US20130065250A1 - Kit and Method for Detecting Porous Dental Hydroxyapatite - Google Patents

Kit and Method for Detecting Porous Dental Hydroxyapatite Download PDF

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US20130065250A1
US20130065250A1 US13/501,676 US201113501676A US2013065250A1 US 20130065250 A1 US20130065250 A1 US 20130065250A1 US 201113501676 A US201113501676 A US 201113501676A US 2013065250 A1 US2013065250 A1 US 2013065250A1
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protein
hydroxyapatite
probe
enamel
blue
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Michael James Hubbard
Jonathan Edward Mangum
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Incisive Technologies Pty Ltd
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    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K6/00—Preparations for dentistry
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
    • A61K49/001—Preparation for luminescence or biological staining
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61B—DIAGNOSIS; SURGERY; IDENTIFICATION
    • A61B5/00—Measuring for diagnostic purposes; Identification of persons
    • A61B5/45—For evaluating or diagnosing the musculoskeletal system or teeth
    • A61B5/4538—Evaluating a particular part of the muscoloskeletal system or a particular medical condition
    • A61B5/4542—Evaluating the mouth, e.g. the jaw
    • A61B5/4547—Evaluating teeth
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
    • A61K49/001—Preparation for luminescence or biological staining
    • A61K49/006—Biological staining of tissues in vivo, e.g. methylene blue or toluidine blue O administered in the buccal area to detect epithelial cancer cells, dyes used for delineating tissues during surgery
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K49/00—Preparations for testing in vivo
    • A61K49/04—X-ray contrast preparations
    • A61K49/0433—X-ray contrast preparations containing an organic halogenated X-ray contrast-enhancing agent
    • A61K49/0438—Organic X-ray contrast-enhancing agent comprising an iodinated group or an iodine atom, e.g. iopamidol
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61K—PREPARATIONS FOR MEDICAL, DENTAL OR TOILETRY PURPOSES
    • A61K6/00—Preparations for dentistry
    • A61K6/25—Compositions for detecting or measuring, e.g. of irregularities on natural or artificial teeth
    • A—HUMAN NECESSITIES
    • A61—MEDICAL OR VETERINARY SCIENCE; HYGIENE
    • A61Q—SPECIFIC USE OF COSMETICS OR SIMILAR TOILETRY PREPARATIONS
    • A61Q11/00—Preparations for care of the teeth, of the oral cavity or of dentures; Dentifrices, e.g. toothpastes; Mouth rinses
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07—ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07K—PEPTIDES
    • C07K14/00—Peptides having more than 20 amino acids; Gastrins; Somatostatins; Melanotropins; Derivatives thereof
    • G—PHYSICS
    • G01—MEASURING; TESTING
    • G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
    • G01N33/00—Investigating or analysing materials by specific methods not covered by groups G01N1/00 - G01N31/00
    • G01N33/48—Biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Haemocytometers
    • G01N33/50—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing
    • G01N33/68—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing involving proteins, peptides or amino acids
    • G01N33/6893—Chemical analysis of biological material, e.g. blood, urine; Testing involving biospecific ligand binding methods; Immunological testing involving proteins, peptides or amino acids related to diseases not provided for elsewhere

Definitions

  • the invention relates to a kit and a probe for detecting porous dental hydroxyapatite and a method for detecting a condition involving porous dental hydroxyapatite.
  • the resilience of teeth depends on a complex interplay between mineral (termed hydroxyapatite) and organic components (proteins, cells and tissues). Under normal conditions the hydroxyapatite in enamel and dentine is organised into an extraordinarily dense structure that confers the hardness and toughness required for maintenance of the tooth's integrity. Loss of mineral-density in enamel and dentine results in abnormally porous hydroxyapatite, which compromises the tooth's physical resilience and can lead to structural failure. Porous hydroxyapatite is caused by several prevalent conditions, including dental caries and developmental dental defects (DDD).
  • DDD developmental dental defects
  • Dental caries teeth decay is a disease caused by bacteria that secrete acid.
  • the acid produced by cariogenic bacteria can dissolve hydroxyapatite in a process termed demineralisation.
  • demineralisation The initial process of demineralisation (termed incipient caries) leads to discrete regions of porous hydroxyapatite termed white spot lesions.
  • white spot lesions discrete regions of porous hydroxyapatite termed white spot lesions.
  • a white-spot lesion may progress to a cavity (i.e. loss of tooth material) or it may stall (termed inactive caries) and re-form a dense hydroxyapatite shell in a process called remineralisation.
  • remineralisation Before a cavity forms, the process is reversible (i.e. remineralisation), but once enamel is lost it cannot be regenerated.
  • Caries is diagnosed by a combination of visual inspection, physical challenge (e.g. scratching with dental probe), and X-ray radiography (to detect caries between teeth or beneath the gum line).
  • these diagnostic approaches miss approximately half of early caries, and up to 13% of teeth diagnosed as carious with these methods are in fact caries-free.
  • Recent attempts at improving diagnosis include use of equipment that measures electrical impedance, quantitative light-induced fluorescence (QLF) and infrared laser fluorescence (DIAGNOdent®), but none have found widespread use because of the cost and size of apparatus, and problems with inter-individual variation.
  • Another approach has been the use of dyes to detect dental caries in dentine.
  • these dyes are not selective for porous hydroxyapatite: they bind to proteins (presumed to be associated with infecting bacteria in dentine) or they occupy interstitial space, which reduces specificity and sensitivity. Moreover, these dyes cause the oral cavity to become discoloured, bind to healthy teeth, or require visualisation with an irradiator.
  • White spot lesions may be treated with remineralisation approaches (e.g. fluoride therapy or amorphous calcium phosphate stabilised with bioactive molecules). Cavities require conventional restorative dentistry (i.e. fillings).
  • DDD porous hydroxyapatite
  • the two most prevalent DDD are dental fluorosis (characterised by diffuse opacities) and Molar/Incisor Hypomineralisation (MIH; characterised by demarcated opacities); both are caused by environmental agents (i.e. acquired defects).
  • MIH Molar/Incisor Hypomineralisation
  • Another serious but rare DDD that can result in porous hydroxyapatite is the genetic disease amelogenesis imperfecta.
  • MIH typically affects 10-20% of children and is a major risk factor for caries, a risk factor for orthodontics, and is costly to society. MIH is thought to result from a multifactorial systemic disturbance of the enamel-forming cells. However, other than being dissociated from fluoride and linked to illness during infancy, the cause of MIH remains a mystery.
  • a first aspect provides a kit, when used for detecting porous dental hydroxyapatite, comprising: a protein capable of binding porous dental hydroxyapatite; or a detector that detects said protein bound to porous dental hydroxyapatite.
  • a second aspect provides a probe, when used for detecting porous dental hydroxyapatite, comprising: a protein capable of binding to porous dental hydroxyapatite; and a reporter.
  • a third aspect provides a method for producing the probe of the second aspect comprising linking (i) a protein capable of binding to porous dental hydroxyapatite and (ii) a reporter.
  • a fourth aspect provides a method for detecting a condition involving porous dental hydroxyapatite comprising detecting in or on a tooth or a sample of the tooth of a subject a protein bound to porous dental hydroxyapatite.
  • a fifth aspect provides a method for detecting a hypomineralisation DDD comprising detecting a protein whose concentration bound to test hydroxyapatite of a tooth or of a sample of the tooth is increased relative to its concentration bound to control hydroxyapatite of a control tooth or of a control sample of a tooth, and detecting amelogenin whose concentration bound to the test hydroxyapatite is near that bound to the control hydroxyapatite.
  • a sixth aspect provides a method for detecting intact and/or broken MIH enamel comprising detecting albumin and hemoglobin bound to MIH hydroxyapatite, wherein detection of albumin but not hemoglobin is indicative of intact MIH enamel, and wherein detection of hemoglobin is indicative of broken MIH enamel.
  • a seventh aspect provides a kit for removing a protein bound to porous dental hydroxyapatite comprising: (a)(i) one or more washing solutions or (ii) dry components to prepare one or more washing solutions upon admixture with water, wherein the one or more washing solutions are adapted to remove a protein bound to porous dental hydroxyapatite; and (b) a remineralisation agent or remedial mineralisation agent.
  • An eighth aspect provides a method for removing a protein bound to porous dental hydroxyapatite comprising washing a tooth or a sample of the tooth with one or more washing solutions.
