KR102373619B1 - Process and manufacture of low-dimensional materials that support both self-thermal neutronization and self-localization - Google Patents

Abstract

A variety of articles and devices can be fabricated using what is believed to be a novel thermodynamic cycle in which spontaneity is due to shared entropy equilibrium. The new thermodynamic cycle exploits a quantum phase transition between quantum thermal neutronization and quantum localization. Preferred devices include phonovoltaic cells, rectifiers and conductors for use in integrated circuits.

Description

Process and manufacture of low-dimensional materials that support both self-thermal neutronization and self-localization

This application was filed on November 29, 2016, and the title of the invention is "Composition and Method for Making Picocrystal-line Artificial Borane Atoms", International Patent Application No. PCT/US16/63933; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/471,815, filed March 15, 2017, entitled "Composition, Manufacture, and Method for Converting Ambient Heat into Electrical Energy;" and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848, filed on November 29, 2017, entitled "Process and Manufacture of Low-Dimensional Materials Supporting Both Self-Thermalization and Self-Localization", claiming priority; The disclosures of these are incorporated herein by reference.

The present invention relates to low-dimensional materials, and more particularly, to low-dimensional materials that support quantum self-thermalization and quantum self-localization, as well as self- It relates to quantum phase transitions between quantum phases by controlled fluctuations in quantum entanglement of artificial nuclei such as carbon in self-assembled tetravalent artificial atoms.

The steam engine was responsible for the industrial revolution that began in the 18th century. To establish an allocatable limit of heat within a steam engine, Sadi Carnot devised a thermodynamic cycle in 1824 that could describe a reversible thermomechanical heat engine operating between two heat reservoirs of different temperatures. . The thermodynamic cycle is known as the Carnot cycle. Any system that undergoes the Carnot cycle is referred to as a Carnot heat engine. The laws of thermodynamics evolved from numerous studies into the Carnot cycle. In the development of the thermodynamic cycle that bears his name, Carnot used the calorie theory of heat. An early formal study of the Carnot cycle on the mechanical theory of heat was carried out by Rudolf Clausius in his paper "On the Moving Force of Heat, and the Laws Regarding the Nature of Heat Itself Which are Deducible Therefrom" (Phil.Mag. Ser.4, pp. 102-119 (1851)).

Q_{A →B})에 의해 일정 온도(T)에서 동작 물질은 팽창된다. 단열 팽창(B→C) 동안, 동작 물질은 외부 열교환 없이 T에서 T-dT로 단열방식으로 냉각된다.This thesis is hereafter referred to as Clausius (1851). The Carnot cycle, represented by Clausius (1851), is shown in Figure 1 with a slightly different symbolic representation. The Carnot cycle of Figure 1 contains four minimal variations within the working material: (1) isothermal expansion (A→B); (2) adiabatic expansion (B→C); (3) isothermal compression (C→D) ); and (4) adiabatic compression (D→A). During isothermal expansion (A→B), extraction of latent heat from a high temperature (T) heat reservoir (

Q _{A →B} ) causes the moving material to expand at a constant temperature (T). During adiabatic expansion (B→C), the working material is cooled adiabatically from T to T-dT without external heat exchange.

Q_C→D)에 의해 일정한 온도(T-dT)에서 압축된다. 단열 압축(D→A) 동안 동작 물질은 임의의 외부 열교환 없이 T-dT에서 T로 단열방식으로 가열된다. 도 1의 카르노 사이클에 따라 작동하는 카르노 열 기관(Carnot heat engine)은, 고온(T) 열 저장소로부터 추출된 더 큰 잠열(

Q_{A →B})과 그 이후에 저온(T-dT)으로 배출되는 더 낮은 잠열(-

Q_C→D) 사이의 차이가 기계적인 동작으로 변환되는 열역학적 모터를 구성한다. 주기적인 열역학 공정에서, 엔트로피의 변화(ΔS)는 일반적으로 다음과 같이 주어진다:During isothermal compression (C→D), the working material releases latent heat (-

It is compressed at a constant temperature (T-dT) by Q _C→D ). During adiabatic compression (D→A) the working material is heated adiabatically from T-dT to T without any external heat exchange. The Carnot heat engine operating according to the Carnot cycle of FIG. 1 has a greater latent heat (

Q _{A →B} ) and thereafter lower latent heat (-

Q _C→D ) constitute a thermodynamic motor that is converted into mechanical motion. In a periodic thermodynamic process, the change in entropy (ΔS) is usually given by:

The Carnot cycle is reversible, so that the Carnot heat engine can operate as a motor or a refrigerator. Under these conditions, the equation (1) holds, whereby entropy is conserved in the Carnot cycle. The Carnot cycle of FIG. 1 can also be expressed in the manner shown in FIG. 2 , wherein the concentrated thermodynamic variable along the ordinate axis is temperature (T) and the global thermodynamic variable along the abscissa axis is entropy (S). Conservation of entropy in the Carnot cycle is unreliable in that the ability to perform tasks on demand requires spontaneity due to irreversible processes. For the motorized Carnot heat engine, the required spontaneity is related to the creation of a high-temperature heat reservoir. During the Industrial Revolution, combustion was taken as given in the Carnot cycle.

Combustion is a chemical reaction at thermomechanical equilibrium with its surroundings, which proceeds in the direction of a decrease in Gibbs free energy (ΔG < 0), which in turn decreases its enthalpy (ΔH < 0) and/or according to the following reactions: It proceeds in the direction of increasing entropy (ΔS > 0).

For a chemical reaction that is ideally in thermomechanical equilibrium with its surroundings, the second law of thermodynamics can be expressed as:

The second law of thermodynamics describes an increase in entropy in any energy transformation that proceeds on its own. Most of the fuel's spontaneity is due to a decrease in enthalpy, whereby equation (3) is more specifically expressed as:

As a result of the formation of molecular bonding orbitals with higher binding energies, the total entropy (−ΔG/T) of the working material and its surroundings increases due to a decrease in Gibbs free energy (ΔG < 0). This indicates the enthalpy release (ΔH < 0) of the working material to the surroundings, such that the spontaneity of the net energy conversion of combustion is not an entropy increase in the working material (ΔS > 0) but an increase in entropy around it (-ΔH/T > 0) indicates belonging to The world's fuel-based economy, due to its dependence on high-enthalpy fuels, increases the entropy of ecosystems, depletes natural fuels, and releases hazardous wastes into the ecosystem.

