US7112660B1 - Modified cytokine - Google Patents

Modified cytokine Download PDF

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US7112660B1
US7112660B1 US09/979,916 US97991602A US7112660B1 US 7112660 B1 US7112660 B1 US 7112660B1 US 97991602 A US97991602 A US 97991602A US 7112660 B1 US7112660 B1 US 7112660B1
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protein
cytokine
folding
proteins
helix
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Helena Domingues
Hartmut Oschkinat
Luis Serrano
Joerg Peters
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Europaisches Laboratorium fuer Molekularbiologie EMBL
Bayer Pharma AG
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Bayer AG
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    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07K—PEPTIDES
    • C07K14/00—Peptides having more than 20 amino acids; Gastrins; Somatostatins; Melanotropins; Derivatives thereof
    • C07K14/435—Peptides having more than 20 amino acids; Gastrins; Somatostatins; Melanotropins; Derivatives thereof from animals; from humans
    • C07K14/52—Cytokines; Lymphokines; Interferons
    • C07K14/54—Interleukins [IL]
    • C07K14/5406—IL-4
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61P—SPECIFIC THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS OR MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS
    • A61P37/00—Drugs for immunological or allergic disorders
    • A61P37/08—Antiallergic agents
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A01—AGRICULTURE; FORESTRY; ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; HUNTING; TRAPPING; FISHING
    • A01K—ANIMAL HUSBANDRY; AVICULTURE; APICULTURE; PISCICULTURE; FISHING; REARING OR BREEDING ANIMALS, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR; NEW BREEDS OF ANIMALS
    • A01K2217/00—Genetically modified animals
    • A01K2217/05—Animals comprising random inserted nucleic acids (transgenic)
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K38/00—Medicinal preparations containing peptides

Definitions

  • the invention relates to methods for the stabilisation of cytokines and to cytokines generated by such methods.
  • the methods of the invention include steps that destabilise intermediates that are formed during the folding of the cytokine, relative to the stability of the cytokine in its naturally folded state. This has the effect of increasing the yield of the cytokine as produced in vitro.
  • Cytokines are small proteins of between around 8 and 80 kDa that have a central role in both positive and negative regulation of immune reactions, as well as in integrating these reactions with other physiological compartments such as the endocrine and hemopoietic systems.
  • cytokines that possess a wide variety of different functions. These molecules act by binding to specific receptors at the cell membrane, so initiating a signalling cascade that leads to the induction, enhancement or inhibition of a number of cytokine-regulated genes.
  • cytokines There are various different types of cytokines, including the interleukins, interferons, colony stimulating factors, tumour necrosis factors, growth factors and chemokines. These cytokines function together in a complex network in which the production of one cytokine generally influences the production of, or response to, several other cytokines.
  • cytokines have important roles in several areas of medicine, including their use as anti-inflammatories, and as agents used to treat a number of cancers, including non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, melanoma and ovarian cancer. Cytokines also have applications in the treatment of HIV, multiple sclerosis, asthma and allergic diseases.
  • the activity of cytokines can be inhibited by preventing the interaction of the specific cytokine with its receptor system, thereby suppressing the intracellular signals that are responsible for the cytokine's biological effects.
  • the strategies that are available to block cytokine-receptor interactions generally involve the use of monoclonal antibodies against the cytokine or against its receptor.
  • soluble receptors and cytokine receptor antagonists may be used (see Finkelman et al 1993; Rose-John Heinrich, 1994).
  • Receptor antagonists are mutants of the wild type cytokine that are able to bind to cytokine receptors with high affinity, but which are not able to induce signal transduction and therefore do not generate a biological response.
  • IL-4 two efficient antagonists have been reported in the literature that bind to the IL-4 receptor alpha with a K d similar to that of the wild type protein, but which are unable to recruit a second receptor component.
  • E. coli has a fast growth rate (typical doubling time of 20 minutes), it is easy to manipulate and to screen for protein expression and for mutations, and it grows in a relatively cheap medium.
  • cytokines and cytokine antagonists
  • E. coli has a fast growth rate (typical doubling time of 20 minutes), it is easy to manipulate and to screen for protein expression and for mutations, and it grows in a relatively cheap medium.
  • most protein drugs that are presently available on the market are produced by the large scale fermentation of E. coli carrying the gene of interest (Steven et al 1998). Although these high cell density culture systems are rather well established for E. coli , very little is known about their efficiency and viability with other host organisms.
  • Disadvantages related to the utilisation of E. coli and other prokaryotic expression systems in general include the tendency of this organism to produce heterologous protein in inclusion bodies, the absence of post-translational modifications, inefficient translation of human mRNA by the bacterial ribozymes, a characteristic codon usage and the inability to form disulphide bonds in the cytoplasm. These facts condition the folding and stability of the expressed protein and may cause aggregation.
  • Factors influencing the formation of inclusion bodies in E. coli include the cell growth temperature, co-expression with chaperones, the use of fusion proteins, secreting the protein into the periplasm, the use of different expression strains and expressing the protein including its pro-sequence.
  • manipulation of these methods are only partially effective, if at all, in resolving this problem.
  • inclusion bodies is by no means an aberrant phenomenon that is limited to E. coli . It has also been reported for eukaryotic expression systems, like Saccharomyces cerevisiae and even for mammalian cells, both with inherent and heterologous proteins (Bowden and Georgiou, 1990).
  • cytokine-derived antagonists are thus diminished by virtue of the fact that these proteins are difficult to produce in large amounts in a cost-effective way. This is because they tend to form inclusion bodies when overexpressed in E. coli. and they refold in vitro in very low yields.
  • the aim of the present invention is thus to design mutant cytokines that may be produced either as soluble proteins in bacteria or as proteins that will fold efficiently in vitro. Such a strategy would make the industrial production of cytokine antagonists more affordable and less laborious.
  • a method of stabilising a cytokine comprising one or both of the following steps:
  • the method of the invention has been shown to allow the stabilisation of cytokines such that they may be produced recombinantly at low cost and in large volume. This method thus paves the way for the inexpensive production of these molecules, bringing the use of these molecules into mainstream therapy for a number of important diseases.
  • cytokine may be stabilised according to the present invention, including interleukins, interferons, colony stimulating factors, tumour necrosis factors, growth factors and chemokines.
  • cytokines for stabilisation according to the invention are “four helix bundle” cytokines that belong to the haematopoietic or class 1 cytokine superfamily.