  • a ninth aspect provides a kit for removing a protein bound to porous dental hydroxyapatite comprising: one or more washing solutions; or one or more dry components to prepare one or more washing solutions upon admixture with water, wherein the one or more washing solutions are adapted to remove a protein in or on a tooth or a sample of the tooth detected as having porous dental hydroxyapatite by the method of the fourth aspect.
  • kit, probe or methods of the first to sixth aspects allow detection in situ or diagnosis ex situ.
  • the kit, probe or methods of the first to sixth aspects are useful in detecting dental caries and/or MIH/DDD and delineating carious and/or MIH/DDD boundaries in preparation for restoration of a tooth.
  • the clinician may then specifically remove the carious or MIH tissue thus revealed, ensuring clean border preparation and improving the likelihood of restoration success.
  • the kit of the first aspect or the probe of the second aspect provides key tools and the method of the fourth aspect allows for routine screening for porous dental hydroxyapatite.
  • the kit, probe or methods of the first to sixth aspects may be used for early detection of exposed dental hydroxyapatite.
  • the kit, probe or methods of the first to sixth aspects may be used for routine screening of dental changes that, without detection, may ultimately lead to dental caries (a precursor to caries), enabling accurate and timely targeting of restoration and/or remineralisation to prevent caries progression and/or promote remineralisation.
  • the kit, probe or methods of the first to sixth aspects are particularly suited to routine screening of children after eruption of the first permanent molar. It follows that the kit, probe or methods of the first to sixth aspects are also suited to routine screening of teeth for early detection of porous hydroxyapatite. Routine regular screening provides an excellent opportunity to detect at the earliest practical moment dental changes that may lead to dental caries.
  • kit, probes and methods of the first to sixth aspects also allow monitoring of any treatment, such as known remineralisation therapies including fluoride or amorphous calcium phosphate that may be stabilised with bioactive molecules, which may be undertaken.
  • known remineralisation therapies including fluoride or amorphous calcium phosphate that may be stabilised with bioactive molecules, which may be undertaken.
  • the method of the eighth aspect and the kits of the seventh and ninth aspects enable gentle and/or specific removal of excess proteins that are strongly retained on porous hydroxyapatite, for example in MIH lesions, to be used prior to or during remineralisation treatments.
  • the protein of any one of the first to fifth or seventh to ninth aspects may be selected from the group: Serum albumin; Complement C3 beta chain; Alpha-1-antitrypsin; Protein S100-A9; Lactotransferrin; Leukocyte elastase inhibitor; Antithrombin-III; Hemoglobin subunit alpha; Hemoglobin subunit beta; Hemoglobin subunit delta; Prolactin-inducible protein; Alpha amylase 1; Ig kappa chain V-III region SIE; Ig alpha-2 chain C region; Uncharacterized protein c6orf58; and Serpin B3.
  • the protein of any one of the first to fourth or seventh to ninth aspects may be Amelogenin.
  • kits of the first, seventh and ninth aspects, or the probe of the second aspect may be in alternative forms.
  • One form designates either suitability for or restriction to a specific use and is indicated by the word “for”.
  • Another form is restricted to a specific use only and is indicated by the words “when used for”.
  • the methods of the third to sixth or eighth aspects may be presented in alternative forms, for example in European form (“agent for use”) or second medical use (Swiss) form (“use of an agent in the manufacture of a medicament”).
  • FIG. 1 plots the protein content of MIH enamel, which is abnormally high relative to normal enamel.
  • Acid-insoluble proteins were extracted from normal enamel (normal) and a group of severe lesions exhibiting post-eruptive breakdown (specimens 7-11) then quantified by densitometric dot-blot analysis. Mean values ( ⁇ SD) are shown for duplicate assays, each done at varied loads to ensure quantitative linearity (r 2 >0.95).
  • ⁇ SD mean values
  • FIG. 2 illustrates that intact and broken MIH lesions have distinct protein profiles. Acid-insoluble proteins from MIH lesions and normal enamel (normal) were subjected to SDS-PAGE and stained with Coomassie Blue or immunoblotted with amelogenin antibodies (anti-AMG) as indicated.
  • A Comparison of intact-surface and broken-surface lesions (specimens 1-6 and 7-11, respectively), showing distinct patterns for the major protein bands. The positions of albumin and haemoglobin are indicated (Alb, Hb).
  • Specimens 7 and 11 are representative of lesions with low or appreciable amounts of amelogenin fragments respectively.
  • cross-immunoreactivity between rat and human amelogenins was normalized using a human amelogenin standard (from Abnova, Taipei City, Taiwan).
  • C Profiles for two intact lesions, comparing the first gel run using fresh extracts with a second run after storage of the same SDS-extracts for 16 wk at ⁇ 20° C. Note disappearance of the major bands at 66 kDa (albumin).
  • FIG. 3 lists the results of proteomic analysis of intact and broken MIH lesions, which reveals numerous body fluid proteins in MIH enamel.
  • the indicated major gel bands from intact and broken lesions FIG. 2A , specimens 1-11) were subjected to proteomic identification, as documented more fully in Table 1.
  • the figure depicts the proteins identified in each band, and the specimens in which these identifications were made (specimen numbers in parentheses).
  • Gel lanes for specimens 6 and 7 are reproduced from FIG. 2A to illustrate intact and broken lesions, respectively.
  • FIG. 4 depicts mineralisation assays revealing that surface integrity regulates the protein composition of MIH enamel.
  • A Comparative profiling of MIH enamel and body fluids, showing similarities for intact lesions vs. serum and for broken lesions vs. saliva and erythrocytes.
  • B Hydroxyapatite-binding (HAp-affinity) assay, showing that a subset of proteins from mock oral fluid (O-Fluid) were preferentially retained (cf. differences between the Load, Bound and Unbound fractions). Note a strong resemblance between the Bound profile and the broken lesion in panel A (specimen 7).
  • FIG. 5 depicts a hydroxyapatite-binding assay (Coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE) showing that hemoglobin and albumin from mock oral fluid are bound by hydroxyapatite.
  • a three-step washing procedure comprising washing sequentially in each of 5 mM MgCl 2 , 1 M MgCl 2 , and 0.4 M NaH 2 PO 4 each for 5 min removed >90% of protein from hydroxyapatite.
  • FIG. 6 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Serum albumin (SEQ ID NO: 1; SwissProt accession P02768).
  • FIG. 7 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Complement C3 (SEQ ID NO: 2; SwissProt accession P01024).
  • FIG. 8 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Alpha-1-antitrypsin (SEQ ID NO: 3; SwissProt accession P01009).
  • FIG. 9 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Protein S100-A9 (SEQ ID NO: 4; SwissProt accession P06702).
  • FIG. 10 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Lactotransferrin (SEQ ID NO: 5; SwissProt accession P02788)
  • FIG. 11 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Leukocyte elastase inhibitor (SEQ ID NO: 6; SwissProt accession P30740).
  • FIG. 12 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Antithrombin-III (SEQ ID NO: 7; SwissProt accession P01008).
  • FIG. 13 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Hemoglobin subunit alpha (SEQ ID NO: 8; SwissProt accession P69905).
  • FIG. 14 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Hemoglobin subunit beta (SEQ ID NO: 9; SwissProt accession P68871).
  • FIG. 15 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Hemoglobin subunit delta (SEQ ID NO: 10; SwissProt accession P02042).
  • FIG. 16 provides an amino acid sequence for (Human Prolactin-inducible protein SEQ ID NO: 11; SwissProt accession P12273).
  • FIG. 17 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Alpha-amylase 1 (SEQ ID NO: 12; SwissProt accession P04745).
  • FIG. 18 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Ig kappa chain V-III region SIE (SEQ ID NO: 13; SwissProt accession P01620).
  • FIG. 19 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Ig alpha-2 chain C region (SEQ ID NO: 14; SwissProt accession P01877).
  • FIG. 20 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Uncharacterized protein C6orf58 (SEQ ID NO: 15; SwissProt accession Q6P5S2).
  • FIG. 21 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Serpin B3 (SEQ ID NO: 16; SwissProt accession P29508).
  • FIG. 22 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Amelogenin, X isoform (SEQ ID NO: 17; SwissProt accession Q99217).
  • FIG. 23 provides an amino acid sequence for Human Amelogenin, Y isoform (SEQ ID NO: 18; SwissProt accession Q99218).
  • FIG. 24 provides an amino acid sequence for Mouse Amelogenin (SEQ ID NO: 19; SwissProt accession P63277) also corresponding to recombinant Mouse Amelogenin.