In order to eliminate dependence on high-enthalpy fuels, it is necessary to replace the Carnot cycle with a new thermodynamic cycle whose spontaneity is due to an inherent entropy equilibrium. This possibility was discussed in the landmark paper "A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces" (Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, II. pp. 382-404, December 1873) by Josiah Willard Gibbs. Willard Gibbs) in theory. All citations to Gibbs (1873) below are taken to belong to this paper. In Figure 3, some arbitrary non-equilibrium state (A) can be equilibrated in one of two ways along the surface of the dissipated energy (MN). An equilibrium was elaborately described by Gibbs (1873): "The problem of finding a quantity that can be decreased without increasing its volume or decreasing its entropy can therefore be reduced to this. This quantity is [ E] will be represented geometrically by the distance of the point (A) representing the initial state from the surface of the dissipated energy measured parallel to the axis."

This process can be supplemented by another type of equilibrium introduced by Gibbs (1873), which has been lost in the prior art over the years. Gibbs (1873) stated: "Consider another problem. The specific initial state of the body is given as before. No work is allowed in or by an external body. The algebraic sum of all the columns passed through is zero. Heat can pass between them only under the conditions that

Taking this into account, Gibbs (1873) proposed: "It is necessary to find the maximum possible amount to reduce the entropy of an external system under these conditions . This obviously does not change the energy of the body or increase its volume, but it It will be the amount by which the entropy of [S] can be increased, i.e., the amount geometrically expressed by the distance of the point representing the initial state from the surface of the dissipated energy measured parallel to the axis of [S]. there is."

The entropy equilibrium above can never be achieved by the Carnot cycle. A thermodynamic cycle that supports an intrinsic increase in entropy must include thermal radiation. The study of thermal radiation was conducted in the paper "On the Relation Between the Emissive and the Absorptive Powers of Bodies for Heat and Light," by Gustav Kirchhoff ("The Laws of Radiation and Absorption" translated and edited by DB Brace) (1901, American Book Company, pp. 73 ^- 97)). This article is hereafter referred to as Kirchhoff (1860).

Kirchhoff (1860) stated his law of radiation as follows: "The ratio of the emitted and absorbed powers are the same for all bodies at the same temperature." Kirchhoff's radiation law can be expressed as follows for spectral radiance K(v,T).

Since Kirchhoff's universal function K(v,T) is more fundamental than matter itself, German physicists have spent decades and intensively studied blackbody radiation with undue effort to understand the physical basis of matter.

As is very well known in the prior art, the study of blackbody radiation eventually led to the discovery of quantum mechanics. It can be said that the quantum thermodynamics of thermal radiation remain incomplete, since the physical basis of Kirchhoff's universal function K(v,T) is still unknown. For this reason, the Carnot cycle has not yet been replaced by a more desirable quantum thermodynamic cycle that can eliminate dependence on fuel. Planck's derivation to the law of blackbody radiation with Planck's name as disclosed in his 1901 treatise "On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum," (Annalen der Physik, Vol. 4, 1901, p. 553) was rationally The purpose of this study is to investigate the prior art of quantum thermodynamics by examining it as Planck (1901) hypothesized that there are N "identical resonators", each having an oscillation energy U equal to

As will be established later, there are in fact very different types of resonators, including hybridized Planck resonators. According to Planck (1901), the total entropy (S _N ) corresponds to the average entropy (S) of a single resonator.

We ensure to emphasize that S is the average entropy of individual Planck resonators. Thereby, Planck (1901) urged a probabilistic interpretation of the Planck resonator in his thesis: "We now see that N resonators together have an energy (E _N ) of the probability (W) within an arbitrary additional constant. Set the entropy (SN) of the system proportional to the logarithm to

S _N = klogW + constant (8)

According to Planck (1901): "The problem is to find the probability (W) such that N resonators together conserve the vibrational energy (U _N ). Moreover, it is not to interpret the UN as a continuous and infinitely divisible quantity, but rather a finite We need to interpret it as a discrete quantity consisting of integers of numbers. Let's call each such part an energy component (ε). So we have to set:"

Planck (1901) derived the entropy (S) of each Planck resonator as follows:

Applying Wien's law of spectral displacement to the average resonator entropy (S), we can construct that the discrete energy (ε) of the P discrete energy elements corresponds to the resonator frequency (ν) by the Planck constant (h). there is.

Substituting equation (11) into equation (10) results in an equation describing the entropy (S) of an individual Planck resonator on a statistical basis.

Planck (1901) related the average resonator vibrational energy (U) and the average resonator entropy (S) by the following temperature relationship.

The average vibrational energy (U) of a Planck resonator is thus:

Planck (1901) constructed so that the radiant energy density u(ν,T)dν within each spectral frequency interval (ν to ν+dν) satisfies the following relationship.

Substituting equation (14) into equation (15) yields Planck's law of blackbody radiation in terms of the radiant energy density u(ν,T)dν to be discussed.

Although Planck obtained the resonator entropy (S) and the resonator energy (U) statistically, only Planck's spectral energy density u(ν,T) can be experimentally measured. The blackbody radiation introduced by Kirchhoff (1860) was experimentally evaluated by the cavity radiation inside a cavity in the Middle East formed by some blocking enclosure with walls at thermal equilibrium. Thermal radiation within the cavity is allowed to achieve radiative equilibrium so that the proportions of radiation emitted and absorbed by the cavity walls are the same across all frequencies. The cavity radiation is experimentally sampled by a small hole. At any radiant temperature T, the inherent irradiance and associated spectral irradiance prevail over a wide range of frequency spectrum v.

By measuring the spectral irradiance of the cavity radiation, over a wide temperature range, the Planck blackbody radiation law in equation (16) was unexpectedly verified. However, experiments involving blackbody cavity radiation cannot provide physical insight into the configuration of Planck resonators. Planck's statistical derivation also fails to provide physical insight.

Blackbody radiation constitutes a special form of thermal radiation that satisfies equation (16), whereby the irradiance is related to Kirchhoff's universal function K(ν,T), resulting in an intrinsic radiation spectrum at a given radiant temperature . The infrared portion of the blackbody spectrum obeys the Rayleigh-Jeans law of blackbody radiation, derived from Planck's law of blackbody radiation, according to equation (17) for hv << kT. Rayleigh-Jins' law of blackbody radiation governs wave-like electromagnetic radiation according to Maxwell's equations of existing behavior.

