistically significant decrease in the level of infectivity ofthe virus in the presence of the candidate compound is indicative of an inhibitor of viral infectivity.
  • Methods of measuring viral infectivity are known in the art and vary depending on the type of virus used.
  • one method which can be used to measure the level of viral infectivity is by measuring the level of production in the infected cells of the micro-organ culture or in the micro-organ culture medium of gene products specific for the particular virus being tested.
  • hepatitis viras e.g., hepatitis B viras
  • hepatitis protein production and hepatitis DNA can be quantitated.
  • micro-organ culture medium can be incubated with antibodies against a selected viral protein and the immunoreactive proteins analyzed by a variety of methods known in the art, e.g., on SDS-polyacrylamide gels, ELISA.
  • ELISA e.g., SDS-polyacrylamide gels
  • micro-organ culture medium from micro-organs previously incubated with hepatitis B viras can be sampled at daily intervals and assayed for the surface antigen by an ELISA (Abbott) method as described by the manufacturer.
  • This method can be modified for quantitation using serially diluted standard surface antigen (CalBiochem).
  • a statistically significant decrease in the accumulation of hepatitis B surface antigen in the culture medium indicates that the candidate compound tested is an inhibitor of hepatitis viras infectivity.
  • hepatitis B viras DNA from cell extracts from the micro-organ culture can be detected and quantitated by PCR amplification of the DNA, followed by Southern blot analysis using labeled primer pairs in the HBV pre-S (HBsAg encoding) region as probes (see e.g., Sambrook, J. Et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning - A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 2nd ed., vol. 2, pp. 10.14-10.15). Relative quantitation can be achieved by densitometry and confirmed by scintillation counting of corresponding bands. Reduction in levels of newly synthesized viral DNA indicate that the candidate compound tested is an inhibitor of hepatitis virus infectivity.
  • gag, pol, and env protein products of retroviruses can also be measured using the above-described and other standard techniques known in the art.
  • pol protein expression in cells of micro-organ cultures infected with HIV can be measured by incubating cell extracts with anti pol antibodies or pooled AIDS patients sera and immunoreactive proteins analyzed on SDS/polyacrylamide gels.
  • EBV DNA and EBV -induced nuclear antigen production can be analyzed using the methods described herein.
  • the micro-organ cultures of the present invention can also be used to promote wound healing in a subject.
  • the present invention further pertains to a method for promoting wound healing in a recipient subject.
  • This method includes isolating, from a donor subject, a population of cells having a surface area to volume index is at least approximately 1.5 mm " .
  • the population of cells is placed in culture for at least about twenty-four hours.
  • the population of cells can then be applied to a wound of the recipient subject.
  • the wound or lesion is slow-healing or chronic, e.g., a wound associated with diabetes, e.g., a bum, e.g., an ulcer.
  • skin micro-organ cultures ofthe present invention can be used as micro-explants to be applied to chronic wounds (Example X) and can form a viable implant capable of growing hair (Example XI).
  • the subject micro-organ explants are provided in an assay to test for cytotoxicity or for irritation.
  • the subject method provides a technique for in vitro testing of ocular and dermal irritants. The process, much like above, involves the topical application of liquid, solid granular or gel-like materials (e.g., cosmetics) to the micro-organ cultures of the present invention, followed by detection ofthe effects produced in the culture.
  • liquid, solid granular or gel-like materials e.g., cosmetics
  • potential eye and skin irritation of many chemicals, household cleaning products, cosmetics, paints and other materials are evaluated through direct application to animals or human subjects.
  • such approaches are not met with overwhelming public support.
  • the present method provides an alternative assay which does not require sacrifice or permanent maiming of an animal and also provides data in an objective format.
  • skin micro-organ cultures are derived according to the present invention.
  • the cultured explants are contacted with a test agent, such as a cosmetic preparation, and the cell viability is assessed at some time after the exposure.
  • a test agent such as a cosmetic preparation
  • an MTT assay (based on the reduction of a tetrazolium dye by functional mitochondria) is used to score for viability.
