US3873370A - Thermoelectric generators having partitioned self-segmenting thermoelectric legs - Google Patents

Thermoelectric generators having partitioned self-segmenting thermoelectric legs Download PDF

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US3873370A
US3873370A US291938A US29193872A US3873370A US 3873370 A US3873370 A US 3873370A US 291938 A US291938 A US 291938A US 29193872 A US29193872 A US 29193872A US 3873370 A US3873370 A US 3873370A
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sections
leg
thermoelectric
barrier member
copper
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US291938A
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Jr Edward F Hampl
William C Mitchell
Robert S Reylek
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US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
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US Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)
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Priority to US291938A priority Critical patent/US3873370A/en
Priority to JP10655873A priority patent/JPS5334960B2/ja
Priority to DE19732348024 priority patent/DE2348024C3/de
Priority to GB4472373A priority patent/GB1424913A/en
Priority to FR7334179A priority patent/FR2200652B1/fr
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Publication of US3873370A publication Critical patent/US3873370A/en
Priority to US05/828,567 priority patent/US4180415A/en
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    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10N—ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10N10/00—Thermoelectric devices comprising a junction of dissimilar materials, i.e. devices exhibiting Seebeck or Peltier effects
    • H10N10/80—Constructional details
    • H10N10/81—Structural details of the junction
    • H10N10/817—Structural details of the junction the junction being non-separable, e.g. being cemented, sintered or soldered
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10N—ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10N10/00—Thermoelectric devices comprising a junction of dissimilar materials, i.e. devices exhibiting Seebeck or Peltier effects
    • H10N10/80—Constructional details
    • H10N10/85—Thermoelectric active materials
    • H10N10/851—Thermoelectric active materials comprising inorganic compositions
    • H10N10/852—Thermoelectric active materials comprising inorganic compositions comprising tellurium, selenium or sulfur

