WO2006128182A2 - Generation directe d'energie electrique et electromagnetique a partir de materiaux contenant du deuterium - Google Patents

Generation directe d'energie electrique et electromagnetique a partir de materiaux contenant du deuterium Download PDF

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WO2006128182A2
WO2006128182A2 PCT/US2006/020949 US2006020949W WO2006128182A2 WO 2006128182 A2 WO2006128182 A2 WO 2006128182A2 US 2006020949 W US2006020949 W US 2006020949W WO 2006128182 A2 WO2006128182 A2 WO 2006128182A2
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energy
reactions
deuterium
states
phonon
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PCT/US2006/020949
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WO2006128182A3 (fr
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Peter L. Hagelstein
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Spindletop Corporation
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    • G—PHYSICS
    • G21—NUCLEAR PHYSICS; NUCLEAR ENGINEERING
    • G21B—FUSION REACTORS
    • G21B3/00—Low temperature nuclear fusion reactors, e.g. alleged cold fusion reactors
    • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
    • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
    • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
    • Y02E30/00—Energy generation of nuclear origin
    • Y02E30/10—Nuclear fusion reactors

Definitions

  • This invention relates to energy conversion using host materials comprising molecular deuterium (D 2 ) and/or hydrogen-deuterium (HD) through newly discovered reactions that couple energy directly to high frequency vibrational modes of a solid.
  • host materials comprising molecular deuterium (D 2 ) and/or hydrogen-deuterium (HD) through newly discovered reactions that couple energy directly to high frequency vibrational modes of a solid.
  • a method comprises stimulating a material to cause reactions in the material, wherein the material comprises deuterium, and wherein the reactions generate vibrational motion of the material, coupling the vibrational motion to a transducer that generates energy from the vibrational motion of the material; and directing the energy to an electrical device.
  • An apparatus comprises a material comprising deuterium, an excitation source comprising a device selected from the group consisting of an electromagnetic- radiation source, an input transducer that generates vibrational motion in response to electrical energy, an electrical power source, a particle source, and a heater, wherein the excitation source is arranged to stimulate the material to generate reactions in the material, and wherein the reactions generate vibrational motion of the material; and an output transducer coupled to the material that generates energy from the vibrational motion of the material.
  • an excitation source comprising a device selected from the group consisting of an electromagnetic- radiation source, an input transducer that generates vibrational motion in response to electrical energy, an electrical power source, a particle source, and a heater, wherein the excitation source is arranged to stimulate the material to generate reactions in the material, and wherein the reactions generate vibrational motion of the material; and an output transducer coupled to the material that generates energy from the vibrational motion of the material.
  • Fig. 1 illustrates a molecular transformation in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 2 illustrates a molecular transformation in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 3 is a chart of a 1 -D analog model in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 4 is a chart that is illustrative of the coupling strength of a molecular transformation in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention.
  • Fig. 5 illustrates a molecular transformation related to weak coupling in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 6 is a chart that illustrates fractional occupation of the different angular momentum states in deuterium as a function of temperature.
  • Fig.7 is a chart that illustrates the results of a model in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 8 is a chart that shows an estimate of energy in the compact state.
  • Fig. 9 is a chart of Gamow factor associated with a channel as a function of angular momentum of the two-deuteron compact state.
  • Fig. 10 is a chart that is illustrative of the weak coupling in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 11 is a chart that is illustrative of moderate coupling in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 12 is a chart that is illustrative of strong coupling in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 13 is a chart that illustrates a splitting of energy at a resonant state in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 14-16 illustrates a reaction process in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 17a-17e illustrates a reaction process in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig.17g- 17h illustrate helium-seeding in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig.17i illustrates deuterium and/or hydrogen loading in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 17j illustrates sealing of the host lattice in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 18 illustrates the excess power produce from a reaction process.
  • Fig. 19a-19e illustrates another reaction process in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.
  • Fig. 20 is an electrochemical cell in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 21 is a dry cell in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 22 is a flash heating tube in accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 23 is a thermoelectric battery accordance with the present invention.
  • Fig. 24 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment.
  • Fig. 25 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment.
  • Fig. 26A is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment.
  • Fig 26B is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary embodiment.
  • Fusion reactions at low levels have also been claimed, a great many times. Other effects have been reported as well, including: fast particle emission not consistent with fusion reactions, gamma emission, slow tritium production, helium generation in quantitative correlation with excess energy, and the development of large quantities radioactive isotopes within the host metal lattice [K. Wolf, unpublished. Passell, T.O., Radiation data reported by Wolf at Texas A&Mas transmitted by T. Passell, 1995, EPRI. (unpublished, but available on the LENR-CANR website)].
  • Fig. 1 is a diagram of off-resonant coupling between a two-level system and a transition into a continuum. Compact dd-states with energies near the molecular limit at one site would be capable of an off-resonant coupling to host Pd nuclei at another site that would lead to alpha ejection in the range from 18-21 MeV, as observed by Chambers.
  • V(x) is the one-dimensional equivalent molecular potential shown below.
  • Xx is the delta function located near the origin.
  • the strength of the null reactions is modeled in the constant K.
  • Fig. 3 illustrative of al-D analog model.
  • the molecular potential is modeled by a square well with zero potential between d and L, and a constant potential below d.
  • the unperturbed ground state is illustrated as ⁇ (x). Dissociation of helium leads to two deuterons with a tiny separation. This is accounted for in the function flx). This analog model problem is easily solved.
  • the solutions consist of states that are very close to the bound states of the well that contain a small amount of admixture from a localized state near the origin.
  • the associated intuition is that the deuterons spend part of their time in the molecular state, and part of the time localized. We associate the localized component as being due to contributions from deuterons at close range which are produced from helium dissociation, which tunnel apart.
  • Fig. 4 illustrates normalized eigenvalues ⁇ as a function of the normalized coupling strength k for the square well analog.
  • Kasagi investigated reactions under conditions where an energetic deuteron beam with deuteron energy on the order of 100 keV was incident on a TiD target. The predominant signal was the p+t and n+ 3 He products that would normally be expected from vacuum nuclear physics. In addition, Kasagi saw more energetic reaction products from deuterons hitting 3 He nuclei that accumulated in the target — in this case energetic protons and alpha particles. Also in the spectrum were energetic alphas and protons from reactions in which a He from a d+d reaction hit another deuteron. All of these reactions are expected. What was not expected were additional signals in the proton and alpha spectrum that had a very broad energy spread.
  • the Kasagi experiment is still interpreted as providing support for the notion that helium can be dissociated as part of a second- order or higher-order site-other-site reaction process, and that the dissociated products can have an energy nearly resonant with that of molecular deuterium.
  • Kasagi has replicated this experiment successfully in a different experimental setup. It has also been replicated by at least three other groups, one of which was at NRL [G. Hubler, private communication, 2002].
  • Fig. 5 illustrates a "weak" coupling version of the compact state energy distribution.
  • compact state formation occurs at energies slightly below the molecular D 2 state energy.
  • coupling occurs to states with less than 20 units of angular momentum
  • conventional dd- fusion reactions would be expected as an allowed decay route for these low angular momentum compact states.
  • An accumulation of compact states with energies near the molecular state could also lead to energy transfer to the host lattice nuclei, giving rise to fast ion emission of the type observed by Chambers and by Cecil.
  • the current version of the many-site model describes a picture in which molecular states at a large number of sites couple to helium states and compact states, both at a large number of sites.
  • the dynamics of the resulting coupled quantum system are described by interaction matrix elements based on tunneling through the Coulomb barrier, local strong force interactions with phonon exchange, and coherent enhancement factors of the Dicke type.
  • the reaction rate from this kind of model is limited by the relative weakness of the coupling through the Coulomb barrier, and permits the interpretation of an enhanced coherent tunneling mechanism.
  • the associated enhancement in the tunneling probability can be very large - we find enhancements of more than 50 orders of magnitude increase over estimates from tunneling using the Golden Rule.
  • Evidence for the existence of such an enhancement comes from a very large body of experiments in which anomalies in metal deuterides are seen. Direct evidence in support of the existence of a compact states comes from the Kasagi experiment.
  • the existence of the localized states and very large enhancements of tunneling is supported by the new models that include phonon exchange in nuclear reactions as discussed at
  • a metal deuteride such as PdD has acoustical modes from near zero frequency up to a few THz, and optical phonon modes at higher frequencies (from 8-16 THz in PdD).
  • Theory indicates that need to be able to exchange on the order of 20 phonons or more in order to develop the requisite angular momentum to stabilize localized two nucleus states in the case of the d+d reactions (and on the order of 10 phonons for the p+d reaction branch). This underlying requirement is expressed technically in terms of the relative magnitude of an interaction matrix element, but this can be described reasonably well in words.
  • a phonon mode in our view extends over a volume determined by the phonon coherence length associated with the mode frequency or local geometry (which can be as small as 10 "15 cm 3 for an optical phonon mode, or as large as 1 cm 3 for a low acoustical mode) and can be excited to have some number, say N, phonons total.
  • the requirement is that there must be at least on the order of
  • the volume may have 10 9 atoms, there may be about one phonon per 10 atoms, and the associated relative motion will be on the order of 0.1 Angstroms, leading to on the order of 10 4 cycles in 1 fm.
  • most of the vibrational energy is in the host metal atoms, so the relative local motion of deuterium or helium is less.