The Rayleigh-Jeans blackbody radiation law results in an ultraviolet breakdown where the radiation energy density u(ν,T) can be infinite in the high-frequency part of the blackbody radiation spectrum. This breakdown is avoided by the rule of Wien's law of blackbody radiation in the ultraviolet portion of the blackbody spectrum. Wien's law of blackbody radiation can be derived from Planck's law of blackbody radiation in equation (16) for hv << kT as

In a paper that won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Einstein demonstrated that radiation according to Wien's law of blackbody radiation constitutes electromagnetic waves like particles that cannot be derived from Maxwell's equations. The inability to reconcile Wien's blackbody radiation and Maxwell's electromagnetic radiation resulted in the irreconcilable wavelength-particle duality of light, which in turn created a radiation crisis that renders quantum theory inconclusive.

To address these deficiencies, the first purpose is to consider Einstein's development of solid heat capacity in a 1907 paper entitled "Planck's Radiation Theory and Specific Heat Theory". Einstein regarded the average energy (U) of each vibrating atom as the vibrating atom of a Planck resonator according to equation (14). Consequently, the molar energy is given by the relation:

It can be easily seen that the above molar energy is reduced to 3RT for hv << kT. Einstein's molar heat capacity is derived from this relationship.

The inability of the prior art to establish the physical makeup of a Planck resonator hampers physical insight into the condensed material. A unique property that distinguishes quantum mechanics from classical mechanics is quantum entanglement, in which particles from many finite body groups cannot be described independently. Quantum entanglement distinguishes quantum thermodynamics from classical thermodynamics. What is needed in the art is a solid formed by artificial atoms with artificial nuclei that constitute a Planck resonator whose quantum entanglement can be controlled chemically. A further need in the art is a quantum thermodynamic cycle that can replace the Carnot cycle by a controlled change in entanglement entropy due to atomic engineering. Climate change due to fuel combustion can only be addressed by replacing the heat engine of the Carnot cycle.

A variety of articles and devices can be made to exploit what is believed to be a novel thermodynamic cycle where spontaneity is due to intrinsic entropy equilibrium. The new thermodynamic cycle exploits a quantum phase transition between quantum thermal neutronization and quantum localization.

In a first aspect, a phonovoltaic cell can be fabricated that generates a flow of charge in response to an applied electrical load. A phonovoltaic cell has a solid semiconductor material comprising a pair of conductors, preferably metal electrodes, with two adjacent zones between them having different Seebeck coefficients. The flow of charge is believed to cause a decrease in surrounding entropy due to an uncompensated increase in the entropy of the phonovoltaic cell in response to an applied electrical load. Preferably, the phonovoltaic cell under thermal equilibrium extracts latent heat from its surroundings and directly converted into electromotive force. The electromotive force is generated by the complementary Seebeck effect due to the uncompensated increase in the quantum transition entropy of the phase transition between the quantum thermal neutronization and the quantum localization of an artificial nucleus that behaves like a moving Planck resonator at constant temperature. It is preferred that the first zone contains the chemical elements which are preferably boron and hydrogen, and the second zone contains the chemical elements which are boron, hydrogen and oxygen.

In a preferred embodiment of the phonovoltaic cell, the first zone is a boron layer comprising icosahedral boron and hydrogen, has a relative atomic concentration of boron higher than any other atom, and the second zone contains icosahedral boron, oxygen and hydrogen. It is a layer of boron containing boron, and has a higher relative atomic concentration of boron than any other atom. Preferably, both the first and second zones contain silicon. More preferably, each zone has a thickness of 4 nm or less. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the first zone is preferably a silaborane having the structural formula (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4 and 3≤y≤5) , the second region is (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y O _z (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5 and 0<z≤3) it is borane A plurality of p-isotype rectifiers are preferably stacked in situ to form a phonovoltaic pile, the second conductor of a first phonovoltaic cell being the first conductor for the next adjacent phonovoltaic cell Includes phonovoltaic files that form

In a second aspect, the p-isotype rectifier is created such that the electrical conductivity is asymmetric with respect to the polarity of the electromotive force applied between the anode and cathode contact electrodes. The rectifier is made from a solid semiconductor material having two adjacent zones, each zone being contacted by a separate conductor. Since the two adjacent zones have different moving-charge concentrations, the electrical conductivity becomes asymmetric with respect to the polarity of the electromotive force applied between the contact electrodes of the adjacent zones. Asymmetric electrical conductance is considered to be a significantly greater current flow when one electrode is negatively biased with respect to the other as compared to when one electrode is positively biased with respect to the other.

In a preferred embodiment of the p-isotype rectifier, the first (anode) region is a boron layer comprising icosahedral boron and hydrogen, has a higher relative atomic concentration of boron than any other atom, and the second (cathode) region comprises: It is a layer of boron containing icosahedral boron, oxygen and hydrogen, and has a higher relative atomic concentration of boron than any other atom. Preferably, both the first and second zones contain silicon. Further, each zone preferably has a thickness of 4 nm or less. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the first zone is sila borane, preferably having the structural formula (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4 and 3≤y≤5) and the second region is an oxy having the structural formula (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y O _z (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5 and 0<z≤3) It is silaborane.

In a third aspect, a conductor used in an integrated circuit may be formed where the effective resistance of the conductor is lower than the effective resistance of a copper conductor having the same dimension. Conductors are considered to displace electrical energy in the absence of an electric field without an actual displacement of an electric charge. This is achieved by using solid semiconductor materials whose electrical properties are modified using trace metals, particularly coinage metals, to modify the electrically conductive properties of the conductor. Currently, this results in the microwave zitterbewegung Aharanov-Bohm effect, which creates an essentially periodic driving force within a solid semiconductor material that can displace electromagnetic power density through space without the aid of an external organ. It is considered As a result of this intrinsic driving force, it is believed that the preferred embodiment of the conductor can ideally function as a room temperature superconductor, so long as the current effective current density does not exceed a certain maximum. This maximum current density is currently believed to be comparable to that of graphene.