  • the micro-organ cultures of the present application can additionally be used to identify factors involved in normal homeostasis of tissues and cells, study the effect on the normal homeostatis of tissues and cells of changes in the environment of the cells including changes in nutrients and the presence of potentially toxic agents, study the pathway of changes in the tissues and cells that are triggered at the beginning and during pathogenesis or trauma; identify repair mechanisms that reverse the adverse effects in an altered environment associated with pathogenesis or trauma; study developmental regulation of cells that differentiate during the normal homeostasis ofthe tissue and developmental regulation of specialized structures (e.g., hair follicles) within the tissue; and for organ supplementation where pieces of an individual's organ remain but are insufficient for replacing or regenerating damaged tissue such as occurs in patients which chronic skin ulcers, which have healing deficiencies caused by inappropriate blood supply, or where the local skin is unable to heal such as in the conditions known as type I or type II diabetes.
  • specialized structures e.g., hair follicles
  • Micro-organ cultures from animals including adult human skin, mouse, guinea pig and rat skin have been isolated and grown for up to 21 days in culture. However, it is within the scope of the invention to maintain cultures periods of time beyond 21 days.
  • micro-organ cultures from a wide range of animals.
  • the range of animals is merely exemplified but is not limited to the samples provided below.
  • micro-organ cultures were prepared from skin and also from organs including the mammalian pancreas, liver, kidney, duodenum, esophagus and bladder.
  • micro-organ cultures of epithelia from mammalian cornea, kidney, breast tissue and various gut derived tissues in addition to the esophagus such as intestine and colon may also be prepared using the methods of the invention. Indeed, it is within the scope of the invention to isolate and maintain micro-organ cultures from any site which contains an epithelial/stromal architecture within the body.
  • tissue explants in long-term culture from tissue not having epithelial/stromal architecture, such as certain lymphoid tissue, e.g., thymus and spleen explants.
  • Fresh skin was obtained after surgery, cleaned from underlying fat tissue and cut into 0.4 x 5 cm flaps, which are then transversely sectioned, using a tissue chopper or other suitable cutting means into 300 ⁇ m sections under sterile conditions so that the final tissue segments had dimensions of 4 mm in width and 0.3 mm in thickness (see Figure 1).
  • These micrograns were placed in a 24- well microplate in 400 ⁇ l of DMEM in the absence of serum under 5% CO2 at 37 C, under constant shaking at 12 ⁇ m for periods of one to eight days. Twenty micro-explants were grown per well.
  • Micro-organ cultures were prepared according to Example I and proliferation of the cells was measured by analyzing the amount of DNA synthesis as follows. Mouse skin and guinea pig skin were grown for two days and human skin grown for four days after which BrdU was added to the medium at a final concentration of lOO ⁇ M for three hours, followed by fixation ofthe cells in 4% formaldehyde. After fixation, the cultures were stained with goat anti-BrdU antibodies followed by anti-goat-FICT labeled IgG. Histological preparations were embedded in following fixation in 4% formaldehyde and cut into 3 ⁇ m slices and stained with methylene blue.
  • Guinea pig micro-organs were prepared as in Example I. Whole thickness skin strips 4 mm in width were sectioned into explants of varying thickness including slices of 300, 450, 600, 700, 900, 1200 and 3000 ⁇ m thickness. These slices were placed individually into wells containing serum free medium for two days. BrdU was added for four hours before termination at a final concentration of lOO ⁇ M. The explants were then fixed in 4% fo ⁇ naldehyde and stained with goat antibodies to BrdU followed by an anti-goat IgG FITC labeled secondary antibody preparation. The results of this experiment are illustrated in Figure 6. The amount of BrdU inco ⁇ oration as a function ofthe number of cells/unit tissue is significantly reduced as the thickness ofthe explants increases.
  • Example IV Preparation of Pancreatic Micro-Organ Cultures and Measurement of Cell
  • Guinea-pig pancreas was removed and then cut into sections of 300 ⁇ m in thickness, 4 mm in width and 2mm in depth using an appropriate tissue chopper and in such a way that the pancreas microarchitecture was maintained.
  • the micro-explants were grown in culture for several time periods from two to eighteen days. Seven micro- organs were placed in each of 96 wells of a plate in 150 ⁇ l of serum-free DMEM under 5% CO2 at 37 0 C under constant shaking at 12 ⁇ m. BrdU was added three hours before termination at a final concentration of lOO ⁇ M and the explants were then fixed in 4% formaldehyde and stained with goat antibodies to BrdU followed by anti-goat-FITC labeled IgG.
  • Figures 7A-7B illustrate that cells in the pancreas-derived micro-organs were actively proliferating.