  • the difficulty is to arrange for the total relative displacement (which can be within 1-2 orders of magnitude of the total displacement) associated with the highly excited acoustical mode to be greater than a few fermis. From experiment we have only a partial picture of the situation. No experiment so far has yielded direct information on what phonon modes are excited or how much, to compare with requirements arising from theory. Indirect evidence is available in a few cases. We proposed years ago that optical phonons (and also very high frequency THz acoustical phonons) would be created by fluxing deuterium through a discontinuity in the deuterium chemical potential, and that the presence of this phononic excitation might be correlated to the appearance of anomalies.
  • Phonon excitation as discussed above is required, although due to the improved stability of the compact states, less angular momentum transfer is required, and hence less phononic excitation.
  • This aspect of the model is supported in many experiments reporting observations of excess heat in light water systems, in which the current density (which is inferred to be proportional to the excitation of the phonons) required is much reduced from similar heavy water experiments.
  • Evidence in support of the existence of a p+d reaction comes from observations of Swartz in which the addition of small amounts of deuterium to a light water cell was seen to increase the excess heat output, consistent with the model that indicates a maximum excess heat production at a 50-50 mix. Numerous experiments support our ideas about the physical mechanisms involved.
  • Direct surface stimulation can be arranged for by fluxing hydrogen, deuterium, or other elements through chemical potential discontinuities.
  • Semiconductor devices are capable of generating very high frequency vibrations under electrical stimulation.
  • Acoustical stimulation can be induced through the use of microwave and RF sources which interact with surface conductivity of metal deuterides. Fluxing atoms across chemical potentials stimulates higher frequency vibrations that downshift in metal deuterides, as they are highly nonlinear. The generation of acoustical waves electronically is well known, and can be used to drive metal deuterides when placed in mechanical contact.
  • Pd While most experiments on excess heat production have involved Pd, we recognize that Pd is expensive, so that the use of other materials is of interest.
  • the population flow can be directed in the quantum flow calculations by reducing the number of phonons initially, as long as the total interaction is not reduced. In practice, this means that a smaller geometrical domain or coherence domain will be advantageous, as the reaction rate for energy production will be higher in this case.
  • optical phonon modes or THz level acoustical phonon modes should be in the range of 10 10 atoms or less, although at some point if there are too few atoms present the reactions will not be able to proceed. This has not yet been clarified through modeling, but one might expect that particles containing less than about 10 atoms may not be able to complete the energy conversion process. Support for the view that smaller particles are advantageous comes from experimental results of Szpak and of Arata and Zhang [Ar ⁇ t ⁇ , Y. and Y. C. Zhang, A new energy generated in DS-cathode with 'Pd-black'.
  • helium can be done by an occasional heating cycle in order to bring it to relevant surfaces to desorb, since the solubility of helium in metals is low. Helium may accumulate in voids, and in the long term lead to degradation of the structural intensity.
  • j) In the case that we adopt a scheme in which electromagnetic radiation is used for surface stimulation, the absorption of the radiation is expected to be poor. Consequently, we would like to make use of schemes that allow for multiple reflections of the radiation in order to absorb it more efficiently. Ih the case of long wavelength radiation, we would like to employ a resonant cavity.
  • k) In some cases, the local excess power production has been sufficiently great to melt the metal deuteride. This is viewed as detrimental in systems intended for long-term use in energy production.
  • Stimulation by electromagnetic radiation or by other means under conditions outlined in this patent application is expected to result in such high levels of power generation.
  • an attractive approach is to use a relatively high local intensity (for example 100s of W/cm 2 absorbed energy or greater) that is beneficial in creating large amplitude phonon excitation relative to this system, but to keep the stimulation on for relatively small fraction of the time (i.e. such that the duty cycle is low).
  • a relatively high local intensity for example 100s of W/cm 2 absorbed energy or greater
  • Electron beam irradiation is very effective at creating Frenkel defects, which can be stabilized if the metal is well loaded with hydrogen or deuterium.
  • the maximum vacancy concentration is on the order of 0.1-0.2% in a metal, limited by spontaneous annealing internally at room temperature. Loading with hydrogen or deuterium stabilizes these vacancies, and vacancy concentrations up to 25% have been reported in the literature for NiH and PdH.
  • Ion beam irradiation creates multiple vacancies, and is presently thought to be less effective than electron beam irradiation, although published data in regard to excess energy production is generally not available in either case.
  • the deposition of metal on substrates with mismatched lattice constants will generate defective lattices, and this should be effective in helping to maximize the molecular deuterium concentration in the metal.
  • m) The use of a hot (above 1500 C or so) tungsten (or various other metals) wire to induce the formation of atomic deuterium in a gas is effective under certain conditions to load a metal deuteride efficiently. The use of this in conjunction with the device technology under discussion will be helpful in maintaining deuterium concentration in metal deuterides at higher temperatures.
  • the reaction rate is determined in part by the amount of phonon excitation, and in part by the molecular deuterium concentration - both of which are subject to control. For example, lowering the temperature of a metal deuteride in the range of room temperature to 200 C has the effect of lowering the molecular deuterium concentration in the metal, and should lower the reaction rate. Support for this comes from many electrochemical experiments in which the heat production rate is maximized as the temperature is increased.
  • the gas pressure can be reduced to lower the concentration of deuterium in the metal deuteride.
  • a hot wire is used to make atomic deuterium for loading, the wire temperature can be reduced, producing less atomic deuterium, hence loading the metal deuteride less.
  • the size scale of an energy-producing device of the type under discussion can range over many orders of magnitude. For example, we can imagine a single heat-producing device as small as 10 8 atoms running inphonon laser mode used in conjunction with a small nanotechnology electrical converter and electrical motor. Alternatively, we can think of a device the size of a flashlight battery, which makes heat and converts it to electricity for use in a laptop computer application.
  • THz-level free electron laser which can be an efficient and relatively large power device, to generate power in conjunction with properly prepared metal deuterides for large scale power production.
  • Power levels of the technology under discussion range from zero up to several kilowatt/cm 3 levels, based on experimental results claimed by many different groups.
  • Heat production by itself is of interest in many applications, but heat to electricity and heat to mechanical energy is also useful in many applications. Hence we may consider to be of use a system such as discussed above that operates at elevated temperature that converts heat to electricity using a thermoelectric (or other) converter connected to a heat sink at room temperature.
  • E is the energy eigenvalue for the total system
  • H is the Hamiltonian that includes a relevant description of the quantum system under discussion
  • ⁇ is the associated wavefunction.
  • the Resonating Group Method as applied to the vacuum version of the problem presumes an approximate wavefunction ⁇ , (where the subscript t here is for "trial" wavefunction as is common when using a variational method) of the general form
  • E Fj ( ⁇ , ⁇
  • Coupled-channel equations of this form are either used explicitly or implicitly in association with the dd-fusion problem by most authors from the 1930s through the 1990s.
  • Relevant examples in the literature include J. R. Pruett, F. M. Beiduk and E. J. Konopinski, Phys. Rev., Vol. 77, p. 628 (1950) and H. J. Boersma, Nucl. Phys.,.Vol. A135, p. 609 (1969).
  • the primary weakness of the Resonating Group Method with regard to the vacuum formulation of the problem is that the nuclear wavefunctions are not allowed to be optimized.
  • the channel separation factors F j be generalized to include other nuclei in the lattice.
  • the F j would include a description of the relative motion of the two deuterons in a function of the form Jp)(R 2 -Ri) where R 1 and R 2 are the center of mass coordinates associated with the two deuterons.
  • this function might be taken to be of the form e iKCt - R ⁇ R ⁇ .
  • the trial wavefunction ⁇ is now made up of the fixed nuclear wavefunctions ⁇ j that are involved in the different reaction channels of the specific nuclear reaction under discussion, in the same sense as was used in the Resonating Group Method.
  • the new lattice channel separation factors ⁇ now include the nuclear separation of the reacting nuclei on the same footing with a description of all of the relevant center of mass coordinates of neighboring nuclei (and electrons if so required in a particular model).
  • the new formulation that we have described here is interesting for many reasons. Of great interest is that it includes the old vacuum formulation for nuclear reactions as a subset of a more general theory of nuclear reactions.
  • the new approach is consistent with the large body of accepted experimental and theoretical results obtained previously and accepted by the nuclear physics community.
  • the primary new effect that is a consequence of this generalization is the prediction of phonon exchange associated with nuclear reactions. For example, a fast deuteron incident on a metal deuteride target that reacts with a deuteron in the lattice has a finite probability of phonon exchange as a consequence of the nuclear reaction. This is not taken into account in a vacuum description of the reaction, and we may rightly fault the vacuum description for this deficiency.
  • Phonon exchange has the potential to contribute to the microscopic angular momentum, resulting in a modification of the microscopic selection rules. Phonon exchange of reactions at different sites with a common highly excited phonon mode can lead to quantum coupling between such reactions, and this opens the possibility of new kinds of second-order and higher-order reaction processes. These new processes appear to be reflected in experimental studies of anomalies in metal deuterides, and are of particular interest to us.
  • m is understood to refer to the highly excited phonon mode.
  • the residual position operator R y is very nearly the same as the position operator R 7 .. In the event that the separated phonon mode were either unexcited or thermally excited, the difference in operators would be trivial locally. We can make use of this separation between the local and nonlocal degrees of freedom in order to analyze the coupled lattice and nuclear models that arise from the Lattice Resonating Group Method.
  • the dielectric response comes about naturally in infinite-order Brillouin- Wigner theory. We were interested in whether this response resulted in a modification of the Coulomb interaction at short range. At long range (under conditions where many atoms and electrons are between the two deuterons), this kind of model reproduces the dielectric response used by Ichimaru.