Definitions

  • ABSTRACT Thermoelectric generators comprising thermoelectric legs that are partitioned into at least two longitudinally spaced sections that each consist essentially of thermoelectrically useful self-segmenting alloy compositions having the same ingredients.
  • a barrier member is disposed between the two sections in electrical and thermal contact with the sections and prevents movement between sections of a metal element that does migrate within the sections.
  • THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS HAVING PARTITIONED SELF-SEGMENTING THERMOELECTRIC LEGS The invention described herein was made in the course of, or under, a contract with the United States Atomic Energy Commission.
  • thermoelectrically useful alloy compositions of metal and nonmetal elements in which atoms of the major metal element undergo a significant beneficial movement in the presence of thermal and electrical gradients.
  • a P-type thermoelectric leg consisting of about 65.5 atomic percent copper, 1 atomic percent silver, and 33.5 atomic percent selenium, copper atoms migrate from the hot end of the leg toward the cold end of the leg when the thermoelectric generator including the leg is operated to apply thermal and electrical gradients to the leg.
  • thermoelectric leg exhibiting this beneficial migration and gradation of atoms is said to be self-segmenting, since it automatically achieves the variation in level of current carriers that was previously obtained only by mechanically assembling discrete thermoelectric leg segments that included different levels of doping agent.
  • the self-segmenting alloy compositions described in the above-identified application are substantially single-phase compositions that consist essentially of metal and nonmetal elements united in a distinct crystal lattice structure that is nonstroichiometric because of an excess or deficiency of atoms of at least the major metal element of the crystal lattice structure. This excess or deficiency of atoms provides the current carriers needed for the composition.
  • the compositions further have the property, discussed above, the atoms of the major metal element migrate from a first end of the leg toward the second end under the influence of combined thermal and electrical gradients applied to the leg, forming a gradation of inherently stable current carrier concentrations that is beneficial for thermoelectric conversion.
  • thermoelectric conversion properties as described above
  • such a gradation has also been found, through the present invention, to be responsible for certain problems that limit usefulness of thermoelectric legs experiencing the gradation.
  • new thermoelectric structures have been developed that control the migration and as a result increase the utility for thermoelectric conversion purpose of the compositions that exhibit the migration.
  • One problem overcome by the present invention was a tendency for the hot end of a copper-silver-selenium leg as described above to undergo creep-deformation after a period of sustained power-generating operation, with the leg under longitudinal pressure in a pressurecontact arrangement and with the hot end of the leg heated to a temperature on the order of 800C or greater.
  • the diameter of the hot:end of'the leg 'might increase by as much as 15 percentfThe'problem could be avoided by not heating'the hot end of the leg to the described temperature, but the'result of such'a procedure would be a reduced efficiency of power-generation by the leg.
  • thermoelectric leg Another problem that has'been found-to ariseasa' result of the described gradation is loss of material'from the hot end of a leg experiencing the gradatio'n.-W'hile a copper-silver-selenium thermoelectric leg as described above has a very low vapor pressure in isothermal tests, surprisingly, when the leg is operated at matched load in a thermoelectric generator with the hot end heated to 800C or higher, there is a significant loss of selenium from the hot end of the leg, which causes the operation of the leg to be unstable.
  • thermoelectric leg of the present invention that overcomes these problems may be briefly describedas (1) consisting essentially of at least two longitudinally separated full-transverse-area sections that each consist essentially of a self-segmenting alloy composition as described above that includes the same metal and nonmetal elements, and (2) a barrier member that is disposed between the two sections, extends over at least the whole transverse area of the leg, is in compatible, low-resistance, electrical and thermal contact with each of the two sections, has good electrical conductivity, and prevents migration of said migrating metal element between the sections.
  • thermoelectric legs having this structure are described herein as partitioned thermoelectric legs. It should be noted that such partitioned thermoelectric legs are distinguished from thermoelectric legs known in the art as segmented legs in that in partitioned legs the sections consist essentially of the same elemnts. Whenever barrier members have been used for segmented legs, there has been some difference in composition between the segments, and the barrier members were used only because of that difference. partitioning is used for a different purpose than segmenting and is used only on the special class of legs that are self-segmenting to prevent migration between sections of the migrating element that provides the self-segmenting.
  • thermoelectric self-segmenting leg For a thermoelectric self-segmenting leg that is not partitioned, the carrier concentration varies continuously from cold end to hot end when the leg is operated to generate electric power, with the net increase in carrier concentration being determined by the operating conditions (that is, temperature interval, current, and geometry of the leg).
  • the variation in carrier concentration over the length of a partitioned self-segmenting thermoelectric leg is interrupted at the barrier member, so that the net increase in carrier concentration from the cold end of the leg to the hot end is less than it is for an unpartitioned thermoelectric leg under the same operating conditions.
  • the carrier concentrations in unpartitioned and partitioned selfsegmenting thermoelectric legs are shown schematically in FIGS. 1 and 2 respectively.
  • values on the ordinate represent positions in the leg, a representing the cold end of the leg, b representing the hot end, and c representing a position in the middle of the leg.
  • Values on the abscissa represent carrier concentration within the leg.