  • the three-dimensional structure of these proteins consists of a four-helix bundle with an “up-up-down-down” topology, including three disulphide bridges.
  • HGH human growth hormone
  • GM-CSF granulocyte Macrophage-Colony stimulating factor
  • G-CSF granulocyte Colony stimulating factor
  • LIF leukaemia inhibitory factor
  • EPO erythropoietin
  • IL-2 IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-9, IL-13, ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), oncostatin (OSM) and the interferons among others.
  • CNTF ciliary neurotrophic factor
  • OSM oncostatin
  • haematopoietic cytokine superfamily A striking feature of the haematopoietic cytokine superfamily is that, despite their common form, the family members have little or no sequence homology. However, the fact that these proteins are all extracellular signalling molecules, that they share the same unique four helix bundle topology and a similar gene organisation, suggests that they are all related by a process of divergent evolution.
  • helix bundle cytokines bind to a class of receptors known as the hematopoietin receptor superfamily or type 1 cytokine receptor superfamily. These receptors comprise an extracellular cytokine binding domain which is highly homologous within the family, a single transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain that lacks intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity.
  • the extracellular domain has four conserved cysteines and a characteristic tryptophan-serine-X-tryptophan-serine (the so called tryptophan box) motif that is thought to be important for efficient receptor folding (for reviews see Bazan, 1990 and Gullberg et al 1995).
  • Leukemia inhibitory factor PRL.
  • prolactin IFN. interferon.
  • a The protein is a non-covalent dimer: a The protein is a disulfide linked dimer. This table is a modified and updated version of that in (Mott et al., 1995)
  • cytokine-receptor system The most extensively characterised cytokine-receptor system is that of the human growth hormone. A determination of the three dimensional structure of this protein bound to two chains of the same receptor (de Vos et al 1992) has laid the grounds for understanding the principles that are involved in molecular recognition and signal transduction by four helix bundle cytokines and their receptors. From the data that is available in the literature on other cytokine receptor systems, it is clear that the ligand induced receptor homo or hetero-oligomerisation is a general strategy that is used by members of the haematopoietic cytokine family.
  • FIG. 1 Folding intermediates can accumulate because there is a high energy barrier between them and the transition state, and/or because the energy barrier between the folded and the transition state is low. In the first case shown in this figure, folding is slow and the concentration of folding intermediates is high.
  • the folded state unfolds frequently under physiological conditions and, as a result, a significant concentration of folding intermediates can be present. Therefore, the relative destabilisation of folding intermediates and/or the stabilisation of the folded state, with respect to the folding transition state could help protein fold more efficiently (Munoz et al 1994a).
  • the invention relates to methods that incorporate the engineering of amino acid substitutions that selectively destabilise any appreciative intermediate in the folding pathway for cytokines.
  • the mutants thus obtained either remain soluble during expression, and/or refold more efficiently in vitro. At the same time, these mutants are of similar activity to the wild type protein.
  • a first aspect of the method of the invention involves mutating the amino acid sequence of the cytokine so as to remove solvent-exposed hydrophobic residues.
  • Amino acid substitutions made involve the substitution of hydrophobic residues (such as Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, Methionine, Proline) to more polar residues (such as Lysine, Arginine, Histidine, Aspartate, Asparagine, Glutamate, Glutamine, Serine, Threonine, Tyrosine).
  • This aspect of the method is based on the observation that folding intermediates are often characterised by the presence of a significant amount of secondary structure and ill-defined tertiary structure that are stabilised by hydrophobic interactions. Therefore, it appears plausible that hydrophobic residues that are exposed in the folded state (as a result of a tertiary fold) will be buried in a folding intermediate. Mutation of such residues to a more polar amino acid has the effect of destabilising the intermediate with respect to the folded state to the so-called inverse hydrophobic effect. A schematic representation of the inverse hydrophobic effect is shown in FIG. 2 . The replacement of hydrophobic residues by more hydrophilic residues should destabilise both the denatured ensemble and the intermediate with respect to the native state. This will increase the folding rate and reduce kinetic aggregation processes that result from the accumulation of intermediates.
  • solvent-exposed residues for a cytokine of unknown structure from a homologous orthologous or closely-related cytokine for which the structure is available, by using homology modeling or threading methods (see Jones D. T. 1997).
  • residues to mutate in this step of the method solvent-exposed hydrophobic residues should Ideally be chosen that are not conserved between the cytokine of interest and other homologous or closely-related cytokines.
  • tryptophan 23 and leucine 91 are solvent-exposed residues in the human sequence; in most of the other members of the IL-4 family, a serine residue (hydrophilic) is found at this position. Accordingly either one, or preferably both of these residues provide good choices for mutation. In this case, serine is an advisable choice as a replacement residue, since not only is this residue hydrophilic, but its presence at this position in closely related IL-4 proteins lends support for the inference that its presence at this point is probably not harmful to activity, and may even be advantageous.
  • the second aspect of the method involves mutating the amino acid sequence of the cytokine so as to stabilise one or more secondary structure elements in the cytokine.
  • helix-stabilising residues are introduced into the sequence of the protein.
  • This element of the method is based on the observation that secondary structure elements are stabilised by a set of local interactions between neighbouring residues.
  • secondary structure elements is meant ⁇ helices and ⁇ sheets, loops and ⁇ -turns, preferably ⁇ helices.
  • Preferred alpha helix-promoting amino acid residues include Alanine, Asparagine, Cysteine, Glutamine, Glutamate, Leucine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan or Tyrosine. Helix-breaker residues that disrupt the structure, such as Proline and Glycine, should be avoided.
  • AGADIR AGADIR
  • helix In selecting the appropriate helix to mutate in a cytokine, several criteria may be considered. Firstly, it is advantageous to choose a helix that is not conserved among closely related members of the cytokine family. Second, residues should be chosen that are not involved in binding to receptor, such as, for example, in the case of IL-4, residues at the N-terminus of helix C of the cytokine. Third, it may be advantageous to choose a helix that is flexible in the structure. However, this is not necessarily the case and often it is not known whether or not a given helix is flexible.
  • mutations may be introduced that increase the average helical content of this region. These mutations include residues that are better helix formers than the residues that they replace (see Chakrabartty 1995; Mu ⁇ oz and Serrano, 1994e). Mutations may also be introduced so as to allow the formation of favourable electrostatic pairs.
