US20160376596A1 - Compositions and methods for inducing an enhanced immune response using poxvirus vectors - Google Patents

Compositions and methods for inducing an enhanced immune response using poxvirus vectors Download PDF

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US20160376596A1
US20160376596A1 US15/039,777 US201415039777A US2016376596A1 US 20160376596 A1 US20160376596 A1 US 20160376596A1 US 201415039777 A US201415039777 A US 201415039777A US 2016376596 A1 US2016376596 A1 US 2016376596A1
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Jürgen Hausmann
Michael Wolferstätter
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Definitions

  • the invention provided herein relates to recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids encoding complementary RNA forming double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) early in infection. Early dsRNA may also be generated by transcribing both strands of native genes of recombinant poxviruses.
  • the recombinant poxviruses provided herein may further comprise heterologous nucleic acids encoding one or more costimulatory molecules, and/or heterologous nucleic acids encoding one or more infectious disease-associated antigens or tumor-associated antigens.
  • recombinant poxviruses enhance innate and adaptive immune activation in a subject compared to identical recombinant poxviruses lacking heterologous nucleic acids expressing early dsRNA.
  • pharmaceutical compositions comprising any of the recombinant poxviruses provided herein, as well as methods and uses of such recombinant poxviruses.
  • PRRs pattern recognition receptors
  • PAMPs pathogen-associated molecular patterns
  • PRRs encompass the family of Toll-like receptors (TLRs), RIG-like helicases (RLHs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and other hitherto less well defined PRRs (Iwasaki (2012), Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 66:177-196; Desmet & Ishii (2012), Nat. Rev. Immunol. 12:479-491; Melchjorsen (2013), Viruses. 5:470-527).
  • TLRs Toll-like receptors
  • RHs RIG-like helicases
  • NLRs NOD-like receptors
  • PRR activation leads to the activation of various immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs), and the eventual induction of innate and adaptive immune responses.
  • PRR activation also leads to the induction of an antiviral state in non-immune cells via the induction and action of type I interferons (IFNs), which include IFN-alpha (IFN- ⁇ ) and IFN-beta (IFN- ⁇ ), as well as the induction and action of other cytokines and chemokines, which alert as yet uninfected host cells and coordinate the immune response.
  • IFNs type I interferons
  • Type IFNs regulate many aspects of the immune response, including innate pathogen resistance mechanisms as well as antibody production and T-cell activation, e.g.
  • TLR3, TLR7/8, TLR9 and TLR13 have been identified as receptors for double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), single-stranded RNA (ssRNA), DNA, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), respectively.
  • dsRNA double-stranded RNA
  • ssRNA single-stranded RNA
  • rRNA ribosomal RNA
  • dsDNA double-stranded DNA
  • poxviruses potently inhibit both TLR9-dependent and TLR9-independent pathways of ds
  • Detection of poxviral DNA by immune cells via TLR9 leads to production of type I interferons (i.e., IFN- ⁇ / ⁇ ) and type-III interferons (i.e., IFN- ⁇ ), as well as of other cytokines and chemokines (Lauterbach et al. (2010), J. Exp. Med. 207:2703-2717; Samuelsson et al. (2008), J. Clin. Invest 118:1776-1784).
  • Plasmacytoid DCs pDCs
  • pDCs are selectively competent to produce large amounts of IFN-I and IFN-III in response to TLR7/8- or TLR9-dependent stimulation.
  • TLR9-dependent stimulation leads to IFN-I and IFN-III production.
  • dsRNA Another important signature of viral infection is dsRNA, which is not only generated during infection of cells by RNA viruses, but also by poxviruses, which have a dsDNA genome.
  • the dsRNA in poxvirus infection is generated by overlapping transcription from genes located on both the upper and lower strand of the dsDNA genome.
  • the termination of transcription of intermediate and late genes is not tightly regulated, a phenomenon leading to viral mRNA with long 3′ untranslated regions (3′ UTRs) of heterogeneous lengths (Cooper, Wittek, and Moss (1981), J. Virol. 39:733-745; Xiang et al. (1998), J. Virol. 72:7012-7023).
  • transcripts originate from two neighboring genes in opposite orientation (i.e., that are transcribed towards each other), transcription produces overlapping, complementary mRNA stretches that form dsRNA by annealing with each other or with early transcripts(Boone, Parr, and Moss (1979), J Virol. 30:365-374).
  • Generation of viral dsRNA appears to be largely confined to the late phase of the poxviral replication cycle (Colby & Duesberg (1969), Nature 222:940-944; Duesberg & Colby (1969), Proc. Natl. Acad. Sd U. S. A 64:396-403; Moss (2007),5:2905-2945).
  • TLR3 is mainly expressed in immune cells and can sense extracellular dsRNA
  • most other dsRNA sensors like RIG-I, MDA-5, DDX1/DDX21/DHX36, protein kinase R (PKR), and 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase (2′-5′-OAS)
  • PSR protein kinase R
  • 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 2′-5′-OAS are ubiquitously expressed in the organs and cell types of the host and are localized in the cell cytoplasm.
  • RIG-I and MDA-5 are considered to represent the most important cytosolic dsRNA sensors to detect viral infection (Melchjorsen (2013), Viruses. 5:470-527).
  • Another important ds RNA sensor, the dsRNA-activated protein kinase R (PKR) is thought to exert its antiviral role mainly via phosphorylation of the translation elongation factor elF2 ⁇ , which leads to a shutdown of cellular and viral translation, thereby restricting viral replication.
  • PTR dsRNA-activated protein kinase R
  • PKR has a role in the induction of type I IFN. (Barry et al. (2009), J Gen. Virol. 90:1382-1391; Gilfoy & Mason (2007), J Virol. 81:11148-11158).
  • E3 and K3 to the inhibition of the important dsRNA sensor PKR. Both viral proteins have been studied extensively. Among them, E3 appears to be central. E3 binds and sequesters dsRNA and inhibits PKR activation.
  • Vaccinia virus (VACV) mutants lacking the E3L gene (VACV- ⁇ E3L) have a restricted host range and induce apoptosis in many cell types (Hornemann et al. (2003), J. Virol. 77:8394-8407; Kibler et al. (1997), J Virol.
  • PKR activation in cells infected with modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) and chorioallantois vaccinia virus Ankara (CVA) without inducing detectable cell death or apoptosis, but triggering the release of high amounts of IFN- ⁇ / ⁇ and other chemokines and cytokines.
  • VVA modified vaccinia virus Ankara
  • CVA chorioallantois vaccinia virus Ankara
  • IFN type I induction led to an almost non-pathogenic infection in mice, and that result depended on the presence of a functional type I IFN system.
  • MVA was developed by >570 passages of the fully replication-competent smallpox vaccine strain chorioallatois vaccinia virus Ankara (CVA) (Meisinger-Henschel et al. (2007), J. Gen. Virol. 88:3249-3259) on chicken embryo fibroblasts. Replication-competent CVA was shown to be poorly IFN-I inducing whereas replication-restricted MVA rather efficiently induced IFN-I (Samuelsson et al. (2008), J. Clin. Invest 118:1776-1784). CVA inhibition of IFN-I production was mediated in part by the poxvirus IFN-I-binding protein (IFN-IR) encoded by the B19R gene.
  • IFN-IR poxvirus IFN-I-binding protein
  • the B19 protein binds to IFN- ⁇ and thus inhibits its bioactivity.
  • binding of B19 to type I interferons also prevents the detection of IFN- ⁇ / ⁇ by antibody-based analysis techniques, indicating that B19 protein also binds human IFN- ⁇ .
  • B19 does not bind mouse IFN- ⁇ .
  • Homologues of the poxvirus IFN-I-binding protein encoded by B19R ORF are present in a number of poxviral species, suggesting that this mechanism for inhibiting IFN-I activity is conserved in poxviruses more generally. See, e.g., FIG. 17 .
  • IFN type I binding activity of B19 is not the only inhibitory mechanism employed by poxviruses to suppress IFN-I effector functions or induction.
  • Poxviruses encode a number of factors subverting the interferon type I system of their hosts. Interferons are pivotal in antiviral defense because they induce an antiviral state in IFN receptor-expressing cells and regulate the innate and adaptive immune response of the host.
  • poxviral factors counteracting the interferon system are the secreted receptor-like proteins B19 and B8 that bind and neutralize type I and type II interferons, respectively.
  • poxviral proteins such as VACV E3, K7, C6, N1, C7, K1, K3 and H1 inhibit the induction of type I interferon or block interferon signaling and effector pathways.
  • poxviruses encode such a multitude of proteins to counteract the interferon system highlights the importance of this system of innate immune defense for the control and eventual clearance of poxviruses by the infected host organism.
  • orthopoxviruses encode other immune-modulating proteins interfering with induction or function of cytokines like IL-1 ⁇ , IL-18, and of chemokines including VACV B16R, WR013, C23L/vCCl.
  • cytokines are also important in restricting pathogen spread and protecting the host from severe pathogen-induced damage.
  • Poxviral proteins subverting pattern recognition pathways are universally efficient in thwarting induction of IFNs as well as of other cytokines and chemokines.
  • a primary objective of the invention to enhance recognition of poxviruses by cellular dsRNA sensors, as well as to increase the innate immune activation induced by MVA.
  • recombinant poxviruses engineered to produce dsRNA early in infection by inserting two partially identical DNAs at two separate locations in the genome. Those DNAs are operable linked to strong early promoters oriented such that one DNA produces a ‘sense’ transcript and the other produces a complementary ‘antisense’ transcript. The two partially or completely complementary transcripts subsequently anneal to produce dsRNA. Efficient induction of IFN- ⁇ , an important marker of innate immune activation, was observed with early dsRNAs over a wide size range, with decreasing efficiencies as the complementary transcripts were shortened down to 50 bp.
  • the invention encompasses a recombinant poxvirus comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing excess double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) early in infection.
  • the invention encompasses a method of enhancing innate immune activation comprising administering the recombinant poxvirus to a vertebrate subject, wherein said administration enhances production of type I interferons (type I IFNs), cytokines and chemokines in the subject.
  • the recombinant poxvirus transcribes sense and antisense RNAs from both strands of a native poxvirus sequence, preferably an early gene, more preferably an immediate-early gene.
  • the recombinant poxvirus transcribes heterologous nucleic acid as sense and antisense RNAs from both strands of the heterologous sequence.
  • the invention encompasses a method of attenuating standard replication-competent vaccinia virus strains and of other species derived from chordopoxvirinae by expression of excess early dsRNA.
  • the poxvirus further comprises heterologous sequences encoding one or more costimulatory molecules.
  • the poxvirus further comprises heterologous sequences encoding one or more bacterial, viral, fungal, parasite, or tumor antigens.
  • the poxvirus is an orthopoxvirus, a parapoxvirus, a yatapoxvirus, an avipoxvirus, a leporipoxvirus, a suipoxvirus, a capripoxvirus, a cervidpoxvirus, or a molluscipoxvirus.
  • the orthopoxvirus may be selected from the group consisting of vaccinia virus, cowpox virus, and monkeypox virus.
  • the vaccinia virus may be a modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), e.g. modified vaccinia virus Ankara Bavarian Nordic (MVA-BN).
  • the heterologous or endogenous nucleic acids generating dsRNA comprise sequences encoding partially or completely complementary RNA transcripts, wherein the complementary portions of RNA transcripts anneal after transcription to form dsRNA.
  • the heterologous nucleic acids encoding completely or partially complementary RNA transcripts are identical within the complementary region, or have a similarity of more than 99%, of more than 95%, of more than 90%, of more than 80%, or of more than 70% within the complementary region.
  • FIG. 1 depicts a schematic representation of CVA mutants overproducing early dsRNA and corresponding control mutants. Boxes represent CVA ORFs in the genomic region between ORFs B14R and B20R and are not drawn to scale. The box representing the CVA version of the B15 ORF is shown in black, whereas the MVA version of B15R is indicated by a diamond pattern. A hatched box represents the B19R ORF. All other ORFs are shown as grey boxes. The bacterial selection markers (neo′ and zeo′) replacing CVA ORFs in the various deletion mutants are shown as smaller boxes with an indication of the specific marker.
  • FIG. 2 shows the virulence of CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 and related CVA mutants in BALB/c mice.
  • Groups of three to five 6-8 week-old female BALB/c mice were infected intranasally with a 50 ⁇ l inoculum containing 5 ⁇ 10 7 (A, B right panel) or 10 7 TCID 50 (B left panel, C) of purified stock of the indicated CVA mutants.
  • A) and B) show the results of independent experiments employing different sets of CVA mutants. Animals were inspected daily and weighed at the indicated days. Body weight data are expressed as percentage of mean weights +/ ⁇ SEM of the respective group from the initial mean weight at day 0. Daggers indicate number of dead animals at the respective days.
  • FIG. 3 shows the virulence of CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 in IFNAR 0/0 mice.
  • A) The indicated numbers of 9-18 week-old C57BU6-IFNAR 0/0 mice of both sexes were infected intranasally with a 50 ⁇ l inoculum containing 2 ⁇ 10 6 TCID 50 of crude viral stocks or 10 7 TCID 50 of purified stock of CVA and CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15. Animals were inspected daily and weighed at the indicated days. Body weight data are expressed as percentage of mean weights +/ ⁇ SEM of the respective group from the initial mean weight at day 0. B) Survival of mice shown in A).