In a preferred embodiment, the conductor can connect two circuit elements, for example, a resistor, a capacitor, a diode, a power supply, an inductor, a transformer, a wire or a conductor in an integrated circuit. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the conductors may be used in back end of line (BEOL) interconnects comprising sizes less than 50 nm. These conductors contain icosahedral boron, hydrogen and optionally oxygen, and have a higher relative atomic concentration of boron than any other atom. These conductors also contain trace amounts of coining metals such as gold, copper and silver. Trace amounts are sufficient to change the electrical conductivity of a conductor that is believed to arise from partially or completely canceling the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of the natural boron atom, but not sufficient to affect the stoichiometric ratio of the conductor . Preferably the coinage metal is gold, preferably included in the conductor in an atomic concentration of about 10 ¹⁸ cm ^-3 . Preferably, the conductor also contains silicon. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the conductor is preferably a silaborane having the structural formula (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4 and 3≤y≤5), or more With a low degree of preference (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y O _z (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5 and 0<z≤3) oxysila it is borane

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A preferred embodiment of the present invention is shown in the accompanying drawings.
1 is a diagram illustrating the Carnot cycle.
2 is a diagram of another illustration of the Carnot cycle;
Figure 3 is a view showing the Gibbs equilibrium in a non-equilibrium state.
Fig. 4 shows an icosahedron carved into a cube in the manner employed by Longuet-Higgins and Roberts;
FIG. 5 depicts the proposed near-symmetrical nuclear configuration of a boron icosahedron in which the three-centre bond is described as 24 delocalized tangential atomic orbitals Ψ _i (p _{111} ).
FIG. 6 is an energy diagram showing the proposed energy levels of the clustered nuclei of the regular boron icosahedron shown in FIG. 5; FIG.
FIG. 7 is an energy diagram showing the proposed energy levels of clustered valence electrons of the regular boron icosahedron shown in FIG. 5. FIG.
8 shows a regular boron icosahedron with a symmetrical nuclear configuration shown with four hydrogens bound by Debye forces.
9 is a view showing a monocrystalline silicon unit cell.
10 is a diagram illustrating a diamond-shaped picocrystalline unit cell.
11 is an energy level diagram showing the occupied energy levels of the first eight valence electrons according to Dirac's relativistic wave equation.
Fig. 12 is an energy level diagram showing the occupied energy levels of the first 12 valence electrons according to Dirac's relativistic wave equation;
13 is an energy level diagram showing the energy levels occupied by 24 electrons according to Dirac's relativistic wave equation.
Fig. 14 is an energy level diagram showing the occupied energy levels of the first 32 valence electrons according to Dirac's relativistic wave equation;
15 is an energy level diagram showing the energy levels occupied by 36 valence electrons according to Dirac's relativistic wave equation.
16 shows a pair of electrons falling from |+ _{3sp 1/2} > energy level, | _{-3sp 1/2} > energy level | _{-3s 1/2} > _{and |-3p 1/2 >} energy level. Energy level diagram showing the proposed first liberation.
17 shows a pair of electrons moving away from |+3pd _{3 / 2} > energy level, |-3pd _{3 /2} > energy level |-3p _{3 /2} > and |-3d _{3 /2} > energy level. Energy level diagram showing the proposed second liberation.
18a and 18b show anionized and cationized picocrystalline artificial borane atoms B ₁₂ ^{2 -} H ₄ and B ₁₂ ²⁺ H ₄ (101) due to disproportionation of crystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si. ), an energy diagram believed to reflect the energy level occupied by the valence electrons.
19 is a view showing a diamond-type picocrystalline unit cell containing a natural oxygen atom.
20 is an energy level showing the proposed liberation of |-2sp _1/2 > energy level |-2s _1/2 > and | _{-2p 1/2 >} energy level, such that an oxygen atom donates a pair of electrons. do.
21 shows multiple pairs of adjacent picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ regions and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ interposed by a metal electrode. A diagram showing a phonovoltaic cell 400 comprising an O ^{2 +} ₂ zone.
22 is another exemplary diagram of the Carnot cycle.
23 is a diagram showing the proposed quantum thermodynamic cycle.
24A-24D show a pair of bound picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-( _{B 2-12} H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} energy diagrams showing the proposed occupied electron energy levels of the artificial nuclei of the first and second nearest neighboring picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 of regions 401 and 402;
25A-25D show the proposed spontaneous transfer charge diffusion.
26A-26D further illustrate the proposed mobile charge diffusion.
27A-27D further depict the proposed mobile charge diffusion.
28A-28D show the proposed spectral derivation of valence electrons from a bonding suborbital in an icosahedron to an antibonding suborbital in an icosahedron in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ region. .
29A-29D show the proposed self-thermal neutronization of valence electrons in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ region due to the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of a native boron atom.
30 is a diagram showing the proposed disproportionation in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ region.
31 is a diagram showing the proposed quantum thermodynamic cycle.
32 is a diagram showing the energy balance of the Earth.
33 is a diagram showing the spectral radiance of a black body;
34 is a micrograph obtained by high resolution transmission microscopy (HRTEM) of a picocrystalline borane solid deposited on monocrystalline silicon.
35 is an HRTEM fast Fourier transform (FFT) image of a monocrystalline silicon substrate.
36 is an FFT image of a picocrystalline borane solid.
37 is a graph relating to interplanar lattice d-spacing of HRTEM diffraction intensity of a monocrystalline substrate.
38 is a graph relating to interplanar lattice d-spacing of HRTEM diffraction intensities of picocrystalline borane solids.
39 shows a typical ω-2θ X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of a self-assembled picocrystalline borane solid.
FIG. 40 is an X-ray diffraction (GIXRD) scan of grazing incidence of the same self-assembled picocrystalline borane solid in FIG. 39;
FIG. 41 shows a second grazing incident X-ray diffraction scan of the same self-assembled picocrystalline borane solid scanned in FIG. 39 .
Figure 42 shows a silaboride film deposited on a donor-doped region of a monocrystalline substrate.
43 is a graph of a GIXRD scan of the picocrystalline silaboride solid of Example 1. FIG.
FIG. 44 shows an oxysilaborane film deposited over donor-doped silicon regions according to Example 2. FIG.
FIG. 45 shows a typical ω-2θ X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of the thin oxysilaborane solid of Example 2. FIG.
Figure 46 is a graph of the GIXRD scan of the oxysilaborane solid of Example 2.
47 is a diagram showing a silaborane film deposited on an n-type silicon substrate according to Example 3. FIG.
FIG. 48 shows the depth profile of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the silaborane film deposited in Example 3. FIG.
49 is a diagram showing the depth profile of Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) of the silaborane film deposited in Example 3. FIG.
FIG. 50 shows a silaborane film deposited on a p-type silicon substrate according to Example 4. FIG.
FIG. 51 shows the depth profile of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the silaborane film deposited in Example 4. FIG.
52 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the silaborane film deposited in Example 4, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 53 is a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the silaborane film deposited in Example 4, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 54 shows an oxysilaborane film deposited on a p-type silicon substrate according to Example 5;
Fig. 55 shows the depth profile of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 5;
Fig. 56 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 5, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 57 is a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the 3-oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 5, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
58 shows X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) depth profiles of another embodiment of an oxysilaborane film deposited according to Example 6. FIG.
59 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane film characterized in Example 6, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 60 is a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane membrane characterized in Example 6, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
FIG. 61 depicts X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) depth profiles of another embodiment of an oxysilaborane film deposited according to Example 7. FIG.
62 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane film characterized in Example 7, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 63 is a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane membrane characterized in Example 7, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
FIG. 64 depicts a depth profile of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of another embodiment of an oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 8. FIG.
65 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane film characterized in Example 8, as measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 66 is a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane membrane characterized in Example 8, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
67 depicts a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) depth profile of another embodiment of an oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 9. FIG.
Fig. 68 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane film characterized in Example 9, measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 69 is a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the oxysilaborane membrane characterized in Example 9, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
70 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 10, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe.
Fig. 71 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 10, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
FIG. 72 is a linear graph of different current-voltage ranges of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 10, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
73 is a log-log graph of the forward-bias current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 10, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
74 is a log-log graph of the reverse-bias current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 10, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
Fig. 75 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 11, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
76 is a linear graph of different current-voltage ranges of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 11, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
Fig. 77 is a log-log graph of the forward-bias current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 11, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
Fig. 78 is a log-log graph of the reverse-bias current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 11, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
79 is a linear graph of the first current-voltage range of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 12, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
FIG. 80 is a linear graph of the second current-voltage range of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 12, as measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
81 is a linear graph of the third current-voltage range of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 12, as measured by a HP-4145 parametric analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
82 is a log-log graph of the forward-bias current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 12, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
83 is a log-log graph of the reverse-bias current-voltage characteristic of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier of Example 12, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
84 shows an electrochemical device comprising a silaborane membrane prepared according to Example 13;
Fig. 85 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the electrochemical device of Example 13, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
86 is a linear graph of the second current-voltage characteristic of the electrochemical device of Example 13, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer via a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
Fig. 87 is a log-log graph of the forward-bias current-voltage characteristic of the electrochemical device of Example 13, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
88 is a log-log graph of the reverse-bias current-voltage characteristic of the electrochemical device of Example 13, measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a microprobe.
89 shows an oxysilaborane film deposited on a p-type silicon substrate according to Example 14;
FIG. 90 shows the depth profile of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 14. FIG.
91 is a view showing the heat treatment resin of the oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 14;
92 is a geometrical representation of the energy equilibrium proposed by Josiah Willard Gibbs;
93 is a diagram showing a geometric representation of entropy equilibrium proposed by Josiah Willard Gibbs.
94a and 94b are a comparison of a photovoltaic cell and a phonovoltaic cell in the dark;
Figures 95a and 95b compare a phonovoltaic cell and a photovoltaic cell in which mobile electron-hole pairs are radiatively induced.
96A and 96B are diagrams comparing a phonovoltaic cell and a photovoltaic cell in which an induced mobile electron-hole pair is separated.
97A and 97B are views comparing a phonovoltaic battery to which an electrical load is applied and a photovoltaic battery;
98A and 98B are plots of planned manufacturing cost analysis of phonovoltaic cells.
99A and 99B are views comparing a phonovoltaic cell, a photovoltaic cell, and a thermionic converter.
Fig. 100 shows a device comprising gold and an oxysilaborane film fabricated according to Example 15;
FIG. 101 shows the depth profile of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the oxysilaborane film deposited in Example 15. FIG.
FIG. 102 shows secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) performed to measure trace gold impurity concentrations in the oxysilaborane membrane of Example 15; FIG.
103 shows metal electrodes 536 and 537 deposited over the gold film containing device of Example 15;
104 is a linear graph of the current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane film of Example 15;

