WO1990013129A2 - Appareil de fusion - Google Patents

Appareil de fusion Download PDF

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Publication number
WO1990013129A2
WO1990013129A2 PCT/US1990/001879 US9001879W WO9013129A2 WO 1990013129 A2 WO1990013129 A2 WO 1990013129A2 US 9001879 W US9001879 W US 9001879W WO 9013129 A2 WO9013129 A2 WO 9013129A2
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fusion
fusible material
coherent
containment vessel
lattice
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PCT/US1990/001879
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WO1990013129A3 (fr
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Peter L. Hagelstein
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Massachusetts Institute Of Technology
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    • G—PHYSICS
    • G21—NUCLEAR PHYSICS; NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
    • G21B—FUSION REACTORS
    • G21B3/00—Low temperature nuclear fusion reactors, e.g. alleged cold fusion reactors
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E30/00—Energy generation of nuclear origin
    • Y02E30/10—Nuclear fusion reactors

Definitions

  • This invention relates to cold fusion apparatus.
  • Fleischmann and Pons have asserted that heat produced by electrolytically deuterium- loaded palladium rods results from near room temperature nuclear fusion (Fleischmann and Pons, J. Electroanalytic Chemistry, 261, 301 (1989); Petrasso, et al., Nature 339, 183 (1989); Fleischmann, et al., Nature 339, 667 (1989); Petrasso, et al., Nature 339, 667 (1989)).
  • the coherent fusion apparatus of the invention includes a source of fusible material, for example deuterium, and a means for exciting that material to initiate and sustain colierent fusion. It further includes a means for monitoring the rate of the coherent fusion reaction such as a neutron or ⁇ -particle detector, and a means for extracting usable energy from the coherent fusion apparatus.
  • fusible material is coupled to a quantized mode which may be a mechanical, electrical, magnetic, or composite mode so that this coupling is sufficiently strong to effect the onset of coherent fusion.
  • a quantized mode which may be a mechanical, electrical, magnetic, or composite mode so that this coupling is sufficiently strong to effect the onset of coherent fusion.
  • fusible material is contained within an electrically conductive, radially symmetric containment vessel and coherent fusion is initiated through coupling to plasmon modes.
  • fusible material is contained within insulating vessels where coupling is accomplished by radially polarizing insulating crvstals.
  • the cosmic ray permeable fusion apparatus includes fusible material contained within an electrically conductive containment vessel provided with radially disposed rod-like projections electrically connected in series with an oscillator and in series or parallel with a computer-controlled variable load to extract energy from the coherent fusion process.
  • An electrically excited coherent fusion apparatus may be coupled electrically to a load either in series or in parallel. This means of electric energy coupling may be tuned further by the insertion of a variable resistance element in these circuits.
  • the oscillator includes a variable quality factor (Q) resonator for acoustical excitation of fusible material, including hydrogen and deuterium in proportions adjusted for optimization of the coherent fusion rate.
  • Q quality factor
  • An ⁇ -particle source may also be provided to initiate coherent fusion.
  • the vessel preferably consists of metal resistant to enhanced fission.
  • the fusion apparatus includes fusible material within an insulating containment vessel surrounded by radially disposed polarizable crystals and apparatus for extracting usable energy produced by the coherent fusion process.
  • fusible material includes hydrogen and deuterium in proportions adjusted to optimize the coherent fusion rate.
  • the coherent fusion process is stopped by selective introduction of a proton excess.
  • the vessel consists of low atomic number material, such as lithium hydride and is thin-walled. Usable energy can be extracted with a metal positron trap and heat built up within the apparatus may be removed by embedded, thermally conductive mesh.
  • the vessel can be cosmic ray permeable and can include an ⁇ -particle source for fusion initiation.
  • All fusion apparatus can accommodate various radially symmetric geometry containment vessels including cylindrical, spherical, or toroidal geometries, use of gaseous, liquid, solid, or cryogenic fusible material including solids such as ice or metal hydrides and removal of by-products of the coherent fusion process such as tritium using a circulation loop.
  • a selectively permeable membrane such as gold-coated palladium may be used to adjust hydrogen/deuterium fusible material ratios.
  • a neutron or ⁇ -particle detector may be combined with a coherent fusion apparatus to monitor the fusion rate.
  • Coherent fusion reactors can also be used to drive lasers either by creating a large potential difference needed to excite a gas discharge laser or by direct coupling to electronic transition lasers including gases such as N 2 , semiconductors such as GaAs or crystalline insulator laser hosts such as yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG).
  • gases such as N 2
  • semiconductors such as GaAs or crystalline insulator laser hosts
  • YAG yttrium aluminium garnet
  • a coherent fusion reactor may also be used to drive a vibrational transition laser or maser via direct or filtered energetic coupling.
  • the energy created in a coherent fusion apparatus can be used to promote a chemical reaction having a high activation barrier such as nitrate synthesis. This energy may also be utilized for transmutation of elements, generation of artificial isotopes, and processing of radioactive wastes to remove high atomic number radioactive isotopes.
  • Coherent deuterium fusion byproducts 3 He and neutrons, may be harnessed for useful purposes.
  • the 3 He may be contained for subsequent use in cryogenic studies and the neturons may be utilized for neutron spectroscopy.