  • the dotted lines indicate the carrier concentration that would exist over the whole length of the leg when no thermal and electrical gradients are applied to the leg.
  • the solid lines represent the carrier concentration that exists over the length of the legs when the legs are operated under identical operating conditions. Because of the interruption produced by a barrier member in the leg of FIG.
  • the amount of the increase in carrier concentration at the hot end of the leg above the average current carrier concentration in the leg is about one-half as great as the amount of the increase in carrier concentration at the point 12 of the leg represented in FIG. 1.
  • FIGS. 3 and 4 show schematically the carrier concentration of unpartitioned and partitioned self-segmenting thermoelectric legs that are operated with the cold end of the unpartitioned leg, and the cold end of each of the two sections of the partitioned leg, fixed at a two-phase boundary as described in the above-identified application.
  • Ser. No. 36,131 The dashed lines in these figures represent the carrier concentration of material in which the migrating metal element is at its maximum solubility limit in the composition, and the solid lines again represent the carrier concentration that exists over the length of the legs when the legs are operated under identical operating conditions. During operation, only the cold end of the unpartitioned leg of FIG.
  • the cold ends of the two sections of the partitioned leg of FIG. 4 retain a composition in which the migrating metal element is at its maximumusolubility limit in the composition. And, because of the interruptionn produced by the barrier member, the increase in carrier concentration at the hot end of the partitioned leg above the carrier concentration represented by the dashed line is about one-half as great as the increase in carrier concentration for the unpartitioned leg.
  • FIG. 5 of the drawing shows an illustrative partitioned thermoelectric leg of the invention.
  • the leg 10 consists of two logitudinally separated, full-transverse-area sections 11 and 12 (meaning that the sections have the same transverse area as the leg), and a barrier member 13 located between the two sections and in compatible, low-resistance, electrical and thermal contact with the two sections.
  • the barrier member extends at least over the whole transverse area of the leg between the sections. While the drawing shows a thermoelectric leg partitioned into two sec tions, thermoelectric legs of the invention may also be partitioned into a greater number of sections to provide greater control over the distribution of carriers in the leg when operated.
  • the self-segmenting compositions useful in the present invention are alloy compositions of a metal and chalcogen (tellurium, selenium, sulfur, and oxygen), with the metal generally being selected from copper, silver, rare-earth metals, and transition metals. ln practice, the invention will be utilized only with compositions that have good values for such thermoelectric conversion parameters as Seebeck coefficient, resistivity, and thermal conductivity. As determined by traditional temperature-dependent measurements of the Seebeck coefficient, resistivity, and thermal conductivity (which do not reflect the beneficial results of selfsegmenting), compositions useful in the present invention will generally exhibit a figure of merit of at least 0.5 X 10".
  • compositions of copper, silver, tellurium, and selenium as described in an earlier application of Hampl, Ser. No. 635,948, which is incorporated herein by reference and which has been abandoned in favor of Ser. No. 321,222 filed Jan. 5, 1973. Briefly summarizing, those compositions include ingredients in the following proportions:
  • compositions that may be cast into thermoelectric legs to form dense, uniform, continuous structures that exist in preferred substantially single-phase crystal forms when heated above a temperature that ranges between C and 575C, depending on the particular composition; especially in these high-temperature crystal forms, the compositions have very excellent thermoelectric conversion properties.
  • the best compositions include 33.2 to 33.5 atomic percent tellurium or selenium, preferably about the latter amount.
  • Copper-silver-selenium and copper-silvertellurium compositions that include about one atomic percent silver and copper-silver-tellurium compositions between about 32 and 36 atomic percent silver are also especially preferred.
  • N-type compositions of the copper-silver-chalcogen family are also useful in the present invention.
  • the best combination of high-temperature utility and good thermoelectric conversion properties are found with compositions that principally comprise silver, selenium, and tellurium but also include up to about 5 atomic percent copper and sulfur.
  • the silver and copper generally comprise between about 65.7 and 67.7 atomic percent of the composition, and the silver, tellurium, and selenium lie within the following ranges;
  • the barrier member in a thermoelectric leg of the invention takes the form of a thin (preferably less than about 20 mils and more preferably less than about 5 mils thick) foil or a laminate of two or more foils or layers. While it should extend over the whole transverse area of the leg, it may also extend beyond the sides of the leg.
  • the barrier member should be chemically compatible with the materials of the sections against which it is placed.
  • the barrier member should prevent migration of the migrating metal element between sections, it should have good electrical conductivity (that is, it should have an electrical resistivity less than about milliohm-centimeters).
  • the barrier member should not disturb the migration within the sections, and it should not have any other significant deleterious effect on the thermoelectric conversion performance characteristics within the section.
  • free copper should not be the sole constituent of a barrier member for a P-type copper-silverselenium leg, since if copper at its free-state chemical potential is available at the hot end of a section, the copper atoms will migrate through the section in the presence of a thermal and electrical gradient and prevent stable operation of the leg.
  • a layer of copper can comprise a layer on the hot-end side only of a barrier member (disposed against the cold-end surface of a section) for a P-type copper-silver-selenium leg, if the remaining part of the barrier member comprises a layer that prevents migration of the copper atoms into the cold-end section of the leg.