With reference now to the drawings, various forms and aspects of the present invention will be described. The invention is not limited by any principle or aspect described herein, but only by the scope of the appended claims.

In order to understand the quantum entanglement of the artificial nucleus of the present invention, an icosahedron is inscribed in the cube in FIG. 4 , and the coordinates of the icosahedron vertices are the following position coordinates according to Equation 21, (±φ, ±1, 0) , (0, ±ϕ, 0) and (±1, 0, ±ϕ) are described according to:

In accordance with normal crystallographic practice, any orientation along or parallel to any cube edge is generally denoted as <100>. Any particular <100> orientation, such as a [010] orientation along the positive y-axis, will be specifically mentioned. A cube face or a face parallel to a cube face is generally denoted by {100}. A specific {100} plane, such as an xz plane perpendicular to the [010] direction, is denoted by (010). A particular <100> orientation, such as a [010] orientation, is always perpendicular to the corresponding {100} plane, ie in this case the (010) plane. According to a further convention, an orientation along or parallel to a cube diagonal is denoted by <111>. There are two types of icosahedral faces: 8 icosahedral faces are composed of {111} planes perpendicular to the <111> cube diagonal, and 12 icosahedral faces intersecting in pairs along the <100> orientation { φφ ^-1 0} plane. A three-centre bond exists along the edge of the {111} plane.

With respect to the invention described herein, 3- by generalization of the methodology of Longuet-Higgins and Roberts performed in [0020] to [0063] of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848. Molecular orbital analysis describing central boron bonds is incorporated herein by reference. Its _generalized molecular _orbital analysis shows that _the nearly- A regular boron icosahedron 104 is described comprising 12 boron nuclei 102 with a symmetrical nuclear configuration. The boron icosahedron 104 of FIG. 5 is referred to herein as an artificial nucleus 104 .

A short-range periodic translational sequence, as used herein, is defined as a regular repetition of atomic positions over a space substantially confined to first and second nearest neighboring atoms. The artificial nucleus 104 shown in Fig. 5 exhibits a short-range periodic translational sequence in which 12 boron nuclei 102 are ideally fixed to 12 icosahedral vertices, so that all icosahedral displacements are ideally 8 k _<111> wave vectors. It is limited only to periodic oscillations according to As a result, the artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 constitutes a quantum Floquet-many-body subsystem that behaves similarly to the nucleus of a natural carbon atom. A quantum Floquet-many-body system, as used herein, is a time-dependent polyhedron system that is periodic over time due to its dynamics. In order to understand a preferred embodiment of the present invention, it is an object to establish the quantum entanglement of the atomic orbitals Ψ _i (p _{111} ) forming the quantum Floquet-multi-body subsystem of the artificial nucleus 104 .