  • Guinea-pig micro-organ cultures from several epithelial tissue containing organs were prepared as in previous examples for skin. Organs were removed and with scissors, were cut to an appropriate width of 2 mm, length of 3 mm, and sliced into sections of 300 ⁇ m thick. The microcultures were incubated for three, four and six days
  • Skin micro-organ cultures were prepared according to Example I and incubated for two days. BrdU was added three hours before termination of incubation. Cells were fixed in 4% formaldehyde and stained with goat anti-BrdU antibodies followed by anti- goat-FITC labeled IgG. Intact hair follicles that were present in vivo in their normal surroundings could be maintained under precisely controlled culture conditions, without the need of adding serum or any other exogenous factor. Hair follicle cells in these micro-organs were found to proliferate vigorously for several days under the conditions of the present method as indicated by the large number of hair follicles cells that inco ⁇ orated BrdU ( Figures 10A-10C).
  • the cultures were prepared and maintained in defined medium in similar growth conditions as described in Example I. Control samples were analyzed by immunocytochemistry to dete ⁇ nine that the micro-organ culture was maintained in a manner that was similar to that occurring in vivo.
  • Example I a small-area of normal, uninvolved skin graft is removed from the patient and full thickness micro explants of 4 mm in width and 0.3 mm thick are prepared as described in Example I.
  • the preparation differs from Example I in that the sectioning into 0.3 mm slices is deliberately incomplete so that a series of sections are held together as indicated in Figure 13, the upper epidermal layers including the stratum comeum.
  • the design of this implant is directed to permitting the nutrients to reach all the cells but maintaining the tissue slices in a manipulatable format. The patient's wound is cleaned and surrounding skin edges are removed.
  • micro-explants which are placed on the wound such that the non-sectioned edge is facing outward and the opposing sectioned pieces are suspended in the fluid within the wound.
  • Sufficient micro-explants are prepared to substantially cover the wounded area.
  • the treated region is then covered with a suitable dressing and allowed to heal.
  • split-thickness psoriatic skin from an 82 year old patient was obtained after autopsy using a dermatome.
  • the skin was then sectioned into 0.5 x 5 cm flaps which were then transversely sectioned using a tissue chopper or other suitable cutting device into 300 ⁇ m sections.
  • These micro-organ sections were placed in microplates in serum- free DMEM under 5% CO2 at 37 C under constant shaking for periods of one to fourteen days. In some instances, growth factors were added to the culture medium. The medium was changed every two days.
  • the human psoriatic skin proliferated extensively as micro-organ culture.
  • hepatocytes in these micro-organ cultures were determined to be functional as measured by assay of urea (Sigma Chemical, urea detection kit) and albumin production (ELISA) after at least
  • Mouse and rat micro-organ cultures from thymus and spleen were prepared essentially as in the previous examples for skin. Organs were removed and cut with scissors to an approximate width of 2mm and length of 3mm. These samples were then spliced into explants of approximately 300 ⁇ m thick using an appropriate tissue chopper in such a way as to preserve the essential microarchitecture of the organ. The micro- organs were then incubated for 1, 3, 5 and 10 days in serum free medium. Active proliferation in these micro-organ cultures was detected using BrdU inco ⁇ oration as described herein.
  • Micro-organ cultures from bone marrow were prepared by carefully removing the bone marrow intact from femurs of rats and mice. Since the diameter ofthe marrow in such explants is only about 1-2 mm, the marrow was directly sliced into micro-organ explants using 300 ⁇ m thick using a tissue chopper. This method ensured the microarchitecture of the marrow was preserved while at the same time retaining a surface/volume index amenable to long-term culture. The micro-organs were incubated for 3 days in serum free medium. Active proliferation of marrow cells in these micro- organ cultures was detected using BrdU inco ⁇ oration as described herein.
  • micro-organ cultures of the present invention allows easy access to tissues for a variety of gene transfer techniques.
  • micro-organ cultures are transfected with foreign genes using electroporation and lipofection.
  • the micro-organ cultures can be transplanted into animals and survive for at least about thirty days in vivo and become vascularized. This demonstrates the feasibility of using MC cultures of tissues in ex vivo gene therapy protocols.
  • a further advantage of the MC culture is that it can be transplanted to a defined position in the body, so that if necessary it could be readily removed in the future. This contrasts with cell suspension transplantation into the body in which the cells can migrate or become "lost" in normal tissue.
  • Guinea pig skin was dissected and sliced into sections with a width of 2 mm and a thickness of 300 ⁇ m.