  • FIG. 4 shows IFN- ⁇ and IFN- ⁇ induction in DCs by CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15.
  • FL-DC from wild-type C57BU6 mice were infected with the indicated viruses at the indicated MOls for 18 h.
  • DC culture supernatants were analyzed for IFN- ⁇ and IFN- ⁇ by ELISA.
  • CVA and CVA- ⁇ B15 did not induce detectable amounts of IFN- ⁇ .
  • FIG. 5 shows the kinetics of IFN- ⁇ mRNA induction by CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 in A31 cells by and the role of the neo cassette inserts.
  • A) Murine BALB/3T3 A31 cells were mock-infected or infected with purified stocks of BAC-derived MVA or CVA wild-type and the CVA mutants CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 and CVA- ⁇ B15 at an MOI of 10 for the indicated times. Cells were lysed and RNA from cell lysates was prepared using the QIAGEN RNeasy kit.
  • IFN- ⁇ mRNA levels were determined using a commercial gene expression assay for murine IFN- ⁇ (Applied Biosystems, Darmstadt, Germany). Shown are the levels of IFN- ⁇ transcript in infected cells relative to the level of IFN- ⁇ mRNA in mock-infected cells expressed as fold increase in IFN- ⁇ mRNA.
  • A31 cells were mock-infected or infected with crude stocks of CVA and the indicated CVA mutants (see FIG.
  • RNA preparation of quantification of IFN- ⁇ mRNA was conducted as described in A). Shown are the levels of IFN- ⁇ transcript in infected cells relative to the level of IFN- ⁇ mRNA in mock-infected cells expressed as fold increase in IFN- ⁇ mRNA.
  • FIG. 6 shows a schematic representation of EGFP and neo insertions of dsRNA-producing MVA mutants.
  • the direction of transcription of the neo and EGFP coding sequences (black arrows) controlled by the pS, pHyb or pB15R promoters is indicated.
  • ORFs and all other elements are not drawn to scale.
  • the neo ORF is part of the neo-/RES-EGFP selection cassette within the BAC cassette (Meisinger 2010). The latteris inserted into the intergenic region (IGR) I3UI4L (MVA064/065).
  • IGR intergenic region
  • neo-/RES-EGFP cassette is transcribed under control of the pS promoter (indicated by an arrow), whereas the neo/rpsL cassette in the B15R locus is transcribed in reverse orientation under the control of the B15R promoter.
  • Neo ORFs within one MVA construct overlap by 792 nt (indicated by a grey box) with one single mismatch.
  • MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15/ ⁇ BAC the complete BAC cassette in IGR I3UI4L was deleted via Cre/lox recombination.
  • All MVA-dsEGFP constructs in B) are based on an MVA recombinant from which the neo-/RES-EGFP cassette within the BAC cassette had been deleted.
  • MVA-EGFP the neo-/RES-EGFP cassette was replaced by a neo gene.
  • the EGFP ORF transcribed in sense orientation in MVA-EGFP is inserted in the IGR between ORFs A25L and A26L (MVA136/137), whereas the EGFP ORF transcribed in antisense is inserted in IGR J2R/J3R (MVA086/087).
  • the potential dsRNA stretches formed by the overlapping complementary EGFP transcripts are indicated by grey bars.
  • MVA-EGFP Neighboring ORFs are only indicated for MVA-EGFP and MVA-dsEGFP.
  • the lacZ ⁇ sequence at the 3′end of the antisense EGFP transcript is solely inserted in MVA-dsEGFP and served as a non-complementary 3′overhang to match the constellation of complementary neo transcripts in MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15.
  • MVA-EGFP contains an additional neo insert flanked by FRT sites under control of a bacterial promoter downstream of the EGFP ORF. This selection marker was removed in all MVA-dsEGFP constructs by FLP/FRT recombination.
  • FIG. 7 shows the induction of IFN- ⁇ mRNA and protein expression in murine A31 cells by dsRNA-producing MVA mutants.
  • Murine BALB/3T3 A31 cells were mock-infected or infected with crude virus preparations of MVA-wt or the indicated mutants of MVA expressing single or overlapping transcripts of neo (A, B) or EGFP (C, D). Cells in A) and C) were infected for 5 hours (black bars) and 7 hours (grey bars) before harvest for IFN- ⁇ transcript analysis.
  • IFN- ⁇ gene induction by CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 infection is shown reference in A).
  • RNA from cell lysates was prepared using the QIAGEN RNeasy kit.
  • Contaminating DNA was eliminated using DNA removal (gDNA) columns from QIAGEN followed by an additional DNAse treatment with Turbo-DNAse (Ambion) for 1 hour at 37° C. and subsequent heat inactivation of the DNAse at 65° C. for 10 minutes.
  • IFN- ⁇ mRNA levels were determined by RT-qPCR using a commercial gene expression assay for murine IFN- ⁇ (Applied Biosystems). Absence of contaminating DNA was demonstrated by negative RT-qPCR results when the RT enzyme was omitted in the RT reaction. Shown are the levels of IFN- ⁇ transcript in infected cells relative to the level of IFN- ⁇ mRNA in mock-infected cells.
  • IFN- ⁇ Ct values were normalized using the Ct values for cellular 18S rRNA. IFN- ⁇ protein levels were determined in supernatants of cells infected for 18 hours (B) or 23 hours (D). Supernatants were harvested and assayed for murine IFN- ⁇ using a commercially available ELISA (PBL). Infections shown in A and C were from one experiment while experiments B) and D) were independent.
  • FIG. 8 shows the induction of IFN- ⁇ mRNA expression by MVA-dsEGFP depending on timing of dsRNA generation. Shown are the levels of IFN- ⁇ transcript in infected cells relative to the level of IFN- ⁇ mRNA in mock-infected cells expressed as “Fold increase in IFN- ⁇ mRNA”.
  • Wt-MEFs were mock-infected or infected with purified stocks of MVA-EGFP (reference virus, containing only one EGFP insert generating a sense transcript), MVA-dsEGFP-2 as positive control, or MVA- ⁇ E3L (lacking the gene encoding the viral dsRNA binding protein E3) at an MOI of 10 for 5 hours.
  • RNA from cell lysates was prepared and analyzed by RT-qPCR for levels of IFN- ⁇ mRNA as described in the legend to FIG. 7 .
  • B) Wt-MEFs were mock-infected or infected with crude stocks of MVA-EGFP, MVA-dsEGFP, or MVA-dsEGFP-late, which expresses the antisense EGFP cassette under control of a strong and exclusively late promoter (SSL) developed by Bavarian Nordic, for 5 h.
  • SSL strong and exclusively late promoter
  • FIG. 9 shows the activation of PKR by MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 and MVA-dsEGFP in A31 cells.
  • Murine A31 cells were infected at day 1 after seeding with crude stocks of the indicated viruses at an MOI of 10.
  • Phosphorylation of elF2 ⁇ (P-elF2 ⁇ ) in cell lysates prepared after the indicated times of infection was analyzed by immunoblot using an antibody against the phospho-epitope Ser51 of elF2 ⁇ (antibody #9721, Cell Signaling Technology Inc., Danvers, Mass., USA) at a 1:1000 dilution.
  • As loading control a separate portion of the immunoblot membrane was developed with an antibody detecting mouse ⁇ -tubulin isotype I.
  • FIG. 10 shows that increased induction of IFN- ⁇ mRNA by MVA-dsEGFP in MEFs depends on PKR.
  • Wt-MEFs and PKR-deficient)(PKR 0/0 ) MEFs were mock-infected or infected with purified stocks of MVA-EGFP or MVA-dsEGFP at an MOI of 10 for 5 hours.
  • One ml of a 1:100 dilution of a commercially available Sendai virus (SeV) preparation was used as positive control for PKR-independent but dsRNA-dependent IFN- ⁇ induction.
  • A) RNA from cell lysates was prepared and analyzed by RT-qPCR for levels of IFN- ⁇ mRNA as described in the legend to FIG.
  • IFN- ⁇ transcript Shown are the levels of IFN- ⁇ transcript relative to the level of IFN- ⁇ mRNA in mock-infected cells expressed as “Fold increase in IFN- ⁇ mRNA”.
  • MVA MVA-EGFP
  • 3 MVA-dsEGFP
  • 4 SeV
  • 5 mock.
  • FIG. 11 shows the length requirements of PKR-dependent induction of IFN- ⁇ by dsRNA-producing MVA recombinants.
  • Wt-MEFs and PKR 0/0 -MEFs were mock-infected or infected with crude stocks of MVA-EGFP or the indicated EGFP-dsRNA mutants having progressively shortened EGFP ORF overlaps (see FIG. 6B ) at an MOI of 10 for 5 hours (A, C) or 24 hours (B) at 37° C.
  • One ml of a 1:100 dilution of a commercially available Sendai virus (SeV) preparation was used as positive control for dsRNA-dependent but PKR-independent IFN- ⁇ induction.
  • SeV Sendai virus
  • IFN- ⁇ protein levels were determined in supernatants of wt MEFs and PKR 0/0 -MEFs infected for 24 hours with the indicated MVA recombinants. Supernatants were harvested and assayed for murine IFN- ⁇ using a commercially available ELISA (PBL). MVA- ⁇ B15 was included as an additional reference.
  • FIG. 12 shows replication and phenotypic stability of MVA-dsEGFP.
  • FIG. 13 shows induction of cytokine expression by mutant MVA-dsEGFP in C57BL/6 wt, IPS-1 0/0 and PKR 0/0 mice.
  • FIG. 14 shows induction of MVA-specific CD8 T cells by MVA-EGFP and mutant MVA-dsEGFP in mice.
  • FIG. 15 shows induction of IFN- ⁇ mRNA expression in human MRC-5 cells by the MVA-dsEGFP mutants.
  • MRC-5 cells human diploid lung fibroblasts
  • MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 and MVA- ⁇ B15 were used in addition and fold induction of IFN- ⁇ mRNA over mock was determined by RT-qPCR using total RNA isolated from cells at 5 hours post-infection as described in the legend to FIG. 7 .
  • IFN- ⁇ Ct values were normalized using the Ct values for cellular 18S rRNA, which served as endogenous control. Shown are the levels of IFN- ⁇ transcript in infected cells relative to the level of IFN- ⁇ mRNA in mock-infected cells expressed as “Fold induction of IFN- ⁇ mRNA”.
  • FIG. 16 shows a schematic representation of MVA-dsE3L and IFN- ⁇ gene induction by MVA-dsE3L
  • MVA-EGFP corresponds to MVA wt. Fold induction of IFN- ⁇ mRNA over mock was determined by RT-qPCR using total RNA isolated from cells at 5 h p.i. Ct values for IFN- ⁇ mRNA were corrected with Ct values for 18S rRNA, which served as endogenous control. 1: MVA-EGFP; MVA-dsEGFP; 3: MVA-dsEGFP-5; 4: MVA-dsEGFP-late; 5: MVA-dsE3L.
  • FIG. 17 shows that the amino acid sequence of the B19R gene is conserved across a number of poxviruses.
  • P25213 Soluble interferon alpha/beta receptor B19; Vaccinia virus, strain Western Reserve]: SEQ ID NO: 2 MTMKMMVHIYFVSLLLLLFHSYAIDIENEITEFFNKMRDTLPAKDSKWLNPACMFGGTMNDIAAL GEPFSAKCPPIEDSLLSHRYKDYVVKWERLEKNRRRQVSNKRVKHGDLWIANYTSKFSNRRYL CTVTTKNGDCVQGIVRSHIRKPPSCIPKTYELGTHDKYGIDLYCGILYAKHYNNITWYKDNKEINI DDIKYSQTGKELIIHNPELEDSGRYDCYVHYDDVRIKNDIVVSRCKILTVIPSQDHRFKLILDPKIN VTIGEPANITCTAVSTSLLIDDVLIEWENPSGWLIGFDFDVYSVLTSRGGITEATLYFENVTEEYIG NTYKCRGHNYYFEKTLTTTVVLE [Accession No.
  • Q5CAD5 IFN-alpha-beta-receptor-like secreted glycoprotein; Vaccinia virus, strain Copenhagen]: SEQ ID NO: 3 MTMKMMVHIYFVSLLLLLFHSYAIDIENEITEFFNKMRDTLPAKDSKWLNPACMFGGTMNDIAAL GEPFSAKCPPIEDSLLSHRYKDYVVKWERLEKNRRRQVSNKRVKHGDLWIANYTSKFSNRRYL CTVTTKNGDCVQGIVRSHIKKPPSCIPKTYELGTHDKYGIDLYCGILYAKHYNNITWYKDNKEINI DDIKYSQTGKKLIIHNPELEDSGRYNCYVHYDDVRIKNDIVVSRCKILTVIPSQDHRFKLILDPKIN VTIGEPANITCTAVSTSLLIDDVLIEWENPSGWLIGFDFDVYSVLTSRGGITEATLYFENVTEEYIG NTYKCRGHNYYFEKTLTTTVVLE [Accession No.