The analysis of the artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 was performed in terms of group analysis of the icosahedron. The icosahedral symmetry group (I _h ) is unique among all other symmetry groups in that it possesses the largest number of symmetry operations (120) of any symmetric group in nature. Since the maximum number of symmetric manipulations allowed in any group of crystallographic points is 48, the icosahedral symmetry group (I _h ) is not a group of crystallographic points that can support spatial determinations representing long-range periodic translational sequences. The inability of the icosahedral symmetry group (I _h ) to support long-range periodic translational sequences supports, more generally, intrinsic spontaneous time-translational symmetry breaking to be described.

For this reason, the above-described symmetry analysis results in linear oscillations along the k _<111> wave vector of the artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 . The trusted energy levels of the twelve boron nuclei 102 forming the artificial nucleus 104 are shown in FIG. 6 . The energy levels of 36 valence electrons of the artificial nucleus 104 are shown in FIG. 7 . The nuclear energy level of FIG. 6 and the electron energy level of FIG. 7 satisfy the energy eigenvalues of Dirac's relativistic wave equation. The artificial nucleus 104 shown in FIG. 5 is believed to constitute a quantum Floquet-multibody system similar to the natural nucleus of carbon ( ¹² ₆ C). For this reason, the 12 boron nuclei 102 of the artificial nucleus 104 occupy an energy level in FIG. 6 that has the same symmetry as the energy level of the nucleon of carbon ( ¹² ₆ C). The valence electron energy level of FIG. 7 is considered to be similar to the quark energy level of carbon ( ¹² ₆ C).

The artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 constitutes a manifestation of a quantum Floquet-multi-body fermion system with the highest degree of symmetry possible in nature. As used herein, a fermion is a subatomic particle according to the Fermi-Dirac statistics and the Pauli exclusion principle characterized by any composite particle composed of an odd number of such subatomic particles. By definition, a quantum Floquet-many system comprising a fermion at the vertex of an icosahedron will be referred to as an icosahedral Floquet-many system hereinafter. According to this definition, the 12 boron nuclei 102 of the artificial nucleus 104 are initially assumed to be boron ( ¹⁰ ₅ B) nuclei containing both an odd number of protons and neutrons. The incorporation of other natural boron isotopes ( ¹¹ ₅ B) will be considered later.

The icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion system of the specific artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 has the highest degree of symmetry in nature compared to the icosahedral apex where 12 boron nuclei 102 exist. This symmetry is represented by the 12 nuclei of carbon ( ¹² ₆ C). There are only two types of point displacement: translation along a linear axis and rotation about a linear axis. Translation and rotation represent the opposite displacement of a point equal to the vertices of the 12 icosahedrons of the icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion system. All points along the linear axis of translation and only those points are displaced under a given translation; Conversely, all points not along the linear axis of rotation, and only those points, are displaced under any given rotation. Rotation complicates the analysis of quantum polyhedral systems.

As further described in [0020] to [0063] of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848, incorporated herein by reference, the three co-rotating Cartesian axes (x, y, z) of an icosahedron are the Miller exponents. best expressed Due to the co-rotating Cartesian axes (x, y, z), it is not possible to account for the displacement of 12 icosahedral vertices in the laboratory frame field. By the symmetry analysis, it is established that the icosahedral vertices of the artificial nucleus ₁₀₄ in Fig. 5 are motionless, and that all icosahedral displacements are limited to linear translation along four pairs of inverted k wave vectors.

The above analysis concluded that the twelve boron nuclei 102 behave as near-spherical spheroids confined to the icosahedral apex where there is no motion of the artificial nucleus 104, and thus prone to displacement along well-defined harmonics. As further described in [0170] to [0207] of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848, and incorporated herein by reference, any substantially spherical spheroid is separated into regions by spherical harmonics. The dipole spherical harmonic associated with the n=±1 shell in FIG. 6 splits the nearly spherical spheroid into a pair of hemispheres by the equatorial circle. The center of mass (or centroid) associated with the dipole spherical harmonic is not motionless. The quadrupole spherical harmonics associated with the n=±2 shell in FIG. 6 separate the nearly spherical spheroid into a pair of great circles.

The great circle associated with the quadrupole spherical harmonic contains the k _<111> wave vector of the artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 . This is consistent with the displacement of the icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion system in equations 22a to 22d. The symmetrical analysis of the artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 is generally of a general nature without any responsibility for the physical size of the icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion system. The distance between the opposing icosahedral surfaces of the artificial nucleus 104 is ideally 269 pm, and is therefore specifically referred to as icosahedral Floquet-multihedra-fermion picocrystalline. The distance between opposing icosahedral surfaces of the natural nucleus of carbon ( ^{126 C) can be measured with a femtometer, such that the natural nucleus of carbon ( 12 6} _C ) constitutes an icosahedral _Floquet -polyhedral-fermion femtocrystal. . The artificial nucleus 104 exhibits the same symmetry as the natural nucleus of carbon ( ¹² ₆ C).

The icosahedron Floquet-polyhedron-fermion picocrystal (femtocrystal) lifts electron (quark) orbital degeneracy within the icosahedron by spin-orbit coupling, resulting in Jahn-Teller distortion. avoid In the landmark paper "Stability of Polyatomic Molecules in Degenerate Electronic States. I. Orbital Degeneracy" (Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 161 , 1937, pp.220-235), HA Jahn and E. Teller (E. Teller) developed through group theory that not all nonlinear nuclear configurations are adequate for orbital-degenerate electronic states. The Jan-Teller effect results in a symmetry break that lifts electron orbital degeneracy by the vertical displacement of 12 boron nuclei 102, known as the Jan-Teller-active mode, which in the absence of spin-orbital bonds causes multi-atomic ions and molecules distort the

In their analysis, Yan and Teller deliberately ignored the spin effect. Spin-orbit bonding is essential to preserve bonding within the icosahedron of the icosahedral Floquet-multi-body-fermion picocrystal of the artificial nucleus 104, subject to the bonding and antibonding orbitals within the icosahedron shown in FIG. In other words, the quantum entanglement of the electron eigenstate shown in Fig. 7 cannot exist in the presence of any Jan-Teller distortion. By lifting the electron orbital degeneracy using spin-orbit coupling instead of Jan-Teller distortion, quantum entanglement causes an icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion picocrystal containing an artificial nucleus 104 to physically behave as a Planck resonator. Planck resonators can be chemically modified in new and useful ways by controlled fluctuations in quantum entanglement of energy levels.