  • Fig. 6 illustrates a fractional occupation of the different angular momentum (I) states in molecular deuterium as a function of temperature.
  • I angular momentum
  • the deuterium flux is perhaps most meaningfully characterized in terms of the associated current density J, which can be estimated by:
  • Spatial symmetry of the nuclear wavefunctions can be changed in association with a change in the symmetry of the phonon wavefunction in the amplitude space (q configuration space).
  • Spin can be changed due to the presence of LS interaction terms in the strong force interaction under conditions where the spatial operators include phononic contributions.
  • two deuterons can fuse to make 4 He in vacuum with the emission of a gamma in an electric quadrupole electromagnetic transition.
  • the exchange of an even number of phonons greater than zero can make satisfy the selection rules with no need for a gamma.
  • the situation is qualitatively similar as in the case of phonon emission associated with electronic transitions of atomic impurities in a lattice.
  • An atomic transition that in vacuum can proceed through radioactive decay with a dipole allowed transition can instead decay through a dipole allowed phonon emission process.
  • the general theory under discussion is a completely standard quantum mechanical treatment of a coupled quantum system (in this case a coupled phonon and nuclear system), and hence the coupling between the phononic and nuclear degrees of freedom comes about directly from a calculation of the interaction matrix element.
  • the degree to which we are able to make quantitative predictions and qualitative statements about the physics under discussion is in proportional to our ability to estimate such interaction matrix elements.
  • the 4-particle wavefunction is sometimes called a Feenberg wavefunction.
  • r is the residual radial separation coordinate
  • Auq describes the relative motion due to the highly excited phonon mode.
  • the basic picture that underlies this discussion is one in which two deuterons occupy a single site, either due to high loading, high temperature, or due to the presence of vacancies within the metal deuteride. Occasionally, the deuterons tunnel close together. While close together, the deuterons are still part of the lattice, and constitute a component of the phonon modes of the lattice. When they are close together, the very strong nuclear and Coulomb interactions dominate over the interactions with relatively distant atoms that may be a few Angstroms away.
  • the deuterons will still exhibit a response in the presence of strong phononic excitation, although a weak one, which must be computed using a linearization scheme that takes into account the very strong interactions the deuterons undergo while close together.
  • the resulting relative motion that is accounted from the Auq term is expected to be on the order of fermis.
  • a two-deuteron compact state would have a nuclear energy associated with the ⁇ y . basis states that are the same as for the molecular D 2 state.
  • Fig. 8 illustrates the energy of a compact state due to the kinetic, centripetal and Coulomb contributions.
  • the energy is in MeV.
  • the axis is a measure of the pair separation l/sjy in fermi.
  • the basic problem in the formation of such a stable localized state is that the exchange energy required is very substantial.
  • the exchange potential was simply not large enough to stabilize the compact state. It was thought that an extended version of the problem that involved more sites would stabilize the two-deuteron compact state.
  • the exchange energy can be negative for the two site problem - for the three-site problem it is larger since there are now two sites to exchange with rather than just one. And so forth.
  • n+ 3 He compact state is that the mechanism for phonon exchange outlined above is expected to be more effective in the event that one of the constituents in neutral, as a neutron does not participate in the lattice phonon mode structure. Our current speculation is that such states may be the dominant compact state for this reason. This conjecture remains to be proven, but seems to be reasonable at present.
  • Fig.9 illustrates a Gamow factor associated with the n+ 3 He channel as a function of angular momentum of the two-deuteron compact state.
  • reaction energy is about 5.5 MeV, instead of 23.85 MeV for the d+d reaction.
  • reaction energy is about 5.5 MeV, instead of 23.85 MeV for the d+d reaction.
  • EP& H ⁇ P ⁇ + ⁇ V&, + ⁇ v k r ⁇ +1 > a,k ⁇ ,k
  • P ⁇ is a many-site channel separation factor with configuration ⁇ and with index If defined by
  • H AE( ⁇ Z + S) + h ⁇ (n+ ⁇ ) + (h ⁇ (t, +s) + ⁇ ( ⁇ + + ⁇ _) V m , S m ,
  • the ⁇ operators are pseudospin operators that are developed as a superposition over Pauli matrices at the different sites
  • the parameter S is the Dicke number for the system
  • the localization energy for a single site is Ut)
  • V m terms are integrals of the interaction potentials and localized orbitals summed over the different angular momentum channels.
  • the ⁇ m operator changes the number of phonons in the highly excited phonon mode.
  • ⁇ 1 H 1 V 1 + V 12 ⁇ 2
  • V 3 [E-Hj 1 V 32 V 2
  • V 2 [E-H 2 -V 23 [E- H 3 Y 1 V 32 ] 1 v n %
  • Fig. 10 illustrates a Probability distribution in the vicinity of the source in the case of weak coupling.
  • Li Fig. 11 we present the logarithm of the probability distribution in the case where there are more helium nuclei present, and the losses are lower
  • Fig. 12 illustrates a Probability distribution in the vicinity of the source in the case of strong coupling.
  • the simplest model of this class is one in which we assume an initial population of deuterons in molecular states, an initial population of helium atoms, and no initial occupation of compact states.
  • the simplest possible model of this kind will assume only a single molecular state, a single compact state, and a single helium final state in association with each site, and uniform interaction with the highly excited phonon mode.
  • the Hamiltonian for this kind of model in the absence of loss terms can be written as
  • the dynamics associated with this coupling is determined by the associated dephasing of the quantum states of the system. If the rate of dephasing of these states is faster than the frequency determined by the coupling matrix element divided by % , then the rate will be determined by the Golden Rule, which basically means that no observable transitions will occur. If the dephasing is on the order of or slower than this rate, then the transitions will proceed at the rate associated with the spread of probability amplitude in the associated configuration space, which is on the order of
  • the above process is implemented to create a vacancy- enhanced metal lattice structure. More specifically, there is an introduction of hydrogen.
  • Metal hydrides have long been sought as vehicles to contain hydrogen for storage and shipment. The advantages of storing hydrogen in a metal lattice rather than using high pressures and or low temperatures to compress (in the limit, to liquefy) hydrogen gas are: improved volumetric storage efficiency, increased safety, potentially lower costs, the convenience of working with small or intermediate sized devices. Metal hydrides also are sources of intrinsically pure hydrogen and in many applications gas stored in this way can be used without further purification.
  • High purity hydrogen is increasingly being used in a range of chemical processes from semiconductor fabrication to the preparation of fine metal powders.
  • Both technologies (fuel cell and hydrogen internal combustion) are undergoing rapid development to meet this need. Both developments are far in advance of what is needed for concomitant hydrogen storage.
  • Figs. 14-16 illustrate in more detail this embodiment of the present invention. More specifically, Fig. 14 illustrates a vacancy stabilized, enhanced hydrogen storage material.
  • A represents a metal atom arranged in a regular lattice structure and B represents a vacancy (missing metal atom and/or atoms) induced in the regular lattice structure.
  • C is the hydrogen atom that hydrogen atom occupying the interstitial space D between metal atoms in the regular lattice structure.
  • more than one hydrogen atom C can accumulate within the vacancies B.
  • the presence of the hydrogen C stabilizes the vacancy and produces an enhanced hydrogen storage material.
  • Fig. 15 illustrates hydrogen loading of the bulk metal A.
  • the metal A includes a regular array of metal atoms. Hydrogen atoms C are induced to enter the bulk metal A from an external hydrogen source F.
  • the metal is irradiated.
  • Fig. 16 illustrates the irradiation of the metal after it has been loaded.
  • Fig. 16 illustrates the irradiation of the metal after it has been loaded.
  • the bulk metal A is irradiated with an irradiation beam I.
  • the irradiation beam I is made up of particles (e.g. electrons) of sufficient energy to create vacancies B in the bulk metal.
  • Time or temperature can also be used to achieve the desired result of creating a vacancy enhanced host lattice structure.
  • Hydrogen atoms C loaded into bulk the metal A enter the vacancies B and stabilize them. This method works for both hydrogen and deuterium. For chemical energy applications hydrogen would be preferred; for nuclear energy applications deuterium or a mixture of deuterium and hydrogen would be preferred. Electron beam irradiation of metals leads to the formation of vacancies as lattice metal atoms are imparted energy and momentum to move from their normally ordered sites. In the absence of hydrogen the limiting concentration of vacancies formed this way is only on the order of 0.1 % to 0.2% as such vacancies tend to "heal" from a state of high lattice energy.
  • the temperature and pressure of hydrogen treatments must be calculated metal- by-metal from the known coefficients of hydrogen diffusion in these metals. Electron beam irradiation at relatively high flux is required for periods of minutes or hours in initial materials treatment to produce the desired phase.
  • the irradiation dosage should be of order 10 /cm or higher, using electron energies in the range 0.1 - 5 MeV. Higher energies should be avoided so as not to induce radioactivity in the metal.
  • a concentration of .25% up to 25% of vacancies in a host lattice structure can be achieved.
  • Vacancy stabilized enhanced hydrogen storage materials can be used with advantage over existing metal, carbon and compressed hydrogen storage methods in all applications where hydrogen presently is used or produced:
  • Electric power generation e.g., stationary and utility power generation via hydrogen internal combustion engines or fuel cells, motive power (either electric hybrid or internal combustion) in automobiles, fleet vehicles, locomotives or ships.
  • Portable power e.g., used in conjunction with small fuel cells for portable computers, instrumentation, displays, communication devices, power tools.