  • Fig. la is a schematic cross section of a fusion apparatus
  • Fig. lb is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus coupled in parallel to a load
  • Fig. lc is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus coupled to a load in parallel with a variable resistance element
  • Fig. 2a is a schematic sideview of a fusion apparatus
  • Fig. 2b is a, schematic endview of a fusion apparatus
  • Fig. 3 is a schematic illustration of a fusion reaction rate monitoring system consisting of a neutron detector positioned near a fusion apparatus;
  • Fig. 4 is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus used to excite a discharge laser
  • Fig, 5 is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus used to excite a semiconductor laser
  • Fig. 6 is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus used to excite electronic transitions in a laser wherein energetic coupling occurs directly between the fusion apparatus and the laser material;
  • Figs. 7a and 7b are schematic illustrations of fusion apparatus used for promoting a chemical reaction
  • Figs. 8a and 8b are schematic illustrations of fusion apparatus used for transmutation of an element
  • Fig. 9 is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus used to generate neutrons for spectroscopy
  • Fig. 10 is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus used to generate 3 He;
  • Fig. 11 is a schematic illustration of a fusion apparatus excited by an ion beam.
  • Fig. 12 is a schematic illustration of an amplifier which includes a fusion apparatus.
  • a third class of reactions can proceed which produce virtual localized intermediate states according to the following reactions:
  • the incoherent branches can be either fast decays if mediated by the strong force or electromagnetic force, or slow decays if mediated by the weak force.
  • fast decay channels only a small fractional virtual population needs to be established to obtain an observable decay rate.
  • beta decay paths a very large virtual population is required to produce an observable effect.
  • a formulation is developed which applies to both classes of reactions.
  • Coherent acceleration of the fusion rate requires that coupling proceed to a single final state, and that the process be reversible, i.e., matrix elements for the reverse process be equal to those for the forward reaction.
  • Coherent processes which occur in a phonon laser are distinquished from those in a conventional laser in that no conventional laser exhibits an interaction energy exceeding the transition energy.
  • Equation 8 The fundamental constraint for the onset of coherent fusion is given by Equation 8 where H represents a static Hamiltonian, ⁇ n is the nuclear angular frequency, ⁇ p is the phonon angular frequency, and h is Planck's constant/2 ⁇ .
  • Equation 11 (11) When large numbers of nuclear fusions occur in the lattice, the phonon generation rate, ⁇ p , is given by Equation 11 (11) which is smaller than the result obtained in Equation 9 by a factor
  • Equation 12 The model may be extended to describe the coupling of the nuclear energy generated to multiple phonon modes. Such coupling is assumed to be dominated by transitions in which only a single phonon is exchanged. Equations 12 and 13 may be used to develop estimates of coherent fusion effects in macroscopic systems.
  • the total phonon generation rate, ⁇ p may be interpreted physically as being equal to the sum of the rates of each mode acting independently.
  • the associated total fusion rate is given by Equation 13. (12) (13)
  • the fusion rate for a given mode is essentially zero unless the interaction is strong enough such that the coherent fusion constraint (Equation 8) is satisfied.
  • the constrain is a statement that the phonon generation rate must exceed the phonon frequency for strong coherence to be achieved. We may use this constraint to examine the threshold condition for the lowest mode of a macroscopic coherent fusion system.
  • a bar with a lowest mode of frequency 1 kHz (corresponding to a phonon energy of 4 x 10 -12 eV) requires an interaction matrix element of 5 x 1 0 -3 eV to reach threshold for the p + d ⁇ 3 He + 5.5 M eV reaction.
  • the fusion rate under these conditions is quite small (7 x 10 -15 sec -1 ).
  • the number of modes which are available at a phonon frequency w - is on the order of 3V ⁇ j /(2 ⁇ c) 3 , where c is the sound speed and V is the volume involved.
  • the sum can be approximated by an integral if the number of modes is large, giving
  • ⁇ max is the liighest frequency for which phonon modes satisfy the coherence criterion: ( 16 ⁇ )
  • the total fusion rate may be written in terms of the cutoff frequency in this crude model.
  • the fusion rate is dominated by the highest frequency phonon modes which satisfy the coherence criterion. Moreover, an estimate of the frequency dependence of the phonon power generation spectrum is obtained. An estimate of what cutoff frequency would be required to generate a given power from a coherently fusing system qan be made.
  • the generated power is (19)
  • the interaction matrix element need only be constant over a small range for the total power estimate to remain valid.
  • T and T' denote eigenstates wliich differ by one acoustical phonon mode. It is assumed that nuclear fusion energy couples predominantly into acoustical phonon modes because the interaction energy required to meet the criterion set forth in Equation 8 is several orders of magnitude lower for acoustical than for optical phonons. However, optical phonon modes may be involved in this energy coupling since optical phonons are associated with relative nuclear motion which enhances tunneling probabilities moreso than lattice motion associated with acoustical phonon modes.
  • the dominant coupling between the nuclear fusion energy and lattice will proceed through the electromagnetic monopole E0 interaction which is stronger than an electromagnetic dipole E2 interaction because it can extend over a long range and involves an overlap integral rather than a quadrupole matrix element.
  • This more sophisticated version of the EO operator behaves like e 2 /r> over distances small compared to the wavelength of an exchanged photon, and goes as 2e 2 / ⁇ r 2 > in the limit that r> is much greater than the wavelength.