  • the ⁇ -helix is not present in the intermediate but it is present in the transition state, its stabilization should result in a lower energy barrier between the intermediate and the transition state and consequently increase the folding rate. Therefore, under moderate denaturant concentrations, like those used in protein refolding experiments, the stabilization of ⁇ -helices will always accelerate the folding reaction, leading to a more productive folding process.
  • Helix C is considered by the inventors to be a preferred helix for stabilisation of cytokine according to the invention. Stabilisation of this helix is thought to act by preventing protein aggregation mediated by a folding intermediate, probably due to the acceleration of the folding reaction and a concomitant decrease in the concentration of a putative folding intermediate.
  • helix C is not very conserved among the members of the IL-4 family. Furthermore, it is known that the first residues at the N-terminus are not involved in binding to the receptor (Wang et al., 1997), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 15 N relaxation and hydrogen exchange studies on IL-4 have shown that this region of helix C is very flexible (Redfield et al., 1992; Redfield et al., 1994a; Redfield et al., 1994b). As additional support for these observations, the algorithm AGADIR1s-2 predicts a low average helical content (4%) for this helix.
  • helix stabilising mutations for IL-4 are the mutation of threonine 69 to serine; glutamine 71 to alanine; glutamine 72 to glutamate, phenylalanine 73 to alanine; histidine 74 to asparagine.
  • the sequence SAAEAN may thus be introduced at positions 69–74 in the full IL-4 amino acid sequence, replacing TAQQFH.
  • the N-capping box motif present in the wild type protein may be replaced by a better counterpart (S—X—X—E) whilst at the same time promoting the formation of a helix.
  • the wild type IL-4 helix sequence :
  • the IL-4 functional receptor has been shown to be a heterodimer comprising a high affinity component, the IL-4Ralpha, and a low affinity subunit that might be either the IL-2 common gamma chain (Russel et al., 1993) or the IL-13Ralpha (Matthews et al., 1995), depending on the target cell.
  • IL-4 may bind to a distinct receptor, called the type II IL-4 receptor, that is composed of the IL-4R ⁇ chain and the low affinity binding receptor of IL-13 (IL-13R ⁇ ).
  • IL-4 In the specific case of IL-4, the inventors therefore consider it advantageous to mutate the cytokine so as to allow binding of the cytokine to IL-4R ⁇ but to prevent binding of the cytokine to IL-13R ⁇ and/or the ⁇ c chain.
  • the possibility to inhibit the two cytokines simultaneously may prove an efficient means to curb the symptoms that are associated with allergic diseases; for this reason these IL-4 antagonists are of high therapeutical interest.
  • IL-4Y124D Y
  • IL-4R121DY124D RY
  • IL-4 mutants bind IL-4R ⁇ with a K d similar to that of the wild type protein, but are unable to recruit a second receptor component (Duschl et al., 1995). This results in the formation of an unproductive complex with IL-4R ⁇ , which has no detectable biological activity.
  • IL-4 antagonists have also been shown to inhibit IL-13 (Grunewald et al., 1998; Tony et al., 1994), because the receptor system of this cytokine requires IL-4R ⁇ for signal transduction (Smerz-Bertling et al., 1995; Tony et al., 1994).
  • the invention therefore relates to the substitution of an aspartate residue at position 121 and/or 124 in the full length IL-4 amino acid sequence.
  • alpha helical sequences in proteins are not necessarily optimised for maximal protein stability. This poses no problems when proteins are being synthesised and are operating in their natural environment, where they have evolved to fulfil their biological role. However, the situation is different when proteins are synthesised are manipulated in a heterologous environment that may condition the stability of the native proteins and of other species in the folding pathway. In this case, improvements in the stability of alpha helices may increase both the stability of the native state and the speed of the folding reaction.
  • the method comprises a further step c) of including the pro-sequence of the cytokine at its N terminus.
  • the pre-sequence targets the protein for transport into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and for extracellular secretion.
  • the pro-sequence is usually attached to the N-terminus, following the pre-sequence, but it can also be found at the C-terminus or a combination of both.
  • a role for pro-sequences in protein folding has been suggested from studies with different proteases (for reviews see Shinde el al., 1993; Eder & Fersht, 1995).
  • pro-sequence mediated folding are those of subtilisin (Eder el al., 1993), and ⁇ -lytic protease (Baker et al., 1992). In the absence of the propeptide these proteins fold into a stable partially-folded intermediate with characteristics of the molten-globule state, but which lacks enzymatic activity. Addition of the pro-sequence lowers the activation energy barrier of the folding reaction either by stabilizing the transition state for folding or by destabilizing the non-native intermediate, resulting in the formation of the native conformation (see FIG. 4 ).
  • the method comprises a further step d) of expressing the cytokine in the host cell in conjunction with a foldase and/or with a chaperone protein.
  • foldases catalyse steps such as the formation and isomerization of disulfide bridges, and the isomerization of peptide bonds preceding proline residues.
  • foldases catalyse steps such as the formation and isomerization of disulfide bridges, and the isomerization of peptide bonds preceding proline residues.
  • the co-expression of foldases has been found to enhance the folding of proteins secreted into the periplasm of E. coli (for a review see Georgiou & Valax 1996; Hockney, 1994).
  • the two most extensively characterized families of chaperones are the Hsp70, which includes DnaK and its helper proteins, DnaJ and GrpE, and the Hsp60.
  • the latter is also known as the chaperonin family, and comprises the bacterial GroEL/GroES system, and several analogues found in mitochondria and chloroplasts (for a review Hartl et al., 1994; Martin & Hartl, 1994).
  • the GroEL/GroES system has been heavily investigated both structurally (Braig et al., 1994; Mande el al., 1996) and mechanistically (Corrales & Fersht, 1996).
  • GroEL is composed of two heptameric rings on top of each other forming a double-doughnut with a lid on top of it (GroES).
  • Experimental evidence points to a model for protein folding in the cytoplasm of E. coli in which Hsp70 and Hsp60 are sequentially involved (Langer et al., 1992).
  • the members of the Hsp70 family bind proteins co-translationally, as they are being synthesized, and guide them through the first folding steps until a molten-globule-like state is attained. Exposed hydrophobic patches on the surface of these intermediates are then recognized by the GroEL/GroES system which keeps them in a folding-competent state.
  • bacteria In order to carry out chaperone-assisted protein expression, bacteria should be transformed with two distinct plasmids, one containing the gene coding for the protein of interest and the other the gene coding for the chaperone.