  • FIG. 25 provides an amino acid sequence for Bovine Hemoglobin subunit alpha (SEQ ID NO: 20; SwissProt accession P01966).
  • FIG. 26 provides an amino acid sequence for Bovine Hemoglobin subunit beta (SEQ ID NO: 21; SwissProt accession P02070).
  • FIG. 27 depicts the chemical reaction for production of a maleimide-activated coloured reporter through reaction of N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (SMCC) with amido black (primary amine).
  • SMCC N-hydroxysuccinimide ester
  • Maleimide-activated coloured reporter is sulfhydryl-reactive, ready for conjugation with cysteine-thiols of hemoglobin ⁇ subunits.
  • FIG. 28 depicts the chemical reaction for production of a probe, in this example a coloured reporter-conjugated protein, via reaction of a maleimide-activated coloured reporter according to FIG. 28 with cysteine thiol groups (SH) of hemoglobin ⁇ subunits.
  • a probe in this example a coloured reporter-conjugated protein
  • cysteine thiol groups (SH) of hemoglobin ⁇ subunits Each hemoglobin tetramer binds two coloured reporter molecules, and leaves two subunits unmodified, which is likely important for preserving hemoglobin's hydroxyapatite-binding function.
  • FIG. 29 depicts the in vitro binding to hydroxyapatite of a probe produced according to FIGS. 27 and 28 and Example 2.
  • the probe comprised hemoglobin (Hb), a black-blue coloured reporter (amido black) and a linker.
  • Hb hemoglobin
  • a black-blue coloured reporter amido black
  • linker a linker.
  • hydroxyapatite changed to dark blue.
  • the probe was removed from hydroxyapatite by a three-step washing procedure comprising washing sequentially in each of 5 mM MgCl 2 , 1 M MgCl 2 , and 0.4 M NaH 2 PO 4 each for 5 min.
  • FIG. 30 depicts the results of Example 3 that demonstrate specific binding of a probe produced according to Example 2 to porous dental enamel.
  • FIG. 31 depicts the results of Example 4 that demonstrate that a probe produced according to Example 2 can specifically detect early demineralisation of surface enamel (model of incipient caries).
  • FIG. 32 depicts the results of Example 5 that demonstrate that the mechanism of action of a probe produced according to Example 2 is hydroxyapatite affinity.
  • FIG. 33 depicts the results of Example 6 that demonstrate that a probe produced according to Example 2 specifically labels hypomineralised enamel and abnormal dentine. Normal enamel and dentine were unlabelled. Hypomineralised enamel was specifically and uniformly labelled an intense violet colour. Abnormal dentine was specifically and uniformly labelled a deep green colour.
  • FIG. 34 depicts the results of Example 7 that demonstrate that a probe produced according to Example 2 can be used to guide removal of hypomineralised enamel.
  • FIG. 35 depicts the results of Example 8 that demonstrate that a probe produced according to Example 2 can be used to guide removal of abnormal dentine.
  • FIG. 36 depicts the results of Example 9 that demonstrate that detection of abnormal dentine according to Example 8 can be improved using a bleach wash.
  • FIG. 37 depicts the results of Example 10 that demonstrate that the probe can be radio-opaque, which can be achieved by substituting the blue chromophore (amido black) of Example 2 for amino-2,4,6-triiodoisophthalic acid ( 3 I).
  • FIG. 38 depicts the results of Example 11 that demonstrate the relative effectiveness of washing solutions comprising Mg 2+ or PO 4 in removing proteins bound to pure hydroxyapatite.
  • FIG. 39 depicts the results of Example 12 that demonstrate the relative effectiveness of separate or sequential application of washing solutions comprising Mg 2+ or PO 4 in removing proteins bound to pure hydroxyapatite.
  • FIG. 40 depicts the results of Example 13 that demonstrate the relative effectiveness of combined application of a washing solution comprising Mg 2+ and PO 4 in removing proteins bound to pure hydroxyapatite.
  • FIG. 41 depicts the results of Example 14 that demonstrate that application of washing solutions comprising Mg 2+ or PO 4 removes proteins from hypomineralised enamel, although with reduced efficacy compared with the hydroxyapatite model of Examples 11 to 13.
  • FIG. 42 depicts the results of Example 15 that demonstrate that the efficacy of washing solutions comprising Mg 2+ or PO 4 in removing proteins from hypomineralised enamel can be improved compared with Example 14 by extending the application period such that the proteins can be removed quantitatively.
  • kits, probes and methods for detecting a protein capable of binding to porous hydroxyapatite may be comprised in enamel or dentine.
  • a product that detects defects in enamel specifically by detecting porous dental hydroxyapatite.
  • the protein capable of binding to porous hydroxyapatite may be a human protein.
  • the protein may be selected from the group: Serum albumin (P02768); Complement C3 beta chain (P01024); Alpha-1-antitrypsin (P01009); Protein S100-A9 (P06702); Lactotransferrin (P02788); Leukocyte elastase inhibitor (P30740); Antithrombin-III (P01008); Hemoglobin subunit alpha (P69905); Hemoglobin subunit beta (P68871); Hemoglobin subunit delta (P02042); Prolactin-inducible protein (P12273); Alpha amylase 1 (P04745); Ig kappa chain V-III region SIE (P01620); Ig alpha-2 chain C region (P01877); Uncharacterized protein c6 or 158 (Q6P5S2); Serpin B3 (P29508), where the term in parentheses indicates
  • the protein may be an Amelogenin.
  • the Amelogenin may be human.
  • amelogenin may be the X isoform of Human Amelogenin, (SEQ ID NO: 17, FIG. 22 ; SwissProt accession Q99217) or amelogenin may be the Y isoform of Human Amelogenin, (SEQ ID NO: 18, FIG. 23 ; SwissProt accession Q99218).
  • the protein may be from a subject other than a human, for example, an animal such as a primate, a horse, cow, sheep, goat, dog or cat.
  • the protein may be albumin, hemoglobin or a subunit thereof, or amelogenin.
  • the method comprises detecting the protein which is other than amelogenin and detecting amelogenin, wherein presence of the protein and absence of amelogenin is indicative of MIH, and presence of amelogenin is indicative of hypomaturation defects including types or amelogenesis imperfecta or dental fluorosis.
  • the protein which is “other than amelogenin” is any one selected from: Serum albumin; Complement C3 beta chain; Alpha-1-antitrypsin; Protein S100-A9; Lactotransferrin; Leukocyte elastase inhibitor; Antithrombin-III; Hemoglobin subunit alpha; Hemoglobin subunit beta; Hemoglobin subunit delta; Prolactin-inducible protein; Alpha amylase 1; Ig kappa chain V-III region SIE; Ig alpha-2 chain C region; Uncharacterized protein c6orf58; and Serpin B3.
  • porous or “porosity” refers to dental hydroxyapatite that is either hypomineralised or demineralised. Increased “porosity” is due to reduction in extent of mineral density, leading to increased space between mineral crystals.
  • remineralisation refers to the return of minerals to the molecular structure of the tooth.
  • the predominant mineral of teeth is hydroxyapatite.
  • the hydroxyl group is substituted for a fluoro group to produce fluoroapatite, which is more acid-resistant than hydroxyapatite.
  • remedial mineralisation refers to the use of remineralisation therapies on DDD (i.e. porous hydroxyapatite caused by incomplete mineralisation). Use of the term “remineralisation” is inappropriate in the DDD context because the porous hydroxyapatite was not caused by demineralisation.
  • teeth or “tooth decay” refers to reduction or loss of tooth enamel and dentine due to acid, particularly acid produced by infecting bacteria. “Caries” is defined by the process of demineralisation, and may be corrected using remineralisation methods if caught early.
  • a “condition involving porous dental hydroxyapatite” includes dental caries, Molar/Incisor Hypomineralisation (MIH), amelogenesis imperfecta, dental fluorosis and other DDD manifesting as hypomineralised enamel (i.e. diffuse or demarcated opacities).
  • MIH Molar/Incisor Hypomineralisation
  • amelogenesis imperfecta dental fluorosis and other DDD manifesting as hypomineralised enamel (i.e. diffuse or demarcated opacities).
  • Molar/Incisor Hypomineralisation refers to a DDD that results in incompletely hardened (hypomineralised) enamel, usually on the occlusal or incisal third of first permanent molars and incisors, respectively.
  • MIH and fluorosis are both characterised by subsurface porosity, whereas active caries can have a porous surface (inactive caries can form a sealed surface due to remineralisation).