  • A9J168 Soluble and cell surface interferon- alpha/beta receptor; Vaccinia virus, strain Ankara (CVA)]: SEQ ID NO: 4 MKMTMKMMVHIYFVSLLLLLFHSYAIDIENEITEFFNKMRDTLPAKDSKWLNPACMFGGTMNDI AALGEPFSAKCPPIEDSLLSHRYKDYVVKWERLEKNRRRQVSNKRVKHGDLWIANYTSKFSNR RYLCTVTTKNGDCVQGIVRSHIKKPPSCIPKTYELGTHDKYGIDLYCGILYAKHYNNITWYKDNK EINIDDIKYSQTGKKLIIHNPELEDSGRYNCYVHYDDVKIKNDIVVSRCKILTVIPSQDHRFKLILDP KINVTIGEPANITCTAVSTSLLIDDVLIEWENPSGWLIGFDFDVYSVLTSRGGITEATLYFENVTEE YIGNTYKCRGHNYYFEKTLTTTVVLE [Accession No
  • Q9JFS5 IFN-alpha/beta binding protein; Ectromelia virus]: SEQ ID NO: 5 MMKMTMKMMVRIYFVSLSLSLSLLLFHSYAIDIENEITEFFNKMRDTLPAKDSKWLNPSCMFGG TMNDMAALGEPFSAKCPPIEDSLLSHRYNDKDNVVNWEKIGKTRRPLNRRVKNGDLWIANYTS NDSHRRYLCTVITKNGDCVQGIVRSHIRKPPSCIPETYELGTHDKYGIDLYCGILYAKHYNNITW YKNNQELIIDGTKYSQSGQNLIIHNPELEDSGRYDCYVHYDDVRIKNDIVVSRCKILTVIPSQDHR FKLILDPKINVTIGEPANITCTAVSTSLLVDDVLIDWENPSGWIIGLDFGVYSILTSSGGITEATLYF ENVTEEYIGNTYTCRGHNYYFDKTLTTTVVLE [Accession No.
  • Q5CAC3 Soluble interferon-alpha/beta receptor; Cowpox virus]: SEQ ID NO: 6 MKMTMKMMVHIYFVSLSLSLSLLLFHSYAIDIENEITEFFNKMKDTLPAKDSKWLNPACMFGGT MNDMAAIGEPFSAKCPPIEDSLLSHRYKDKDNVVNWEKIGKTRRPLNRRVKNGDLWIANYTSN DSRRRYLCTVITKNGDCIQGIVRSHVRKPSSCIPEIYELGTHDKYGIDLYCGIIYAKHYNNITWYK DNKEINIDDIKYSQTGKELIIHNPALEDSGRYDCYVHYDDVRIKNDIVVSRCKILTVIPSQDHRFKLI LDPKINVTIGEPANITCTAVSTSLLVDDVLIEWENPSGWLIGFDFDVYSVLTSRGGITEATLYFEN VTEEYIGNTYKCRGHNYYFEKTLTTTVVLE [Accession No.
  • Q5CA87 Soluble interferon-alpha/beta receptor; Camelpox virus]: SEQ ID NO: 7 MKMTMKMMVHIYFVSLSLSLLLFHSYAIDIENEITDFFNKMKDILPTKDSKWLNPACMFGGTTND MAAIGEPFSAKCPPIEDSLLSHRYKNKDNVVNWEKIGKTKRPLNRRVKNGDLWIANYTSNDSR RRYLCTAITKNGDCIQGIIRSHVRKPSSCIPEIYELGTHDKYGIDLYCGIIYAKHYNNITWYKDNKEI NIDDIKYSQTGKELIIHNPALEDSGRYDCYVHYDDVRIKNDIVVSRCKILTVTPSQDHRFKLILDPK INVTIGEPANITCTAVSTSLLVDDVLIEWENPSGWLIGFDFDVYSVLTSRGGITEATLYFENVTEE YIGNTYKCRGHNYYFEKTLTTTVVLE [Accession No.
  • Q8V3G4 IFN-alpha/beta-like binding protein; Swinepox virus, strain Swine/Nebraska/17077-99/1999]: SEQ ID NO: 8 MISIKKYNILLFIISFIYCSADNDIDSLYEGYKEFLDPKLKQFLNDNCTYRGYRDFFLYNEEPANIKC PLLNDILLRQKYHNYTILWKKLGERSSRLLNTHGSIFLDFFPYKSELRGSVYECMIILNNTCDQFIL KLNDIRSNPVCYHNDYKVHTNIEIFCNVINLQYDYITWYKNNSEIIIDGYKYSNQSRRLLVYNTTY NDSGIYYCNAYTTHGKNTYISRRCSSVSIHSHSYYDFYIEHINNITYIDPDSENTQIYCKAISYSNS SYILIYWEDEYGGYIYDNGIYQYDNITLIGNEKVYMSILVLEKSAYYRYVNNTFTCLATSVYVEKK TTT
  • A7XCS4 Type-I IFN receptor; Tanapox virus ⁇ : SEQ ID NO: 9 MKITYIILLICKEIICDNSGDDMYDYIANGNIDYLKTIDNDIINLVNKNCSFREIKTTLAKENEVLMLK CPQLDNYILPWKYMNRSEYTVTWKNISNSTEYNNTRIENNMLMFFPFYNLQAGSKYLCTVSTN KSCDQSVVIVKKSFYSNNCMLSEAKENDNFEIYCGILHAKYNTIKWFKEEKEITNNYKYYTKLGG YVKGINNVTYSDSGKYVCEGYYIDVLKNITYTAKRCVNLTVIPNTYYDFFIVDIPNVTYAKNNKKL EVNCTSFVDINSYDYILTSWLYNGLYLPLGVRIYQLYSTDIFFENFIYRTSTLVFENVDISDDNKTF ECEALSVTLKKIKYTTIKVEK
  • the conjunctive “and/or” between multiple recited elements is understood as encompassing both individual and combined options. For instance, where two elements are conjoined by “and/or”, a first option refers to the applicability of the first element without the second. A second option refers to the applicability of the second element without the first. A third option refers to the applicability of the first and second elements together. Any one of these options is understood to fall within the meaning, and therefore to satisfy the requirement of the term “and/or” as used herein. Concurrent applicability of more than one of the options is also understood to fall within the meaning, and therefore satisfy the requirement of the term “and/or.”
  • Adjuvant A vehicle used to enhance antigenicity.
  • Adjuvants can include: (1) suspensions of minerals (alum, aluminum hydroxide, or phosphate) on which antigen is adsorbed; (2) water-in-oil emulsions in which an antigen solution is emulsified in mineral oil (Freund's incomplete adjuvant), sometimes with the inclusion of killed mycobacteria (Freund's complete adjuvant) to further enhance antigenicity by inhibiting degradation of antigen and/or causing an influx of macrophages and/or activating immune cells; (3) immunostimulatory oligonucleotides such as, for example, those including a CpG motif can also be used as adjuvants (for example see U.S. Pat. No.
  • exemplary adjuvants include, but are not limited to, B7-1, ICAM-1, LFA-3, and GM-CSF.
  • Antigen; antigenic determinant; epitope A compound, composition, or substance that can stimulate the production of antibodies or a CD4 + or CD8 + T-cell response in an animal, including compositions that are injected or absorbed into an animal.
  • An antigen reacts with the immune system to produce an antigen-specific humoral or cellular immune response.
  • the term “antigen” includes all related epitopes of a particular compound, composition or substance.
  • epitope or “antigenic determinant” refers to a site on an antigen to which B- and/or T-cells respond, either alone or in conjunction with another protein such as, for example, a major histocompatibility complex (“MHC”) protein or a T-cell receptor.
  • MHC major histocompatibility complex
  • T cell epitopes are formed from contiguous stretches of 8 to -20 amino acids.
  • B cell epitopes can be formed both from contiguous amino acids or noncontiguous amino acids juxtaposed by secondary and/or tertiary folding of a protein.
  • B cell epitopes formed from contiguous amino acids are typically retained on exposure to denaturing solvents, while epitopes formed by tertiary folding are typically lost on treatment with denaturing solvents.
  • a B cell epitope typically includes at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more amino acids—but generally less than 20 amino acids—in a unique spatial conformation.
  • Methods of determining spatial conformation of epitopes include, for example, x-ray crystallography and 2-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance. See, e.g., “Epitope Mapping Protocols” in Methods in Molecular Biology, Vol. 66, Glenn E. Morris, Ed (1996).
  • An antigen can be a tissue-specific (or tissue-associated) antigen or a disease-specific (or disease-associated) antigen. Those terms are not mutually exclusive, because a tissue-specific antigen can also be a disease-specific antigen.
  • a tissue-specific antigen is expressed in a limited number of tissues. Tissue-specific antigens include, for example, prostate-specific antigen (“PSA”).
  • PSA prostate-specific antigen
  • a disease-specific antigen is expressed coincidentally with a disease process, where antigen expression correlates with or is predictive of development of a particular disease.
  • Disease-specific antigens include, for example, HER-2, which is associated with certain types of breast cancer, or PSA, which is associated with prostate cancer.
  • a disease-specific antigen can be an antigen recognized by T-cells or B-cells.
  • Tissue- and/or disease-specific antigens can include, but are not limited to, bacterial antigens, fungal antigens, parasite antigens, or tumor-associated antigens, or viral antigens.
  • Antigens derived from one or more fungal species or strains thereof such as, for example, Aspergillus clavatus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis, Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis, Candida rugosa, Candida tropicalis, Cryptococcus albidus, Cryptococcus gattii, Cryptococcus laurentii, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, Microsporum canis, Pneumocystis carinii, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Sporothrix schenckii, Stachbotrys chartarum, Tinea barbae, Tinea captitis, Tinea corp
  • Antigens derived from one or more parasite species or strains thereof such as, for example, Anisakis spp. Babesia spp., Baylisascaris procyonis, Cryptosporidium spp., Cyclospora cayetanensis, Diphyllobothrium spp., Dracunculus medinensis, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia duodenalis, Giardia intestinalis, Giardia lamblia, Leishmania sp., Plasmodium falciparum, Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, Taenia spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spiralis , and Trypanosoma cruzi.
  • Tumor-associated antigens Antigens over-expressed or expressed predominantly on particular tumor types, such as, for example, 5- ⁇ -reductase, ⁇ -fetoprotein (“AFP”), AM-1, APC, April, B melanoma antigen gene (“BAGE”), ⁇ -catenin, Bcl12, bcr-abl, Brachyury, CA-125, caspase-8 (“CASP-8”, also known as “FLICE”), Cathepsins, CD19, CD20, CD21/complement receptor 2 (“CR2”), CD22/BL-CAM, CD23/F c ⁇ RII, CD33, CD35/complement receptor 1 (“CR1”), CD44/PGP-1, CD45/leucocyte common antigen (“LCA”), CD46/membrane cofactor protein (“MCP”), CD52/CAMPATH-1, CD55/decay accelerating factor (“DAF”), CD59/protectin, CDC27, CDK4, carcinoembryonic antigen (“
  • Antigens derived from one or more virus types or isolates thereof such as, for example, adenovirus, Coxsackievirus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, cytomegalovirus (“CMV”), dengue virus, Ebola virus, Epstein-Barr virus (“EBV”), Guanarito virus, herpes simplex virus-type 1 (“HSV-1”), herpes simplex virus-type 2 (“HSV-2”), human herpesvirus-type 8 (“HHV-8”), hepatitis A virus (“HAV”), hepatitis B virus (“HBV”), hepatitis C virus (“HCV”), hepatitis D virus (“HDV”), hepatitis E virus (“HEV”), human immunodeficiency virus (“HIV”), influenza virus, Junin virus, Lassa virus, Machupo virus, Marburg virus, measles virus, human metapneumovirus, mumps virus, Norwalk virus, human pap
  • CMV cyto
  • cDNA complementary DNA
  • mRNA messenger RNA
  • a “conservative” variant is a variant protein or polypeptide having one or more amino acid substitutions that do not substantially affect or decrease an activity or antigenicity of the protein or an antigenic epitope thereof.
  • conservative substitutions are those in which a particular amino acid is substituted with another amino acid having the same or similar chemical characteristics. For example, replacing a basic amino acid such as lysine with another basic amino acid such as arginine or glutamine is a conservative substitution.
  • conservative variant also includes the use of a substituted amino acid in place of an unsubstituted parent amino acid, provided that antibodies raised to the substituted polypeptide also immunoreact with the unsubstituted polypeptide, and/or that the substituted polypeptide retains the function of the unstubstituted polypeptide.
  • Non-conservative substitutions are those that replace a particular amino acid with one having different chemical characteristics, and typically reduce an activity or antigenicity of the protein or an antigenic epitope thereof.
  • CD4 Cluster of differentiation factor 4 a T-cell surface protein that mediates interaction with the MHC Class II molecule.
  • Cells that express CD4, referred to as “CD4 + ” cells, are often helper T (e.g., “T H ”, “T H 1” or “T H 2”) cells.
  • CD8 Cluster of differentiation factor 8 a T-cell surface protein that mediates interaction with the MHC Class I molecule.
  • CD8 + a T-cell surface protein that mediates interaction with the MHC Class I molecule.
  • CD8 + cytotoxic T cells.
  • Costimulatory molecule T-cell activation typically requires binding of the T-cell receptor (“TCR”) with a peptide-MHC complex as well as a second signal delivered via the interaction of a costimulatory molecule with its ligand.
  • Costimulatory molecules are molecules that, when bound to their ligand, deliver the second signal required for T-cell activation.