  • a barrier member disposed against the cold-end surface of a section
  • the remaining part of the barrier member comprises a layer that prevents migration of the copper atoms into the cold-end section of the leg.
  • the useful barrier materials will vary widely with the materials of the sections. Some useful barrier materials are tungsten, tungsten-rhenium alloys, molybdenum, columbium, platinum, copper (as described above, for example), and carbon, and liminated assemblies of layers of such materials. Tungsten and tungsten-rhenium are preferred materials for copper-silver-selenium legs, and can be used as the sole material of the barrier member for such legs.
  • a barrier member is bonded to adjacent sections of the leg.
  • One way of bonding adjacent sections to a barrier member is by casting the sections in place against the barrier member. Pressure-contacting of a barrier member to adjacent sections may also be used.
  • thermoelectric leg of the invention was prepared in a casting mold having three sections of slightly different diameter, the smallest at the bottom, a slightly larger section (by approximately 0.01 inch) starting at 0.133 inch from the bottom of the mold, and another larger section (by approximately 0.010 inch) starting at 0.276 inch from the bottom of the mold.
  • thermoelectric leg having a composition of 65.57 atomic percent copper 1 atomic percent silver, and 33.43 atomic percent selenium was inserted into the reservoir of the mold, and heated to a molten condition by heating the mold to 1,180C. There were feed holes connecting the reservoir with each mold section to allow the molten thermoelectric composition to flow into the mold. The partitioned element which resulted was removed and a copper-silver eutectic cold-junction electrode was attached.
  • the total length of the partitioned leg was approximately 0.430 inch.
  • the leg was placed on test in a temperature interval of 800/270C in an atmosphere of argon at 20 pounds per square inch, a current near matched load, and a longitudinal pressure of pounds per square inch.
  • the leg was operated for 3,200 hours and displayed an average Seebeck Coefficient of 289 microvolts/C relative to platinum, and a resistivity of l 1.99 milliohm-centimeters. The resistivity indicates an extraneous resistance contributed by the barrier member of only about 5.2 percent. No creepdeformation occurred during this test.
  • thermoelectric leg having the same composition as Example 1 was sawed into three sections, having lengths, respectively, of 0.230 inch, 0.088 inch, and 0.065 inch. A stack was made, using the longest section at the bottom, then 0.001- inch-thick tungsten foil, then the next-longest section, then a 0.00l'-inch-thick tungsten foil, and then the shortest section. The resulting partitioned thermoelectric leg was tested in a vacuum of approximately 10f torr, a temperature interval of l,000/l50C, and under a longitudinal pressure of 50 psi for 1 10 hours. The average Seebeck Coefficient was 250 microvolts/C relative to platinum and the resistivity was 8.45 milliohmcentimeters. There was a slight creep-deformation, suggesting that a greater number of barrier members than three may be needed for operation at 1,000C.
  • thermoelectric leg consisting of 65.57 atomic percent copper, 1 atomic percent silver, and 33.43 atomic percent selenium approximately one-fourth inch in diameter was sawed into two sections having lengths 0.10 inch and 0.30 inch respectively.
  • a stack was made composed of, from the bottom, the longer section, a 0.005-inch-thick tungsten disc 0.255 inch in diameter, a 0.005-inch-thick platinum disc 0.25 inch in diameter, and the shorter section. This stack was tested in a vacuum of 10 torr, a temperature interval of 800/200C', and a longitudinal pressure of 300 psi for 5,200 hours.
  • the average Seebeck Coefficient was 275 microvolts/C relative to platinum and the average resistivity was 10.05 milliohm-centimeters. This represents an extraneous resistance of 0.2 percent. There was a slight creep-deformation, which indicated that additional barrier members might be needed for operation in the described temperature interval.
  • thermoelectric leg that A. comprises at least two longitudinally separated full-transverse-area sections that each l.consist essentially of the same amounts of the same metal and nonmetal elements united in a distinct crystal lattice structure that is nonstoichiometric because of an excess or deficiency of atoms of at least the major metal element of the crystal lattice structure, said excess or deficiency of atoms providing the current carriers needed for a thermoelectric composition, 2.have the property that atoms of said major metal element migrate from a first end of the section toward the second end under the influence of combined thermal and electrical gradients applied to the leg to form a gradation of inherently stable current carrier concentrations that is beneficial for thermoelectric conversion, and 3.
  • a barrier member that is disposed between the two sections, extends over at least the whole transverse area of the leg, is in compatible, low-resistance, electrical and thermal contact with each of the two sections. has good electrical conductivity, and prevents migration of said migrating metal element between the two sections.
  • thermoelectric generator ofclaim l in which the two sections consist essentially of copper, silver, and one member of the group selenium and tellurium, in proportions defined by one of the two following tables:
  • thermoelectric composition said elements being united in a distinct crystal lattice structure that is nonstoichiometric because of an ex cess or deficiency of at least copper atoms, said excess or deficiency of atoms providing the current carriers needed for a thermoelectric composition
  • a barrier member that is disposed between the two sections, extends over at least the whole transverse area of the leg, is in compatible lowresistance electrical and thermal contact with each of the two sections, has good electrical conductivity, comprises a layer that includes tungsten, and prevents migration of said copper atoms from one section to the other.
  • thermoelectric generator of claim 5 in which the barrier member consists essentially of a foil comprising tungsten or a tungsten-rhenium alloy, and the sections are cast in place against the barrier member.
  • thermoelectric generator of claim 5 in which the barrier member also comprises a layer that includes platinum disposed on the hot-end side of the layer that includes tungsten.