  • exposed enamel refers to sub-surface tissue that has been revealed due to loss of its protective surface layer. “Exposed” enamel may be normal or porous; there are many instances of surface breakdown on teeth that are not affected by MIH, or any other condition for that matter (e.g. otherwise normal teeth can fracture upon biting a hard object).
  • binding refers to a chemical interaction between a protein and hydroxyapatite that arrests the protein in relation to the hydroxyapatite.
  • the interaction may be ionic, covalent, non-covalent, polar or non-polar.
  • the term “detector” refers to any chemical, biochemical or biological substance that interacts specifically with a protein disclosed herein and generates an effect in response to the interaction.
  • the response may be visualisation of a coloured reporter, and thus visualisation of the protein.
  • a “detector” may comprise a “reporter” or an antibody.
  • detect or “detecting” refers to identifying the response from the detector.
  • the detector comprises a coloured reporter.
  • the detector is a reporter.
  • the reporter comprises a coloured reporter.
  • detecting the coloured reporter would involve visualising the coloured reporter and therefore the protein of interest.
  • a reporter may be radio-opaque.
  • the term “probe” refers to an agent such as a protein disclosed herein that can infiltrate porous enamel and that can specifically and tightly bind to hydroxyapatite and upon binding enable such binding to be detected.
  • the probe comprises a specific “hydroxyapatite-targeting” molecule.
  • a “probe” comprises a protein as disclosed herein and a reporter. According to this disclosure, a “probe” may not be an antibody.
  • the term “specific” or “specifically” refers to binding where one substance binds to a particular second substance without substantially binding to any other substance. Such binding is measurably different from a non-specific interaction. Specific binding can be measured, for example, by determining binding of a molecule compared to binding of a control molecule, which generally is a molecule of similar structure that does not have binding activity. For example, specific binding can be determined by competition with a control molecule that is similar to the target, for example, an excess of non-labeled target. In this case, specific binding is indicated if the binding of the labeled target to a probe is competitively inhibited by excess unlabeled target. As used herein, “specific” or “specifically” binding may refer to (i) the protein binding specifically to hydroxyapatite, (ii) the detector specifically binding to the protein, or (iii) the reporter specifically binding to the detector or protein.
  • specific binding refers to a substance having a K d at least 2-fold less than that of a non-specific target, for example, a substance having a K d at least 4-fold, 6-fold, 8-fold, 10-fold, or more than 10-fold less than that of a non-specific target.
  • specific binding can be expressed as a molecule having a K d for the target of at most about 10 ⁇ 4 M, for example, about 10 ⁇ 5 M, about 10 ⁇ 6 M, about 10 ⁇ 7 M, about 10 ⁇ 8 M, about 10 ⁇ 9 M, about 10 ⁇ 10 M, about 10 ⁇ 11 M, about 10 ⁇ 12 M, or less.
  • the detector comprises a reporter.
  • the detector or probe When used in situ, the detector or probe is non-toxic to the subject.
  • a “reporter” refers to any chemical, biochemical or biological substance that generates a detectable effect.
  • the “reporter” may specifically bind to or be linked to the detector or protein.
  • the reporter may comprise biotin or streptavidin for use in a high affinity, non-covalent biotin-streptavidin bond.
  • the reporter may exploit another high affinity, non-covalent bond.
  • the reporter may be a coloured reporter.
  • the reporter may be a pigment, or a luminescent (including fluorescent or phosphorescent), radioactive, chemiluminescent substance, enzyme, or x-ray contrast molecule.
  • a reporter comprising an X-ray contrast molecule e.g. 5-amino-2,4,6-triiodoisophthalic acid; 3 I
  • coloured reporter refers to any coloured substance that absorbs some wavelengths of visible light preferentially.
  • the detectable effect is visualisation of a colour.
  • the coloured reporter may be any coloured substance that is amenable to linking, coupling or conjugating to the protein, whilst maintaining its characteristic as a coloured reporter.
  • the coloured reporter is amido black.
  • the probe comprises the protein (i.e. a hydroxyapatite-binding-protein) linked or coupled to a coloured reporter. Any protein from Table 1 may be linked or coupled to a coloured reporter and function to target the coloured reporter to porous hydroxyapatite.
  • the protein is hemoglobin.
  • the probe comprises hemoglobin linked to amido black.
  • the probe will competitively bind to hydroxyapatite in the presence of other proteins because it is able to displace any species possessing lower affinity for hydroxyapatite.
  • Such a probe may comprise amido black or 3 I.
  • the coloured reporter may be selected, based on desired features that would be known to a person skilled in the art, from the group: Acetyl yellow (Fast yellow); Acid black 1 (Amido black 10B); Acid blue 22 (Water blue I); Acid blue 93 (Methyl blue); Acid fuchsin (Acid fuchsin); Acid green (Light green SF yellowish); Acid green 1 (Naphthol green B); Acid green 5 (Light green SF yellowish); Acid magenta (Acid fuchsin); Acid orange 10 (Orange G); Acid red 4 (Azo-eosin); Acid red 26 (Xylidine ponceau); Acid red 29 (Chromotrope 2R); Acid red 44 (Ponceau 6R); Acid red 51 (Erythrosin B); Acid red 52 (Lissamine rhodamine B); Acid red 66 (Biebrich scarlet); Acid red 73 (bloodstain scarlet); Acid red 87 (Eosin Y w
  • the protein is not listed in the examples of Table 1, but is known to the skilled addressee to bind to hydroxyapatite, for example osteocalcin or decorin.
  • Use of the leucine-rich repeat domains 4-5 from decorin may provide a specific targeting mechanism for porous hydroxyapatite in dentine.
  • the protein may be a peptide or protein fragment, provided that the peptide or protein fragment retains its ability to bind to porous dental hydroxyapatite.
  • small molecules for example tetracycline or amino bisphosphonate, that can bind to hydroxyapatite, which may be of more use in terms of ability to penetrate micro-porous regions, and in terms of stability (e.g. product shelf-life).
  • Amino-bisphosphonate may produce a compound with qualities suited to detecting and delineating caries (small, high-affinity probe for penetrating porous enamel surface and strongly binding to demineralised enamel).
  • the detector or probe further comprises a linker linking the reporter and the detector or protein.
  • the linker may be a heterobifunctional cross-linker.
  • the heterobifunctional linker may be succinimidyl 4-[N-maleimidomethyl]cyclohexanecarboxylic acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (SMCC).
  • linking agents include succinimidyl-6-[ ⁇ -maleimidopropionamido]hexanoate (SMPH), N-hydroxysuccinimidyl-4-azidosalicylic acid (NHS-ASA), and N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC).
  • SMPH succinimidyl-6-[ ⁇ -maleimidopropionamido]hexanoate
  • NHS-ASA N-hydroxysuccinimidyl-4-azidosalicylic acid
  • DCC N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide
  • linker Other types of molecules may be used as a linker.
  • high affinity, non-covalent bonds such as biotin-streptavidin are also contemplated herein.
  • the reporter and the protein may be provided already linked.
  • the reporter and protein may be provided separately for subsequent linkage.
  • the kit or probe may comprise a linker.
  • the protein, reporter and linker of the kit or probe may be presented in any possible combination.
  • the probe may be “ready-to-use”, i.e. the three components may be linked.
  • the protein and the linker may be linked and provided separately to the reporter.
  • the linker and the reporter may be linked and provided separately to the protein.
  • the protein, the reporter, and the linker may be provided as separate components.
  • the kit will comprise the reporter and the linker, but not the protein.
  • the detector comprises an antibody that specifically binds the protein.
  • the detector may comprise biotin or streptavidin for use in a high affinity, non-covalent biotin-streptavidin bond.
  • the detector may exploit another high affinity, non-covalent bond.
  • the detector may comprise an antibody alternative, such as a peptide-based protein ligand.
  • a peptide-based protein ligand known in the art is a synbody.
  • antibody is used in the broadest sense and specifically covers, for example, polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies (including antagonist and neutralizing antibodies), antibody compositions with polyepitopic specificity, single chain antibodies, and fragments of antibodies, provided that they exhibit the desired biological or immunological activity.
  • the antibody may be a conjugated antibody or any other type of antibody known to the person skilled in the art.
  • the antibody may be detected by any method known to the person skilled in the art.
  • the primary antibody may comprise a reporter.
  • a secondary antibody targeting the primary antibody may comprise a reporter.