  • the most well-known costimulatory molecule on the T-cell is CD28, which binds to either B7-1 or B7-2.
  • costimulatory molecules that can also provide the second signal necessary for activation of T-cells include intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (“ICAM-1”), intracellular adhesion molecule-2 (“ICAM-2”), leukocyte function associated antigen-1 (“LEA-1”), leukocyte function associated antigen-2 (“LEA-2”), and leukocyte function associated antigen-3 (“LEA-3”).
  • ICAM-1 intracellular adhesion molecule-1
  • ICAM-2 intracellular adhesion molecule-2
  • LFA-3 leukocyte function associated antigen-3
  • TRICOM leukocyte function associated antigen-3
  • Dendritic cell is the main antigen presenting cells (“APCs”) involved in primary immune responses. Dendritic cells include plasmacytoid dendritic cells and myeloid dendritic cells. Their major function is to obtain antigen in tissues, migrate to lymphoid organs and present the antigen in order to activate T-cells. Immature dendritic cells originate in the bone marrow and reside in the periphery as immature cells.
  • Double-stranded RNA dsRNA
  • Recombinant poxvirus virus comprising heterologous or native nucleic acids expressing an increased number or amount of dsRNA (e.g. expressing excess dsRNA) according to any embodiment of the present invention triggers the release of cytokines, chemokines, effector molecules and/or increased expression of costimulatory molecules or activates one or more pattern recognition receptor(s) (PRRs) and/or activates cells (e.g dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells or other types of immune cells) and thus preferably triggers or induces an enhanced innate immune response.
  • PRRs pattern recognition receptor
  • Excess dsRNA can be determined by any method suitable, preferably by using a method to determine enhanced innate immune response or any method as described in the examples preferably the method according to Example 16.
  • excess dsRNA can be defined as the amount of dsRNA early in infection that generates an enhanced innate immune response when using the recombinant poxvirus vector of the present invention. More preferably, excess dsRNA can be defined as the amount of dsRNA transcribed during the early phase of virus infection with the recombinant poxvirus comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing or generating dsRNA compared to the control.
  • Excess dsRNA can be generated by driving transcription of sense and antisense RNA with identical or overlapping sequence stretches preferably of at least 100 by in length by using poxviral promoters with early activity (e,g, immediate early, early, or early/late poxviral promoters).
  • Another method of determining excess dsRNA is to determine enhanced activation of one or more PRR(s) e.g. PKR as determined by increased phosphorylation of a PKR substrate (e.g. elF2 ⁇ at position Serine-51) as shown in Example 7.
  • a PKR substrate e.g. elF2 ⁇ at position Serine-5
  • elF2 ⁇ at position Serine-51) increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 15-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more as compared to the control.
  • early in infection is the time span between binding of the virus particle (e.g. the recombinant poxvirus) to the host cell and onset of the viral genome replication (e.g. recombinant poxvirus genome replication).
  • virus particle e.g. the recombinant poxvirus
  • viral genome replication e.g. recombinant poxvirus genome replication
  • early proteins transcription factors for the replication of the viral dsDNA genome and the next transcription phase termed intermediate that can only start after onset of viral genome replication.
  • early in infection is within 30 min, one hour or two hours of infection or after inoculation, preferably after the virus core has been released into the cytoplasm of a cell.
  • Expression Control Sequences Nucleic acid sequences that regulate the expression of a heterologous nucleic acid sequence to which they are operatively linked. Expression control sequences are operatively linked to a nucleic acid sequence when the expression control sequences control and regulate the transcription and/or translation of the nucleic acid sequence.
  • expression control sequences encompasses promoters, enhancers, transcription terminators, start codons, splicing signals for introns, and stop codons.
  • control sequences includes, at a minimum, components the presence of which can influence transcription and/or translation of the heterologous nucleic acid sequence and can also include additional components whose presence is advantageous such as, for example, leader sequences and fusion partner sequences.
  • expression control sequences encompasses promoter sequences.
  • a promoter is a minimal sequence sufficient to direct transcription of a homologous or heterologous gene. Also included are those promoter elements sufficient to render promoter-dependent gene expression cell-type specific, tissue-specific, or inducible by external signals or agents; such elements may be located in the 5′ or 3′ regions of the gene.
  • promoter encompasses both constitutive and inducible promoters. See, e.g., Bitter et al., Methods in Enzymology 153:516-544 (1987).
  • Exemplary promoter sequences include, but are not limited to, the retrovirus long terminal repeat (“LTR”), the adenovirus major late promoter, the vaccinia virus 7.5K promoter (“Pr7.5”), the vaccinia virus synthetic early/late promoter (“sE/L”), the PrSynllm promoter, the PrLE1 promoter, the PrH5m promoter, the PrS promoter, a hybrid early/late promoter, or a cowpox virus ATI promoter.
  • LTR retrovirus long terminal repeat
  • Pr7.5 the vaccinia virus 7.5K promoter
  • sE/L vaccinia virus synthetic early/late promoter
  • PrSynllm promoter the PrLE1 promoter
  • PrH5m promoter the PrH5m promoter
  • PrS promoter a hybrid early/late promoter
  • cowpox virus ATI promoter cowpox virus ATI promoter.
  • Suitable promoters include, but are not limited to, the SV40 early promoter, the adenovirus major late promoter, the human CMV immediate early I promoter, and various poxvirus promoters including, but not limited to the following vaccinia virus or MVA—derived promoters: the 30K promoter, the I3 promoter, the sE/L promoter, the Pr7.5K promoter, the 40K promoter, the C1 promoter, the PrSynllm promoter, the PrLE1 promoter, the PrH5m promoter, the PrS promoter, a hybrid early/late promoter PrHyb, the PrS5E promoter, the PrA5E promoter, the Pr13.5-long promoter, and the Pr4LS5E promoter; a cowpox virus ATI promoter, or the following fowlpox-derived promoters: the Pr7.5K promoter, the I3 promoter, the 30K promoter, or the 40K promoter.
  • MVA—derived promoters the
  • a polypeptide that is heterologous to modified vaccinia virus Ankara (“MVA”) originated from a nucleic acid not included within the MVA genome such as, for example, a bacterial antigen, a fungal antigen, a parasite antigen, a tumor-associated antigen, or a viral antigen.
  • MVA modified vaccinia virus Ankara
  • the term is interpreted broadly to encompass any non-native nucleic acid encoding an RNA or protein not normally encoded by the MVA genome or any non-native protein encoded by such a non-native nucleic acid.
  • proteins and polypeptides are not limited to particular native amino acid sequences but encompass sequences identical to the native sequence as well as modifications to the native sequence, such as deletions, additions, insertions and substitutions.
  • such homologues or variants have at least about 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, or 89%, at least about 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, or 94%, at least about 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99%, or about 100% amino acid sequence identity with the referenced protein or polypeptide.
  • the term homologue or variant also encompasses truncated, deleted or otherwise modified nucleotide or protein sequences.
  • homologue or variant also encompasses degenerate variants of native sequences.
  • a degenerate variant is a polynucleotide encoding a protein or fragment thereof that includes a sequence containing codons that differ from the native or wild-type gene sequence but still specifies the same amino acid sequence.
  • the genetic code specifies 20 natural amino acids, most of which are encoded by more than one codon. Thus, it is a redundant or degenerate code. All degenerate nucleotide sequences are encompassed in this disclosure provided the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the degenerate polynucleotide remains unchanged.
  • sequence identity between amino acid sequences Two or more sequences can be compared by determining their “percent identity.” The percent identity of two sequences is the number of exact matches between two aligned sequences divided by the length of the shorter sequence and multiplied by 100.
  • Percent (%) amino acid sequence identity with respect to proteins, polypeptides, antigenic protein fragments, antigens and epitopes described herein is defined as the percentage of amino acid residues in a candidate sequence that are identical with the amino acid residues in the reference sequence (i.e., the protein, polypeptide, antigenic protein fragment, antigen or epitope from which it is derived), after aligning the sequences and introducing gaps, if necessary, to achieve the maximum percent sequence identity, and not considering any conservative substitutions as part of the sequence identity.
  • Alignment for purposes of determining percent amino acid sequence identity can be achieved in various ways that are within the level of ordinary skill in the art, for example, using publically available computer software such as BLAST, ALIGN, or Megalign (DNASTAR) software. Those skilled in the art can determine appropriate parameters for measuring alignment, including any algorithms needed to achieve maximum alignment over the full length of the sequences being compared.
  • Host cells Cells in which a vector can be propagated and its DNA expressed.
  • the cells may be prokaryotic (e.g., bacterial) or eukaryotic (e.g., mammalian or human).
  • the term also encompasses progeny of the original host cell, even though all progeny may not be identical to the parental cell since there may be mutations that occur during replication.
  • Immune response An adaptive response of an immune system cell, such as a B-cell, T-cell, or monocyte, to a stimulus.
  • An adaptive response is a response to a particular antigen, and is thus described as “antigen-specific”.
  • An adaptive immune response can include the production of antibodies to a particular antigen by a B-cell, T-cell help by a CEA+helper T-cell, expanding a population of antigen-specific CD8 + T-cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes,“CTLs”), cytotoxic activity of CD8 + T-cells directed against cells expressing a particular antigen, or yet another type of antigen-specific immune response.
  • CTLs cytotoxic T lymphocytes
  • Immunogenic composition refers to a composition comprising a recombinant poxvirus comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing early double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). The term also encompasses recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing early dsRNA and nucleic acid sequences encoding a heterologous disease-associated antigen.
  • the heterologous disease-associated antigen is an infectious disease-associated antigen or a tumor-associated antigen.
  • the disease-associated antigen is an infectious disease antigen.
  • the infectious disease antigen is a viral antigen, a bacterial antigen, a fungal antigen, or a parasite antigen.
  • the recombinant poxvirus may optionally include additional nucleic acids encoding, for example, one or more costimulatory molecules as described elsewhere herein.
  • Such compositions may include the recombinant poxvirus, optionally formulated with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers.
  • a subject “in need thereof” may be an individual who has been diagnosed with or previously treated for a medical condition resulting from, for example, a viral, bacterial, fungal, or parasite infection, or for a neoplastic condition (i.e., cancer).
  • the subject in need thereof may also be a subject at risk for developing a medical condition (e.g., having a family history of the condition, life-style factors indicative of risk for the condition, etc.).
  • Lymphocytes A type of white blood cell that is involved in the immune defenses of the body. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-cells and T-cells.
  • MHC Major Histocompatibility Complex
  • HLA human leukocyte antigens
  • Mammal This term includes both human and non-human mammals. Similarly, the term “subject” includes both human and veterinary subjects.
  • ORF Open reading frame
  • a series of nucleotide codons following a eukaryotic start codon (ATG) specifying a series of amino acids without any internal termination codons that is capable of being translated to produce a polypeptide, or a series of nucleotides without any internal termination codons that is capable of being transcribed to produce an RNA molecule, such as, for example, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) or transfer RNA (tRNA).
  • rRNA ribosomal RNA
  • tRNA transfer RNA
  • a first nucleic acid sequence is operably linked to a second nucleic acid sequence when the first nucleic acid sequence is placed in a functional relationship with the second nucleic acid sequence.
  • a promoter is operably linked to a coding sequence if the promoter is placed in a position where it can direct transcription of the coding sequence.
  • operably linked DNA sequences are contiguous and, where necessary to join two protein-coding regions, in the same reading frame.
  • compositions and formulations using conventional pharmaceutically acceptable carriers suitable for administration of the vectors and compositions disclosed herein. Generally the nature of the carrier used depends on the particular mode of administration being employed.
  • parenteral formulations usually comprise injectable fluids that include pharmaceutically and physiologically acceptable fluids such as water, physiological saline, balanced salt solutions, aqueous dextrose, glycerol or the like, as a vehicle.
  • pharmaceutically and physiologically acceptable fluids such as water, physiological saline, balanced salt solutions, aqueous dextrose, glycerol or the like
  • conventional non-toxic solid carriers include, for example, pharmaceutical grades of mannitol, lactose, starch, or magnesium stearate.
  • Pharmaceutical compositions can also contain minor amounts of non-toxic auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, preservatives, pH-buffering agents and the like such as, for example, sodium acetate or sorbitan monolaurate.
  • those terms refer to an amount that results in a desired pharmacological and/or physiological effect for a specified condition (e.g., a medical condition, disease, infection, or disorder) or one or more of its symptoms and/or to completely or partially prevent the occurrence of the condition or symptom thereof and/or may be therapeutic in terms of a partial or complete cure for the condition and/or adverse effect attributable to the condition.
  • compositions being administered will vary depending on the composition being administered, the condition being treated/prevented, the severity of the condition being treated or prevented, the age and relative health of the individual, the route and form of administration, the judgment of the attending medical or veterinary practitioner, and other factors appreciated by the skilled artisan in view of the teachings provided herein.
  • Polynucleotide refers to a nucleic acid polymer at least 300 bases long composed of ribonucleotides (i.e., RNA) or deoxyribonucleotides (i.e., DNA or cDNA) and capable or not capable of encoding a polypeptide or protein.
  • RNA ribonucleotides
  • DNA or cDNA deoxyribonucleotides
  • the term includes single- and double-stranded forms of DNA.