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  • Inorganic Chemistry (AREA)
  • Powder Metallurgy (AREA)
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  • Measuring Temperature Or Quantity Of Heat (AREA)
US291938A 1965-06-11 1972-09-25 Thermoelectric generators having partitioned self-segmenting thermoelectric legs Expired - Lifetime US3873370A (en)

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US291938A US3873370A (en) 1972-09-25 1972-09-25 Thermoelectric generators having partitioned self-segmenting thermoelectric legs
JP10655873A JPS5334960B2 (GUID-C5D7CC26-194C-43D0-91A1-9AE8C70A9BFF.html) 1972-09-25 1973-09-22
DE19732348024 DE2348024C3 (de) 1972-09-25 1973-09-24 Schenkel für thermoelektrische Generatoren und Verfahren zum Herstellen
GB4472373A GB1424913A (en) 1972-09-25 1973-09-24 Thermoeelectric generators having partitioned self-segmenting thermoelectric legs
FR7334179A FR2200652B1 (GUID-C5D7CC26-194C-43D0-91A1-9AE8C70A9BFF.html) 1972-09-25 1973-09-24
US05/828,567 US4180415A (en) 1965-06-11 1977-08-29 Hot-junction electrode members for copper/silver chalcogenides

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US52659874A Continuation-In-Part 1965-06-11 1974-11-25
US05/828,567 Continuation-In-Part US4180415A (en) 1965-06-11 1977-08-29 Hot-junction electrode members for copper/silver chalcogenides

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Cited By (18)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US4180415A (en) * 1965-06-11 1979-12-25 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Company Hot-junction electrode members for copper/silver chalcogenides
US4463214A (en) * 1982-03-16 1984-07-31 Atlantic Richfield Company Thermoelectric generator apparatus and operation method
US4990193A (en) * 1988-06-24 1991-02-05 Yamari Industries, Limited Method and apparatus for measuring temperature using thermocouple
WO1994014200A1 (en) * 1992-12-11 1994-06-23 Joel Miller Laminated thermoelement
WO1994016465A1 (en) * 1993-01-12 1994-07-21 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Superlattice structures particularly suitable for use as thermoelectric cooling materials
US5439528A (en) * 1992-12-11 1995-08-08 Miller; Joel Laminated thermo element
US5610366A (en) * 1993-08-03 1997-03-11 California Institute Of Technology High performance thermoelectric materials and methods of preparation
US5769943A (en) * 1993-08-03 1998-06-23 California Institute Of Technology Semiconductor apparatus utilizing gradient freeze and liquid-solid techniques
US5900071A (en) * 1993-01-12 1999-05-04 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Superlattice structures particularly suitable for use as thermoelectric materials
US6060657A (en) * 1998-06-24 2000-05-09 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Lead-chalcogenide superlattice structures
US6060656A (en) * 1997-03-17 2000-05-09 Regents Of The University Of California Si/SiGe superlattice structures for use in thermoelectric devices
US6103968A (en) * 1994-02-28 2000-08-15 White Eagle International Technologies Group, Inc. Thermal generator and method of producing same
US6452206B1 (en) 1997-03-17 2002-09-17 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Superlattice structures for use in thermoelectric devices
US20040261833A1 (en) * 2003-04-22 2004-12-30 Yasuhiro Ono Thermoelectric conversion material, thermoelectric conversion element using the material, and electric power generation method and cooling method using the element
US20050155642A1 (en) * 2004-01-16 2005-07-21 Gang Chen Potential amplified nonequilibrium thermal electric device (PANTEC)
US20070023077A1 (en) * 2005-07-29 2007-02-01 The Boeing Company Dual gap thermo-tunneling apparatus and methods
EP3029747A4 (en) * 2013-10-17 2016-12-28 Lg Chemical Ltd THERMOELECTRIC MATERIAL AND METHOD FOR THE PRODUCTION THEREOF
CN110544741A (zh) * 2018-05-29 2019-12-06 中国科学院上海硅酸盐研究所 一种提高快离子导体热电材料服役稳定性的方法