  • the antibody may be any antibody known by the skilled addressee to specifically bind to a protein selected from the group: Serum albumin; Complement C3 beta chain; Alpha-1-antitrypsin; Protein S100-A9; Lactotransferrin; Leukocyte elastase inhibitor; Antithrombin-III; Hemoglobin subunit alpha; Hemoglobin subunit beta; Hemoglobin subunit delta; Prolactin-inducible protein; Alpha amylase 1; Ig kappa chain V-III region SIE; Ig alpha-2 chain C region; Uncharacterized protein c6orf58; and Serpin B3.
  • the antibody may specifically bind to an amelogenin.
  • an anti-serum albumin monoclonal antibody may be selected from the group: AL-01; 1.B.731; 1A9; 6B11; OCH1E5; 1C8; 1G2; 2B2; 2B3; 2B6; 14E7; 15C7; Alb1; and a mount monoclonal IgG 1 antibody with product code sc-70340 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc).
  • an anti Complement C3 beta chain monoclonal antibody may be clone 755.
  • an anti-human C3 monoclonal antibody that cross-reacts with Complement C3 beta chain may be used and may be clone 11H9.
  • an anti-Alpha-1-antitrypsin monoclonal antibody may be selected from the group: 5B12; 703; 704; 8A0; B9; and G11.
  • an anti-Protein S100-A9 monoclonal antibody may be selected from the group: 0.N.390A; 47-8D3; N0.134; N0.19; and S32.2.
  • an anti-Lactotransferrin monoclonal antibody may be selected from the group: 1C6; 2B8; B97; CLB-13.17; and 1A1.
  • an anti-Antithrombin-III monoclonal antibody may be 4B3 or BDI205.
  • an anti-Hemoglobin subunit alpha antibody may be a goat polyclonal IgG antibody with product code sc-70340 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc).
  • an anti-Hemoglobin subunit beta antibody may be a mouse monoclonal IgG 1 antibody with product code sc-21757 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc).
  • an anti-Ig alpha-2 chain C region monoclonal antibody may be clone 14AS (also referred to as anti-human IgA2).
  • an anti-Amelogenin X antibody may be a rabbit polyclonal IgG antibody with product code sc-32892 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc). The skilled addressee will appreciate that other suitable antibodies are available.
  • a first protein is selected from the group: Serum albumin; Complement C3 beta chain; Alpha-1-antitrypsin; Protein S100-A9; Lactotransferrin; Leukocyte elastase inhibitor; Antithrombin-III; Hemoglobin subunit alpha; Hemoglobin subunit beta; Hemoglobin subunit delta; Prolactin-inducible protein; Alpha amylase 1; Ig kappa chain V-III region SIE; Ig alpha-2 chain C region; Uncharacterized protein c6orf58; and Serpin B3 may be detected, and a second protein may be detected, wherein the second protein is amelogenin.
  • a kit of the first aspect may also comprise a second detector that detects amelogenin.
  • the second detector may be an anti-amelogenin antibody.
  • detecting may comprise immunodetection, chromatography, electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, or microscopy.
  • Immunodetection may comprise enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western Blot, dot blot, slot blot, or flow cytometry, for example.
  • Microscopy may comprise confocal laser, fluorescence or electron microscopy, for example.
  • the detector or probe may be applied in different ways, for example in a liquid, gel, capsule, tablet, aqueous solution, aqueous or oily suspension, lozenge, troche, powder, granule, emulsion, syrup or elixir.
  • the detector or probe comprises a solvent in which the detector or probe is dissolved, suspended or emulsified.
  • the solvent may be one that is used generally in medicine or industry or similar. Examples include water, ethanol, n-propanol, 2-butyl alcohol, isobutyl alcohol, n-amyl alcohol, isoamyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, 2-methoxyethanol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, tetraethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, dipropylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, trimethylene glycol, 1,2-butanediol, 1,3-butanediol, 2,3-butanediol, 1,4-butanediol, 1,5-pentanediol, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, ethylene glycol diethy
  • the solvent comprises water, ethanol, glycerin, isobutyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, diethylene glycol, triethylene glycol, acetone, or propylene glycol, which are compatible with humans.
  • One solvent may be used singly or two or more solvents may be used in admixture.
  • the detector may be compounded with a thickener to increase its viscosity to about 50 to about 2 000 mPa ⁇ s, for example 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, or 1750 mPa s (at 25° C.), thereby forming a gel.
  • a thickener to increase its viscosity to about 50 to about 2 000 mPa ⁇ s, for example 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, or 1750 mPa s (at 25° C.), thereby forming a gel.
  • applying the detector with a toothbrush enables simultaneous cleaning of the tooth and application of the detector.
  • thickeners examples include: synthetic additives such as sodium alginate, propylene glycol alginate, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, calcium carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium carboxymethyl starch, sodium starch phosphate, sodium polyacrylate, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, and polyvinylpyrrolidone; natural thickeners such as cyamoposis gum, Carob bean gum, Tara gum, Tamarind seed gum, gum arabic, tragacanth gum, Karaya gum, alginic acid, carrageenan, xanthan gum, gellan gum, curdlan, chitin, chitosan, and chitosamine; and inorganic thickeners such as calcium carbonate, calcium silicate, silica powder, amorphous hydrous silicate, and hydrophobic silica.
  • synthetic additives such as sodium alginate, propylene glycol alginate, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, calcium carboxymethyl cellulose, sodium carboxymethyl starch, sodium star
  • the compounding amount of the thickener varies depending on the kind of the thickener. For example, when sodium carboxymethyl cellulose having a large thickening effect, the compounding amount may be about 0.5 to 4% by weight, and when methyl cellulose, the compounding amount may be about 10 to 30% by weight.
  • the detector or probe may comprise additives such as sweeteners, flavours, and preservatives.
  • suitable sweeteners include sucrose, lactose, glucose, aspartame or saccharin.
  • Suitable flavouring agents include peppermint oil, oil of wintergreen, cherry, orange or raspberry flavouring.
  • Suitable preservatives include sodium benzoate, vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, methyl paraben, propyl paraben or sodium bisulphite.
  • Suitable lubricants include magnesium stearate, stearic acid, sodium oleate, sodium chloride or talc.
  • Suitable disintegrating agents include corn starch, methylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, xanthan gum, bentonite, alginic acid or agar.
  • a tablet may contain the detector in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipients which are suitable for the manufacture of tablets.
  • kit of the first aspect further comprises one or more washing solutions.
  • the kit of the seventh or ninth aspect comprises one or more washing solutions.
  • a washing solution of the kit of the first, seventh or ninth aspect may comprise a solution to remove any protein not specifically bound to porous hydroxyapatite, i.e. non-desorbing.
  • a washing solution that does not desorb a protein bound to hydroxyapatite may be water, saline, Tris buffer, or mild detergent etc.
  • a washing solution allows protein not specifically bound to hydroxyapatite to be removed from the tooth or sample thereof prior to application of the detector.
  • the washing solution comprises magnesium ions (Mg 2+ ), dihydrogenphosphate ions (H 2 PO 4 ⁇ ), hydrogenphosphate ions (HPO 4 2 ⁇ ), or phosphate ions (PO 4 3 ⁇ ) (collectively “PO 4 ”), or may comprise a plurality of washing solutions that may each comprise magnesium ions (Mg 2+ ), dihydrogenphosphate ions (H 2 PO 4 ⁇ ), hydrogenphosphate ions (HPO 4 2 ⁇ ), or phosphate ions (PO 4 3 ⁇ ), administrable sequentially.
  • Mg 2+ magnesium ions
  • H 2 PO 4 ⁇ dihydrogenphosphate ions
  • HPO 4 2 ⁇ hydrogenphosphate ions
  • PO 4 3 ⁇ phosphate ions
  • washing solution comprises magnesium chloride or sodium dihydrogenphosphate.
  • washing solutions capable of desorbing protein from hydroxyapatite are available.
  • a washing solution may comprise hypochlorous acid (HOCl), hypochlorite (NaOCl) or calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl) 2 ) (collectively “bleach”).
  • HOCl hypochlorous acid
  • NaOCl hypochlorite
  • Ca(OCl) 2 calcium hypochlorite
  • a washing solution may be provided ready to use.
  • the washing solution may be provided as a concentrate to prepare the washing solution upon dilution with water.
  • the washing solution may be provided as one or more dry components to prepare the washing solution upon admixture with water.
  • the washing solution may comprise less than 1 mM, about 1 mM, about 2 mM, about 3 mM, about 4 mM, about 5 mM, about 6 mM, about 7 mM, about 8 mM, about 9 mM, about 10 mM or more than 10 mM magnesium ions.