  • the plasmids should have different replication origins, so that they can be stably maintained in the same bacterial cell. Furthermore, they should carry different antibiotic resistance markers, in order to allow selection for the simultaneous presence of both plasmids.
  • the promoters are usually the same for the two plasmids, so that expression of the target protein and the chaperonin can be induced concomitantly. It some cases, it might be useful to use different promoters so that the chaperonin can be induced earlier.
  • the expression of the target protein is then induced at a later stage, when the levels of chaperonin are already high enough to mediate folding efficiently (Cole, 1996).
  • DHFR Dihydrofolate reductase
  • DnaK has also been shown to improved the solubility of hG-CSF (Pérez-Pérez et al., 1995) and hGH (Blum el al., 1992), two cytokines of the IL-4 family.
  • the chaperonin used in step d) is the GroEL/ES system or thioredoxin.
  • the chaperone that is able to bind an aggregation-prone intermediate will be the most adequate one, but only by doing the experiment can this answer be found.
  • the expression of the chaperone is not sufficient to obtain soluble protein, and an approach combining several of the factors discussed above may be more suitable. With the catalytic subunit of bovine pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase it has been found necessary to lower the growth temperature to 30° C.
  • chaperones may decrease the expression levels of the target protein. This effect probably arises from a competition between the chaperone and the protein for components needed for protein synthesis like ribosomes, amino acids or t-RNAs (Dale, et al., 1994). Furthermore, high levels of chaperone expression can be detrimental to E. coli (Blum et al., 1992) and very little is known about the behaviour of cells overexpressing chaperones in the fermentors used for the large-scale production of biopharmaceuticals (Georgiou & Valax, 1996).
  • a cytokine may be an interleukin, an interferon, a colony stimulating factor, a tumour necrosis factor, a growth factor or a chemokine.
  • a cytokine stabilised according to the invention is a “four helix bundle” cytokine, such as those belonging to the haematopoietic or class 1 cytokine superfamily, including HGH, GM-CSF, G-CFC, LIF, EPO, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-6. Due to the increased commercial value of drugs for mammals, cytokines that are derived from mammals, particularly humans, are preferred targets for stabilisation according to the present invention.
  • mutant cytokines proteins retain one or more of the biological functions possessed by the wild type cytokine.
  • functions include functions such as control of the growth and differentiation of immune cells, defence against helminthic macroparasites, the rejection of certain tumours and the specific induction of IgE antibodies.
  • Biological functions of other cytokines will be clear to those of skill in the art.
  • variants includes, for example, mutants containing amino acid substitutions, insertions or deletions from the wild type cytokine sequence, as well as natural biological variants (e.g. allelic variants or geographical variations within the species from which the cytokine molecule is derived).
  • Variants with improved function from that of the wild type sequence may be designed through the systematic or directed mutation of specific residues in the protein sequence.
  • This term also refers to molecules that are structurally similar to the wild type cytokine, or that contain similar or identical tertiary structure.
  • Such derivatives may include one or more additional peptides or polypeptides fused at the amino- or carboxy-terminus of the modified cytokines.
  • the purpose of the additional peptide or polypeptide may be to aid detection, expression, separation or purification of the protein or it may lend the protein additional properties as desired.
  • Examples of potential fusion partners include beta-galactosidase, glutathione-S-transferase, luciferase, a polyhistidine tag, a T7 polymerase fragment, a secretion signal peptide or another cytokine or cytokine receptor.
  • Such derivatives may be prepared by fusing the peptides either genetically or chemically.
  • the mutant cytokines produced by the method of the present invention show an increase in refolding yield of at least two-fold, preferably five-fold or more, or more preferably ten-fold or more.
  • the cytokine is IL-4 or a derivative thereof
  • IL-4 is a very important immunoregulatory cytokine that controls the growth and differentiation of various types of immune cells, and which is involved in defence against helminthic macroparasites, and in the rejection of certain tumours.
  • IL-4 is a very important immunoregulatory cytokine that controls the growth and differentiation of various types of immune cells, and which is involved in defence against helminthic macroparasites, and in the rejection of certain tumours.
  • IgE antibodies that are responsible for the development of the symptoms that are typically associated with allergic reactions. It is now evident that IL-4 plays a dominant role in the allergic response, as this protein determines whether B-cells give rise to IgE or to other types of antibodies. Consequently, drugs that are able to interfere with the activity of IL-4 will help reduce IgE levels and will render allergic reactions amenable to pharmaceutical control.
  • IL-4 Human IL-4 mutated at position 23, at position 91 or at both positions 23 and 91 in the full length sequence, and functionally equivalent fragments or variants thereof form a particularly preferred aspect of the invention.
  • any mutation introduced at these positions may be a serine residue.
  • the IL-4 protein may contain one or more of the following mutations: threonine 69 to serine; glutamine 71 to alanine; glutamine 72 to glutamate, phenylalanine 73 to alanine; histidine 74 to asparagine.
  • the sequence SAAEAN may thus be introduced at positions 69–74 in the full IL-4 amino acid sequence, replacing TAQQFH.
  • human IL-4 including at positions 68–95 in the full length amino acid sequence, the sequence ASAAEANRHKQLIRFLKRLDRNLWGLAG, and functionally equivalent fragments or variants thereof.
  • the IL-4 proteins and derivatives thereof generated by the method of the invention may be used for the purification of Il-4Ralpha. Accordingly, the invention provides a method for the preparation of IL-4Ralpha protein comprising passing a composition containing IL-4Ralpha through an affinity column to which a mutant IL-4 protein is bound, washing the column, and eluting IL-4Ralpha from the column.
  • the mutant IL-4 protein is mutated at position 23, at position 91 or at both positions 23 and 91 in the full length sequence, most preferably mutated to serine at either or both of these positions.
  • the IL-4 protein may contain one or more of the following mutations: threonine 69 to serine; glutamine 71 to alanine; glutamine 72 to glutamate, phenylalanine 73 to alanine; histidine 74 to asparagine.
  • IL-4Ralpha is purified by affinity chromatography on extremely expensive purification columns that are packed with IL-4WT.
  • the stabilized mutant IL-4 proteins produced by the methods described above will be much less expensive to produce in large quantities and will therefore allow purification columns to be produced at a lower cost, so diminishing the cost of preparing IL-4Ralpha protein for therapeutic use.