  • polypeptide or Protein refers to a polymer at least 100 amino acids long, generally greater than 30 amino acids in length.
  • Poxvirus refers to either of the two subfamilies of the family Poxviridae: Chordopoxvirinae and Entomopoxvirinae. Members of the Chordopoxvirinae subfamily infect vertebrates. Members of the Entomopoxvirinae subfamily infect insects (i.e., invertebrates).
  • parapoxvirus also refers to members of any of the genera of Chordopoxvirinae (e.g., avipox viruses, capripox viruses, leporipox viruses, molluscipox viruses, orthopox viruses, parapox viruses, suipoxviruses, and yatapox viruses), including those four that may infect humans (orthopox viruses, parapox viruses, yatapox viruses, and molluscipox viruses), whether productively or not, but preferably the orthopox and/or avipox viruses.
  • Chordopoxvirinae e.g., avipox viruses, capripox viruses, leporipox viruses, molluscipox viruses, orthopox viruses, parapox viruses, suipoxviruses, and yatapox viruses
  • poxvirus also refers to members of any of the genera of Entomopoxvirinae (e.g., alpha-entomopox viruses, beta-entomopox viruses, and gamma-entomopox viruses).
  • Avipox viruses include canarypox virus, fowlpox virus, mynahpox virus, pigeonpox virus, and quailpox virus.
  • Capripox viruses include sheeppox viruses, goatpox viruses, and lumpy skin disease virus.
  • Leporipox viruses include myxoma virus, Shope fibroma virus (also known as rabbit fibroma virus), hare fibroma virus, and squirrel fibroma virus.
  • Molluscipox viruses include Molluscum contagiosum virus.
  • Orthopox viruses include buffalopox virus, camelpox virus, cowpox virus, ectromelia virus, monkeypox virus, raccoonpox virus, smallpox virus (also known as variola virus), and vaccinia virus.
  • vaccinia virus refers to both the wild-type vaccinia virus and any of the various attenuated strains or isolates subsequently isolated including, for example, vaccinia virus-Western Reserve, vaccinia virus-Copenhagen, Dryvax (also known as vaccinia virus-Wyeth), ACAM2000, chorioallantois vaccinia virus Ankara (CVA), modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), and modified vaccinia virus Ankara-Bavarian Nordic (“MVA-BN”).
  • Parapox viruses include bovine papular stomatitis virus, ORF virus, parapoxvirus of New Zealand red deer, and pseudocowpox virus.
  • Suipox viruses include swinepox virus.
  • Yatapox viruses include tanapox virus and yaba monkey tumor virus.
  • Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara refers to a virus generated by more than 570 serial passages of the dermal vaccinia strain Ankara [Chorioallantois vaccinia virus Ankara virus (CVA); for review see Mayr et al. (1975), Infection 3:6-14] on chicken embryo fibroblasts. CVA was maintained in the Vaccination Institute, Ankara, Turkey for many years and used as the basis for vaccination of humans. However, due to the often severe post-vaccination complications associated with vaccinia viruses, there were several attempts to generate a more attenuated, safer smallpox vaccine.
  • MVA derived from MVA-571 seed stock (corresponding to the 571 st passage) was registered in Germany as the primer vaccine in a two-stage parenteral smallpox vaccination program.
  • MVA-572 was used in approximately 120,000 Caucasian individuals, the majority children between 1 and 3 years of age, with no reported severe side effects, even though many of the subjects were among the population with high risk of complications associated with vaccinia (Mayr et al. (1978), Monbl. Bacteriol. (B) 167:375-390).
  • MVA-572 was deposited at the European Collection of Animal Cell Cultures as ECACC V94012707.
  • MVA-572 was used in Germany during the smallpox eradication program, and MVA-575 was extensively used as a veterinary vaccine.
  • MVA-575 was deposited on December 7, 2000, at the European Collection of Animal Cell Cultures (ECACC) with the deposition number V00120707.
  • the attenuated CVA-virus MVA (Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara) was obtained by serial propagation (more than 570 passages) of the CVA on primary chicken embryo fibroblasts.
  • MVA was further passaged by Bavarian Nordic and is designated MVA-BN.
  • MVA as well as MVA-BN lacks approximately 13% (26.6 kb mainly from six regions) of the genome compared with ancestral CVA virus. The deletions affect a number of virulence and host range genes, as well as the genes required to form type A inclusion bodies.
  • a sample of MVA-BN corresponding to passage 583 was deposited on Aug. 30, 2000 at the European Collection of Cell Cultures (ECACC) under number V00083008.
  • MVA-BN can attach to and enter human cells where virally-encoded genes are expressed very efficiently. However, assembly and release of progeny virus does not occur. MVA-BN is strongly adapted to primary chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cells and does not replicate in human cells. In human cells, viral genes are expressed, and no infectious virus is produced. MVA-BN is classified as Biosafety Level 1 organism according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States. Preparations of MVA-BN and derivatives have been administered to many types of animals, and to more than 4000 human subjects, including immune-deficient individuals. All vaccinations have proven to be generally safe and well tolerated.
  • CEF primary chicken embryo fibroblast
  • MVA-BN has been shown to elicit both humoral and cellular immune responses to vaccinia and to heterologous gene products encoded by genes cloned into the MVA genome [E. Harrer et al. (2005), Antivir. Ther. 10(2):285-300; A. Cosma et al. (2003), Vaccine 22(1):21-9; M. Di Nicola et al. (2003), Hum. Gene Ther. 14(14):1347-1360; M. Di Nicola et al. (2004), Clin. Cancer Res., 10(16) :5381-5390].
  • MVA-BN as well as a derivative or variant of MVA-BN fails to reproductively replicate in vivo in humans and mice, even in severely immune suppressed mice. More specifically, MVA-BN or a derivative or variant of MVA-BN has preferably also the capability of reproductive replication in chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF), but no capability of reproductive replication in the human keratinocyte cell line HaCat [Boukamp et al (1988), J. Cell. Biol. 106: 761-771], the human bone osteosarcoma cell line 143B (ECACC No.
  • CEF chicken embryo fibroblasts
  • a derivative or variant of MVA-BN has a virus amplification ratio at least two-fold less, more preferably three-fold less than MVA-575 in Hela cells and HaCaT cell lines. Tests and assay for these properties of MVA variants are described in WO 02/42480 (US 2003/0206926) and WO 03/048184 (US 2006/0159699), both incorporated herein by reference.
  • the amplification or replication of a virus is normally expressed as the ratio of virus produced from an infected cell (output) to the amount originally used to infect the cell in the first place (input) referred to as the “amplification ratio”.
  • An amplification ratio of “1” defines an amplification status where the amount of virus produced from the infected cells is the same as the amount initially used to infect the cells, meaning that the infected cells are permissive for virus infection and reproduction.
  • an amplification ratio of less than 1, i.e., a decrease in output compared to the input level indicates a lack of reproductive replication and therefore attenuation of the virus.
  • MVA-based vaccine The advantages of MVA-based vaccine include their safety profile as well as availability for large scale vaccine production. Preclinical tests have revealed that MVA-BN demonstrates superior attenuation and efficacy compared to other MVA strains (WO 02/42480). An additional property of MVA-BN strains is the ability to induce substantially the same level of immunity in vaccinia virus prime/vaccinia virus boost regimes when compared to DNA-prime/vaccinia virus boost regimes.
  • MVA-BN viruses are considered to be safe because of their distinct replication deficiency in mammalian cells and their well-established avirulence. Furthermore, in addition to its efficacy, the feasibility of industrial scale manufacturing can be beneficial. Additionally, MVA-based vaccines can deliver multiple heterologous antigens and allow for simultaneous induction of humoral and cellular immunity.
  • an MVA viral strain suitable for generating the recombinant virus may be strain MVA-572, MVA-575 or any similarly attenuated MVA strain.
  • a mutant MVA such as the deleted chorioallantois vaccinia virus Ankara (dCVA).
  • dCVA comprises six deletion sites of the MVA genome, referred to as deletion I (del l), deletion II (del II), deletion III (del III), deletion IV (del IV), deletion V (del V), and deletion VI (del VI).
  • the deletion sites are particularly useful for the insertion of multiple heterologous sequences.
  • the dCVA can reproductively replicate (with an amplification ratio of greater than 10) in a human cell line (such as human 293, 143B, and MRC-5 cell lines), which then enable the optimization by further mutation or attenuation useful for a virus-based vaccination strategy (see, e.g., WO 2011/092029).
  • a human cell line such as human 293, 143B, and MRC-5 cell lines
  • Prime-boost vaccination refers to a vaccination strategy using a first, priming injection of a vaccine targeting a specific antigen followed at intervals by one or more boosting injections of the same vaccine antigen.
  • Prime-boost vaccination may be homologous or heterologous with respect to the vaccine modality (RNA, DNA, protein, vector, virus-like particle) delivering the vaccine antigen.
  • a homologous prime-boost vaccination uses a vaccine comprising the same immunogen and vector for both the priming injection and the one or more boosting injections.
  • a heterologous prime-boost vaccination uses a vaccine comprising the same immunogen for both the priming injection and the one or more boosting injections but different vectors for the priming injection and the one or more boosting injections.
  • a homologous prime-boost vaccination may use an MVA vector comprising nucleic acids expressing an immunogen and TRICOM for both the priming injection and the one or more boosting injections.
  • a heterologous prime-boost vaccination may use an MVA vector comprising nucleic acids expressing an immunogen and TRICOM for the priming injection and a fowlpox vector comprising nucleic acids expressing an immunogen and TRICOM for the one or more boosting injections.
  • Heterologous prime-boost vaccination also encompasses various combinations such as, for example, use of a plasmid encoding an immunogen in the priming injection and use of a poxvirus vector encoding the same immunogen in the one or more boosting injections, or use of a recombinant protein immunogen in the priming injection and use of a plasmid or poxvirus vector encoding the same protein immunogen in the one or more boosting injections.
  • Recombinant when applied to a nucleic acid, vector, poxvirus and the like refers to a nucleic acid, vector, or poxvirus made by an artificial combination of two or more otherwise heterologous segments of nucleic acid sequence, or to a nucleic acid, vector or poxvirus comprising such an artificial combination of two or more otherwise heterologous segments of nucleic acid sequence.
  • the artificial combination is most commonly accomplished by the artificial manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids, using well-established genetic engineering techniques.
  • Sequence identity refers to the degree of identity between the nucleic acid or amino acid sequences. Sequence identity is frequently measured in terms of percent identity (often described as sequence “similarity” or “homology”). The higher the percent sequence identity, the more similar the two sequences are. Homologs or variants of a protein immunogen will have a relatively high degree of sequence identity when aligned using standard methods.
  • NCBI Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) (Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403, 1990) is available from several sources, including the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, Bethesda, Md.; see also http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi), for use in connection with the sequence analysis programs blastp, blastn, blastx, tblastn and tblastx.
  • NCBI National Center for Biotechnology Information
  • Homologs and variants of a protein immunogen typically have at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% amino acid sequence identity over a full-length alignment with the amino acid sequence of the wild-type immunogen prepared with NCBI Blast v2.0, using blastp set to the default parameters.
  • the Blast 2 sequences function is employed using the default BLOSUM62 matrix set to the default parameters (gap existence cost of 11, and a per residue gap cost of 1).
  • Subject Living multi-cellular vertebrate organisms, including, for example, humans, non-human mammals and birds.
  • the term “subject” may be used interchangeably with the terms “mammal” or “animal” herein.
  • T-Cell A lymphocyte or white blood cell essential to the adaptive immune response.
  • T-cells include, but are not limited to, CD4 + T-cells and CD8 + T-cells.
  • a CD4 + T-cell is an immune cell that carries a marker on its surface known as “cluster of differentiation 4” (“CD4”). These cells, also known as helper T-cells, help orchestrate the immune response, including both antibody and CTL responses.
  • CD8 + T-cells carry the “cluster of differentiation 8” (“CD8”) marker.
  • CD8 + T-cells include both CTLs, memory CTLs, and suppressor T-cells.
  • Therapeutically active polypeptide An agent composed of amino acids, such as a protein, that induces a biological effect and/or an adaptive immune response, as measured by clinical response (e.g., an increase in CD4 + T-cells, CD8 + T-cells, or B-cells, an increase in protein expression level, a measurable reduction in tumor size, or a reduction in number of metastases).
  • Therapeutically active molecules can also be made from nucleic acids such as, for example, a poxvirus vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding a protein or protein immunogen operably linked to an expression control sequence.
  • a “therapeutically effective amount” is a quantity of a composition or a cell sufficient to achieve a desired therapeutic or clinical effect in a subject being treated.
  • a therapeutically effective amount of a poxviral vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding a protein or protein immunogen operably linked to an expression control sequence would be an amount sufficient to elicit a biologic response or an antigen-specific immune response or to reduce or eliminate clinical signs or symptoms of an infectious or other disease in a patient or population of patients having a disease or disorder.
  • a therapeutically effective amount of the poxvirus vectors and compositions comprising the poxvirus vectors provided herein is an amount sufficient to raise an immune response to cells expressing the target antigen. The immune response must be of sufficient magnitude to reduce or eliminate clinical signs or symptoms of disease in a patient or population of patients having the targeted disorder.
  • transduced or Transformed refers to a cell into which a recombinant nucleic acid has been introduced by standard molecular biological methods.