  • the washing solution may comprise less than 0.1 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.6 M, about 0.7 M, about 0.8 M, about 0.9 M, about 1 M, about 1.1 M, about 1.2 M, about 1.3 M, about 1.4 M, about 1.5 M, about 2 M, about 10 M or more than 10 M magnesium ions.
  • the washing solution may comprise less than 0.04 M, about 0.04 M, about 0.08 M, about 0.09 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.6 M, about 0.7 M, about 0.8 M, about 0.9 M, about 1 M, about 1.5 M, about 2 M, about 4 M, or more than 4 M dihydrogenphosphate, hydrogenphosphate or phosphate ions.
  • the washing solution may comprise about 10% bleach (about 0.4% ⁇ OCl), neat or undiluted bleach (about 4% ⁇ OCl), or may comprise about 20% (about 0.8% ⁇ OCl), about 30% (about 1.2% ⁇ OCl), about 40% (about 1.6% ⁇ OCl), about 50% (about 2.0% ⁇ OCl), about 60% (about 2.4% ⁇ OCl), about 70% (about 2.8% ⁇ OCl), about 80% (about 3.2% ⁇ OCl), about 90% (about 3.6% ⁇ OCl) or about 95% bleach (about 3.8% ⁇ OCl).
  • the one or more washing solutions, or plurality of washing solutions may comprise a solution of about 5 mM magnesium chloride, a solution of about 1 M magnesium chloride, and/or a solution of about 0.4 M sodium dihydrogenphosphate.
  • the washing solutions may be applied in any order.
  • the washing solutions may be applied sequentially in the order of low magnesium concentration (e.g. 5 mM), high magnesium concentration (e.g. 1 M), dihydrogenphosphate (e.g. 0.4 M; or hydrogenphosphate or phosphate).
  • a washing solution may comprise in combination magnesium and phosphate, for example, about 1 M magnesium concentration and about 0.4 M dihydrogenphosphate, hydrogenphosphate or phosphate.
  • a “sample” is a portion or part of the tooth to be used for detection or diagnosis of porous hydroxyapatite.
  • a “control sample” is a portion or part of the tooth known to be healthy and free of porous hydroxyapatite and is used for reference purposes when detecting or diagnosing porosity in test hydroxyapatite.
  • a “sample” may be obtained by wiping, swabbing, scraping, chipping, drilling or similar.
  • a sampler may be adapted for obtaining a sample by swabbing, wiping or any other method of collection known to the skilled addressee.
  • the detector is applied using a brush, toothbrush, a cotton swab, a cotton ball or by dropping from a nozzle-equipped container.
  • the detector or probe After application of the detector or probe, the detector or probe is incubated on the tooth for a period of time sufficient for binding of the detector to the protein or for binding of the probe to the hydroxyapatite.
  • the incubation period may be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55 or 60 s.
  • the incubation time may be 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, or 5 min.
  • the incubation time may be more than 5 min, such as 10, 15 or 20 min.
  • excess detector or probe may be disgorged from the mouth with or without washing using water or a washing solution.
  • the subject includes a mammal.
  • the mammal may be a human.
  • the human may be any age.
  • the human may be under about 12 years of age.
  • the human may be about 2 to about 12 years of age, about 4 to about 10 years of age, or about 6 to about 10 years of age.
  • the subject may be 12 to 20, 20 to 30, 30 to 40, 40 to 50, 50 to 60, 60 to 70, 70 to 80, 80 to 90, or 90 to 100 years of age.
  • the subject may develop porous hydroxyapatite after normal hydroxyapatite and normal enamel has developed, or the subject may have porous hydroxyapatite throughout development.
  • the subject may be a domestic, zoo, or companion animal. While it is particularly contemplated that the methods and uses herein are suitable for humans, they are also applicable to primates, companion animals such as dogs and cats, domestic animals such as horses, cattle, sheep and goats, zoo animals such as felids, canids, bovids, and ungulates, or laboratory animals such as lagomorphs and rodents.
  • a subject may be afflicted with a dental disorder, or may not be afflicted with a dental disorder (i.e., free of detectable disease).
  • the diagnostic power of the kits or methods disclosed herein is based on conditions of porous hydroxyapatite (DDD and caries) having distinguishable protein profiles (e.g. MIH: abundant proteins from Table 1, little or no amelogenin; mature fluorosis: trace amounts of albumin and amelogenin; hypomaturation amelogenesis imperfecta: abundant amelogenin).
  • MIH abundant proteins from Table 1, little or no amelogenin
  • mature fluorosis trace amounts of albumin and amelogenin
  • hypomaturation amelogenesis imperfecta abundant amelogenin.
  • Protein concentration in test enamel of a tooth or sample thereof may be assessed by various means, and the condition involving porous hydroxyapatite can be diagnosed based on the identity of proteins with elevated abundance relative to control.
  • a further application of the present disclosure is to categorise the MIH lesion sub-type (e.g. as intact or broken), which may impact the type of treatment required (e.g. different protein compositions may need different wash procedures before remedial mineralisation).
  • intact has its ordinary meaning of undisrupted, uninjured or unaltered and is used in relation to the surface of tooth enamel. “Intact” here refers to a lesion covered with a shell of harder enamel at the tooth surface, and is referred to as a subsurface lesion, indicating a stratified structure.
  • broken here refers to an MIH lesion whose hard enamel shell either has become disrupted due to mechanical forces, or was not present initially (perhaps lost during tooth eruption, or not produced during development).
  • permeable surface refers to intact or broken enamel that allows access of oral fluid or any other solution (and associated components including proteins) into subsurface regions. Conversely, an “impermeable surface” refers to intact or broken enamel that blocks such access.
  • a kit may comprise a permeabilising agent, or a method of the fourth to sixth aspects (e.g. mechanical permeabilisation) may comprise permeabilising the tooth or a sample of the tooth.
  • a permeabilising agent or a method of the fourth to sixth aspects (e.g. mechanical permeabilisation) may comprise permeabilising the tooth or a sample of the tooth.
  • Such an agent or method will be used in pre-treating a lesion that has an impermeable surface.
  • such an agent may be used to access a lesion previously subject to remineralisation or remedial mineralisation.
  • permeabilise or “permeabilising” refers to opening pores in impermeable enamel of sufficient dimension to enable the detector and/or the washing solution access to the porous hydroxyapatite, and/or to enable protein removal.
  • the permeabilisation agent is a formulation capable of permeabilising the surface layer of enamel (e.g. it may comprise an acid or some other agent known by the skilled addressee to permeabilise enamel).
  • the permeabilisation agent may be in the form of a solution or a gel, for example.
  • kits may comprise a remineralisation agent, or the method may comprise remineralising the tooth or sample thereof.
  • a remineralisation agent may comprise fluoride, soluble calcium phosphate or amorphous calcium phosphate, which may be stabilised with bioactive molecules.
  • MIH Magnetic Ink-Human and Sprague-Dawley rat specimens were obtained with appropriate ethical approvals, and stored at ⁇ 80° C. MIH was diagnosed according to standard criteria (Weerheijm, 2003). After extraction, MIH teeth were water-rinsed to remove visible blood, then blotted dry and stored frozen immediately. Whole saliva, stimulated by chewing on wax, was clarified by centrifugation (20,000 g, 5 min) before storage. Serum and erythrocytes were prepared conventionally from blood of 6-day-old rats. Secretory enamel matrix was isolated from developing rat teeth as before (Hubbard, 1996) except using 5-day-old first molars.
  • Overt MIH lesions were collected from freshly thawed specimens by scraping with a scalpel, taking care to avoid carious enamel and dentine. Normal enamel was sampled using a slowly rotating dental bur (No. 6). Immediately afterwards, enamel samples (2-5 ⁇ l packed vol) were suspended in 10% trifluoroacetic acid (10 volumes, 10 min at room temperature with vortexing and bath sonication), then centrifuged (20,000 g, 4° C., 5 min) to sediment acid-insoluble protein.
  • Pellets were solubilized in gel-loading buffer containing 2% SDS and 100 mmol/L dithiothreitol (Hubbard, 1996), with additional protease inhibitors (1 mmol/L phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 1 mmolIL benzamidine, 5 ⁇ g/mL pepstatin, 5 ⁇ g/mL leupeptin) where indicated.
  • SDS extracts were quantified by dot blotting with Amido Black and subjected to mini SDS-PAGE with Coomassie Blue staining or immunoblotting (Hubbard, 1995).