  • thermodynamics of the structure we can create phases that can be activated to absorb and release H 2 by small changes in physical condition around the desired operating point. 4) The pre-existence of stabilized vacancies can effectively stabilize the composite metal structure against further materials degradation. 5) Using this method we can turn cheap, convenient, familiar, safe materials that presently are thermodynamically or kinetically limited in their ability to store hydrogen into hydrogen storage materials with properties superior to known materials.
  • the methods of fabrication are the same as can be used to form the heat producing elements in the nuclear applications, without the need for: helium seeding, surface sealing, phonon stimulation.
  • H 2 can be used instead of D 2 .
  • adding helium to a vacancy enhanced hydrogen and/or deuterium storage material produces another novel material with additional utility. More specifically, a helium-seeded, vacancy enhanced, hydrogen and/or deuterium loaded lattice is critical to the embodiment of the energy release method described in the patent.
  • Helium can be introduced into the lattice before, after or during the hydrogen loading and vacancy creation steps, but practical considerations suggest that it is easiest and most effective to load helium into the lattice before hydrogen loading and vacancy creation. Helium can be loaded into the lattice via several methods, including:
  • the advantage of the present invention is that the helium concentration in the host lattice structure is controlled.
  • the result is material that has an atomic density of helium 10 '7 or higher; but preferably on the order of 10 "5 . (To be clear, an atomic density of 10 ⁇ 5 means that there is 1 helium atom for every 100,000 atoms of the host lattice)
  • Fig. 17a-17e illustrates energy being created in a metal deuteride in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.
  • deuterium (D 2 ) 25 and helium ( 4 He) 27 are loaded into the interstitial sites 26, 28 in the atomic lattice of the host metal structure 31.
  • Vacancies 33 in the atomic lattice provide sufficient room for molecular deuterium to form.
  • the host metal structure includes the use of metals such as, but not limited to, Pd, Ni, Pt, Rh, Ru, Ti, Nb, V, Ta, W, Hf, Zr, Mo, U, Sc, Mn, Co, Zn, Y, Zr, Cd, Ag, Sn and other alloy and composite materials.
  • metals such as, but not limited to, Pd, Ni, Pt, Rh, Ru, Ti, Nb, V, Ta, W, Hf, Zr, Mo, U, Sc, Mn, Co, Zn, Y, Zr, Cd, Ag, Sn and other alloy and composite materials.
  • the Pd is of high purity (but not the highest) in the range of 99.5%-99.9% with a diameter of 50-125 ⁇ m and a length of 3-30 cm.
  • Helium-4 ( 4 He) is introduced into the Pd lattice to atomic ratio one part in 10 5 .
  • the levels of 4 He normally found in Pd are approximately 10 10 atoms per cm 3 ( ⁇ 1 atom in 10 13 or 8 orders of magnitude less than the preferred value). Examples of obtaining the desired concentration Of 4 He into the Pd contemplated by the invention are as follows:
  • High temperature diffusion - Fig. 17g illustrates a pressure vessel E capable of maintaining a helium atmosphere F at and elevated temperature.
  • Diffusion of helium in fee metals is an activated process with activation energy ⁇ 0.5 - 1.0 eV. For Pd sufficient diffusion can be achieved in the range 500-950 0 C depending on wire microstructure and dimension.
  • F illustrates the helium atmosphere (helium-4 for D + D, Helium-3 for H + D reactions).
  • A represents the bulk metal.
  • Helium atoms G diffuse into the bulk metal.
  • Helium preloading can be attained by exposing the wire to helium gas at elevated temperature in a pressure vessel. The condition of pressure, temperature and time must be adjusted for each metal lot and diameter; and
  • FIG 17h illustrates the helium pre- seeding, helium ion implantation. Ih Fig 17h . the bulk metal A is being ionized by the beam I. As a result the helium atoms G are implanted into the bulk metal.
  • Fig. 17i illustrates the loading of bulk metal A.
  • deuterium, hydrogen or a mixed source J is introduced and then the deuterium and/or hydrogen C atoms are induced to enter the bulk metal A.
  • Deuterium and/or hydrogen loading can be achieved to high levels via known electrochemical techniques.
  • the preferred means to obtain such loading is by electrochemical reduction of heavy water (D 2 O) or deuterated alcohol (e.g. CD 3 OD, CH 3 OD, C 2 D 5 OD 5 C 2 H 5 OD) at a Pd wire cathode.
  • Electrochemical loading of the deuterium into the Pd can be accomplished as follows:
  • Alcohol electrolytes offer two advantages: a) they are more easily purified (e.g. by distillation) and contain lower concentrations of cations deleterious to loading; and b) because of their lower freezing point, electrolysis temperatures can be reduced which thermodynamically favors attainment of the high loading state. At lower temperatures and substantially lower electrolyte conductivities, the kinetic of the loading process and accessible range of cathodic current densities, are much less in alcohol electrolytes than in aqueous. As for "1", however, current densities must be adjusted while monitoring the loading in order to achieve the maximum loading state.
  • Loading is thus constrained by two opposite rate processes: 1) radial diffusion of D atoms into the Pd lattice from a state of high electrochemical potential at the electrochemically active surface; 2) and contamination of that surface by discharge of species dissolved or suspended in the electrolyte.
  • the condition of maximum loading is transient.
  • monitoring the loading is by using four terminal resistance measurement.
  • Contamination of the Pd surface that is deleterious to loading also is inevitable during fabrication, shipping, pretreatment and mounting in the electrochemical cell. Contamination is eliminated before undertaking the electrochemical loading by surface cleaning and pretreatment.
  • An example of decontaminating the Pd surface is passing current at high current density axially along the wire. The current density should be calculated or adjusted to be sufficient to raise the temperature of the Pd wire to dull red heat (600-800 0 C). Only a few seconds of this treatment and no repetition are necessary to completely remove deleterious species from the Pd electro-active surface and effect a favorable recrystallization of the bulk.
  • Fig. 17j illustrates the sealing of host lattice structure L.
  • the loaded metal deuteride and/or metal hydride is coated with a thin layer (e.g.
  • mercury A designed to prevent the recombination of deuterium atoms at the surface of the metal deuteride; this prevents the egress of the deuterium.
  • a coating of a different material M e.g. silver
  • other materials used for sealing include Pb, Cd, Sn, Bi, Sb and at least one of anions of sulfite, sulfate, nitrate, chloride and perchlorate.
  • an optical phonon field 35 is applied to the host lattice structure 31.
  • the optical phonon field 35 operates to couple reactants at the different sites 26, 28 and initiating a resonant reaction to occur in the host lattice structure 31.
  • the phonon field is applied to the host lattice 31 by use of a stimulation source.
  • the host lattice structure 31 can be stimulated to demonstrate effects of heat generation via nuclear reaction (D + D) and production of helium ( 4 He). Stimulation involves exciting appropriate modes of lattice phonon vibrations. A number of methods are available to provide such stimulation to the host lattice structure.
  • stimulation to the host lattice structure can be achieved by fluxing of lattice deuterium atoms across steep gradients of chemical potential (the electrochemical mode); fluxing of electrons at high current density (the "Coehn” effect); intense acoustic stimulation (“sono-fusion”); lattice fracture (“fracto- fusion”); or superficial laser stimulation (“laser-fusion”).
  • the stimulation of the host lattice structure can also be effectively stimulated by the following: 1) surface stimulation with a red laser diode in the range of wavelength with surface power intensity > 3 W cm " ; 2) beating laser; 3) surface stimulation with lasers in the Terahertz frequency range; 4) axial current stimulation using both direct and alternating currents (dc and ac) and current pulses, at current densities greater than 10 5 A cm "2 .
  • molecular deuterium 25 fuses into another helium 37 thereby releasing energy 39 into the lattice structure 31.
  • the helium 27 dissociate to form a deuteron pair 41 of lower energy within the site 28.
  • Fig. 17d the cycle discussed in fig. 9a-9c repeats itself.
  • This addition of energy 39 causes the helium atom 37 in the other site 26 to dissociate into a deuterium pair 45 of lower energy.
  • Fig. 17e illustrates that after many oscillations of the process discussed above in Figs. 17a-17d, the system returns to rest. At rest, the original deuterium molecule 25 has been converted into a helium atom 47.
  • the demonstration of the effect is a measurement of a temperature rise in the prepared metal host. For example a measurement of the temperature rise in a Pd metal host structure. Such measurements can be made in a number of ways, either calorimetrically (measuring the system total heat flux) or simply by monitoring the local temperature rise. Although demonstration of the effect is more easily made by observing a local temperature rise in response to the stimulus,other examples of demonstrating the effect of the energy process contemplated by the invention are as follows: 1) Contactless optical imaging of the metal host temperature as it responds to the chosen means of stimulation. Temperature resolution better than 0.1 0 C is readily available in thermal imaging systems and can provide easy and reliable demonstration of the effect.
  • wire samples should be removed, sectioned, and subjected to analysis for 3 He and 4 He in the metal phase.
  • a high sensitivity and high resolution mass spectrometer can be used for this purpose. Any indication that 4 He levels have increased or that the 3 He/ 4 He ratio has changed from it's natural value can be used to demonstrate that a nuclear process has occurred in the lattice.
  • Figs.l9a-19e illustrate another reaction processes in accordance with the present invention.
  • the reaction process in Figs. 19a-19e are essentially identical to the reaction processes in Figs 17a-17e except for the introduction of hydrogen. Only the differences between these two processes will be discussed in detail.
  • Fig. 19a Hydrogen and Deuterium (HD) 55 and helium ( 3 He) 57 are loaded into the interstitial sites in the atomic lattice of the host metal 61. Vacancies in the atomic lattice provide sufficient room for H+D molecules to form.