  • the wavelength of an exchanged photon can easily be on the order of the rod size or larger for coupling to acoustical phonons. Conversely, the interaction region is smaller in the case of coupling to optical phonons, since the photon wavelength becomes significantly smaller than the rod dimensions.
  • An order of magnitude estimate for the interaction matrix element may be obtained using equation 23.
  • ⁇ o is the Bohr radius
  • I H is 13.6eV
  • Nc is the number of excess charges at a mean distance R
  • NL is the number of nucleons in the lattice
  • N p d is the number of proton/ deuteron pairs which are S-wave with respect to each other
  • E k is the energy in phonon mode K.
  • a system can be designed to optimize this interaction matrix element and obtain results which correlate with physical observables.
  • an interaction matrix element on the order of 10 -7 eV can be obtained for the reaction given by Equation 1.
  • This interaction matrix element can be substantially larger for a meter scale system, and may give rise to a measurable effect.
  • Equation 1 a reaction given by Equation 1 should only yield measurable effects for a meter scale system and is too weak to play a major role in the small scale laboratory systems characterized to date.
  • the model developed so far may be extended to describe the reaction of Equation
  • the fusion reaction product of proton-proton fusion is not a stable particle.
  • Proton-proton fusion reactions are endothermic, and absorb rather than radiate phonons.
  • two-proton fusion is predicted to occur, although not in the same way that conventional fusion occurs.
  • the fusion reaction products would be present virtually, and would be undetectable in the absence of any additional reaction pathways.
  • a beta decay mode is hypothesized for the virtual two-proton fusion reaction product.
  • the reaction rate for this channel can be estimated as the product of the virtual ( 2 He) v probability and the associated beta decay rate. If the coupled lattice/nuclear system satisfies a coherence criterion for a low energy acoustical phonon mode, that mode will drive virtual ( 2 He)v production at a finite and calculable rate. As the virtual fusion products build up within the lattice, beta decay takes place more frequently. An equilibrium is established when the total rate of virtual helium creation through coherent interactions with the lattice becomes equal to the rate at which it is destroyed by beta decay. As a result, in equilibrium, we may estimate the two-step fusion/beta reaction rate from the virtual fusion rate alone using the model already developed.
  • the monopole density is (26)
  • Equation 27 the interaction matrix element of Equation 27 can be evaluated (27)
  • the total number of virtual localized proton-proton pairs can be inferred according to Equation 28 (28)
  • the interaction matrix element for the fusion process will be smaller than for two-proton coherent fusion by the ratio of tunneling factors on a per pair basis; this ratio is on the order of 10 -4 for HD versus H 2 .
  • a related two-step reaction which can produce neutrons is the d + d 4 H e ⁇ 3 He + n reaction. Colierent fusion of deutrons would lead to virtual 4 He, which would have a fast allowed neutron-producing decay channel.
  • a model for coherent fusion in which the nuclear energy is released into the acoustical phonon modes of a lattice has been developed. Coupling of the nuclear energy to the phonons can occur rapidly if the interaction couples energy one phonon at a time and if the interaction matrix element exceeds the geometric mean of the phonon energy and nuclear energy as given by Equation 3. It is important to note- that this analysis applies to any type of quantized modes, mechanical, electrical, magnetic or composite as long as the coupling is strong enough to satisfy the coherence criterion of Equation 8.
  • the coherent reactions given by Equations 1-3 can proceed through electromagnetic EO coupling of the nucleons to excess charge in the lattice as governed by the interaction matrix element which can be calculated as previously outlined.
  • fusion apparatus 10 consists of containment vessel 12 for fusible material, connected electrically in series to oscillator 14 for coupling to plasmon modes and to computer-controlled variable load 16 for extracting usable energy generated by the coherent fusion process.
  • Vessel 12 constructed of electrically conductive material, is fabricated in a cylindrical, radially symmetric geometry and is provided with external, radially disposed, rod-like projections 18 for coupling to fusible material 20.
  • Material 20 may include both hydrogen and deuterium with an H 2 concentration of 10 29 atoms. In a preferred embodiment, this mixture is adjusted at a ratio 10 8 deuterons/protons to obtain p-p coupling and avoid more likely p-d coupling.
  • Material 20 can be in the gas, liquid, or solid phase or can be maintained at a cryogenic temperature to reduce proton- deuteron exchange. Solid material 20 can include ice or a metal hydride. Material 20 Can be replenished by introduction of protons into vessel 12 from a proton source not shown.
  • a selectively permeable membrane not shown consists of gold-coated palladium and adjusts the hydrogen-deuterium mixture.
  • Vessel 20 may be provided with a circulation loop not shown for removal of by-products of the coherent fusion process such as tritium which accumulate during operation of apparatus 10.
  • Rod-like projections 18 which may be positioned on isopoteiitial curves are electrically connected in series to oscillator 14, which can include a variable quality factor (Q) resonator not shown. Tuning such a resonator such that a low Q is selected makes the circuit "lossy" and the oscillator then functions as if it were a load, acting eventually to shut off apparatus 10.
  • Projections 18 should be approximately one meter long for an approximately 20 meter long reactor.
  • One or more projections 18 can be individually coupled to high quality factor (Q) resonators, since coupling between modes is independent. In general, fusion initiation is easier for larger reactors where larger modes, having greater gain may be established.