  • a cytokine mutated according to any one of the aspects of the invention described above to produce antibodies against the cytokine.
  • a mutant IL-4 protein as described above may be used in this aspect of the invention.
  • Antibodies generated by this method have important uses as diagnostic and therapeutic tools.
  • a peptide comprising a fragment of a mutant cytokine as described above, or a functional equivalent thereof.
  • Such peptides may be derived from wild type cytokines or they may be prepared synthetically or using techniques of genetic engineering. In particular, synthetic molecules that are designed to mimic the tertiary structure or active site of a cytokine are considered advantageous.
  • peptides are not ideal therapeutic drugs, the fact that they can be readily obtained by chemical synthesis methods allows the incorporation of unnatural amino acids, modified peptide bonds, or chemical groups that may increase the intrinsic stability of the peptides and their resistance to proteolytic degradation.
  • active peptides can be used as lead compounds that can be further optimized through combinatorial screening, and may be emulated by small organic frameworks that offer the biostability and bioavailability required for therapeutic drugs (see Emmos et al., 1997).
  • One of these peptides is able to bind the EPO receptor with an apparent K d of 0.2 ⁇ M, and the three-dimensional structure of this peptide in complex with the EPO receptor has also been determined (Livnah el al., 1996).
  • the small peptide (20 residues) dimerizes forming a four-stranded anti-parallel ⁇ -sheet that is able to bind two EPO receptor molecules, and it has been shown to stimulate cell proliferation in vivo and erythropoiesis in mice (Wrighton el al., 1996).
  • nucleic acid molecule encoding a mutant cytokine or a peptide according to any one of the aspects of the invention described above.
  • the invention also includes methods for the production of cytokines and peptides as described above, comprising introducing a nucleic acid encoding the cytokine or peptide into a host cell, such as an E. coli bacterium.
  • a mutant cytokine or peptide for use as a pharmaceutical.
  • a further aspect of the invention provides for the use of such cytokines or peptides in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of a disease in a mammal, preferably a human.
  • the disease may be an allergy-related condition.
  • the invention also provides a method of preventing or treating an allergy comprising administering to a patient a mutant cytokine or peptide as described above.
  • a pharmaceutical composition comprising a mutant cytokine or peptide according to any one of the above-described aspects of the invention, optionally as a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt, in combination with a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier.
  • the invention also provides a process for preparing such a pharmaceutical composition, in which such a mutant cytokine or peptide is brought into association with a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier.
  • a diagnostic kit comprising a mutant cytokine or peptide according to any one of the above-described aspects of the invention.
  • the invention also provides a transgenic non-human mammal, carrying a transgene encoding a mutant cytokine or peptide according to any one of the above-described aspects of the invention.
  • a further aspect of the invention provides a process for producing such a transgenic animal, comprising the step of introducing a nucleic acid molecule encoding the mutant cytokine or peptide into an embryo of a non-human mammal, preferably a mouse.
  • FIG. 1 Schematic representation of the folding of a protein to a unique three-dimensional structure (folded state—F) from a linear sequence of amino acids (the unfolded state—U).
  • This is a complex process that usually involves the formation of stable folding intermediates (I) that are separated by an energy barrier ( ⁇ ) from the unfolded and folded state.
  • These intermediates can accumulate to high concentration during the folding reaction leading to protein aggregation.
  • the accumulation of intermediates may be due to a high energy barrier between the intermediate and the transition state for folding ( ⁇ *) or a low energy barrier between the folded state and the transition state. Therefore, the selective destabilization of folding intermediates (I′) and/or the stabilization of the folded state (F′) can help proteins fold more efficiently.
  • FIG. 2 Schematic representation of the inverse hydrophobic effect.
  • U and U m represent the unfolded conformational ensemble, in the wild type protein and in the mutant
  • I and F, I m , and F m represent, respectively, the intermediate and the folded state in the wild type and the mutant
  • K u and K f are the unfolding and folding rate constants
  • ⁇ symbolizes the transition state.
  • the replacement of hydrophobic residues by more hydrophilic ones should, in principle, destabilize both the denatured ensemble and the intermediate with respect to the native state. This will increase the folding rate and reduce kinetic aggregation processes resulting from the accumulation of intermediates.
  • FIG. 3 Acceleration of the folding reaction through the optimization of local interactions.
  • U represents the unfolded conformational ensemble
  • I and F, I m , and F m represent, respectively, the intermediate and the folded state in the wild type protein and in the mutant.
  • K u and K f are the unfolding and folding rate constants, and ⁇ symbolizes the transition state.
  • FIG. 4 Possible pathway by which intramolecular chaperones mediate protein folding.
  • the protein folds in the absence of its pro-sequence it acquires a molten globule state conformation, which possesses native-like secondary structure but lacks the tertiary interactions required for biological activity.
  • the molten globule is stable and it is unable to surmount the energy barrier that separates it from the folded state. Addition of the propeptide lowers the energy barrier between the molten globule state and the transition state, allowing fold to proceed to the native state.
  • FIG. 5 Far-UV CD spectra of the wild-type, ( ⁇ ) and mutant ( ⁇ ) peptides of helix C of IL-4 in 25 mM Na 2 HPO 4 , pH 6.5, at 5° C. The values predicted by AGADIR1s-2 for the helical content of the peptides and the experimentally determined values are inserted
  • FIG. 6 Comparison of the 2D NOESY spectra of the wild type (IL4Ch_wt) and mutant peptide (IL4BCh). The spectra were acquired with a mixing time of 140 ms. The thickness of bar beneath the sequence of the peptides represents the organization of the helix in IL4BCh based on the NOE data.
  • FIG. 7 Difference between the chemical shift values of the H ⁇ protons of the mutant peptide and the random coil values (Merutka et al., 1995). Negative values indicate the formation of helical structure. Residues whose H ⁇ could not be unambiguously assigned, are marked by an asterisk (*).
  • FIG. 8 Cellular fractions derived from E. coli AD494 expressing IL-4 WT and the mutant proteins.
  • Lane 1 insoluble fraction of IL-4L23SW91S
  • lane 2 soluble fraction of IL-4L23SW91S
  • lane 3 soluble fraction of IL-4L23S
  • lane 4 soluble fraction of IL-4W91S
  • lane 5 soluble fraction of IL-4BChelix
  • lane 6 Soluble fraction of the wild type protein. Only a very small fraction of the wild type protein (less than 10%) is found in the cell supernatant, in contrast with 50%–60% of the mutant proteins, as determined by densitometric analysis of the SDS gel.