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JP7215049B2 (ja) * 2018-09-28 2023-01-31 日立金属株式会社 熱電変換モジュール

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US2232961A (en) * 1937-08-24 1941-02-25 Milnes Henry Reginald Apparatus for thermal generation of electric current
US2397756A (en) * 1941-07-02 1946-04-02 Schwarz Ernst Thermoelectric device
US3095330A (en) * 1959-12-07 1963-06-25 Monsanto Chemicals Thermoelectricity
US3351498A (en) * 1963-03-29 1967-11-07 Gen Electric Separately cartridged thermoelectric elements and couples
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Cited By (23)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US4180415A (en) * 1965-06-11 1979-12-25 Minnesota Mining And Manufacturing Company Hot-junction electrode members for copper/silver chalcogenides
US4463214A (en) * 1982-03-16 1984-07-31 Atlantic Richfield Company Thermoelectric generator apparatus and operation method
US4990193A (en) * 1988-06-24 1991-02-05 Yamari Industries, Limited Method and apparatus for measuring temperature using thermocouple
US5439528A (en) * 1992-12-11 1995-08-08 Miller; Joel Laminated thermo element
WO1994014200A1 (en) * 1992-12-11 1994-06-23 Joel Miller Laminated thermoelement
US5900071A (en) * 1993-01-12 1999-05-04 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Superlattice structures particularly suitable for use as thermoelectric materials
WO1994016465A1 (en) * 1993-01-12 1994-07-21 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Superlattice structures particularly suitable for use as thermoelectric cooling materials
US5415699A (en) * 1993-01-12 1995-05-16 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Superlattice structures particularly suitable for use as thermoelectric cooling materials
US5610366A (en) * 1993-08-03 1997-03-11 California Institute Of Technology High performance thermoelectric materials and methods of preparation
US5747728A (en) * 1993-08-03 1998-05-05 California Institute Of Technology Advanced thermoelectric materials with enhanced crystal lattice structure and methods of preparation
US5769943A (en) * 1993-08-03 1998-06-23 California Institute Of Technology Semiconductor apparatus utilizing gradient freeze and liquid-solid techniques
US6103968A (en) * 1994-02-28 2000-08-15 White Eagle International Technologies Group, Inc. Thermal generator and method of producing same
US6452206B1 (en) 1997-03-17 2002-09-17 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Superlattice structures for use in thermoelectric devices
US6060656A (en) * 1997-03-17 2000-05-09 Regents Of The University Of California Si/SiGe superlattice structures for use in thermoelectric devices
US6060657A (en) * 1998-06-24 2000-05-09 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Lead-chalcogenide superlattice structures
US20040261833A1 (en) * 2003-04-22 2004-12-30 Yasuhiro Ono Thermoelectric conversion material, thermoelectric conversion element using the material, and electric power generation method and cooling method using the element
US20050155642A1 (en) * 2004-01-16 2005-07-21 Gang Chen Potential amplified nonequilibrium thermal electric device (PANTEC)
US8309838B2 (en) * 2004-01-16 2012-11-13 Massachusetts Institute Of Technology Potential amplified nonequilibrium thermal electric device (PANTEC)
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US7880079B2 (en) * 2005-07-29 2011-02-01 The Boeing Company Dual gap thermo-tunneling apparatus and methods
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JPS4971881A (GUID-C5D7CC26-194C-43D0-91A1-9AE8C70A9BFF.html) 1974-07-11
FR2200652A1 (GUID-C5D7CC26-194C-43D0-91A1-9AE8C70A9BFF.html) 1974-04-19
FR2200652B1 (GUID-C5D7CC26-194C-43D0-91A1-9AE8C70A9BFF.html) 1976-10-01
DE2348024A1 (de) 1974-04-25
GB1424913A (en) 1976-02-11
JPS5334960B2 (GUID-C5D7CC26-194C-43D0-91A1-9AE8C70A9BFF.html) 1978-09-25
DE2348024B2 (de) 1976-01-02

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