  • variable load 16 which may include a switch to open electrical circuit 22, thus stopping the coherent fusion process.
  • Load 16 may be connected to apparatus 10 in series as shown in Fig. la, in parallel as shown in Fig. 1b, or in parallel with variable resistor 17 as shown in Fig. 1c.
  • Figs. 2a and 2b show fusion apparatus 30 wherein fusible material 32 is contained within insulating containment vessel 34 and and insulating crystals 36 are disposed radially in close proximity external to vessel 34 and fusible material 32.
  • hown can be used to polarize the insulating crystals 36 and establish co ⁇ pling between fusible material 32 and plasmon modes according to a method well- known to one skilled in the art.
  • Metal positron trap 38 surrounds material 32 and crystals 36 (Fig. 2b). Heat is generated as positrons become trapped. Metals are suitable positron traps. Heat generated within the interior of apparatus 30 may be removed by thermally conductive mesh not shown embedded within vessel 34.
  • Fig. 3 shows an apparatus for monitoring the reaction rate of a fusion reaction.
  • Neutron detector 40 whose fabrication is well known in the art is positioned in close proximity to coherent fusion apparatus 42.
  • Arrow 44 represents the flux of neturons emitted as a result of the fusion process occurring within the reactor.
  • Neutron detector 40 can be replaced by an ⁇ -particle detector not shown whose fabrication is also well-known in the art. Since enhanced ⁇ -decay results from coherent fusion induced nuclear polarization, ⁇ -particle emission is a sensitive indicator of the coherent fusion rate.
  • positron and annihilation 7-rays can be used to excite gas discharge laser 50 shown in Fig. 4.
  • Current source 52 assists in fusion initiation in fusion apparatus 54 connected in parallel to current source 52 and to variable resistance element 56. Fusion apparatus 54 is also connected in parallel with electrodes 58 which are enclosed within chamber 60.
  • Chamber 60 contains gas lasing medium 62 and a laser cavity is established in vessel 60 by installation of mirrors 63.
  • Ground 64 is provided for laser 50 and arrow 66 indicates the direction of current flow in the circuit.
  • Energetic electron positron generation from a coherent fusion reactor can be electrically coupled to semiconductor laser 70 shown in Fig. 5.
  • Current source 72 is used to assist in coherent fusion initiation in fusion apparatuses 74.
  • Apparatuses 74 are electrically coupled to semiconductor 76. Coupling between the coherent fusion reactors and semiconductor 76 can promote a large concentration of electrons to the conduction band of the semiconductor, while a large concentration of holes are simultaneously created in the valence band. This way, the condition of population inversion required for laser operation is established.
  • a laser cavity is created with mirrors 78.
  • a suitable material for semiconductor 76 should have a direct band gap and gallium arsenide, or one of its related III- V compound alloys such as Al x Ga 1-x As y Sb 1- y and Ga z In 1-x As y P 1-y .
  • the alloy composition selected for semiconductor 76 can be chosen on the basis of the lasing wavelength required.
  • Ground 80 is provided for laser 70 circuit and the direction of current flow is indicated by arrow 82.
  • the energy of the coherent fusion process can also be used to drive a vibrational laser or maser.
  • a coherent fusion driven laser or maser 90 is shown in Fig. 6.
  • Coherent fusion reactor 92 is coupled directly to laser gas 96.
  • the only molecules excluded are H 2 , D 2 and H D.
  • An optical cavity is configured using mirrors 98. Any cavity configuration can generate efficient lasing in the 0.01-0. leV range. Efficient microwave amplifiers can also be constructed.
  • Enegrgetic positrons produced by a coherent fusion reaction can also be utilized to promote chemical reactions, for example, nitrate synthesis.
  • Nitrogen containing compounds such as NO and ND 3 can be produced.
  • ND 3 can be converted to NH 3 by isotopic exchange.
  • Reaction vessel 100 appropriate for such a synthesis is shown in Fig. 7a.
  • electrodes 104 composed of a fusion host material are immersed in a Hquid medium 106 such as D 2 O.
  • Inlet 108 in container 102 permits introduction of a feactant gas such as nitrogen, N 2 .
  • the direction of gas flow is indicated by arrow 110.
  • the coherent fusion reaction is excited by an external excitation apparatus such as a battery now shown.
  • An insulating vessel cover 114 and electrical ground 116 are provided.
  • fusion apparatus 120 is positioned in close proximity to reactants 122 which can be liquid or gas. Most reactions are expected to occur at reactor surface 124 which may be a selectively permeable gold-coated palladium membrane. Using such a configuration, a desired compound may be synthesized directly without production of a deuterated intermediate product.
  • Electrodes 132 composed of a fusion host material are immersed in medium 134 containing the element to undergo transmutation in container 136.
  • the coherent fusion reaction is initiated by an external battery, not shown.
  • Insulating cover 138 and ground 140 are provided. Using this appartus, high atomic number radioactive isotopes may be reduced to stable isotopes through enhanced ⁇ -decay.
  • Transmutation of elements can be achieved by coupling fusion apparatus 150 directly to material to be transmuted 152 such as high atomic number radioactive isotopes.
  • material to be transmuted 152 such as high atomic number radioactive isotopes.
  • Selectively permeable mgmbrane 154 which can be gold-coated palladium separates apparatus 150 from material 152.