  • Fig 19b an optical phonon field 63 is applied, coupling reactants at different sites and initiating the resonant reaction.
  • the molecular deuterium fuses into helium 67, releasing energy 65 into the lattice.
  • helium dissociates into a closely bom hydrogen-deuterium pair (HD pair) 69. Some energy is lost to the metal lattice and appears as heat.
  • the cycle repeats itself.
  • the HD pair reverts to helium 73, injecting energy 65 into the lattice, which causes a helium atom to dissociate into an HD pair 71 of lower energy at another site. Again, some energy is lost to the metal lattice and appears as heat.
  • the system returns to rest.
  • the original hydrogen- deuterium molecule 55 has been converted into a helium-3 atom 75. The 5.5 MeV energy difference between these particles has been absorbed by the host metal lattice.
  • Figs. 20-23 illustrates practical application of the processes noted in Figs. 17& 19 in accordance with the present invention that incorporates the use of metal deuteride in an electrochemical cell-based heating element.
  • the electrochemical cell-based heating element 78 is shown.
  • the element 78 includes several cells 83 that can operate individually or in conjunction.
  • the cells 83 take the form of "fingers.”
  • Each cell 83 of the electrochemical cell-based heating element 78 has electrodes 80 that extend the length of each cell 83 and are immersed in an electrolyte 82.
  • the cells 83 can be designed to run above or below the boiling point of water.
  • the electrolyte 82 in conjunction with the anode 79 and cathode 81 stimulate the molecular transformation of the metal deuteride used in the construction of each cell 83. It is contemplated by the invention that the metal deuteride 85 is used in the cathode 81 portion of the electrodes 80 for each cell 83.
  • the molecular transformations described in Figs.l7a-17e and 19a-19e occur in the metal deuteride 85 of each cell body 83 of the heating element 78, which heats the cell body 83.
  • the heat energy that is created from the molecular transformation is extracted from the cells 83 by immersing the cells 83 into a heat transfer fluid 84. The heat from the each cell 83 is then transferred to the fluid 84.
  • Fig. 21 illustrates an embodiment of the invention that incorporates the metal deuteride in a dry cell.
  • Fig. 21 the dry cell 93 can be operated individually of in conjunction will other dry cells.
  • Fig. 21, shows an expanded version of the dry cell 93, but in a fully assembled configuration the dry cell 93 takes the form of a "plug" i.e., when the top 96 is fastened to the heat transfer case 95.
  • the starter coil 91 is an electric heating element used to bring the dry cell to correct operating temperature. Power to the starter coil 97 is removed when the correct operating temperature for the dry cell 93 is reached.
  • Hie dry cell 93 is solid state, and uses electromagnetic radiation (e.g., visible or infrared, terahertz source or the like) to generate optical phonons in the quantum metal hydride.
  • electromagnetic radiation e.g., visible or infrared, terahertz source or the like
  • the laser diode 98 in conjunction with the lens 101 provide the stimulation to the quantum metal hydride 99 of the dry cell 93.
  • the stimulation of the metal hydride causes molecular transformations in the quantum metal hydride 99, as described in Figs. 17a- 17e & 19a- 19e.
  • the heat energy that results from the molecular transformations is absorbed by the heat transfer case 95.
  • the heat is extracted from the heat transfer case by immersing the plug in a heat transfer medium such as liquid or gas.
  • a heat transfer medium such as liquid or gas.
  • the dry cell could be used in various distributed power generation applications that require anywhere from 150 ° C -250 ° C.
  • applications could include, but are not limited to, a steam engine (e.g., Watt engine) or a Stirling engine.
  • Fig.22 illustrates an embodiment of the invention that incorporates the metal deuteride in a flash heating tube.
  • the flash heating tube 92 is used to produce high quality steam. More specifically, a wire coil 88 consisting of a loaded metal deuteride, is stimulated by applied current that is passed through the coil 88.
  • the current can be AC or DC, as long as the current is sufficient to cause the required molecular transformations to occur in the metal deuteride 87 described in Figs. 17a-17e and 19a-19e.
  • the heat energy that is created as a result of the molecular transformations is absorbed by the heat transfer tube 90. Water 89 is passed through one end of the heat transfer tube 90.
  • the flash heating tube embodiment could be used in various centralized power generation applications that require temperatures of 250° C -500 ° C.
  • applications could include, but are not limited to, conventional electric utility applications (e.g., alternative to fossil fuel, gas or nuclear power sources).
  • thermoelectric battery 102 is a solid-state device that generates electricity directly from the heat produced.
  • the thermoelectric battery 102 unit includes two layers: 1) a loaded metal deuteride layer and a thermal-to-electric layer.
  • the metal deuteride layer 104 is loaded into an internal metal vessel.
  • the thermoelectric layer 105 encompasses the vessel.
  • the stimulation source is a semiconductor laser stimulus 103 with optical dispersion such as, but not limited to, a laser diode or direct terahertz source.
  • the stimulation source 103 energizes the inside layer (i.e.
  • thermoelectric battery embodiment could be used in energy applications requiring temperatures of 500° C-IOOO 0 C. Examples of the applications include, but are not limited to, direct conversion of hear to electricity through traditional or novel semiconductor technology; batteries that enable long lasting and massive distribution of energy (e.g., self powered devices); and applications ranging from portable electronics devices to transportation
  • D 2 referred to herein as "D 2 ”
  • HD molecular hydrogen-deuterium
  • an apparatus 200 shown in block diagram form in Fig. 24 comprises a material 202 that comprises molecular deuterium (D 2 ) and/or hydrogen-deuterium (HD), and reactions are stimulated in this material 202.
  • D 2 molecular deuterium
  • HD hydrogen-deuterium
  • the presence of both D 2 and HD in the material 202 is contemplated, but it is also possible be appreciated that primarily either D 2 or HD may be present in the material 202, e.g., if the material is processed and maintained at sufficiently low temperature to thwart transformations between D 2 , HD and H 2 .
  • the presence of H 2 in the material is also generally likely and is not precluded.
  • the apparatus 200 also comprises an excitation source 204 arranged to stimulate the material 202 to generate reactions in the material 202, and a load 206 arranged to remove energy generated by the reactions from the material 202.
  • the apparatus can be configured in practice in a variety of ways, such as shown, for example, in the above-described electrochemical cell example of Fig. 20, the dry cell example of Fig. 21, the flash heating tube example of Fig. 22, and the thermoelectric battery example of Fig. 23. In view of those examples, it will be appreciated that the excitation source 204 and the load 206 may or may not be in direct physical contact with the material 202. Also, materials 85, 99, 88, and 104 referred to in Figs. 20, 21, 22, and 23, respectively, can correspond to material 202 shown in Fig. 24.
  • the excitation source 204 can be, for example, an electromagnetic-radiation source for irradiating with electromagnetic radiation (e.g., a laser source or other optical source), a transducer (e.g., a piezoelectric device or quartz crystal with suitable electrodes such that application of an appropriate current causes a mechanical displacement such as vibrational motion, or any suitable transducer not limited to electrically driven transducers that can impart mechanical displacement to the material), an electrical power source (e.g., DC or AC source for applying electrical current to the material), a particle source (e.g., for irradiating the material with particles such as electrons or ions), or a heater (e.g., a resistive heater or a radiative heater), or any other suitable excitation source for supplying energy to the material such as described elsewhere herein.
  • an electromagnetic-radiation source for irradiating with electromagnetic radiation e.g., a laser source or other optical source
  • a transducer e.g., a piezoelectric device or
  • Combinations of the excitation sources such as those described above, can also be used. It can also be beneficial to apply such stimulation in a modulated fashion (e.g., periodic or non-periodic dynamic fashion) as it is believed that modulations of such stimulation can facilitate coupling to acoustic phonons in the material 202, thereby facilitating generation of the nuclear reactions.
  • periodic modulations can be on the order of the range of frequencies of such acoustic phonons.
  • stimulation can also occur by the fluxing of hydrogen or deuterium atoms or molecules across a concentration gradient.
  • a concentration gradient can be established, for example, by suitably controlling the chemical environment of the material 202.
  • the load 206 can be, for example, a heat exchanger, e.g., one or more cells such as cells 83 which transfer heat to a heat transfer fluids as shown in the electrochemical cell example of Fig. 20, a heat transfer tube such as heat transfer tube 90 shown in the flash heating tube example of Fig.22, or a heat transfer case such as heat transfer case 95 shown in the thermoelectric battery example shown in Fig. 23, or a combination thereof.
  • a heat exchanger e.g., one or more cells such as cells 83 which transfer heat to a heat transfer fluids as shown in the electrochemical cell example of Fig. 20, a heat transfer tube such as heat transfer tube 90 shown in the flash heating tube example of Fig.22, or a heat transfer case such as heat transfer case 95 shown in the thermoelectric battery example shown in Fig. 23, or a combination thereof.
  • the load 206 can also be, for example, a thermoelectric device, e.g., a thermoelectric layer such as thermoelectric layer 105 shown in the thermoelectric battery example of Fig, 23, a thermionic device, or a thermal diode, or a transducer that generates electrical energy from mechanical displacement such as vibrational motion, for example.
  • the load 206 can also be, for example, an absorber that can absorb thermal radiation emitted by the material 202 in a heating application or, for example, a photovoltaic (e.g., photodiode) that generates electricity in response to absorbed thermal radiation.
  • the load 206 can also be any suitable high- impedance, low-current electrical load.
  • the mechanical configurations of the materials 85, 99, 88 and 104 shown in Figs. 20-23 can be modified in suitable manners to accommodate the mechanical properties of the particular material being used.