  • Amelogenin antiserum was raised conventionally in rabbits, using recombinant mouse amelogenin (SEQ ID NO: 19) as immunogen.
  • Mock oral fluid was prepared by empirically spiking saliva with serum and erythrocyte lysate so that major proteins from all three components were similarly abundant ( FIG. 4B ).
  • oral fluid was incubated with 0.1 volumes hydroxyapatite (from Sigma, St Louis, Mo., USA) or MIH enamel for 60 min at 20° C. then centrifuged (2,000 g, 2 min). After washing in 3 volumes 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), the pellet was extracted with trifluoroacetic acid and SDS as described above for enamel.
  • MIH Enamel is Enriched with Non-Amelogenin Proteins
  • MIH enamel SDS-PAGE bands were subjected to proteomic analysis. As shown in FIG. 3 and Table 1, a variety of proteins were identified (16 distinct gene products), 13 of which are found in saliva and crevicular fluid. The three others (haemoglobin, albumin, complement C3) are major components of blood. Consequently all major proteins identified in MIH enamel are normally associated with body fluids found intraorally.
  • FIG. 2A Given the clinical diversity of MIH lesions (colour, consistency, size, surface integrity), it was investigated whether the different presentations have distinct protein compositions. Appraisal of the protein profiles ( FIG. 2A ) led to the hypothesis that integrity of the enamel surface had a major influence. Notably, when lesions were grouped as “intact” and “broken”, the protein-banding patterns appeared qualitatively similar within each group, but two striking differences were apparent between the groups ( FIG. 2A , 12-kDa & 66-kDa regions). The 12-kDa band, which was obvious in broken but not intact lesions, routinely contained haemoglobin as a major component ( FIG. 3 ). Conversely, in intact lesions the 66-kDa band routinely contained albumin only, unlike broken lesions where albumin was found infrequently at lower levels.
  • FIG. 4B Profiling of the hydroxyapatite-bound fraction revealed remarkable similarity to broken lesions ( FIGS. 2A , 4 A).
  • FIGS. 2A , 4 A When hydroxyapatite was substituted with powdered enamel made from an intact lesion (i.e. to model breakage of the surface layer), the profile was again similar to broken lesions ( FIG. 4C ).
  • MIH enamel has substantially higher protein content than normal, but a near-normal level of residual amelogenins. This characteristic distinguishes MIH from hypomaturation defects that contain high residual amelogenins (amelogenesis imperfecta, fluorosis) and in turn typifies MIH as a hypocalcification defect.
  • MIH enamel was found to have accumulated various proteins from oral fluid and blood, with differential incorporation depending on integrity of the enamel surface.
  • hypocalcification is a subtype of hypomineralisation, the other subtype being hypomaturation.
  • MIH and some types of amelogenesis imperfecta, and probably some types of fluorosis too are distinguished as hypocalcification defects in that they have low amounts of amelogenin. That is, the normal process of amelogenin removal (enamel maturation) has occurred, but calcification has not occurred.
  • hypomaturation defects however, (immature types of amelogenesis imperfecta and fluorosis), amelogenin removal (enamel maturation) has not occurred to a major degree and it is the continued presence of amelogenin that impedes calcification.
  • Amelogenin levels are relatively low in hypocalcification types of DDD/hypomineralisation, but closer to normal levels in hypomaturation types of DDD/hypomineralisation (such as some types of amelogenesis imperfecta and dental fluorosis). Therefore, variations in levels both of amelogenin and the remaining proteins disclosed herein bound to porous dental hydroxyapatite could be informative (e.g. diagnostic) individually or in combination, for example as a ratio.
  • the proteins identified herein have potential utility as biomarkers for characterizing MIH lesions clinically.
  • SMCC succinimidyl 4-[N-maleimidomethyl]cyclohexanecarboxylic acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester; CAS#: 64987-85-5) is a non-cleavable heterobifunctional cross-linker with amine and sulfhydryl reactivity separated by a spacer arm of 8.3 ⁇ .
  • Amido black (CAS#: 1064-48-8) is a common blue/black stain used here as a coloured reporter which contains a primary amine group.
  • Hemoglobin from cow (CAS#: 9008-02-0) is a heterotetramer consisting of 2 pairs of polypeptide chains ( ⁇ and ⁇ ; SEQ ID NOs: 20 and 21, respectively). The ⁇ -chain has a single solvent-exposed sulfhydryl-containing cysteine residue, while the ⁇ -chain has no cysteines.
  • SMCC 75 mM in dimethyl sulfoxide
  • amido black 37.5 mM in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM sodium phosphate dibasic, pH 7.4)
  • PBS phosphate-buffered saline
  • Amido black ensured maximal labelling of SMCC (creating a maleimide-activated coloured reporter, FIG. 27 ).
  • the solution was desiccated by vacuum centrifugation and stored at ⁇ 80° C.
  • Hemoglobin (20 mg/ml; 0.65 ⁇ mole cysteine-thiol/ml) was prepared by dissolving in PBS that contained 10 mM TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine, a non-thiol reducing agent used to maintain cystine-sulfhydryl state) and 5 mM EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, a metal chelator used to reduce potential for oxidant/radical catalysis and subsequent thiol oxidation). After a 30 minute incubation at 21° C., reduced hemoglobin was dialysed against 1,000-volumes of PBS for 2 hours to deplete TCEP and EDTA (this step may be optional). The hemoglobin was taken to the next step immediately to minimise cysteine-thiol oxidation.
  • TCEP tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine, a non-thiol reducing agent used to maintain cystine-sulfhydr
  • the desiccated maleimide-activated Amido black was dissolved in Hemoglobin at a Amido black:thiol molar ratio of 10:1 to ensure maximal labelling of hemoglobin. After incubating for 2 hours at 21° C., Amido black-conjugated hemoglobin was dialysed extensively against PBS (until dialysate remained uncoloured, for 1 ml this took 24 to 48 hours) to remove non-covalently bound amido black. After dialysis, the probe was ready for use.
  • hydroxyapatite changed in colour from white to dark blue ( FIG. 29 ).
  • the probe withstood washing in water, whereas Amido black alone (i.e. not linked to Hb) was removed by washing in water.
  • the probe was removed from hydroxyapatite with a three-step washing procedure that comprised washing sequentially in each of 5 mM MgCl 2 , 1 M MgC12, and 0.4 M NaH 2 PO 4 for 5 min ( FIG. 29 ).
  • a key design requirement was the preservation of hemoglobin's hydroxyapatite-binding function after conjugation to the coloured reporter.
  • Hemoglobin's cysteine-thiols were targeted because two of the four protein subunits carry a single cysteine (not at binding interfaces); the other two subunits lack cysteine.
  • the resulting tetramer probe therefore contains two unmodified protein subunits, thereby maintaining at least half the native hydroxyapatite-binding sites per functional unit.
  • a 2-step method was exemplified: the first produced a coloured reporter-SMCC conjugate ( FIG. 27 ); the second used the coloured reporter-SMCC conjugate to label hemoglobin ( FIG. 28 ).
  • proof-of-principle has been established for design, production and testing of a novel probe that detects porous hydroxyapatite.
  • the Probe Binds to Porous Dental Enamel Specifically (FIG. 30 )
  • Example 2 To test whether the probe of Example 2 binds to porous enamel specifically, a complex carious lesion was coated with the probe then washed thoroughly.
  • a human first molar that had a large region of caries was photographed before and after application of the probe ( FIG. 30 ).
  • the probe was applied to the whole crown region using a brush for a period of one minute.
  • the tooth was rinsed under running water for 10 seconds, photographed, then the tooth was washed again for a further two minutes and photographed.
  • Regions of overt caries were labelled strongly and specifically, but labelling was patchy in some places.
  • the unlabelled carious regions exhibited a shiny surface that was resistant to scratching, whereas labelled regions had a dull surface that could be scratched readily. This indicates that the areas of patchy unlabelled caries may be due to remineralisation of the surface layer.
  • the probe is capable of discriminating between active and inactive caries.
  • Regions of enamel broken during extraction of the tooth were also labelled indicating that the probe can detect regions of enamel that have a breached surface.
  • the probe provided a stable level of labelling, independent of water-rinsing time.
  • the Probe Can Specifically Detect Early Demineralisation of Surface Enamel (Model of Incipient Caries) (FIG. 31 )
  • Example 2 To test whether the probe of Example 2 can specifically detect early caries, artificial carious lesions were produced on normal surface enamel using spots of strong acid (before application of probe).