  • the skin was cultured as a micro-organ in serum-free Dulbecco's minimum essential media with penicillin and streptomycin at the concentrations recommended by the manufacturer. After one day in culmre at 37°C and 5% C02, the skin micro-organ cultures were rinsed with DMEM without antibiotics and added to a 0.4 cm gap disposable electroporation cuvette with 500 ⁇ l of media on ice.
  • each plasmid had a cytomegalovirus promoter driving the expression of either a ⁇ - galactosidase (control) or luciferase reporter gene.
  • the luciferase plasmid backbone was pRC-CMV (Invitrogen) fused in frame with the firefly luciferase gene.
  • NIH3T3 cells were treated at 250 ⁇ F) with a Bio-Rad electroporation device. The samples were then further incubated with DMEM containing 10% bovine calf serum, penicillin, streptomycin, and glutamic acid for 2 days in a 24 well culmre plate. The media was removed, and the samples were suspended in about 700 ⁇ l of cell culture lysis reagent (Promega).
  • NIH3T3 cells from a 75cm culture flask were trypsinized, and treated identically to the micro-organ cultures. As illustrated in Figure 15, at the medium (500 ⁇ F) and low (250 ⁇ F) capacitance settings, significant luciferase activity was detected. For comparison, similar amount of NIH3T3 immortal cultured cells were electroporated with the same plasmids at 250 ⁇ F.
  • micro-organ cultures from guinea pig skin, newborn mouse skin, and rat lung were transfected with a plasmid containing a luciferase reporter. Briefly, the micro-organ cultures were grown at 37°C in 5.5% CO2 in DMEN with 1% penicillin/streptomycin and 1% L-glutamine for one day before transfection. The explants were plated on 24 well plates with 20 explants and 400 ⁇ l of media per well.
  • the micro-organ cultures were rinsed twice with Optimem, and lO ⁇ l of Lipofectin (Gibco BRL) +2 ⁇ g of DNA + Optimem was added to each well with the final volume being 500 ⁇ l.
  • the Optimem/Lipofectin/DNA solution was made according to the Lipofectin manufacturer's directions. The cultures were then incubated for 5-6 hours at 37°C in 5.5% CO2.
  • Example XV Lung and thymus from an eight week old female Lewis rat were dissected and processed for micro-organ culturing as described in Example XV.
  • the micro-organ cultures were placed in culture wells and transfected with cationic lipid luciferase encoding plasmid DNA complexes for five to six hours while incubating at 37°C.
  • the cationic lipid/plasmid DNA solution was aspirated, and the cultures were then incubated in medium plus 10% serum for two days, and then assayed for luciferase reporter gene expression (expressed in arbitrary light units).
  • the results of this experiment are illustrated in Figure 16.
  • the lung, but not the thymus expresses the transfected luciferase gene under these conditions.
  • the negative control ⁇ -galactosidase transfected lung micro-organ culture (10 ⁇ l cationic lipid concentrate) was near machine background for light production (23 light units).
  • New bom mouse skin was obtained after surgery, cleaned of underlying fat tissue and cut into 0.4 x 5 cm flaps, which were then transversely sectioned, using a tissue chopper or other suitable cutting devise into 300 ⁇ m sections.
  • the micro-organs were placed in microplates in DMEM in the absence of serum under 5% CO2 at 37°C under constant shaking for periods of 1 to 14 days. Certain of the micro-organ explants were contacted with a growth factor, e.g., FGF, which was added to the culture media. The medium was changed every 2 days.
  • FGF growth factor
  • New bom "hairless” skin can be induced to produce hair shafts when grown in MC cultures.
  • activation of telogen follicles was observed. The
  • Sencar mouse provides a useful model to study hair follicle activation because the follicles are well synchronized and the cycle stages have been well characterized.
  • Sencar mice provide an in vivo model for anagen activation. The removal of the club from a telogen follicle can induce new hair fomiation, the first signs of which, are well characterized.
  • Skin from adult Sencar mice was obtained after surgery, cleaned from underlying fat tissue and cut into 0.4 x 5 cm flaps, which were then transversely sectioned, using a tissue chopper or other suitable cutting device into 300 ⁇ m sections. The micro-organs were placed in microplates in DMEM in the absence of serum 5% CO2 at 37°C under constant shaking for periods of 1 to 14 days.
  • Figure 17 illustrates the activation of a telogenic explant, as detected by thymidine inco ⁇ oration.