  • the material comprising D 2 and/or HD is a semiconductor, it is not necessary to configure the material 88 shown in Fig. 22 as a coil. Rather, the material 88 could be configured in length-wise strips electrically connected end to end to surround and provide heating to the tube.
  • excitation source 204 and the load 206 are shown as separate features in the block diagram, it should be understood that those features can share a common device or devices in some instances, e.g., both devices can share the same transducer that generates vibrational motion from applied electrical energy and that generates output energy from vibrational motion generated by reactions, in some examples.
  • a transducer can be initially powered with electrical energy to apply vibrational energy to the material 202 to initiate the nuclear reactions (through phonon coupling to the reactions).
  • the electrical power to the transducer can be turned off, and the transducer can then operate to generate electrical energy from vibrational motion of the material 202 coupled into the transducer, wherein the vibrational motion (e.g., due to highly excited phonon modes) of the material 202 is generated from the nuclear reactions occurring therein.
  • This electrical energy can then be drawn off for use in a suitable electrical load as desired.
  • the material 202 can comprise an isotopic variant of a dihydrogen transition metal complex with a substitution by at least one of D 2 and HD (the presence of HD relates to the case of the proton-deuteron pathway as described elsewhere herein).
  • Exemplary materials in this regard include (using the short hand chemical notation conventional for such materials as used in G. J. Kubas, Metal Dihydrogen and ⁇ -Bond Complexes) W(D 2 )(CO) 3 (PH3) 2 , Cr(CO) 3 (P/Pr 3 ) 2 (D 2 ), Mo(CO)(dppe) 2 (D 2 ), W(CO) 3 (P/Pr 3 ) 2 (D 2 ), FeH(D 2 )(PEtPh 2 ) 3 , [RuH(H 2 )(dppe) 2 ] + , Cr(CO) 3 P 2 (D 2 ), Mo(CO) 3 P 2 (D 2 ), trar ⁇ -[Mo(CO) 2 (PCy 3 ) 2 D 2 ] and trans- [W(CO) 2 (PCy 3 ) 2 D 2 ], as well as corresponding materials in this list wherein "HD" is substituted for "D 2 ", as well as complexes that contain both D 2 and HD.
  • Such materials can be fabricated by methods known in the art for fabricating dihydrogen transition-metal complexes, such as disclosed, for example, in Chapter Three ("Synthesis and General Properties of Dihydrogen Complexes") of G. J. Kubas, Metal Dihydrogen and ⁇ -Bond Complexes, with appropriate processing in the presence of D 2 and HD gas, as discussed below.
  • This compound is reported as being more stable than the above-described molybdenum compound, but its stability may be enhanced by storing it in a hydrogen atmosphere.
  • tr ⁇ r ⁇ -[W(CO) 2 (PCy 3 ) 2 D 2 ] can be prepared in similar manner wherein the reaction is carried out in D 2 gas instead of H 2 gas.
  • synthesis approaches of basic metal dihydrogen metal complexes can be modified by using D 2 and HD gas atmospheres in place of solely H 2 atmospheres to thereby generate suitable dihydrogen transition metal complexes with a substitution by D 2 and/or HD.
  • Such materials can be stable at room temperature.
  • D2 and HD gas refers to a mixture of D 2 , HD, and H 2 gases considering the dynamic transformations that normally occur between these forms.
  • Such materials can be facilitated by adjusting (e.g., increasing) the temperature during processing to facilitate the reactions.
  • such materials can be prepared by starting with dihydrogen transition metal complexes at the outset and then heating these at elevated temperature and pressure in D 2 gas, wherein substitutions of H 2 in the complexes by D 2 and HD can occur.
  • the material 202 can comprise a fullerene-based material.
  • a fullerene-based material as referred to herein includes a material comprising any of various cage-like, hollow molecules that include hexagonal and pentagonal groups of atoms including, e.g., those formed from carbon, and which may include additional species of atoms as part of the cage structures, within the cage structures, or between the cage structures of adjacent molecules. Also included within the scope of such materials are those that also include atomic arrangements other than hexagonal and pentagonal groups. Non-limiting examples include Buckyballs (e.g., C 60 or similar molecules with a different number of atoms), carbon nanotubes (either closed-ended or open-ended), and the like.
  • fullerene-based materials include the above-described materials in solution, incorporated into a solid such as a polymer matrix or incorporated into a solid formed of a compacted mixture of fullerene powder with another suitable powder, which can act as a binder.
  • fullerene materials can be processed to incorporate D 2 and/or HD prior to incorporation in a solid or a liquid.
  • the loading with D 2 and/or HD can be enhanced with appropriate sealing of the material such as described elsewhere herein (such sealing is generally applicable to the materials disclosed herein) and/or by maintaining such materials in an atomosphere of D 2 and HD.
  • Encapsulation of H 2 and inert gases in fullerenes is known in the art.
  • rare gases have been encapsulated in fullerenes at low yield by heating the fullerenes in the rare gas atmosphere, such as described in R. J. Cross and M. Sanders, Fullerenes - Fullerenes for the New Millennium, Electrochemical Society Proceedings, Volume 2001-11, 298.
  • Rare gases have been encapsulated in fullerenes by acceleration of rare gas atoms into stationary fullerenes. In the latter case, the atom could slip through the cage with sufficient noble gas atom velocity, and be encapsulated with significantly higher yield. The encapsulation Of 3 He and 4 He has been reported through this method.
  • the open cage structure can then be closed to provide closed encapsulation of the inserted species by using laser irradiation.
  • a powder could also be processed as described above to include small amounts of 4 He and/or 3 He or in order to reduce the time to achieve a significant nuclear reaction rate (the utility of including 4 He or 3 He in conjunction with D 2 or HD to facilitate nuclear reactions is described elsewhere herein).
  • fullerene powder containing fullerenes that have been inserted with 4 He and/or 3 He could be mixed with a fullerene powder that has been inserted with D 2 and/or HD, and the resulting mixture could be utilized in a solid or liquid material containing such fullerenes.
  • fullerenes have been made into solid structures through a variety of methods, such as described in Chapter 14, "Structures of Fullerene- Based Solids," by K. Prassides and S. Margadonna, in Fullerenes: Chemistry, Physics, and Technology, edited by K. M. Kadish and R. S. Ruoff, Wiley- Interscience, NY (2000).
  • Crystalline powders of C 60 have been found by others based on x-ray diffraction to form random collections of hep and fee lattice structures formed of nearly spherical fullerenes with interstitial spaces.
  • previously encapsulated fullerenes having D 2 and/or HD inserted therein prepared such as described above can be formed into fullerides and other fullerene-based solid materials for use as the material 202 shown in Fig. 24.
  • this D 2 and/or HD could be replenished by heating such material in the presence of D 2 and HD gas at elevated temperature and pressure.
  • intercalated fullerides are known, in which various atoms are placed into the interstices, which can lead to interesting physical effects such as superconductivity (as has been observed in alkali fullerides). It is believed that such materials can be produced with D 2 and/or HD inserted therein by heating such material in the presence of D 2 and HD gas at elevated temperature and pressure for use as the material 202 in Fig. 24. Polymerized fullerenes/fullerides are also known and have increased stability at elevated temperature.
  • the material 202 can comprise a semiconductor material or an insulator.
  • semiconductors such as silicon and GaAs, for example.
  • Theoretical studies indicate that hydrogen in GaAs should form molecular H 2 in tetrahedral sites, which are deep wells for the molecular state (L. Pavesi et al., Phys. Rev. B 46, 4621 (1992)), and that hydrogen in silicon should form molecular H 2 in Si (P. Deak, et al. 5 Phys. Rev. B 37, 6887 (1988); and C. G. Van de Walle, et al., Phys. Rev. B 39, 10791 (1989)).
  • such semiconductor materials e.g., Si and GaAs
  • D 2 and/or HD can also be produced with D 2 and/or HD therein by heating such material in the presence of D 2 and HD gas at elevated temperature and pressure, which would be useful as material 202.
  • insulators e.g., such as NaCl, CaF 2 , CaO, MgF 2 , and MgO and other ionic crystals
  • deuterium therein as well as with He-3 and/or He-4
  • the material comprising D 2 and/or HD can comprise a liquid.
  • Fig. 24 is applicable to such an embodiment (in which case the material 202 would be contained within a suitable vessel, e.g., made of stainless steel, glass, etc.).
  • a further example of such an apparatus 300 is shown in the block diagram of Fig. 25.
  • the apparatus 300 comprises a liquid material 302 comprising D 2 and/or HD.
  • the material 302 is contained within a pressure vessel 310 having a valve 312 to allow adding and maintaining D 2 and HD gas at elevated pressure for the purpose of driving D 2 and/or HD into the liquid material 302.
  • the elevated pressure can be, for example, above atmospheric pressure, such as about 1-5 atm with standard vacuum components and above about 5 atm to 100 atm with special purpose components, or at higher pressures, e.g., up to 1000 atm with specialized high pressure components.
  • the valve 312 is also used to add the liquid material 302.
  • the liquid material 302 is contained below the gas at elevated pressure.
  • the apparatus 300 also comprises a transducer 304 such as described elsewhere herein (e.g., a piezoelectric transducer such as lead-zirconate-titanate - PZT - or a quartz crystal), and an electrical driver 308 to apply electrical energy to the transducer 304 via electrical leads 316 and electrodes 314 to generate vibrational motion of the transducer, which is then coupled to the liquid material 302 via a contacting surface between the vessel 310 and the transducer 304 (e.g., at the top electrode 314).