  • a human first molar was shown by photography before and after application of the probe to be caries-free prior to acid-treatment ( FIG. 31 ).
  • Three regions of enamel were then exposed to acid (0.5 ⁇ l 85% H 3 PO 4 ) for 1, 3 or 10 minutes to introduce artificial carious lesions before washing in 100 ml TBS (25 mM Tris pH 7.2, 160 mM NaCl) for two minutes, then under running water for another two minutes.
  • the tooth was air-dried and the probe was applied to the whole area for three minutes using a brush.
  • unbound probe was removed by first wiping with absorbent paper, then by rinsing under running water for 10 seconds.
  • 10% bleach (0.4% NaClO) was applied with a brush for 10 seconds.
  • the probe did not bind to any regions of the caries-free enamel.
  • Acid etch treatment yielded three regions of slightly opaque/dull enamel, which followed a dose-dependent severity profile (10>3>1 min). The three etched regions were all detected by the probe, in a severity-dependent manner; un-etched enamel was not labelled.
  • Probe binding resisted washing in water, although signal intensity diminished slightly.
  • the probe could be quantitatively removed by application of 10% bleach for 10 seconds.
  • Enamel from Example 4 ( FIG. 31 ) was re-treated with probe of Example 2 to verify a hydroxyapatite-binding mechanism.
  • the probe was applied to etched enamel that had been bleach-treated (i.e. protein stripped).
  • Bleached enamel was labelled by the probe similarly to unbleached ( FIG. 32 , compare Panels A2 and A4). This finding rules out a protein-staining mechanism for the probe's labelling of etched enamel.
  • Enamel from Panel A was exposed to a known hydroxyapatite-binding protein (10% bovine serum albumin, BSA) by applying with a brush for one minute, followed by water rinsing for one minute. After BSA treatment, the probe was applied as before. BSA was stripped by bleach treatment, and the probe re-applied.
  • BSA hydroxyapatite-binding protein
  • Example 2 To test whether the probe of Example 2 could be used to delineate abnormal dental tissues, a portion of tooth that contained normal and abnormal enamel & dentine was treated with the probe.
  • a fractured tooth that displayed a region of sub-surface hypomineralisation was chosen to mimic a clinically difficult case where lesion boundaries are obscure and complex.
  • a brief pre-exposure to the probe led to demarcation of the enamel-dentine boundary.
  • the specimen was then photographed before (left) and after (right) the probe was applied with a brush for 30 seconds ( FIG. 33 ). After application, unbound probe was removed by rinsing in water for 30 seconds.
  • the Probe Can be Used to Guide Removal of Hypomineralised Enamel (FIG. 34 )
  • Example 6 Hypomineralised enamel from Example 6 ( FIG. 33 ) was removed using a scalpel blade and repeatedly re-probed with the probe of Example 2 to monitor progress. Physical characteristics of the enamel were noted at each step ( FIG. 34 , see description beneath panels).
  • FIG. 34 show the specimen after removal of hypomineralised enamel, whereas the lower panels show the same specimen after application of the probe.
  • Panels 1 to 3 show gradual removal of small regions of hypomineralised enamel.
  • Panels 4 to 6 show attempted removal of the whole region, and regions of incomplete removal (compare upper and lower panels). Note that as hypomineralised enamel was removed, the physical characteristics changed markedly in parallel with degree of labelling, to the end-point where remaining enamel was physically uniform and unstained by the probe (Panel 6 ).
  • the Probe can be Used to Guide Removal of Abnormal Dentine (FIG. 35 )
  • FIG. 35 show the specimen after removal of abnormal dentine, whereas the lower panels show the same specimen after application of the probe.
  • Panel 1 shows intense staining of abnormal dentine, which is reduced sharply with removal and reprobing (e.g. compare lower panels 1 and 2 ). Reduced levels of labelling by the probe correlate with improved physical character of the dentine (e.g. in Panel 4 , the dentine hardness was uniformly normal by physical assessment and largely unstained after application of the probe). Note that even after complete removal of abnormal dentine, a low level of background staining is apparent (presumably due to dentine's higher porosity relative to enamel).
  • Example 8 To test whether the probe's specificity for dentine, as shown in Example 8, could be improved, a bleach wash was used to reduce staining of normal dentine.
  • a human molar with exposed normal and abnormal dentine was exposed to the probe of Example 2 (brush application for one minute followed by water rinse for one minute) and subsequently exposed to a bleach wash (applied with brush for 10 seconds, then water rinsed for one minute). Following probe/bleach application, labelled regions were removed with a scalpel blade then re-probed/bleached to monitor progress ( FIG. 36 ).
  • Abnormal dentine was preferentially detected by the probe, however background staining of normal dentine decreased confidence in border demarcation.
  • Application of 10% bleach (0.4% NaOCl) for 10 seconds improved resolution by reducing labelling in normal dentine, but not in abnormal.
  • Application of neat bleach (4% NaOCl) for 10 seconds completely removed labelling from normal dentine, without affecting labelling of abnormal dentine, resulting in much clearer delineation of abnormal dentine.
  • the Probe can be Opaque to X-Rays (FIG. 37 )
  • the probe was made radio-opaque by substituting the blue chromophore (amido black) of Example 2 for 5-amino-2,4,6-triiodoisophthalic acid ( 3 I), a precursor compound used in medical radiography (e.g. for cerebral angiography). This compound was chosen due to the availability of a single primary amine that could be used for coupling with the same cross-linker used in the blue probe.
  • SMCC cross-linker
  • 3 I was prepared as follows: 30 mg was dissolve in 1 ml 0.1M NaOH (50 mM 3 I), 250 ⁇ l 0.1 M HEPES pH 7.0 was added, then pH was adjusted to 7 with 1 ⁇ l additions of 5 M NaOH; such that the final solution was 40 mM 3 I, 20 mM HEPES pH 7.
  • the resultant pellet was taken up in 20 ⁇ l of DMSO and 100 ⁇ l of 20 mg/ml hemoglobin was added, then the solution was incubated at room temperature for 60 min to couple 3 I to cysteine thiols in hemoglobin.
  • radio-opacity conferred on the probe was subjected to X-ray radiography (65 kV, 8 mA, 0.5 second exposure) alongside radio-opaque standards (1 and 10 mM 3 I).
  • the X-ray probe was radio-opaque to a degree between 1 and 10 mM 3 I ( FIG. 37 ). Density analysis suggested radio-opacity was equivalent to a 1.5-2.5 mM solution of 3 I. These results confirm that the probe can be made opaque to X-rays.
  • Pure hydroxyapatite (5 mg) was loaded with proteins from rat blood (100 ⁇ l of 10 mM Tris pH 7.2 which contained 10 ⁇ l Hb extract and 2 ⁇ l neat serum) for 10 minutes at room temperature with constant shaking. Protein-loaded hydroxyapatite was sedimented by centrifugation at 2,000 ⁇ g for 30 seconds, the supernatant was discarded then the pellet was washed with 300 ⁇ l 10 mM Tris pH 7.2 for 30 seconds to remove unbound interstitial components.
  • Protein-hydroxyapatite was then exposed to 100 ⁇ l of various wash components (water, 5 mM MgCl 2 , 1 M MgCl 2 or 0.4 M NaH 2 PO 4 ) for 2 minutes at room temperature with mixing before centrifugation. Washes were collected and Protein-hydroxyapatite was washed another two times with the same washing solution. After three wash steps, the Protein-hydroxyapatite was dissolved in 100 ⁇ l 10% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), and precipitated proteins collected by centrifugation (2,000 ⁇ g for 2 minutes), and pellets were dissolved in 100 ⁇ l of 2 ⁇ SoB (0.125M Tris-HCl pH 6.8, 4% SDS, 20% Glycerol). Protein content in all fractions was assessed by densitometry of dot-blots stained with Amido Black.
  • various wash components water, 5 mM MgCl 2 , 1 M MgCl 2 or 0.4 M NaH 2 PO 4
  • Washes were collected and Protein-hydroxy
  • hydroxyapatite was loaded with proteins, then subjected to 100 ⁇ l of various wash components (water, 1 M MgCl 2 or 0.4 M NaH 2 PO 4 ) as for Example 11, except with two washes (instead of three) and 5 mM MgCl 2 was omitted.
  • One tube received 1M Mg 2+ followed by 0.4 M PO 4 .
  • hydroxyapatite pellets were photographed to record the colour (see inset), then protein content was assessed as for Example 11.

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