  • transduction encompasses all techniques by which a nucleic acid molecule might be introduced into such a cell, including infection with viral vectors, transformation with plasmid vectors, and introduction of naked DNA by electroporation, lipofection, or particle gun acceleration.
  • TRICOM A Triad of COstimlatory Molecules consisting of B7-1 (also known as CD80), intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1, also known as CD54) and lymphocyte function-associated antigen-3 (LFA-3, also known as CD58), commonly included in recombinant viral vectors (e.g., poxviral vectors) expressing a specific antigen in order to increase the antigen-specific immune response.
  • the individual components of TRICOM can be under the control of the same or different promoters, and can be provided on the same vector with the specific antigen or on a separate vector.
  • Exemplary vectors are disclosed, for example, in Hodge et al., “A Triad of Costimulatory Molecules Synergize to Amplify T-Cell Activation,” Cancer Res. 59:5800-5807 (1999) and U.S. Pat. No. 7,211,432 B2, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.
  • Vector A carrier introducing a nucleic acid molecule of interest into a host cell, thereby producing a transduced or transformed host cell.
  • Vectors generally include nucleic acid sequences enabling them to replicate in a host cell, such as an origin of replication, as well as one or more selectable marker genes, expression control sequences, restriction endonuclease recognition sequences, primer sequences and a variety of other genetic elements known in the art.
  • Commonly used vector types include plasmids for expression in bacteria (e.g., E. coli ) or yeast (e.g., S.
  • Viral vectors include poxvirus vectors, retrovirus vectors, adenovirus vectors, herpes virus vectors, baculovirus vectors, Sindbis virus vectors, and poliovirus vectors, among others.
  • Poxvirus vectors include, but are not limited to orthopox viruses, avipox viruses, parapox viruses, yatapox viruses, and molluscipox viruses, but preferably the orthopox and/or avipox viruses, as defined in more detail above.
  • Orthopox viruses include smallpox virus (also known as variola virus), vaccinia virus, cowpox virus, and monkeypox virus.
  • Avipox viruses include canarypox virus and fowlpox virus.
  • vaccinia virus refers to both the wild-type vaccinia virus and any of the various attenuated strains or isolates subsequently isolated including, for example, vaccinia virus -Western Reserve, vaccinia virus -Copenhagen, Dryvax (also known as vaccinia virus -Wyeth), ACAM2000, modified vaccinia virus Ankara (“MVA”), and modified vaccinia virus Ankara-Bavarian Nordic (“MVA-BN”).
  • recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing early double-stranded RNA (dsRNA).
  • the recombinant poxviruses comprise heterologous nucleic acids expressing excess dsRNA within 1 or 2 hours post-infection.
  • recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing early or excess dsRNA prior to genome replication of said recombinant poxvirus.
  • the recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing early ds RNA within 1 or 2 hours post-infection.
  • the recombinant poxviruses can comprise a single heterologous nucleic acid from which both strands are transcribed to generate early dsRNA.
  • the recombinant poxviruses can comprise an additional promoter directing early antisense transcription of an early transcribed native poxvirus gene, thus expressing early dsRNA.
  • the recombinant poxviruses generating early dsRNA further comprise nucleic acid sequences encoding a heterologous disease-associated antigen.
  • the recombinant poxvirus further comprises nucleic acid sequences encoding one or more costimulatory molecules.
  • the one or more costimulatory molecules is TRICOM (i.e., B7-1, ICAM-1 and LFA-3).
  • the heterologous disease-associated antigen is an infectious disease-associated antigen or a tumor-associated antigen.
  • the heterologous disease-associated antigen is an infectious disease antigen.
  • the infectious disease antigen is a viral antigen, a bacterial antigen, a fungal antigen, or a parasite antigen.
  • the infectious disease antigen is a viral antigen.
  • the viral antigen is derived from a virus selected from the group consisting of adenovirus, Coxsackievirus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, cytomegalovirus (CMV), dengue virus, Ebola virus, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Guanarito virus, herpes simplex virus-type 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus-type 2 (HSV-2), human herpesvirus-type 8 (HHV-8), hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis D virus (HDV), hepatitis E virus (HEV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza virus, Junin virus, Lassa virus, Machupo virus, Marburg virus, measles virus, human metapneumovirus, mumps virus, Norwalk virus, human
  • the infectious disease antigen is a bacterial antigen.
  • the bacterial antigen is derived from a bacterium selected from the group consisting of Bacillus anthracis, Bordetella pertussis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Brucella abortus, Brucella canis, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis, Campylobacter jejuni, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydophila psittaci, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium tetani, Corynebacterium diptheriae, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Escherichia coli, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, Escherichia coli 157: H
  • the infectious disease antigen is a fungal antigen.
  • the fungal antigen is derived from a fungus selected from the group consisting of Aspergillus clavatus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Candida albicans, Candida dubliniensis, Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis, Candida rugosa, Candida tropicalis, Cryptococcus albidus, Cryptococcus gattii, Cryptococcus laurentii, Cryptococcus neoformans, Histoplasma capsulatum, Microsporum canis, Pneumocystis carinii, Pneumocystis jirovecii, Sporothrix schenckii, Stachbotrys chartarum, Tinea
  • the infectious disease antigen is a parasite antigen.
  • the parasite antigen is derived from a parasite selected from the group consisting of Anisakis spp. Babesia spp., Baylisascaris procyonis, Cryptosporidium spp., Cyclospora cayetanensis, Diphyllobothrium spp., Dracunculus medinensis, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia duodenalis, Giardia intestinalis, Giardia lamblia, Leishmania sp., Plasmodium falciparum, Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma japonicum, Taenia spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spiralis , and Trypanosoma cruzi.
  • the heterologous disease-associated antigen is a tumor-associated antigen.
  • the tumor-associated antigen is selected from the group consisting of 5-a-reductase, a-fetoprotein (AFP), AM-1, APC, April, B melanoma antigen gene (BAGE), ⁇ -catenin, Bc112, bcr-abl, Brachyury, CA-125, caspase-8 (CASP-8, also known as FLICE), Cathepsins, CD19, CD20, CD21/complement receptor 2 (CR2), CD22/BL-CAM, CD23/F c ERII, CD33, CD35/complement receptor 1 (CR1), CD44/PGP-1, CD45/leucocyte common antigen (LCA), CD46/membrane cofactor protein (MCP), CD52/CAMPATH-1, CD55/decay accelerating factor (DAF), CD59/protectin, CDC27, CDK4, carcinoembryonic antigen
  • the recombinant poxvirus is a member of the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae or the subfamily Entomopoxvirinae. In certain embodiments, the recombinant poxvirus is a member of the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. In certain embodiments, the recombinant poxvirus is a member of a Chordopoxvirinae genera selected from the group consisting of avipox viruses, capripox viruses, leporipox viruses, molluscipox viruses, orthopox viruses, parapox viruses, suipoxviruses, and yatapox viruses.
  • the recombinant poxvirus is an avipox virus.
  • the avipox virus is selected from the group consisting of canarypox virus, fowlpox virus, mynahpox virus, pigeonpox virus, and quailpox virus.
  • the recombinant poxvirus is a capripox virus.
  • the capripox virus is selected from the group consisting of sheeppox virus, goatpox virus, and lumpy skin disease virus.
  • the recombinant poxvirus is a leporipox virus.
  • the leporipox virus is selected from the group consisting of myxoma virus, Shope fibroma virus (also known as rabbit fibroma virus), hare fibroma virus, and squirrel fibroma virus.
  • the recombinant poxvirus is a molluscipox virus.
  • the molluscipox virus is Molluscum contagiosum virus.
  • the recombinant poxvirus is an orthopox virus.
  • the orthopox virus is selected from the group consisting buffalopox virus, camelpox virus, cowpox virus, ectromelia virus, monkeypox virus, raccoonpox virus, smallpox virus (also known as variola virus), and vaccinia virus.
  • the orthopox virus is vaccinia virus.
  • the vaccinia virus is selected from the group consisting of vaccinia virus-Western Reserve, vaccinia virus-Copenhagen, Dryvax (also known as vaccinia virus-Wyeth), ACAM2000, chorioallantois vaccinia virus Ankara (“CVA”), modified vaccinia virus Ankara (“MVA”), and modified vaccinia virus Ankara-Bavarian Nordic (“MVA-BN”).
  • the recombinant poxvirus is a parapox virus.
  • the parapox virus is selected from the group consisting of bovine papular stomatitis virus, ORF virus, parapoxvirus of New Zealand red deer, and pseudocowpox virus.
  • the recombinant poxvirus is a suipox virus.
  • the suipox virus is swinepox virus.
  • the recombinant poxvirus is a yatapox virus.
  • the yatapox virus is selected from the group consisting of tanapox virus and yaba monkey tumor virus.
  • the heterologous nucleic acids expressing early dsRNA comprise sequences encoding complementary RNA transcripts, wherein the complementary RNA transcripts anneal after transcription to produce dsRNA.
  • the complementary RNA transcripts comprise protein-encoding open reading frames (ORFs) or non-protein-coding genes.
  • ORFs open reading frames
  • the complementary RNA transcripts or complementary portions of the RNA transcripts overlap by 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, or 1000 nucleotides.
  • the complementary RNA transcripts overlap by more than 50, more than 100, more than 150, more than 200, more than 250, more than 300, more than 350, more than 400, more than 450, more than 500, more than 550, more than 600, more than 650, more than 700, more than 750, more than 800, more than 850, more than 900, more than 950, or more than 1000 nucleotides.
  • the complementary RNA transcripts overlap by between 100 and 1000, between 200 and 1000, between 300 and 1000, between 400 and 1000, between 500 and 1000, between 600 and 1000, between 700 and 1000, between 800 and 1000, between 900 and 1000, between 200 and 900, between 300 and 800, between 400 and 700, between 300 and 750, between 300 and 730, or between 500 and 600 nucleotides.
  • the heterologous nucleic acids encoding complementary RNA transcripts comprise two complementary sequences.
  • the complementary sequences are separated by one or more essential viral genes or non-complementary nucleic acid.
  • the identical or highly similar sequences encoding partially or completely complementary transcripts are separated by one or more essential viral genes.
  • the heterologous nucleic acid encoding complementary RNA transcripts comprise two complementary sequences on separate transcripts or nucleic acids.
  • a sense messenger RNA is transcribed from one complementary sequence and an anti-sense mRNA is transcribed from the other complementary sequence.
  • a sense messenger RNA is transcribed from one of the two identical or highly similar sequences and an anti-sense mRNA is transcribed from the other identical or highly similar sequence.
  • expression of the sequences encoding overlapping complementary RNA transcripts is directed by one or more poxviral promoters.
  • the one or more poxviral promoters is an early promoter or an immediate-early promoter.
  • the complementary RNA transcript or portion of the RNA transcript comprises nucleotides on different nucleic acid molecules.
  • the complementary portions of the RNA transcripts comprise nucleic acids other than siRNA or complementary RNA transcripts of short stretches such as e.g. 21 to 23 basepairs.
  • the poxviral promoter is an early promoter.
  • the early promoter is selected from the group consisting of the Pr7.5 promoter, and the PrS promoter.
  • the poxviral promoter is an immediate-early promoter.
  • the immediate-early promoter is selected from the group consisting of the I3L promoter, the 30K promoter, the 40K promoter, the PrHyb promoter, the PrS5E promoter, the Pr4LS5E promoter, and the Pr13.5-long promoter.
  • immunogenic compositions comprising any of the recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) provided herein, and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient.
  • the immunogenic compositions comprise any of the recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing dsRNA provided herein, and further comprise nucleic acid sequences encoding any of the heterologous disease-associated antigens provided herein and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient.
  • compositions comprising any of the recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing early double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) provided herein, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions comprise any of the recombinant poxviruses comprising heterologous nucleic acids expressing dsRNA provided herein, and further comprise nucleic acid sequences encoding any of the heterologous disease-associated antigens provided herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient.
  • the recombinant poxviruses used to prepare the immunogenic compositions and the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein comprise a suspension or solution of recombinant poxvirus particles having a concentration range from 10 4 to 10 9 TCID 50 /ml, 10 5 to 5 ⁇ 10 8 TCID 50 /ml, 10 6 to 10 8 TCID 50 /ml, or 10 7 to 10 8 TCID 50 /ml.
  • the compositions are formulated as single doses comprising between 10 6 to 10 9 TCID 50 , or comprising 10 6 TCID 50 , 10 7 TCID 50 , 10 8 TCID 50 or 5 ⁇ 10 8 TCID 50 .
  • the recombinant poxviruses disclosed herein are provided in a physiologically acceptable form based, for example, on experience in the preparation of poxvirus vaccines used for vaccination against smallpox as described by H. Stickl et al., Dtsch. med. Wschr. 99:2386-2392 (1974).
  • purified poxviruses can be stored at ⁇ 80° C. at a titer of 5 ⁇ 10 8 TCID 50 /ml, formulated in about 10 mM Tris, 140 mM NaCl, at pH 7.7.
  • poxvirus preparations e.g., 10 2 -10 8 or 10 2 -10 9 poxvirus particles
  • PBS phosphate-buffered saline
  • HSA human serum albumin
  • freeze-dried poxvirus particle preparations can be prepared by stepwise freeze-drying of a suspension of poxvirus particles formulated in a solution such as, for example, 10 mM Tris, 140 mM NaCl, at pH 7.7, or PBS plus 2% (w/v) peptone and 1% (w/v) HSA.