  • a transducer 304 such as described elsewhere herein (e.g., a piezoelectric transducer such as lead-zirconate-titanate - PZT - or a quartz crystal), and an electrical driver 308 to apply electrical energy to the transducer 304 via electrical leads 316 and electrodes 314 to generate vibrational motion of the transducer, which is then coupled to the liquid material 302 via a contacting surface between the vessel 310 and
  • the frequency of the electrical driver 308 can be chosen to drive transducer 304 at a resonant frequency of the combined system, which can be identified through straightforward measurements as known to those of ordinary skill in the art, and which can be tailored as known to those of ordinary skill according to the sizes of the components.
  • some 4 He and/or 3 He gas can also be introduced into the vessel 310 to cause 4 He and/or 3 He to enter the liquid material 302.
  • Suitable amounts of D 2 and/or HD can be, for example, 1-10 parts per thousand by number, or greater, and suitable amounts Of 4 He and/or 3 He in equivalent sites can be, for example, 1-10 parts per million by number.
  • Exemplary liquids that can be used include water, hydrocarbon oils, benzene, toluene, and ethyl alcohol, to name a few.
  • the apparatus 300 can be operated in a manner such as already described above.
  • a transducer can be initially powered with electrical energy to apply vibrational energy to the material 302 to initiate the nuclear reactions (through phonon coupling to the reactions).
  • the electrical power to the transducer can be turned off, and the transducer can then operate to generate electrical energy from vibrational motion of the material 302 coupled into the transducer 304, wherein the vibrational motion of the material 302 is generated from the nuclear reactions occurring therein.
  • This electrical energy can then be drawn off the electrodes 314 for use in a suitable electrical load as desired.
  • the D 2 and/or HD resides in a condensed matter environment that supports acoustic modes, or more generally acceleration, in which a highly excited system can interact with nuclei.
  • modes can include, for example, a highly excited acoustic mode, a hybrid acoustic and electrical oscillation mode associated with the combination of an oscillator circuit coupled to transducer 304 (e.g., piezoelectric material) and material 302, or a rotational mode.
  • transducer 304 carries out dual roles in this example (i.e., stimulating the material 302 initially and serving as a load/converter for withdrawing/generating useful electrical energy), it should be understood that a separate excitation source such as described in connection with Fig. 24 could be used to stimulate the material 302.
  • molecular hydrogen gas is known to go into many liquids with a significant solubility, and the same is expected for D 2 and/or HD.
  • D 2 and/or HD can be driven into the liquid 302 by the pressure of the D 2 and HD gas above the liquid 302.
  • Another approach is to generate the gas, if desired, through electrolysis of species in the liquid and maintain by adjusting the gas pressure to desired levels.
  • Yet another approach is to generate the gas by chemical reactions within the liquid.
  • the material 202 can comprise at least one of D 2 in condensed form and HD in condensed form at low temperature.
  • D 2 in condensed form refers to D 2 that has been condensed to form a solid or liquid itself, either with or without being combined in a mixture with another species, and similarly for HD.
  • such material could be substantially uniform liquid or solid D 2 , substantially uniform liquid or solid HD, a mixture of the same, or any of these possibilites in a mixture with another condensable species such as argon.
  • the amount of condensed D 2 and/or HD could be one-half or more of the total mixture by weight in such a mixture.
  • Low temperature in this regard refers to a temperature sufficiently low that such condensation can occur.
  • the apparatus 200 or at least a portion containing the material 202 can be suitably insulated and cooled using conventional approaches (e.g., helium refrigeration of a support member arranged in a vacuum environment provided by a suitable vacuum chamber).
  • argon saturated with hydrogen can be cooled slowly to produce solidified material containing molecular hydrogen (see, e.g., Kriegler et al., Can. J. Phys. 46, 1181 (1968)). It is believed that such mixtures of inert gases with D 2 and/or HD can similarly be condensed and utilized as described above.
  • the reactions can comprise at least one of transformations between D 2 and He-4 and transformations between HD and He-3.
  • thermoelectric converters Stirling engines, or other types of engines.
  • Such scenarios contemplate a technology in which heat is produced at elevated temperatures, perhaps between 250 C and 1000 C, and then converted to electricity by whichever conversion technology is most convenient or cost efficient.
  • the requirement for an energy conversion step after the initial energy production can be significant, in the sense that the resulting technology may be complicated, and losses are expected.
  • the efficiency of small scale solid state thermal to electric converters is not high, and unused heat must be dissipated.
  • phonon exchange can occur in association with a nuclear reaction process. It follows directly that when two or more phonons are exchanged in reactions at different sites with a common phonon mode, they can be coupled quantum mechanically, and proceed as a second-order or higher-order process. In this framework, the energy from the nuclear reactions appears initially in the highly excited phonon mode, with the possibility of excitation of other thermal modes as well. Excess heat comes about in this picture in association with loss mechanisms of the highly excited phonon mode. In other words, energy from reactions is expected to be coupled into highly excited phonon modes primarily, and the degradation of the highly-excited mode energy into thermal energy is a subsequent effect. According to one embodiment, an apparatus 400 can be configured as shown in the block diagram of Fig.
  • the apparatus comprises a material 402 comprising deuterium and can be any of the materials described elsewhere herein such as, for example, a dihydrogen transition metal complex with a substitution by D 2 and/or HD, a semiconductor material, a metal, a liquid or an insulator.
  • An insulator or a refractory metal such as Ti, Nb or Ta can be useful materials for the material 402 because these materials can have relatively sharp vibrational resonances (high quality factors or "Q" factors), which can aid in reducing losses that would be manifested as heat.
  • the material 402 comprises deuterium in the form molecular deuterium (D 2 ) and/or molecular hydrogen- deuterium (HD).
  • insulators e.g., such as NaCl, CaF 2 , CaO, MgF 2 , and MgO and other ionic crystals
  • the apparatus also comprises an excitation source arranged to stimulate the material 402 to generate reactions in the material 402, wherein the reactions generate vibrational motion of the material 402.
  • the excitation source comprises the combination of an electrical oscillator 406 (e.g., an LC circuit of such as conventionally known to those of ordinary skill in the art) and a transducer 404 which are connected via electrical leads 408, and in this role, the transducer 404 can be viewed as an input transducer ("input" being a convenient label) because it inputs vibrational energy into the material 402 to initiate nuclear reactions when energized by the electrical oscillator and an associated power source (not shown).
  • the transducer 404 can be, for example, a piezoelectric crystal or quartz crystal.
  • the excitation source can alternatively comprise an electromagnetic-radiation source, an electrical power source (e.g., to apply AC or DC current), a particle source, or a heater, such as described earlier.
  • the transducer 404 can also be viewed as an output transducer ("output" being a convenient label), which is coupled to the material 402 and which generates electrical energy from the vibrational motion of the material 402 caused by the reactions occurring therein.
  • an input transducer and an output transducer such as a piezoelectric crystal, can be the same device.
  • Operation of the apparatus involves stimulating the material 402 as discussed above to cause nuclear reactions in the material 402, wherein the reactions generate vibrational motion of the material 402.
  • the vibrational motion is coupled from the material 402 to the transducer 404, which generates electrical energy from the vibrational motion of the material 402.
  • the vibrational motion is coupled directly to the transducer 404, which directly generates electrical energy (e.g., electrical current) from the vibrational motion, without the need for an intermediate process, such as conversion of heat to electrical energy as would occur with use of a thermoelectric device, for example.
  • the electrical energy (e.g., electrical current) output from the transducer 404 can be coupled to an electrical device e.g., electrical load 412, via the oscillator 406 and electrical leads 408.
  • the electrical load can be, for example, an output circuit (e.g., that converts high frequency AC current to a lower frequency current or DC current) in combination with an electrical device to be powered.
  • an output circuit e.g., that converts high frequency AC current to a lower frequency current or DC current
  • the material 402 contains a significant amount of D 2 and/or HD (for example, 1-10 parts per thousand by number, or greater), and some smaller amount of 4 He and/or 3 He in equivalent sites (1-10 parts per million, or greater, for example).
  • Exemplary frequencies for driving and operating the apparatus 400 are between about 1 Hz and about 1 GHz, with relatively lower frequency operation occurring between about 1 Hz and about 1 kHz and relatively higher frequency operation occurring between about 1 kHz and about 1 GHz.
  • the frequency response of the transducer 404 and the frequency response of the oscillator 406 can be tailored to achieve an overall desired frequency response, e.g., so that operation on or near a resonance can be achieved, if desired, e.g., the response of the transducer 404/material 402 and the response of the oscillator can be substantially matched. In this way, a low order coupled transducer/material mode is driven on resonance.
  • a high-Q quartz crystal can be used as the transducer 404 and can be driven in the MHz range, with the quartz crystal being on the order of a millimeter thick, and with the sample being on the order of 100 microns thick.
  • exemplary volumes can be on the order of about 1 cm .
  • a highly-excited phonon mode in this case can be a hybrid electrical/phononic mode that is made up of the combination of a low-order phonon mode in the transducer 404 and material 402, and of the resonant electrical oscillator 406. Nuclear energy from the solid state reactions would go initially into this highly excited hybrid mode, which will sustain the mode if the overall Q is sufficiently high. Energy in this hybrid mode will thermalize through mechanical losses into heat in the sample, and through electrical losses into resistive losses in the electrical oscillator 406.
  • a low-resistance electrical load 412 can be coupled to the hybrid electrical- mechanical oscillator as shown in Fig. 26A, which can be used to extract electrical energy directly from the coupled nuclear and hybrid system. As the resistance of the load 412 is increased, it will dissipate a larger fraction of the total energy produced, and can be made to dominate the energy loss. If the loss is made too large, then it would be expected to drive the excitation level down, and ultimately the reaction would be extinguished.