  • FIG. 9 HPLC of wild type IL-4 (panel A) and mutant IL-4Bchelix (panel B) proteins.
  • FIG. 10 Mono-dimensional NMR Spectra of IL-4 WT, IL-4W91S and IL-4BChelix. The good dispersion of the NMR signals shows that the proteins are folded.
  • FIG. 11 a Temperature denaturation profile of IL-4 WT ( ⁇ ) and the designed mutants, IL-4W91S ( ⁇ ) and IL-4BChelix ( ⁇ ), followed by CD.
  • the denaturation process is reversible both for IL4Wt and the two mutant proteins.
  • the experimental data is represented by scattered symbols and solid lines show the best fit to the experimental data assuming a two state transition model, according to equation 6.
  • Table 4 The thermodynamic parameters obtained from the fitting, together with the temperature denaturation data, are summarized in Table 4.
  • Interleukin-4 forms inclusion bodies upon overexpression in E. coli and the in vitro refolding of the protein is very inefficient, yielding only a very small amount of active protein. Aggregation both in vitro and in vivo is thought to result mainly from the accumulation of folding intermediates which have a high tendency to associate (Filimonov et al., 1993) and establish non-native interactions that direct the protein to inactive conformations (Booth et al., 1997).
  • the IL-4 gene has been obtained by PCR from a previously described plasmid, R 15 prC109/IL4 (Kruse et al., 1991), NcoI and BamHI were introduced at the 5′ and 3′ ends, respectively, using the following oligonucleotides: Oligo5′: CTG GAG ACT G CC ATG G AT CAC AAG TGC GAT; Oligo3′: A CGC GGA TCC TTA TCA GCT CGA ACA. The gene coding for the wild type IL-4 and for the mutant proteins was inserted into PBAT4 (Peränen et al., 1996) between the NcoI and BamHI cloning sites. Due to the introduction of a NcoI site at the 5′ end, wild type IL-4 and the IL-4 mutant proteins are expressed with an additional amino acid (Asp) at the N-terminus.
  • Asp additional amino acid
  • the mutants IL-4W91S and IL-4BChelix were obtained by PCR (Ho el al., 1989) using oligo 5′ and oligo 3′ as flanking sequences, and the following mutagenic primers (5′ to 3′): IL-4L23Sa: CAG AGC AGA AGA CTA GTT GCA CCG AGT TGA CCG; IL-4L23Sb: CGG TCA ACT CGG TGC AAC TAG TCT TCT GCT CTG, IL4W91Sa: AGG AAC CTC AGT GGC CTG GCG GGC TTG; IL-4-W91Sb: CAA GCC CGC CAG GCC ACT GAG GTT CCT, IL-4BChelixa: CTG GGT GCG AGT GCA GCA GAA GCA AAC AGG CAC AAG C, IL-4BChelixb: G CTT GTG CCT GTT TGC TTC TGC TGC ACT CGC ACC CAG.
  • Peptides were synthesised on polyoxyethylene-polystyrene graft resin in a continuous flow instrument. Peptide chain assembly was performed using Fmoc chemistry (Carpino et al., 1972) and in situ activation of amino acid building blocks by PyBOP (Coste et al., 1990). The peptide was purified by reversed phase HPLC and characterized by laser desorption mass spectrometry (MALDI).
  • MALDI laser desorption mass spectrometry
  • Folding intermediates are often characterized by the presence of a significant amount of secondary structure and ill-defined tertiary structure, being stabilized by hydrophobic interactions. Therefore, it is quite plausible that hydrophobic residues that are exposed in the folded state as a result of the tertiary fold, will be buried in a folding intermediate. Mutation of these residues to a polar amino acid should destabilize the intermediate with respect to the folded state, through the so-called inverse hydrophobic effect (Pakula & Sauer, 1990).
  • IL-4 Two non-conserved solvent exposed amino acid residues were identified in IL-4: Trp 91 and Leu L23. In most of the other members of the IL-4 family a serine is found at the corresponding positions, and therefore this amino acid was chosen to replace W91 and L23 in the human protein.
  • the two point mutants thus obtained are designated IL-4W91S and IL-4L23S, and a mutant carrying both mutations, IL-4L23SW91S.
  • Secondary structure elements are stabilized by a set of local interactions between neighbouring residues.
  • AGADIR is based on empirical data derived from conformational studies of monomeric peptides in solution.
  • the algorithm uses this information to calculate the free energy of a given helical segment ( ⁇ G helix ), based on the helix-coil transition theory. This free energy reflects the contribution of different interactions within the helix, and corresponds to the difference in free energy between the random coil and helical states.
  • ⁇ G helix ⁇ G int + ⁇ GH bond + ⁇ G SD + ⁇ G nonH + ⁇ G dipole + ⁇ G elect
  • ⁇ G int is the intrinsic tendency of a given amino acid to be in the helical conformation (Mu ⁇ oz et al., 1994e) and represents the loss of conformational entropy which occurs upon fixing an amino acid in helical dihedral angels.
  • ⁇ GH bond is the enthalpic contribution of the i,i+4 main-chain-main-chain hydrogen bonds;
  • ⁇ G SD represents the contributions of the side-chain-side-chain non-charged interactions at positions i,i+3 and i,i+4 in the helical segment.
  • ⁇ G dipole reflects the interaction of charged groups, within or outside the helical segment, with the helix macrodipole. Another type of interaction that is independent of the presence of charged groups has to do with the increase in stability of ⁇ -helices observed upon increasing the ionic strength (Scholtz et al., 1991).
  • ⁇ -helices have a much larger dipole moment than the random coil, increasing the ionic strength preferably stabilizes the ⁇ -helix, shifting the equilibrium towards this conformation. This effect is also taken into account by AGADIR1s-2 by considering the difference in the folding free energy of a particular ⁇ -helix in a solution with a given ionic strength and in pure water.
  • ⁇ G elect includes all electrostatic interactions between two charged residues inside and outside (Ncap and residue preceding the Ncap, and Ccap and residue following the Ccap) the helical segment with the helix macrodipole and residues within the helix.
  • the electrostatic interactions are calculated taking into account the effect of charge screening upon increasing the ionic strength, and the average distance between two interacting charged groups has been derived from a statistical analysis of the database.