  • Fig. 9 shows a coherent fusion reactor driven neutron spectrometer 160.
  • Coherent fusion reactor 162 produces neutrons which are transferred from reactor 162 through conduit 164.
  • Neutrons are monitored with a first monitor counter 166 and intensity may be controlled using auxiliary gate 168.
  • a particular neutron energy bandwidth is selected using monochromator crystal 170.
  • Monochromatic neutrons emitted from crystal 170 are measured with second monitor counter 172 before interacting with specimen 174.
  • Neutrons which have interacted with specimen 174 are analyzed by analyzer crystal 176 and 10 B F 3 counter 178.
  • Crystal indexing unit 180 is used for orientation of specimen 174.
  • Spectrometer 160 is thoroughly shielded with rotatable shielding 182 and additional yoke and shielding 184 to contain stray neutron radiation.
  • a lattice 190 including fusible material which can be a mixture of hydrogen and deuterium is bombarded by an ion beam from generator 192 to initiate coherent fusion.
  • Energy output is represented by arrow 194.
  • Fig. 12 shows an amplifier 200 which consists of fusion apparatus 202 and metal plate 204 contained within a vacuum.
  • Energetic positrons collect on surface 206 which can be a selectively permeable gold-coated palladium membrane thus establishing a potential difference of approximately MeV between surface 206 and metal plate 204 which may be positioned from surface 206.
  • Energy may be obtained directly when positrons cross evacuated gap 208.
  • Fig. 11 illustrates one embodiment of an apparatus for collection of 3 He collection system 210, 3 He 212 produced by coherent fusion reactor 216 is collected in gas impermeable vessel 218.
  • a proton and a deuteron can fuse conventionally to 3 He following the emission of a 5.5 MeV gamma. If instead a low energy photon is exchanged, 3 He is still created, but only in a virtual sense.
  • Our discussion applies to reactions involving other isotopes as well, but due to the low reduced mass and low Z of the hydrogen isotopes, we anticipate that non-hydrogenic reactions involving charged nucleons will be weaker.
  • the two-step reactions which proceed through virtual intermediate states and are of interest here include p + p ( 2 He) v d + e + + v e (I.2) p + d ( 3 He) v ⁇ t + e + + v e (I.3) d + d ( 4 He)v ⁇ 3 He + n
  • n He denotes a virtual intermediate state.
  • the time dependence will correspond to a state with an energy equal to the initial state energy minus the energy of the exchanged photon.
  • d + d 4 He would be an exothermic virtual reaction.
  • the other intermediate states in this scenario are localized continuum states with maximum overlap with the decay products. These virtual reactions are endothermic.
  • a schematic of the proton-deuteron reaction is shown in Figure 1.
  • the incoherent branches can be either fast decays if mediated by the strong force or electromagnetic force, or else slow decays if mediated by the weak force.
  • fast decay channels only a small fractional virtual population needs to be established to obtain an observable decay rate.
  • beta decay paths a very large virtual population is required to produce an observable effect.
  • the formulation which we are developing applies to both classes of reactions.
  • the electron capture could occur first (leading to a virtual intermediate), and the fusion reaction would follow.
  • This type of reaction has the advantage that there is no coulomb barrier to inhibit tunneling between the fusing nucleons. Further discussion of alternate reactions of this type is given in the last section.
  • the interaction matrix element can be written in the form (II.4)
  • N* follows the ddfinition from laser physics, and is gven by the number of upper state "systems' minus lower state “systems” .
  • the p + d ( 3 He) v reaction is exothermic.
  • the population inversion is given by the number of pd pairs minus the number of ( 3 He) v nucleii.
  • N* is the population of ( 2 He) v minus the number of pp pairs.
  • the energy h ⁇ n is the positive energy difference between the upper and lower states.
  • a rate equation for N* can be obtained under the assumption N* varies slowly compared to the dynamics of M and O, and that
  • the two fusion states constitute a two-level system with gain or loss initially, depending on whether the virtual reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
  • the line width is determined by T 2 for the specific reaction. In the case of strong-force mediated decays, T 2 will be very small and the resonance will be quite broad, whereas for the reactions dominated by beta decay the lines will be very narrow.
  • ⁇ is the decay rate for the upper state fusion product.
  • T 1 is related to the incoherent decay rates through
  • Q is the quality factor of the mode.
  • a possible coherent fusion scenario which might be proposed is one in which the nuclear polarization is driven at low frquency ( ⁇ j ).
  • the nuclear system is initially inverted in the case of exothermic reactions and, if so, there is the possibility that the low frequency mode is driven.
  • the first term of the external hamiltonian is proportional to ( ⁇ t + a), which is a position operator.
  • the second term is proportional to ( ⁇ t - a)/i which is a velocity operator.
  • the new addition to our dressed-state hamiltonian is a term which combines the out- of-phase (velocity-dependent) external driving hamiltonian to a fusion polarization operator.
  • Tlus effect increases the decay rate, but since it is assumed to be off-resonant, it appears difficult to produce substantial observable effects without enhancements of the tunneling probability.