In order to practice a preferred embodiment of the present invention, it is an object to consider the specific elements of an icosahedral Floquet-multihedra-fermion picocrystal comprising an artificial nucleus 104 shown in FIG. 5 . A preferred aspect of the present invention constitutes a novel and useful aspect of quantum thermodynamics that can support a quantum thermodynamic cycle that self-thermal neutronizes to eliminate the dependence of the heat engine on fuel. The novel and useful aspect of the present invention cannot be described by classical thermodynamics due to the role of quantum entanglement. To illustrate a preferred aspect of the present invention, it is necessary to derive a prediction of Dirac's wave equation. The first principle is disclosed in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848, which is incorporated herein by reference.

Considerable effort has been devoted to the symmetric manipulation of the icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion picocrystal of the artificial nucleus 104 . This is due to the belief that the symmetry of the artificial nucleus 104 imparts new and useful properties to the artificial nucleus 104 unique to this particular type of quantum polyhedral system. Einstein's derivation of E=mc ² through the special theory of relativity controls the loss of inertia of a uniformly-translating body. Thanks to this derivation, Einstein established that energy (E) and mass (m) are actually two "states" of equal quantities. Einstein formed this conclusion by considering the relative translational Doppler shift of the radiant. In extending the special theory of relativity to include rotation in the general theory of relativity, Einstein was unable to derive a relativistic rotational Doppler shift.

Since a rotating fermion necessarily emits radiation, a rotating fermion can only be stabilized as a member of a quantum polyhedral system in which a complementary rotating Doppler shift pair stabilizes the quantum polyhedral system. The icosahedral Floke-many-fermion picocrystal of the artificial nucleus 104 constitutes a stable quantum polyhedral system of fermions that can be described by Dirac's relativistic wave equation. The Dirac energy eigenvalues for the Dirac multi-body system of fermions obtained in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848 from [0086] to [0167] are incorporated herein by reference.

The positive-energy eigenstate of the antibonding suborbital in Equation (23a) of the artificial nucleus 104 shown in FIG. 5 and the negative-energy eigenstate 104 of the bonding suborbital in Equation (23b) are composed of the table below. do.

Spin-orbit coupling lifts an orbital-degenerate energy orbital into a half-integer-quantized antibonding suborbital with positive definite energy according to Table 1. Spin-orbit coupling lifts the orbital-degenerate energy orbital into a half-integer-quantized bonding sub-orbit of negative definite energy according to Table 2. Antibonding and binding suborbitals for both n=±2 and n=±3 shells of artificial nucleus 104, subject to equations (23a and 23b), are shown in FIG. 7 . The n=±1 shell is not shown because it contains internal electrons that are not involved in the fusion of the artificial nucleus 104 . There are several important aspects of the binding and antibonding suborbitals of the artificial nucleus 104 in FIG. 7 . Spin-orbit coupling raises orbital degeneracy as illustrated below for n=±2 shells.

The +2p orbit is a Doppler red shift to the +2p _{3 /2} sub-orbit (k=-2) and a Doppler blue shift to the +2p _1/2 sub-orbit (k=+1). ) suffers The +2s orbits are Doppler red-shifted (k=-1) to the +2s _1/2 suborbitals, which in turn become entangled with the +2p _1/2 suborbitals, resulting in the + _{2sp 1/2} suborbitals (k = ± ₁ ). do. These are rotational Doppler shifts that cannot be understood as E=mc ² . Einstein wrote E = mc ² in his follow-up paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (1905, in The Principle of Relativity, Dover, 1952, pp. 37 ^- 65) to his seminar paper, which first introduced the special theory of relativity. was derived.

Fusion is generally taken herein as any process in which fermions are joined together by conversion of an amount (m) of matter into energy. Einstein's E=mc ² is the energy (E) expressed in the form of photons of a small amount of matter (m), and it is widely assumed that it governs fusion, in which nucleons are joined together by transformation. By generalizing Einstein's E=mc ² in the rotating frame field, the hitherto unknown chemical fusion is achieved by the transformation of small amounts of matter (m) into some energy (E) of Dirac's quasiparticles by atoms chemically bound by them. can be established For immediate purposes, Dirac's quasiparticle is a quantum flocke-manybody-fermion system due to the dynamic interactions between fermions that entangle individual energy levels.

The quantum entanglement of the artificial nucleus 104 in FIG. 5 is related to the entangled eigenfunction Ψ _i (p _{111} ) due to chemical fusion. No attempt has been made to directly assert Einstein's generalization of E=mc ² to support chemical fusion. The current focus is on practical applications of chemical fusion. For this purpose, the relation in equations (23a and 23b) is rearranged as follows to construct Einstein's generalization of E=mc ² . These relationships relate to Dirac's forbidden energy domains (mc ² > E > -mc ² ) through eigenstates of entangled positive and negative energies (E>0) and negative energies (E<0) containing antibonding and bonding suborbitals. Specifies the energy eigenvalues of Dirac's quasi-particles in

If Einstein's E = mc ² is satisfied in the rotating frame field, then the binding energy terms on the right side of equations (25a and 25b) are will disappear The first term on the right of equation (25a) contains the energy eigenvalues following Schroedinger's wave equation. For the present purpose, it is sufficient that the highest binding energy eigenstates satisfying Schrödinger's wave equation exist in the n=+1 shell. Thus, a continuous higher-order shell contains a low binding energy eigenstate. The orbital angular momentum remains degenerate in the binding energy eigenstate following Schrödinger's equation. This degeneracy is lifted by the Dirac equation.

The second binding energy term on the right side of equation (25a) is due to the microstructure of the spinning fermion. In order to better understand real-world devices incorporating preferred aspects of the present invention, the salient properties of the fermion microstructure are elaborated. For this particular purpose, the energy eigenvalues of Dirac quasiparticles according to equations (25a and 25b) are rearranged below for the n=±2 and n=±3 shells of the quantum polyhedral system.

While the amounts of matter in the reactants and products vary in classical chemistry, quantum chemistry involves finite changes in the amounts of matter in the chemical reactants and products due to fusion. The role of quantum chemistry in the present invention will be discussed further below.