  • the charges of the individual amino acids in the random coil and helical conformation are determined by calculating their pKa and taking into account the pH dependence.
  • AGADIR1s-2 also considers the effect of N- and C-terminal blocking groups. The residues following the acetyl group at the N-terminus or preceding the amide group at the C-terminus are allowed to adopt helical angles with the acetyl and amide groups playing the role of the capping residue.
  • ⁇ -helix C of IL-4 was selected as the target for several reasons. This helix is not very conserved among the members of the IL-4 family; it is known that the first residues at the N-terminus are not involved in binding to the receptor (Wang el al., 1997); and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 15 N relaxation and hydrogen exchange studies on IL-4 have shown that this region of helix C is very flexible (Redfield et al., 1992; Redfield et al., 1994a; Redfield el al., 1994b). In fact, AGADIR1s-2 predicts a low average helical content (4%) for this helix.
  • AGADIR1s-2 we have designed three different types of mutations that increase the average helical content up to 20% and increase the stability of the ⁇ -helix by about 1.8 Kcal/mol. Essentially, we have replaced the N-capping box motif present in the wild type protein (T—X—X—Q) by a better counterpart (S—X—X—E). Better helix formers (Chakrabartty et al., 1995; Mu ⁇ oz et al., 1994e) have been introduced into the sequence of the helix: Q71 and F73, were mutated into alanine, and H74 was substituted by an asparagine.
  • Circular Dichroism shows a clear increase in the helical content of the mutant peptide.
  • the values predicted by AGADIR1s-2 for the helical content of the wild type and mutant peptide are in excellent agreement with the ones determined experimentally from the ellipticity value at 222 nm (see FIG. 5 ).
  • the designed mutants and the wild type protein were overexpressed in three different E. coli strains, in a number of different conditions.
  • AD494 lacks one of the main reducing pathways, disulfide bonds should in principle be allowed to form in the E. coli cytoplasm (Derman et al., 1993). Indeed, this strain has already been used to improve the solubility of several proteins that form inclusion bodies when produced in the more conventional expression strains like BL21. Expression of the IL-4 mutants in BL21 also resulted in protein aggregation. Furthermore, the solubility of the proteins was not increased upon co-expression with the GroEL/ES chaperonin system, or thioredoxin, although the expression level was significantly reduced.
  • Table 2 Summary of the strategies used to reduce the formation of IL-4 inclusion bodies 1B).
  • the optical density of the cells at at 600 nm is denoted by IOD and expression with or without the pro-sequence is represented, repectively, by +pro/ ⁇ pro.
  • Escherichia coli AD494 (DE3), BL21 (DE3) and W3110 (DE3) were transformed with the plasmids coding for the IL-4WT and the mutant proteins.
  • 1 L flasks with LB medium were inoculated with a single colony and incubated on a shaker at temperatures ranging from 15–37° C., in the presence of 100 mg/l of ampicilin. Protein expression was induced at OD 600 0.4–1.0, at different temperatures, using IPTG concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 1 mM.
  • the culture was incubated for 3 h after induction, and the cells harvested by centrifugation.
  • AD494 (DE3) protein expression was induced overnight.
  • the harvested cells were resuspended in 25 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0.
  • Cell disruption was initiated by incubating the cells with 1 mM MgCl 2 , 20 ug/ml lysozyme and 10 ug/ml DNAse and then completed using a French Pressure Cell.
  • the soluble fraction was separated from the cell debris by ultra-centrifugation at 40000 rpm, for 1 hour. Samples from the soluble and insoluble fraction were collected and analysed by SDS-PAGE on a 12% polyacrylamide gel. Quantification of the soluble and insoluble product was done by densitometric analysis of the gel.
  • competent cells of BL21 carrying PT-groE or PT-Trx were transformed with the plasmids coding for each of the muteins and for IL-4 wild type.
  • Bacteria were grown from a single colony in 1 shaking flasks containg LB, at temperatures ranging from 30–37° C., in the presence of 100 mg/l of ampicilin and 50 mg/l of chloramphenicol.
  • Expression of the IL-4 variants and the chaperones was simultaneously induced upon addition of IPTG to the growth medium to a final concentration of 0.16 mM, once an OD600 mm of 0.7 was reached.
  • Escherichia coli AD494 (DE3) was transformed with the plasmids coding for the IL-4WT and the mutant proteins.
  • 1 L flasks with LB medium were inoculated with a single colony and incubated on a shaker at 37° C. After an OD 600 of 0.7–0.8 was reached. IPTG was added resulting in a final concentration of 0.16 mM. The culture was incubated overnight and the cells were harvested by centrifugation.
  • the harvested cells were resuspended in 25 mM NaH 2 PO 4 , pH 6.5 and incubated on ice for 1 hour, with 1 mM MgCl 2 , 20 ug/ml lysozyme and 10 ug/ml DNAse and then lysed further using a French Pressure Cell.
  • the soluble fraction was separated from the cell debris by ultra-centrifugation at 40000 rpm, for 1 hour. Samples from the soluble and insoluble fraction were analysed by SDS-PAGE on a 12% polyacrylamide gel. Quantification of the soluble and insoluble product was done by densitometric analysis of the gel.
  • Protein purification was carried out on a FPLC system from Pharmacia.
  • the cell supenatant was first run through a Sepharose S column (Pharmacia) pre-equilibrated with 25 mM NaH 2 PO 4 pH 6.5.
  • the elution of the protein was carried out by running a linear salt gradient from 0–0.5 M NaCl.
  • the four IL-4 variants eluted at 120 mM NaCl.
  • the collected fractions were then submitted to size exclusion chromatography and the proteins purified up to 90% homogeneity.
  • the yield of the purification process was such that 1 mg of IL-4L23S, IL-4W91S, IL-4L23SW91S were obtained per liter of cell culture, and around 2 mg of IL-4 BChelix.
  • the harvested cells were resuspended in 25 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0.
  • Cell disruption was performed enzymatically by the addition of lysozyme (1 mg per g cell dry weight) and incubation at room temperature for 30 min.
  • Released inclusion bodies were harvested by centrifugation at 8000 g (30 min). The pellets were washed four times by resuspension in 0.1 M Tris-HCl/1 mM EDTA/0.1% zwittergent 3–14 buffer pH 8 and centrifugation (8000 g, 15 min). Washed inclusion bodies were solubilized in 8 M GdnHCl/0.1 M Tris-HCl, pH 9.