  • This reaction might proceed as follows: a proton would tunnel into the outer electron orbitals of a nearby metal atom, and pick up an electron through the weak interaction electron capture process. The resulting state would be virtual, since it is not energetically allowed. The fusion of the neutron and a second proton would occur through the coherent fusion (electromagnetic Ml interaction) mechanism discussed in this paper, driven by a relatively large magnetic dipole associated with neutral system tunneling. Overall, tliis process is somewhat related to two-photon decay. The neutrino spectrum would be continuous, and the remaining nuclear energy would be converted to heat through interaction with the current.
  • This reaction is of interest since it can be mediated by electromagnetic E1 interaction for s-wave neutron-lithium channels, which we believe should be dominant.
  • the quantities which appear in section II can be determined from the matrix element derived from the lowest order Feynman diagram for single photon exchange. This matrix element is
  • the summation over i includes all particles in the lattice
  • the summation over k and l is over all pairs of hydrogen isotopes
  • K is the wavevector (2 ⁇ / ⁇ ) of the exchanged photon.
  • Our goal is to build up a model in which the fusion energy is coupled from the microscopic to the macroscopic. This will be easiest to accomplish when the interaction is long range, which immediately suggests that we should concentrate on low energy photon exchange (where A is greater than the system dimensions). For example, coupling to mechanical or acoustical modes can be done with relatively low energy photons; plasmon generation in a metal will involve photons of several electron volts and will therefore be, of shorter range.
  • the matrix element on the microscopic scale is normally zero for an EO transition for well-separated particles.
  • a microscopic electric dipole (E1) transition couples to free charge with a 1/r 2 dependence, but it requires p-wave interaction between the nucleons at the microscopic scale for light hydrogen (p and d) isotope reactions. For two-step reactions where fusion occurs first, only the s-wave interactions have any chance of contributing at low temperature. As a result, the electric quadrupole (E2) interaction will in general do best of the electric interactions for these systems, and it varies as 1/r 3 .
  • M1 magnetic dipole
  • M3 magnetic dipole
  • the magnetic dipole (M1) interaction will be the strongest, and is proportional to 1/r 2 at low energy.
  • the dipole occurs at the nuclear microscopic half of the total interaction, while the macroscopic part of the interaction involves macroscopic current flow.
  • Spin-spin interaction is also possible, but varies as 1/r 3 .
  • the dominant long range interaction in the absence of electric and magnetic monopole transitions is the Ml interaction, for even parity final states for which the interaction hamiltonian at low energy is customarily taken to be
  • the neutron need not necessarily be at low energy relative to the charged nucleus. At low energy the above arguments still hold, but at high energy p-wave terms are possible, and the coupling can in principle occur through E1 interaction.
  • the M1 matrix element is (A.17) where
  • the transition to a second quantization picture can now be made.
  • the two hydrogen isotopes can either be fused or not.
  • the interaction matrix element is of interest when a fusion transition occurs, either creation of a fused state (we shall adopt to describe the transition to a fused state) or destruction of a fused state (b will be the annihilation operator).
  • the second quantized version of the polarization operator is (A.22)
  • the integral in (A.13) is computed (A.27)
  • the hamiltonian ffi contains terms appropriate for the three initial particles (e,p and ⁇ X ) and the lattice, and ⁇ 1 contains coordinates for the initial three particles and the lattice.
  • the hamiltonians H 2 and H 3 contain terms appropriate for the three intermediate (and final) state particles (n, v e , a X), in the crude picture that ⁇ +1 X is simply a bound state of the n + ⁇ X system.
  • the collection of particles described by H 2 and H 3 are identical, and in this sense H 2 and H 3 are the same unless we find some way to distinguish between the spaces on which they operate.
  • We shall employ projection operators P and Q which will give meaning to our separating H 2 and H 3 . Specifically, we define
  • H 2 PHP (B.3)
  • H 3 QHQ (B.4) where P projects out states in which the neutron is bound.
  • the electron capture occurs through the weak interaction, which is accounted for in the off-diagonal H w in (B.2).
  • the electromagnetic transitions which drive the coherent fusion process are in The hats in this equation refer to lattice operators.
  • the coupling between a fusion reaction and the lattice is assumed to be dominated by low order and low energy lattice transitions.
  • the generalization of the transformation to the dressed state picture is accomplished through a rotation similar to the one used in section III. The infinitesimal rotation operator of interest would be
  • Figure 1 Schematic of two-step fusion/beta reaction p + d ( 3 He)v ⁇ t + e + + v e .
  • L stands for lattice in this diagram, and the electromagnetic exchange of many low energy photons is indicated here by a double photon line.
  • Figure 2 Two-step coherent beta/fusion reaction p+d+e ⁇ (n+d+v e )v t+v e .
  • Figure 4 Example of a coherent fusion reaction involving electron capture by a deuteron.
  • Electronic transition laser materials are still in, but require production of an unstable isotope to drive.
  • the vibrational laser and maser claims are still physically possible, but would work through having either a very hot region supplying the optical phonons - I am not certain that we can get the fusion to drive the optical phonons directly (I doubt it), but it is something which in time I should be able to clarify.
  • Target nucleii for virtual neutron pickup Ml pickup is allowed between any two ground state nucleii which have
  • E1 pickup has
  • 1 H can pick up a virtual neutron to make 2 H through M1 interaction.
  • Radio- wave or microwave sources should be able to drive the coherent nuclear magnetic or electric dipoles.
  • lasers can do it but the coherence size may be reduced.