  • the electrical oscillator 406 could be replaced with a conventional output circuit to transform the alternating current output from the transducer 404 into a DC current, for example, which current can then be used to drive a desired load 412.
  • FIG. 26B illustrates an apparatus 500 for conversion of reaction energy to electromagnetic energy.
  • the apparatus 500 comprises a radio frequency (RF) or microwave cavity 506 having a conductive wall 506a and includes a material 502 comprising deuterium (e.g., as D 2 and/or HD) and also an amount of amount of 4 He and/or 3 He as discussed above.
  • the material 502 is coupled (e.g., in contact) with a transducer 504 (e.g., a piezoelectric crystal or quartz crystal).
  • Electrodes 514 are placed at opposing surfaces of the material 502 and the transducer 504.
  • An antenna 516 is connected to one of the electrodes 514.
  • One electrode 514 of the transducer 504 is connected to an inner surface of the wall 506a of the cavity 506, and the antenna 516, which is coupled to another electrode 514, accesses the interior electric field of the cavity 506.
  • the cavity 506 is coupled to an RF or microwave load 512 via a waveguide 508. It will be appreciated that both electrodes 514 could be placed on the transducer 504 instead of placing one electrode 514 on the material 502. Ih either case, the cavity 506 is coupled to the transducer 504.
  • the material 502 can be stimulated by any suitable excitation source such as previously disclosed herein or by an RF or microwave driver circuit (not shown) coupled to the cavity 506 by another waveguide (not shown). In either case, the material 502 is stimulated to promote nuclear reactions therein such as described earlier, and energy from the nuclear reactions is coupled into into a variety of hybrid modes, wherein one component of the mode is mechanical such that it produces acceleration of the deuterium in the material 502. With such an hybrid mode, it is possible to utilize the transducer to couple mechanical and electromagnetic degrees of freedom.
  • the cavity 506 can be a high-Q RF or microwave cavity, which is coupled to a resonant high-Q combination of the transducer 504 and material 502.
  • the material 502 can be a high-Q solid material such as those mentioned above in connection with Fig. 26A. Excitation of the cavity 506 to power levels high enough to generate sufficient voltage in the piezoelectric for initiation of the reactions is required, and following this, the coupling of the nuclear reaction energy to the hybrid electromagnetic and mechanical mode will produce power that can be coupled out to the load 512.
  • the generated electromagnetic energy can comprise radio frequency (RF) energy or microwave energy.
  • one type of coupling of interest in nuclear reactions in materials that comprise deuterium involves coupling the nuclear reaction to acoustic phonon modes of the material (phonon modes with frequencies from near zero to a few THz).
  • acoustic phonon modes of the material phonon modes with frequencies from near zero to a few THz.
  • the radiation can be modulated so that the modulation has a modulation frequency in the acoustic region.
  • IR infrared
  • UV ultraviolet
  • Numerous ways of modulating such light are known, including driving the laser with a driving circuit operating at a modulation frequency or using conventional shuttering devices including mechanical rotating shutters and electro-optical shutters, to name a few.
  • modulation of excitation sources to deliver modulated energy are not limited to electromagnetic sources, and the modulation frequencies are not limited to acoustic frequencies.
  • modulation as referred to herein includes both periodic and non-periodic dynamic changes in a property of the stimulation being applied, such as intensity, wavelength, heat flux, etc. Modulation is not limited to periodic modulations. Of course, periodic modulations such as regular sinusoidal, triangular or square wave variations, etc., in a property can be used. As noted above, it is believed that modulations of such stimulation can facilitate coupling to acoustic phonons in the materials containing deuterium, thereby facilitating generation of the nuclear reactions.
  • an apparatus can be configured such as illustrated in the block diagram of Fig. 24, which was previously discussed in the context of other examples, the discussion of which is also applicable here.
  • the apparatus 200 comprises a material 202 that comprises deuterium, which can be D 2 and/or HD such as described previously.
  • the material 202 can comprise any other suitable material such as described elsewhere herein.
  • the apparatus 200 also comprises an excitation source 204 comprising an electromagnetic radiation source, wherein the excitation source 204 is configured to stimulate the material with modulated electromagnetic energy without ablating the material 202. It is known that intense laser radiation can ablate material from a surface (cause damage by removing material from an incident surface), and it can be beneficial to avoid such to prolong the life the material 202.
  • the stimulation causes nuclear reactions of the type described elsewhere herein to occur in the material 202.
  • the electromagnetic radiation source can be any suitable source including a continuous wave laser (in which case an suitable driving circuit or suitable modulation optics can be used to provide the modulation), a mode-locked laser, a mode-locked see laser followed by a power amplifier, a modulated high efficiency incandescent light source, or a modulated arc (light) source, to name a few.
  • Microwave, terahertz, and infrared radiation sources are other examples.
  • the modulation can occur at one or more frequencies in the acoustic range.
  • the excitation source 204 can provide modulated energy to the material with a modulation frequency over the full range of acoustic frequencies, i.e., above zero as to about 5.5 THz.
  • modulation frequencies that can provide good coupling can depend upon the type of material 202 being stimulated as will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art. Determining (e.g., calculating or measuring) advantageous frequency ranges for coupling to acoustic phonons for a given material 202 is within the purview of one of ordinary skill in the art.
  • the material 202 it is helpful to absorb the radiation in a way that is useful relative to the modulation frequency. For example, light absorbed in a metal sample penetrates less than 100 nm, which is suitable for coupling to a very wide range of acoustic mode frequencies. Also, it is known that the efficiency of acoustic wave generation in a material can be increased if a tamping layer (e.g., a coating such as a liquid) is present on the material.
  • the apparatus 200 also comprises a load 206 arranged to remove energy generated by the reactions from the material 202.
  • the load 206 can be, for example, a heat exchanger, a thermoelectric device, a thermionic device, a thermal diode, a radiation absorber (e.g., a photovoltaic such as a photodiode) or an output transducer arranged to remove energy generated by the reactions from the material.
  • a heat exchanger for example, a thermoelectric device, a thermionic device, a thermal diode, a radiation absorber (e.g., a photovoltaic such as a photodiode) or an output transducer arranged to remove energy generated by the reactions from the material.
  • a radiation absorber e.g., a photovoltaic such as a photodiode
  • an output transducer arranged to remove energy generated by the reactions from the material.
  • the apparatus can be modified such that the excitation source 204 includes an input transducer, an electrical power source, or a particle- beam source, such as described elsewhere herein, instead of or in addition to using an electromagnetic radiation source.
  • the excitation source 204 includes an input transducer, an electrical power source, or a particle- beam source, such as described elsewhere herein, instead of or in addition to using an electromagnetic radiation source.
  • Other aspects of the apparatus 200 can be the same as already described.
  • a modulated KeV or MeV electron beam can be used wherein the modulation can be done at the electron source, with magnetic scanning, switching optics, or electrostatic optics, of types known to those of ordinary skill in the art.
  • a modulated KeV or MeV ion beam could be use with a similar modulation scheme.
  • ion beams are easily degraded, and a suitable environment such as a vacuum chamber, e.g., possibly with a small amount of deuterium gas therein gas, can be provided.
  • Electron beams are considerably more penetrating, but such an embodiment would benefit from vacuum or low-pressure gas environments. It is possible to generate modulated high-power electron beams, ion beams, and laser beams very efficiently. Hence, it should be expected that modulated radiation drivers should be competitive.
  • piezoelectric transducers for driving resonances in solids and liquids for excess heat applications can be useful over a wide range of frequencies, including but not limited to, the frequency range between about 1 kHz and about 1 GHz.
  • modulated laser sources can be relatively more beneficial compared to piezoelectric transducers considering the relative ease of developing good modulation at high frequency in laser sources and their ability to operate at elevated power and intensity levels.
  • temperature the performance of good piezoelectric materials may degrade at elevated temperatures.
  • acoustic energy both for stimulation and/or for output
  • Hydraulically driven transducers can also be used for stimulation.
  • acoustic stimulation through hydraulic techniques can be advantageous to stimulate a large quantity of material 202 considering the existence of a mature pumping and plumbing technology.

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Abstract

L'invention concerne une méthode et un appareil faisant appel à une stimulation de matière pour provoquer des réactions dans cette matière. La matière de l'invention comprend du deutérium et les réactions génèrent un mouvement vibratoire de la matière, ce mouvement vibratoire s'associe à un transducteur qui génère de l'énergie à partir de ce mouvement de matière, et envoie cette énergie à un dispositif électrique.
PCT/US2006/020949 2005-05-26 2006-05-25 Generation directe d'energie electrique et electromagnetique a partir de materiaux contenant du deuterium WO2006128182A2 (fr)

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Cited By (2)

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Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
WO2019050779A3 (fr) * 2017-09-07 2019-05-09 Hagelstein Peter L Mises en œuvre de transfert d'excitation pour une décroissance non exponentielle d'espèces radioactives
CN112470234A (zh) * 2018-06-03 2021-03-09 F.梅茨勒 声子介导的核态激发和去激发的系统和方法

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Cited By (2)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
WO2019050779A3 (fr) * 2017-09-07 2019-05-09 Hagelstein Peter L Mises en œuvre de transfert d'excitation pour une décroissance non exponentielle d'espèces radioactives
CN112470234A (zh) * 2018-06-03 2021-03-09 F.梅茨勒 声子介导的核态激发和去激发的系统和方法

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