  • SH-groups were modified to S—SO 3 by the addition of excess sulfite and tetrathionate as described by (Kella et al., 1988; Kella el al., 1985).
  • Refolding was carried out at a protein concentration of 200–300 mg/L, by cross-flow ultrafiltration against five volumes of 50 mM Na 2 HPO 4 pH 7, 1 mM EDTA, 0.4 mM L-cystein, 0.6 mM arginine, during 5 hours (one volume exchange/hour).
  • In-process analysis was performed by RP-HPLC on a Vydac C4 resin, applying a linear gradient of Trifluoracetic acid-Acetonitrile. Refolding yields were obtained by comparing the percent ratio of the peak area of correctly folded isoform to the total peak area (total protein).
  • the far UV CD spectra were recorded, on a Jasco-710 instrument, in a cuvette with a 2 mm path. Measurements were made every 0.1 nm, with a response time of 2 s and a bandwidth of 1 nm, at a scan speed of 50 nm/min. The spectra shown in the text represent an average over 20 scans.
  • Thermal denaturation was measured, by monitoring the change in signal at 222 nm over a temperature range of 6–90° C., in a cuvette with a 2 mm path. Measurements were made in 0.5 degrees increments, with a response time of 2 s and a bandwidth of 1 nm, at a temperature slope of 50° C./h.
  • the protein concentration calculated from the absorbance at 280 nm was 10 ⁇ M (Pace et al., 1995) and the measurements were carried out in 25 NaH 2 PO 4 mM pH 6.5.
  • the proportionality constant m reflects the cooperativity of the transition and is believed to be related to the difference in hydrophobic surface exposed to the solvent between the native and the denatured states.
  • NMR samples of IL-4 and the mutant proteins were prepared by dissolving the lyophilized protein in 45 mM deuterated sodium acetate (NaOAcd 4 ) pH 5.3 10% D 2 O, 0.1 mM TSP, 0.2% NaN 3 to give a protein concentration of 500 ⁇ M.
  • the spectra were recorded at 303 K using standard pulse sequences and phase cycling.
  • binding affinities were measured by surface plasmon resonance using a BlAcore 2000 (Pharmacia Biosensor).
  • a recombinant extracellular domain of the receptor ⁇ -chain [C182A,Q206C] IL4-BP) was immobilized at a biosensor CM5 to a density of 1500 to 2000 pg/mm 2 , as described by Shen et al. (1996). Binding was analyzed at 25° C. by perfusion with HBS buffer (10 mM Hepes, psH 7.4/150 mM NaCl/3.4 mM EDTA/0.005% surfactant P20) plus 0.5 M NaCl at a flow rate of 50 ⁇ l/min.
  • the product present in the soluble cellular fraction was purified by action exchange chromatography, taking advantage of the high PI of IL-4 (9.2), followed by a gel filtration step.
  • IL-4L23S, IL-4W91S and the double mutant IL-4L23SW91S was obtained from 1 L of cell culture.
  • the yield was slightly higher for the C helix mutant, IL-4BChelix, with 1.6 mg purified per liter of culture, IL-4L23S, and to a less extent IL-4L23SW91S, were extensively degraded during the purification and precipitated when concentrated to 1 mg/ml.
  • IL-4W91S and IL-4BChelix behaved better and did not precipitate when concentrated down to 1 mg/ml.
  • IL-4WT and the two mutants, IL-4W91S and IL-4BChelix, were overexpressed in AD494. This time the expression conditions were optimized for maximization of protein production instead of solubility. Higher expression levels were obtained when the cells were induced at an optical density of 0.4–0.5 with 0.16 mM IPTG. Protein purification from the inclusion bodies and the in vitro refolding was performed according to procedures previously described (Kato et al., 1985; Weigel et al., 1989).
  • IL-4WT and the mutant proteins are shown in Table 4. These values represent the amount of correctly refolded protein and are an average over the data obtained in four independent experiments. In two of these experiments, the proteins were overexpressed in 1 L shaking flasks, as described under methods. In another two experiments, IL-4WT and the two mutant proteins were isolated from cells obtained after low cell density fermentation on the 10 L and 100 L scale (see methods). In the four experiments, IL-4BChelix refolds with a yield approximately two-fold that of IL-4WT, while the K d for IL4R ⁇ remains identical to that of the wild type protein.
  • the purified samples of IL-4W91S and IL-4BChelix display NMR spectra that are similar to that of the wild type ( FIG. 10 ).
  • IL-4 is a too stable protein to be denatured by temperature in the 0 to 100° C. range. Therefore, to observe a complete unfolding transition, the thermal denaturation experiments were carried out in the presence of 2 M GdmHCl. Under these conditions, the whole transition can be observed. Interestingly, cold denaturation can be observed for the WT protein, below 20° C. At higher GdmHCl concentrations the proteins are fully denatured at high temperature, but they are not fully folded at low temperatures. As a result it is not possible to obtain accurate thermodynamic data from the generated curves, although the temperature at which half of the protein is denatured, Tm, can be determined with reasonable accuracy (Table 4).
  • Tm. of IL-4 wild type and the stabilized mutants ⁇ G H 2 O m [GdmGCl] 1/2 Protein (kcal/mol) (Kcal/mol)/M (M) (° C.)
  • Tm IL-4 WT 4.3 ⁇ 0.16 1.1 ⁇ 0.01 3.8 ⁇ 0.12 62 IL-4 BChelix 4.8 ⁇ 0.14 1.2 ⁇ 0.04 3.9 ⁇ 0.10 68 IL-4 W91S 5.7 ⁇ 0.20 1.5 ⁇ 0.05 3.8 ⁇ 0.15 70
  • helix stabilization As far as helix stabilization is concerned, it has been shown that it will always result in an increase in protein stability and in some cases could produce thermostable proteins (Villegas el al., 1996 see chapter 2), but the increase in stability is always less than expected from the theoretical prediction. This is due to the simultaneous stabilization of the denatured state under native conditions.
  • the mutations introduced into helix C stabilize the protein to a less extent (0.5 kcal/mol) and induce a smaller shift (6° C.) in the Tm of IL-4WT.
  • the stabilization effect arises from a combination of an increase in the steepness of the transition (m value), and a slight increase in the GdnHCl concentration necessary to denature half of the protein. [GdnHCl] 1/2 .

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