  • Heat generation may also be possible through stimulation of a macroscopic coherent magnetic or electric dipole in the presence of highly nonlinear media - for example, a highly stressed lattice.
  • a macroscopic coherent magnetic or electric dipole in the presence of highly nonlinear media - for example, a highly stressed lattice.
  • Neutron pick-up should be assisted in E1 and M1 systems, and tlds allows production of isotopes in quantity for research applications. Of possible interest is 13 C, 134 Cs, Sh Fe and 59 Ni.
  • Neutron pick-up can be used on radioactive substances. The idea would be to add neutrons and increase the radioactivity (shorten the lifetime), such that some types of radioactive waste could be "neutralized , ' . For example, 239 Pu can pick up a virtual neutron through Ml interaction.
  • ⁇ + and ⁇ - emission are both in principle possible by selecting a final state with a ⁇ -decary path. This could provide an interesting source of ⁇ -radiation which can be at very high levels and controllable.
  • h (Use as an x-ray source).
  • the production of unstable isotopes (preferably short-lived at the second to minute level) will be accompanied by hard radiation (a, ⁇ , ⁇ etc.). This radiation will be accompanied by secondary x-ray emission.
  • a source based on this could be of tremendous use.
  • the 26 Mg pickup to 27 Mg is my favorite candidate, and any element could serve as the UV or x-ray converter.

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  • Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • Plasma & Fusion (AREA)
  • General Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
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Abstract

Appareils de fusion permettant d'effectuer le couplage d'un matériau fusible à un mode quantifié pour obtenir une fusion cohérente. Procédé d'optimisation du fonctionnement réacteur, contrôle de la réaction de fusion cohérente et extraction de l'énergie utile ainsi produite.
PCT/US1990/001879 1989-04-10 1990-04-06 Appareil de fusion WO1990013129A2 (fr)

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Cited By (19)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
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EP0576293A1 (fr) * 1992-06-26 1993-12-29 Quantum Nucleonics Corp. Production d'énergie par commande des probabilités d'effets quantiques, réalisé par l'intermédiaire d'interactions induites de niveaux quantiques
WO1994016446A1 (fr) * 1993-01-07 1994-07-21 Jerome Drexler Fusion nucleaire auto-catalysee de lithium-6 et de deuterium a l'aide de particules alpha
WO1997040211A2 (fr) * 1996-04-10 1997-10-30 Patterson James A Systeme, cellule electrolytique et procede de production de chaleur excessive et de transmutation par electrolyse
WO1997046736A2 (fr) * 1996-05-24 1997-12-11 Patterson James A Systeme, cellule electrolytique et procede servant a produire de la chaleur et a desactiver de l'uranium et du thorium par electrolyse
WO1998003699A2 (fr) * 1996-07-09 1998-01-29 Patterson James A Elements a noyaux transmutes presentant des distributions isotopiques non naturelles obtenues par electrolyse, et methode de production
WO1998042035A2 (fr) * 1997-03-19 1998-09-24 Patterson James A Cellule electrolytique et procede servant a desactiver une matiere radioactive
WO1999054884A1 (fr) * 1998-04-17 1999-10-28 Cnam - Conservatoire National Des Arts Et Metiers Procede et dispositif pour la production d'energie a partir d'un hydrure a caractere metallique
WO2003098640A2 (fr) * 2002-05-17 2003-11-27 The State Of Oregon Acting By And Through The State Board Of Higher Education On Behalf Of Portland State University Traitement de materiaux radioactifs avec des noyaux d'isotope d'hydrogene
EP1376611A2 (fr) * 1995-06-06 2004-01-02 André Jouanneau Procédé et dispositif pour la production et l'utilisation de plasma
WO2007102860A2 (fr) * 2005-12-05 2007-09-13 Seldon Technologies, Inc. Procédé de production de particules énergétiques à l'aide de nanotubes et articles ainsi produits
WO2007130156A2 (fr) 2005-12-29 2007-11-15 Profusion Energy, Inc. Dispositif et procédé de génération d'énergie
WO2011064739A1 (fr) * 2009-11-25 2011-06-03 Mofakhami, Florence Procédé pour générer des neutrons
EP2360997A1 (fr) * 2009-11-25 2011-08-24 Mofakhami, Florence Procédé pour générer des neutrons
US20170011811A1 (en) * 2014-02-07 2017-01-12 Helion Energy, Inc. Advanced fuel cycle and fusion reactors utilizing the same
US9875816B2 (en) 2009-02-04 2018-01-23 General Fusion Inc. Systems and methods for compressing plasma
US10002680B2 (en) 2005-03-04 2018-06-19 General Fusion Inc. Pressure wave generator and controller for generating a pressure wave in a liquid medium
WO2019112873A1 (fr) * 2017-12-05 2019-06-13 Jerome Drexler Redirection d'astéroïde et atterrissage en douceur facilités par une fusion à l'aide de rayons cosmiques, catalysée par muons