  • the solution contains one or more additional additives such as mannitol, dextran, sugar, glycine, lactose or polyvinylpyrrolidone.
  • the solution contains other aids such as antioxidants or inert gas, stabilizers or recombinant proteins (e.g., human serum albumin, or HSA) suitable for in vivo administration.
  • the solutions are then aliquoted into appropriate storage vessels such as, for example, glass ampoules, and the storage vessels are sealed.
  • appropriate storage vessels such as, for example, glass ampoules
  • the immunogenic and/or pharmaceutical compositions are stored at a temperature between 4° C. and room temperature for several months.
  • the storage vessels are stored at a temperature below ⁇ 20° C., below ⁇ 40° C., below ⁇ 60° C., or below ⁇ 80° C.
  • the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient comprises one or more additives, antibiotics, preservatives, adjuvants, diluents and/or stabilizers.
  • auxiliary substances can be water, saline, glycerol, ethanol, wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering substances, or the like.
  • parenteral formulations usually comprise injectable fluids that include pharmaceutically and physiologically acceptable fluids such as water, physiological saline, balanced salt solutions, aqueous dextrose, glycerol or the like, as a vehicle.
  • Suitable carriers are typically large, slowly-metabolized molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, polylactic acids, polyglycolic acids, polymeric amino acids, amino acid copolymers, lipid aggregates, or the like.
  • provided herein are methods of enhancing innate immune activation comprising administering any one of the pharmaceutical compositions or recombinant poxvirus provided herein to a subject in need thereof, wherein the pharmaceutical composition or recombinant poxvirus enhances innate immune activation when administered to a subject.
  • a poxvirus of any one of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein for use in enhancing innate immune activation or for the treatment of prevention of a condition mediated by a poxvirus or mediated by a heterologous disease-associated antigen.
  • the subject is a vertebrate.
  • the vertebrate is a mammal.
  • the mammal is a human.
  • any of the pharmaceutical compositions comprising a recombinant poxvirus further comprising nucleic acid sequences encoding a heterologous disease-associated antigen provided herein enhance innate immune activation compared to an identical pharmaceutical composition comprising a recombinant poxvirus lacking heterologous nucleic acids expressing excess early dsRNA when administered to a subject (whether the recombinant poxvirus further comprises nucleic acid sequences encoding a heterologous disease-associated antigen or not).
  • the subject is a vertebrate.
  • the vertebrate is a mammal.
  • the mammal is a human.
  • any of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are administered to the subject by any suitable route of administration known to one or ordinary skill in the art.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions are provided as a lyophilisate.
  • the lyophilisate is dissolved in an aqueous solution.
  • the aqueous solution is physiological saline, phosphate-buffered saline, or Tris buffer at physiological pH.
  • the pharmaceutical compositions are administered systemically. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered locally.
  • any of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are administered subcutaneously, intravenously, intramuscularly, intradermally, intranasally, orally, topically, parenterally, or by any other route of administration known to the skilled practitioner.
  • the route of administration, dose, and treatment protocol can be optimized by those skilled in the art.
  • any of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are administered to the subject in a single dose. In certain embodiments, any of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are administered to the subject in multiple doses. In certain embodiments, any of the pharmaceutical compositions are administered to the subject in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 or more doses. In certain embodiments, any of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are administered in a first priming dose followed by administration of one or more additional boosting doses (i.e., administered by a ‘prime-boost’ vaccination protocol). In certain embodiments, the ‘prime-boost’ vaccination protocol is a homologous prime-boost protocol.
  • the ‘prime-boost’ protocol is a heterologous prime-boost protocol.
  • the first or priming dose comprises a dose of any of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein, comprising 10 7 to 10 8 TCID 50 of any of the recombinant poxviruses provided herein.
  • the second and subsequent boosting doses comprises a dose of any of the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein, comprising 10 7 to 10 8 TCID 50 of any of the recombinant poxviruses provided herein.
  • the second or boosting dose is administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or more days after the first or priming dose.
  • the second or boosting dose is administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or more weeks after the first or priming dose. In certain embodiments, the second or boosting dose is administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or more months after the first or priming dose. In certain embodiments, the second or boosting dose is administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more years after the first or priming dose. In certain embodiments, subsequent boosting doses are administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or more days after the first boosting dose. In certain embodiments, subsequent boosting doses are administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or more weeks after the first boosting dose. In certain embodiments, subsequent boosting doses are administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or more months after the first boosting dose. In certain embodiments, subsequent boosting doses are administered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more years after the first boosting dose.
  • the enhanced innate immune response comprises enhanced production of type I interferons (type I IFNs), cytokines and chemokines.
  • the enhanced innate immune response comprises enhanced production of type I IFNs.
  • the enhanced production of type I IFNs comprises enhanced transcription of interferon-beta (IFN ⁇ )-encoding messenger RNA (mRNA).
  • IFN ⁇ interferon-beta
  • mRNA messenger RNA
  • transcription of IFN- ⁇ -encoding mRNA increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of type I IFNs comprises enhanced secretion of IFN- ⁇ -protein.
  • secretion of IFN- ⁇ -protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of type I IFNs comprises enhanced transcription of interferon-alpha (IFN- ⁇ )-encoding mRNA, and transcription of IFN- ⁇ -encoding mRNA increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • IFN- ⁇ interferon-alpha
  • the enhanced production of type I IFNs comprises enhanced secretion of IFN- ⁇ -protein, and secretion of IFN- ⁇ -protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of type I IFNs comprises enhanced transcription of interferon-gamma (IFN- ⁇ )-encoding mRNA, and transcription of IFN- ⁇ -encoding mRNA increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • IFN- ⁇ interferon-gamma
  • the enhanced production of type I IFNs comprises enhanced secretion of IFN- ⁇ -protein, and secretion of IFN- ⁇ -protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced innate immune response comprises enhanced production of cytokines.
  • the enhanced production of cytokines comprises enhanced transcription of interleukin-6 (IL-6)-encoding mRNA, and transcription of IL-6-encoding mRNA increased by at least 1.8-fold, at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • IL-6 interleukin-6
  • the enhanced production of cytokines comprises enhanced secretion of IL-6-protein, and secretion of IL-6-protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of cytokines comprises enhanced transcription of interleukin-18 (IL-18)-encoding mRNA, and transcription of IL-18-encoding mRNA increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • IL-18 interleukin-18
  • the enhanced production of cytokines comprises enhanced secretion of IL-18-protein, and secretion of IL-18-protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced innate immune response comprises enhanced production of chemokines.
  • the enhanced production of chemokines comprises enhanced transcription of CXCL1-encoding mRNA, and transcription of CXCL1-encoding mRNA increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of chemokines comprises enhanced secretion of CXCL1-protein, and secretion of CXCL1-protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of chemokines comprises enhanced transcription of CCL2-encoding mRNA, and transcription of CCL2-encoding mRNA increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of chemokines comprises enhanced secretion of CCL2-protein, and secretion of CCL2-protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of chemokines comprises enhanced transcription of CCL5-encoding mRNA, and transcription of CCL5-encoding mRNA increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the enhanced production of chemokines comprises enhanced secretion of CCL5-protein, and secretion of CCL5-protein increases by at least 2-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 10-fold, at least 20-fold, at least 30-fold, at least 40-fold, at least 50-fold, at least 100-fold or more.
  • the CVA wild-type virus contains an insertion of BAC control sequences and additional markers in the intergenic region between ORFs I3L and I4L to allow propagation of the circularized genome as a BAC in bacteria. These sequences include a neo-IRES-EGFP cassette expressed under the poxviral pS promoter.
  • BAC-derived CVA has indistinguishable properties from the wild-type plaque-purified CVA (Meisinger 2010).
  • the BAC-derived CVA is therefore considered to be indistinguishable from wild-type CVA and is referred to as CVA wt in the examples below.
  • CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 a mutant CVA harboring the neo/rpsL selection cassette in place of the B15R ORF (CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15, see FIG. 1 ) was highly attenuated upon intranasal infection of BALB/c mice, while the CVA- ⁇ B15 deletion mutant without the neo/rpsL selection cassette was only moderately attenuated ( FIG. 2A ). Even after intranasal inoculation of mice with a dose of 5 ⁇ 10 7 TCID 50 , CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 caused no detectable weight loss ( FIGS.
  • CVA- ⁇ B19 was slightly more attenuated than CVA- ⁇ B15, but significantly less attenuated than CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 ( FIG. 2B ).
  • Infectious viral titers in lungs of mice were analyzed after intranasal infection with a dose of 1 ⁇ 10 7 TCID 50 .
  • Mice infected with CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 showed very low viral titers of less than 1 ⁇ 10 4 TCID 50 in lungs at six days post-infection, whereas viral titers in lungs of CVA-infected mice exceeded 1 ⁇ 10 7 TCID 50 ( FIG. 2C , p ⁇ 0.001 by Student's t test).
  • Viral titers in lungs of mice infected with CVA- ⁇ B19 and CVA-B15 mvA were reduced by approximately an order of magnitude (p ⁇ 0.001) compared to those of CVA ( FIG.
  • CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 To exclude unwanted mutations in CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 as the cause of its severe attenuation, we determined the nucleotide sequences of the complete coding regions of CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 (202,615 nucleotides) and CVA- ⁇ B15 (201,296 nucleotides). Both viruses contained only the expected mutations, which had been deliberately introduced into their coding regions. Thus, the surprisingly strong attenuation of CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 appeared to depend on the presence of the neo/rpsL cassette.
  • IFNAR 0/0 mice lacking a functional IFN ⁇ / ⁇ receptor were infected with graded doses of CVA and CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15.
  • CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 was uniformly lethal for IFNAR 0/0 mice (data not shown).
  • IFNAR 0/0 mice infected with wild-type CVA uniformly died even at the lowest dose of 2 ⁇ 10 6 TCID 50 ( FIGS. 3A and B).
  • CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 was still highly pathogenic for IFNAR 0/0 mice even at the lowest dose used of 2 ⁇ 10 6 TCID 50 as evidenced by significant weight loss of more than 20% ( FIG. 3A ).
  • the IFN type I system appears to be an important factor involved in the strong attenuation of CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15.
  • B15 has been previously reported to be an inhibitor of NFKB activation in VACV infected cells (Chen et al. (2008), PLoS. Pathog. 4:e22-).
  • the antiviral effect of enhanced NFKB activation due to the lack of B15 might have been responsible for the moderate attenuation of CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 compared to CVA in IFNAR 0/0 mice.
  • less efficient NFKB inhibition might also provide an explanation for the moderate attenuation of CVA- ⁇ B15 in wild-type mice ( FIG. 2 ) since it lacks B15.
  • CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 because it also lacks the neo/rpsL cassette, which is responsible for most of the attenuation of CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15.
  • CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 induced significantly higher IFN- ⁇ levels in supernatants of FL-DCs than CVA or CVA- ⁇ B15 ( FIG. 4 ). IFN- ⁇ levels induced by CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 were very similar to those induced by MVA.
  • CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 is a potent inducer of IFN- ⁇ and IFN- ⁇ comparable to MVA which lacks a number of immunomodulators (Antoine et al. (1998), Virology 244:365-396; Meisinger-Henschel et al. (2007), J. Gen. Virol. 88:3249-3259) resulting in increased activation of DCs compared to its ancestor CVA (Samuelsson et al. (2008), J. Clin. Invest 118:1776-1784).
  • IFN- ⁇ mRNA induced by CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 was similar to that obtained with MVA at this time point ( FIG. 5A ).
  • Levels of IFN- ⁇ transcripts in MVA-infected A31 cells usually declined after 4 hours post-infection, whereas IFN- ⁇ mRNA induced by CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 increased even further and clearly exceeded those induced by MVA from 6 hours post-infection onwards ( FIG. 5A ).
  • Neo cassette transcription in CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15-infected A31 cells was confirmed by RT-qPCR analysis targeting the rpsL portion of the neo/rpsL insert (data not shown).
  • the neo and rpsL ORFs had been inserted in reverse complementary orientation with respect to the B15 promoter and only a very short ORF is predicted to be translated from the neo cassette, should this antisense RNA be used by the translation machinery at all.
  • dsRNA partially double-stranded RNA
  • BAC-derived wild-type MVA already contained one copy of the neo/EGFP cassette within the BAC backbone insert ( FIG. 6A ). It has previously been demonstrated that the BAC cassette including the neo/EGFP cassette does not alter the properties of MVA and is thus equivalent to wild-type MVA (Meisinger-Henschel et al.
  • MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 contained a second neo ORF at the B15R locus in reverse orientation relative to the endogenous B15R promoter as part of the neol rpsL cassette ( FIG. 6A ). MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 thus exactly reproduced the constellation of neo inserts in the CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 mutant described above.
  • the neo/EGFP cassette was first deleted from the BAC-insert of MVA wild-type.
  • the EGFP ORF was then inserted twice into the MVA genome at distant sites under control of early/late promoters directing transcription of either sense or anti-sense EGFP RNAs, enabling the formation of a dsRNA of 720 by ( FIG. 6B ).