  • Pancreas micro-organ cultures have now been grown in vitro for periods of up to one month. Within the cultures, explants maintain their tissue microarchitecture and certain cell subpopulations proliferate actively as determined by BrdU inco ⁇ oration and labeling. Furthermore the islet cells secrete insulin into the medium even after one month of in vitro culture. Transplantation experiments have been performed in which pig micro-organ pancreas cultures have been implanted into both the visceral and parietal mesoderm of rat hosts. Explants have been kept for periods varying from a few days up to one month in vivo. The explants become well vascularized and inco ⁇ orate into the tissue host.

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Abstract

L'invention se rapporte à des cultures de micro-organes comprenant des populations isolées de cellules possédant des caractéristiques spécifiques. Les cultures de micro-organes de l'invention présentent notamment la particularité de pouvoir être maintenues en culture sur de relativement longues périodes, ainsi que de préserver une microarchitecture d'organe qui facilite, par exemple, des interactions cellule-cellule et cellule-matrice analogues à celles survenant dans l'organe source. Les cultures de micro-organes de l'invention peuvent être utilisées dans des procédés destinés à fournir des produits génétiques à des sujets receveurs, à identifier des agents de prolifération cellulaire et de différenciation cellulaire, et à identifier et isoler des cellules souches. De plus, les cultures de micro-organes de la présente invention peuvent être utilisées dans des procédés d'identification d'inhibiteurs de la prolifération cellulaire, de la différenciation cellulaire et de l'infectiosité virale. Dans d'autres modes de réalisation, les cultures de micro-organes peuvent servir à la transplantation.
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WO2010086856A2 (fr) 2009-02-01 2010-08-05 Yissum Research Development Company Of The Hebrew University Of Jerusalem Ltd. Procédés de génération de tissu à l'aide de matrices d'échafaudages acellulaires et dévitalisés provenant de micro-organes
WO2013188851A1 (fr) * 2012-06-14 2013-12-19 Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center Expansion ex vivo de cellules souches myogéniques par l'activation notch
US9687564B2 (en) 2006-09-14 2017-06-27 Medgenics Medical Israel Ltd. Long lasting drug formulations
CN113604446A (zh) * 2021-08-16 2021-11-05 重庆大学 7α-羟基类固醇脱氢酶St-2-2的突变体R16Q
CN113813437A (zh) * 2021-09-28 2021-12-21 振德医疗用品股份有限公司 基于细菌非特异性粘附的抗感染防黏连创面敷料
CN115721716A (zh) * 2022-07-13 2023-03-03 苏州翊鹏医药科技有限公司 Mdh2抑制剂在雄激素性脱发治疗中的应用

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WO2008033375A2 (fr) 2006-09-14 2008-03-20 Medgenics Ltd. Formulations de médicament de longue durée

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US20020012661A1 (en) * 1999-12-10 2002-01-31 Norimitsu Saito Methods for introducing genes into mammalian subjects

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US6030833A (en) * 1995-08-04 2000-02-29 The General Hospital Transgenic swine and swine cells having human HLA genes
US20020012661A1 (en) * 1999-12-10 2002-01-31 Norimitsu Saito Methods for introducing genes into mammalian subjects

Cited By (8)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US9687564B2 (en) 2006-09-14 2017-06-27 Medgenics Medical Israel Ltd. Long lasting drug formulations
WO2010086856A2 (fr) 2009-02-01 2010-08-05 Yissum Research Development Company Of The Hebrew University Of Jerusalem Ltd. Procédés de génération de tissu à l'aide de matrices d'échafaudages acellulaires et dévitalisés provenant de micro-organes
US10093896B2 (en) 2009-02-01 2018-10-09 Yissum Research Development Company Of The Hebrew University Of Jerusalem Ltd. Methods of generating tissue using devitalized, acellular scaffold matrices derived from micro-organs
WO2013188851A1 (fr) * 2012-06-14 2013-12-19 Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center Expansion ex vivo de cellules souches myogéniques par l'activation notch
CN113604446A (zh) * 2021-08-16 2021-11-05 重庆大学 7α-羟基类固醇脱氢酶St-2-2的突变体R16Q
CN113604446B (zh) * 2021-08-16 2023-04-07 重庆大学 7α-羟基类固醇脱氢酶St-2-2的突变体R16Q
CN113813437A (zh) * 2021-09-28 2021-12-21 振德医疗用品股份有限公司 基于细菌非特异性粘附的抗感染防黏连创面敷料
CN115721716A (zh) * 2022-07-13 2023-03-03 苏州翊鹏医药科技有限公司 Mdh2抑制剂在雄激素性脱发治疗中的应用

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