WO2019112874A1 (fr) * 2017-12-05 2019-06-13 Jerome Drexler Systèmes d'exploitation minière des astéroïdes facilités par les rayons cosmiques et la fusion catalysée par muons
WO2019112872A1 (fr) * 2017-12-05 2019-06-13 Jerome Drexler Redirection d'astéroïde facilitée par une fusion à l'aide de rayons cosmiques, catalysée par muons

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JP5363652B2 (ja) 2009-07-29 2013-12-11 ジェネラル フュージョン インコーポレイテッド プラズマを圧縮するためのシステム及びその方法

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Cited By (29)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
EP0576293A1 (fr) * 1992-06-26 1993-12-29 Quantum Nucleonics Corp. Production d'énergie par commande des probabilités d'effets quantiques, réalisé par l'intermédiaire d'interactions induites de niveaux quantiques
WO1994016446A1 (fr) * 1993-01-07 1994-07-21 Jerome Drexler Fusion nucleaire auto-catalysee de lithium-6 et de deuterium a l'aide de particules alpha
EP1376611A2 (fr) * 1995-06-06 2004-01-02 André Jouanneau Procédé et dispositif pour la production et l'utilisation de plasma
EP1376611A3 (fr) * 1995-06-06 2007-09-12 André Jouanneau Procédé et dispositif pour la production et l'utilisation de plasma
WO1997040211A2 (fr) * 1996-04-10 1997-10-30 Patterson James A Systeme, cellule electrolytique et procede de production de chaleur excessive et de transmutation par electrolyse
WO1997046736A2 (fr) * 1996-05-24 1997-12-11 Patterson James A Systeme, cellule electrolytique et procede servant a produire de la chaleur et a desactiver de l'uranium et du thorium par electrolyse
WO1997046736A3 (fr) * 1996-05-24 1998-02-19 James A Patterson Systeme, cellule electrolytique et procede servant a produire de la chaleur et a desactiver de l'uranium et du thorium par electrolyse
WO1998003699A3 (fr) * 1996-07-09 1998-08-06 James A Patterson Elements a noyaux transmutes presentant des distributions isotopiques non naturelles obtenues par electrolyse, et methode de production
WO1998003699A2 (fr) * 1996-07-09 1998-01-29 Patterson James A Elements a noyaux transmutes presentant des distributions isotopiques non naturelles obtenues par electrolyse, et methode de production
WO1998042035A3 (fr) * 1997-03-19 2000-01-20 James A Patterson Cellule electrolytique et procede servant a desactiver une matiere radioactive
WO1998042035A2 (fr) * 1997-03-19 1998-09-24 Patterson James A Cellule electrolytique et procede servant a desactiver une matiere radioactive
WO1999054884A1 (fr) * 1998-04-17 1999-10-28 Cnam - Conservatoire National Des Arts Et Metiers Procede et dispositif pour la production d'energie a partir d'un hydrure a caractere metallique
WO2003098640A2 (fr) * 2002-05-17 2003-11-27 The State Of Oregon Acting By And Through The State Board Of Higher Education On Behalf Of Portland State University Traitement de materiaux radioactifs avec des noyaux d'isotope d'hydrogene
WO2003098640A3 (fr) * 2002-05-17 2004-08-19 Oregon State Traitement de materiaux radioactifs avec des noyaux d'isotope d'hydrogene
US10002680B2 (en) 2005-03-04 2018-06-19 General Fusion Inc. Pressure wave generator and controller for generating a pressure wave in a liquid medium
WO2007102860A2 (fr) * 2005-12-05 2007-09-13 Seldon Technologies, Inc. Procédé de production de particules énergétiques à l'aide de nanotubes et articles ainsi produits
WO2007102860A3 (fr) * 2005-12-05 2008-02-21 Seldon Technologies Llc Procédé de production de particules énergétiques à l'aide de nanotubes et articles ainsi produits
WO2007130156A2 (fr) 2005-12-29 2007-11-15 Profusion Energy, Inc. Dispositif et procédé de génération d'énergie
EP1971985A4 (fr) * 2005-12-29 2016-01-27 Brillouin Energy Corp Dispositif et procédé de génération d'énergie
US9875816B2 (en) 2009-02-04 2018-01-23 General Fusion Inc. Systems and methods for compressing plasma
US10984917B2 (en) 2009-02-04 2021-04-20 General Fusion Inc. Systems and methods for compressing plasma
EP2360997A1 (fr) * 2009-11-25 2011-08-24 Mofakhami, Florence Procédé pour générer des neutrons
WO2011064739A1 (fr) * 2009-11-25 2011-06-03 Mofakhami, Florence Procédé pour générer des neutrons
US10764987B2 (en) 2009-11-25 2020-09-01 Neusca Sas Method for generating neutrons
US20170011811A1 (en) * 2014-02-07 2017-01-12 Helion Energy, Inc. Advanced fuel cycle and fusion reactors utilizing the same
US11469003B2 (en) * 2014-02-07 2022-10-11 Helion Energy, Inc. Advanced fuel cycle and fusion reactors utilizing the same
WO2019112873A1 (fr) * 2017-12-05 2019-06-13 Jerome Drexler Redirection d'astéroïde et atterrissage en douceur facilités par une fusion à l'aide de rayons cosmiques, catalysée par muons
WO2019112874A1 (fr) * 2017-12-05 2019-06-13 Jerome Drexler Systèmes d'exploitation minière des astéroïdes facilités par les rayons cosmiques et la fusion catalysée par muons
WO2019112872A1 (fr) * 2017-12-05 2019-06-13 Jerome Drexler Redirection d'astéroïde facilitée par une fusion à l'aide de rayons cosmiques, catalysée par muons

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