  • An MVA construct expressing only a sense EGFP transcript from a single EGFP insertion (MVA-EGFP) served as reference for MVA-dsEGFP constructs throughout ( FIG. 6B ).
  • Murine A31 cells infected with an MVA generating complementary transcripts of the two inserted neo antigens showed enhanced IFN- ⁇ gene transcription ( FIG. 7A ), compared to the BAC-derived MVA wt virus with a single neo cassette.
  • the whole BAC cassette containing the sense neo ORF was deleted from MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 using FRT-based recombination, the resulting MVA-neo- ⁇ B15/ ⁇ BAC only induced wild-type levels of IFN- ⁇ mRNA ( FIG. 7A ).
  • MVA virus with a deletion of the B15R gene (MVA- ⁇ B15) and containing only the sense neo cassette in the BAC backbone also induced wild-type IFN- ⁇ mRNA levels ( FIG. 7A ).
  • MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 as well as CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 induced high amounts of IFN- ⁇ mRNA after 5 hours of infection ( FIG. 7A ).
  • IFN- ⁇ mRNA expression induced by MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 decreased between 5 and 7 hours post-infection, whereas CVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 induced IFN- ⁇ mRNA levels remained high at 7 hours post-infection ( FIG. 7A ). Therefore, levels of MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15-induced IFN- ⁇ were determined at 5 hours post-infection in all further experiments.
  • Culture supernatants of MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 infected A31 cells contained increased amounts of IFN- ⁇ 18 hours after infection compared to MVA wt or the single-neo cassette MVA constructs ( FIG. 7B ), confirming the results of the IFN- ⁇ mRNA analysis.
  • dsRNA-mediated IFN- ⁇ induction would be mainly dependent on dsRNA that is generated early during infection.
  • the reason for the moderate increase in IFN- ⁇ in MVA wt infected MEFs treated with AraC is unclear.
  • PKR is constitutively synthesized in cells at moderate levels as an inactive kinase, which is activated by binding to dsRNA. PKR expression is upregulated by type I IFN.
  • One major substrate of activated PKR is the translation initiation factor subunit elF2 ⁇ , which is phosphorylated by PKR. Phosphorylation of elF2 ⁇ (P-elF2 ⁇ ) upon infection leads to the abortion of translation in the infected cell as an antiviral countermeasure and might also be involved in PKR-mediated apoptosis induction.
  • elF2 ⁇ phosphorylation was analyzed as an indicator for PKR activation by dsRNA in murine A31 cells.
  • MVA- ⁇ E3L An MVA mutant (MVA- ⁇ E3L) lacking the gene for the vaccinia virus PKR inhibitor E3, which also binds and sequesters dsRNA, served as a positive control.
  • MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 and MVA-dsEGFP activated PKR as early as 1 hour after infection of A31 cells, whereas MVA wt did not detectably activate PKR throughout infection ( FIG. 9 ).
  • the amount of P-elF2 ⁇ increased further until 4 hours post-infection in cells infected with both neo and EGFP-based early dsRNA producer mutants ( FIG. 9 ).
  • P-elF2 ⁇ amounts in MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 and MVA-dsEGFP infected cells started to decline and were almost undetectable at 8 hours post-infection for MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15, while P-elF2 ⁇ was still weakly detectable at this time point in MVA-dsEGFP infected cells ( FIG. 9 ).
  • the P-elF2 ⁇ signal was consistently stronger over the first 6 hours of infection in MVA-dsEGFP infected cells compared to MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 infected cells ( FIG. 9 ), suggesting somewhat stronger PKR activating activity of MVA-dsEGFP compared to MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15.
  • PKR activation in contrast, the kinetics of PKR activation by the MVA recombinants generating neo- or EGFP-dsRNA are consistent with a very early presence of stimulative amounts of dsRNA in infected cells. Since these recombinants express E3 protein, the PKR activation appears to be down-regulated later in infection when sufficient E3 protein has accumulated in infected cells.
  • PKR is Required for Increased IFN- ⁇ mRNA Induction and Accumulation of IFN- ⁇ in Cell Supernatants
  • MVA-EGFP In wt MEFs, MVA-EGFP induced very similar amounts of IFN- ⁇ transcript like wt MVA as expected, whereas MVA-dsEGFP induced enhanced IFN- ⁇ mRNA synthesis ( FIG. 10A ). In contrast, MVA-dsEGFP did not induce enhanced IFN- ⁇ gene expression in PKR-deficient MEFs ( FIG. 10A ). The secretion of IFN- ⁇ protein by MVA-dsEGFP infected MEFs was likewise strongly dependent on functional PKR ( FIG. 10B ).
  • Sendai virus (SeV), a negative strand RNA virus which is known to induce IFN- ⁇ via a PKR-independent pathway, served as positive control for the competency of PKR-deficient MEFs to secrete IFN- ⁇ .
  • SeV Sendai virus
  • PKR-independent pathway a negative strand RNA virus which is known to induce IFN- ⁇ via a PKR-independent pathway
  • wt MEFs secreted only marginal amounts of IFN- ⁇ in response to SeV infection, if at all, whereas SeV efficiently induced IFN- ⁇ mRNA and protein in PKR 0/0 MEFs, confirming that the PKR 0/0 MEFs were fully competent to generate and secrete IFN- ⁇ ( FIGS. 10A and B).
  • PKR appeared to be an important cellular sensor involved in the enhanced induction of IFN- ⁇ by MVA-dsEGFP.
  • the initial MVA-dsEGFP construct was designed to mimic the MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 construct, including a non-complementary overhang derived from the bacterial ⁇ -galactosidase ( ⁇ -gal) gene at the 3′ end of the antisense EGFP transcript.
  • ⁇ -gal bacterial ⁇ -galactosidase
  • MVA-dsEGFP-2 and all other dsEGFP mutants lacked the extra 3′ overhang at the antisense transcript ( FIG. 6B ).
  • MVAs expressing complementary EGFP transcripts with decreasing EGFP overlap lengths induced decreasing amounts of IFN- ⁇ mRNA and protein ( FIGS. 11A and B).
  • the ⁇ -gal-derived 3′ overhang was not essential for the IFN- ⁇ enhancing effect ( FIG. 11A ).
  • An EGFP transcript overlap of 100 bases (MVA-dsEGFP-5) stimulated clearly less IFN- ⁇ than MVA-dsEGFP but still enhanced the IFN- ⁇ response compared to the reference MVA-EGFP ( FIGS. 11A and B).
  • MVA-dsEGFP Propagation of MVA-dsEGFP in secondary chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF) to obtain bulk purified MVA-dsEGFP preparations revealed normal virus yields within the range of MVA wt (data not shown).
  • a multistep growth analysis demonstrated that MVA-dsEGFP retained a replication-restricted phenotype in human and murine cells ( FIG. 12B ), but replicated slightly less efficient in CEF as wt MVA ( FIG. 12A ). This slightly impaired replication was also observed when the average yields of viral stocks of MVA-dsEGFP obtained from CEF cells were related to those of MVA-EGFP.
  • the ratio of the yields of MVA-dsEGFP/MVA-EGFP was around 0.5 (Table 1) and decreased further when MVA-EGFP yields were compared to those of MVA-5 and MVA-6 to about 0.1 (Table 1). Since MVA-dsEGFP-5 and -6 only induced slightly more IFN-if at all, the effect on viral replication was probably not mediated via soluble type I IFN. When chicken DF-1 cells were used for production of viral stocks, there was not a tendency to decreased yields when shorter EGFP-dsRNAs were expressed (Table 1). Thus, DF-1 cells represent an even more suitable cell type for propagation of early dsRNA-overproducing MVA mutants than CEF cells.
  • MVA-dsEGFP interferon-competent chicken cell line DF-1 employing a low multiplicity of infection (M01) of approximately 0.01.
  • M01 multiplicity of infection
  • MVA-dsEGFP passaged 10 times on DF-1 cells induced an enhanced IFN- ⁇ response comparable to that of the starting MVA-dsEGFP virus passaged only once in DF-1 cells ( FIG. 12C ).
  • Basal IFN- ⁇ induction of MVA-EGFP was also unaltered after 10 DF-1 passages ( FIG. 12C ).
  • MVA-dsEGFP the enhanced interferon stimulatory capacity of MVA-dsEGFP was maintained after multiple passages in DF-1 cells.
  • MVA nor MVA-dsEGFP or MVA-dsneo- ⁇ B15 induced IFN- ⁇ gene expression in DF-1 cells or CEF cells (data not shown).
  • DF-1 cells represent an even more suitable cell type for propagation of early dsRNA-overproducing MVA mutants than CEF cells.
  • C57BL/6 mice were immunized by different routes with MVA-dsEGFP and the CD8 T cell responses against the immunodominant epitopes in each strain background were determined using dextramer staining.
  • the E3L ORF contains a homopolymeric T, stretch in the antisense strand containing the T 5 NT consensus sequence of the orthopoxviral early transcription termination signal (ETTS).
  • ETS orthopoxviral early transcription termination signal
  • MVA-dsE3L induced high levels of IFN- ⁇ mRNA in MEFs ( FIG. 16B ) that were comparable to those of the best available dsRNA-based inducer, transfected poly (I:C), as positive control (data not shown). MVA-dsE3L appeared to induce clearly higher IFN- ⁇ mRNA levels than MVA-dsEGFP ( FIG. 16B ). MVA-dsEGFP-5 and MVA-dsEGFP-late served as negative controls for IFN- ⁇ mRNA induction together with the reference virus MVA-EGFP ( FIG. 16B ).
  • generation of early dsRNA from MVA vectors can also be achieved by generation of early expressed antisense transcripts from native early MVA genes instead of inserting two partially or completely identical heterologous sequences.
  • dsRNA from sense and antisense transcripts of the EGFP gene in MVA-dsEGFP-720(o) infected cells we isolated and combined total RNA from two 6-wells per virus of AraC-treated (40 ⁇ g/ml) BALB/3T3-A31 cells using the Trizol® method. DNase-treated total RNA samples were digested with single strand-specific RNases A and T1 (Ambion) or with RNase A/T1 plus dsRNA-specific RNase V1 (Ambion) in a total volume of 20 ⁇ l for 1 h at 37° C.
  • RNA samples and the untreated control sample (undigested) were purified using the RNA Clean & Concentrator kit (Zymo Research, Freiburg, Germany) and denatured at 95° C. for 3 min. Reverse transcription and quantitative PCR was performed as described above employing a commercially available EGFP TaqMan® assay (Mr04329676_mr, Life Technologies). The mean of the fold induction of EGFP RNA over mock from the duplicate qPCR reactions of undigested RNA samples was calculated and set to 100%. The percentage of remaining EGFP RNA was calculated employing the fold induction values of EGFP RNA after A/T1 and A/T1/V1 digests obtained from MVA-EGFP and MVA-dsEGFP-720(o) infected cells.
  • IFNAR 0/0 and IPS-1 0/0 mouse embryo fibroblasts were prepared from 15-day old C57BU6-1FNAR 0/0 and 14-day old C57BU6-IPS-1 0/0 embryos by standard procedures, and PKR 0/0 MEFs and corresponding PKR-sufficient control MEFs. All cell lines were cultivated in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM, Gibco/lnvitrogen, Darmstadt, Germany) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (FCS, Pan Biotech, Aidenbach, Germany).
  • DMEM Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium
  • FCS fetal calf serum
  • GM-CSF granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor-dependent dendritic cells
  • MVA wild-type (MVA) and MVA mutants were propagated on secondary CEF or DF-1 cells and titrated on CEF cells using the TCID 50 method as described (45)Meisinger-Hentschel et al., 2007. J Gen Virol.84:3249-3259.
  • CVA wild-type (CVA) and CVA mutants were propagated on Vero cells and titrated by the TCID 50 method on CV-1 cells.
  • Shope Fibroma Virus was obtained from ATCC (VR-364) and was propagated and titrated on rabbit cornea SIRC cells.
  • Sendai virus strain Cantell was obtained from Charles River Laboratories at 2000 HA units/ml. All viruses used in animal experiments were purified twice through a 36% sucrose cushion.
  • 106 BHK-21 cells were transfected with 3 ⁇ g of BAC DNA using Eugene® HD (Promega, Mannheim, Germany), and 60 min later infected with Shope fibroma virus to provide the required helper functions. Reactivated virus was isolated and helper virus was removed as previously described (Meisinge(Meisinger-Henschel et al. (2007), J. Gen. Virol. 88:3249-3259).
  • mice were anaesthetized by ketamine/xylazine injection prior to intranasal infection with 2 ⁇ 10 6 , 1 ⁇ 10 7 , and 5 ⁇ 10 7 TCID 50 of CVA and CVA mutants diluted in PBS to a final volume of 50 ⁇ l per mouse. Animals were weighed and inspected daily for two weeks and the signs of illness were scored on an arbitrary scale from 0-4. For analysis of systemic cytokine levels, mice were injected i.v. with 200 ⁇ l of the respective virus dilutions and bled 6 h later by the tail vein.
  • Cytokine concentrations in mouse sera drawn 6 h after i.v. infection were determined by the bead-based FlowCytomix assay for the indicated mouse cytokines (eBioscience, Frankfurt, Germany) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
  • the statistical significance for differences between treatment groups was analyzed using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test.

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