를 초래한다.Since neither energy (E) nor mass (m) is actually conserved, another conserved physical entity must exist that completely contains energy (E) and mass (m). Charge (e) is strictly conserved in nature. Although unknown in the prior art, the strict conservation of the charge e is a hitherto unknown physical entity that fully encompasses Einstein's E=mc ² .

causes

는 명칭이 아페이온(apeiron)이며, "경계없는"을 의미하는 그리스어(

)의 번역이다. 아페이온의 개념은 초기에 밀레투스(Miletus)의 아낙시만드로스(Anaximander)에 의해 BC 585년경에 구상되었다. 카르노 사이클을 대체할 수 있는 양자 열역학 사이클에서 전하(e)를 이용할 수 있는 능력은, 전하(e)가 기계적 기반으로 제공될 때에만 성취될 수 있다. 전하(e)의 기계적 기초는 근본적으로 미국 가특허출원 제62/591,848 호의 [0794] 내지 [0846]에서 유도되고, 본 명세서에 참고로 통합된다.new entity

is named apeiron, and is a Greek word meaning "without borders" (

) is a translation of The concept of Apeon was initially conceived around 585 BC by Anaximander of Miletus. The ability to utilize a charge e in a quantum thermodynamic cycle that can replace the Carnot cycle can only be achieved when the charge e is provided as a mechanical basis. The mechanical basis of charge (e) is derived essentially from U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 62/591,848 [0794] to [0846], which are incorporated herein by reference.

The MKS equivalent of Coulomb (C) is as follows from the above relationship.

과 키르히호프의 보편적인 함수 K(v,T)는 관련될 수 있다.It is believed that the following relationship governs the resonators of the icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion picocrystal of the artificial nucleus 104 as well as of the icosahedral Floquet-many-fermion femtocrystal of the carbon ( ¹² ₆ C) nucleus. Apeon

and Kirchhoff's universal function K(v,T) can be related.

Wilhelm Wien actually derived the law of blackbody radiation from the point of view of a resonator through two very important papers. In 1893, Wien derived the law of spectral displacement that bears his name, which relates directly to certain preferred embodiments of the present invention. Derivation of Wien's law of spectral displacement was performed in modern formulations in US Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848 [0931] to [0996], which is incorporated herein by reference. Wien derived his spectral displacement law by taking into account the mechanical work done on electromagnetic radiation that appears in two ways: (1) the radiant energy flows from the low-frequency interval (ν,ν+dν) to the high-frequency interval (ν'). ,ν'+dν'), and (2) the work introduces additional energy in the high-frequency interval (ν',ν'+dν'). Total energy entering the high-frequency interval |E×H| _in dAdt is expressed by the following relationship:

In fact, as derived from [0931] through [0996] of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848 and incorporated herein by reference, Wien's law of spectral displacement states that the constant irradiance |E×H| supports the following spectral shifts (i.e., shifts in frequency): Spectral displacement can quantum-mechanically support the heat engine.

는 전자기 복사선의 위상 속도이다. 양의 위상 속도(

> 0)에 대해, 전자기 복사가 일부 낮은-주파수 간격(ν,ν+dν)로부터 높은-주파수 간격(ν',ν'+dν')으로의 스펙트럼 변위를 겪도록, 전자기 복사에 대한 작업이 이루어진다. 이러한 스펙트럼 변위는 일정한 복사조도 |E×H|에서 복사 에너지의 증가를 초래하고, 이는 흑체 복사의 복사조도가 열평형에서 복사체 온도에 고유하게 대응한다는 점에서 중요하다. 이러한 능력은 종래 기술에서는 알려지지 않았지만, 빈의 흑체 복사 법칙에 포함되어 있다. 빈의 흑체 복사 법칙의 한 형태가 위의 식(18)에 주어졌다.in equation (32)

is the phase velocity of electromagnetic radiation. positive phase velocity (

For > 0), the work on electromagnetic radiation is is done This spectral shift is equal to the constant irradiance |E×H| This results in an increase in radiant energy at This capability is unknown in the prior art, but is contained in Wien's law of blackbody radiation. A form of Wien's law of blackbody radiation is given in equation (18) above.

Wien's law of blackbody radiation supports the following relationship:

For all solid angles, Kirchhoff's universal function K(v,T) is

에 대한 의존성을 나타내도록, 전하(e)에 의존한다. 인공 핵(104)의 붕소 핵(102)은 서로 충분히 밀집되어, 붕소 핵(102)은 자체-조립된 피코결정성 복사 공동을 형성하도록 복사적으로 결합된다.Near the extreme hv >> kT of ultraviolet blackbody radiation, Kirchhoff's universal function K(v,T) is an apeon according to the following relation applicable to the artificial nucleus 104

To show the dependence on , we depend on the charge (e). The boron nuclei 102 of the artificial nuclei 104 are sufficiently dense with each other such that the boron nuclei 102 radiatively couple to form self-assembled picocrystalline radiative cavities.

에 의해 지배된다.At the extreme h << kT of the infrared spectrum, Kirchhoff's universal function K(v,T) is governed by the continuous thermal resonator energy kT, but very differently, near the extreme hv >> kT of the ultraviolet spectrum, Kirchhoff's universal function The function K(v,T) is the discrete vibrational energy

is dominated by

의 측면에서 식(12)의 플랑크의 공진기 엔트로피 S를 표현하는 것이 목적이다.Discrete energy component according to Dirac's relativistic wave equation

The purpose is to express Planck's resonator entropy S in equation (12) in terms of

를 정의하는 것이 목적이다.Subject to the quantization of equation (36b), the quantum temperature according to Planck’s relation in equation (13)

The purpose is to define

Einstein's molar heat capacity in equation (20) can be simplified as

The heat capacity associated with the microwave Planck resonator of an individual atom in a solid, governed by Dirac's relativistic wave equation, is described by the following relation derived from Einstein's mass heat capacity.

As shown in Figure 8, a picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 constitutes: (1) by a boron icosahedron comprising 12 native boron nuclei 102 with a near-symmetrical nuclear configuration. An artificial nucleus formed (104) and (2) four artificial valence electrons composed of four natural hydrogen atoms bonded to a boron icosahedron with a hydrogen nucleus 103 bonded to a boron icosahedron such that the four hydrogen atom electrons are aligned according to the k _<111> wave vector. The picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 contains a boron icosahedron, in which 36 boron valence electrons occupy molecular orbitals within the icosahedron so that chemical bonds between the icosahedrons are made by hydrogen valence electrons. The electric quadrupole moment according to the k _<111> vector causes an electric dipole moment in the hydrogen atom, so that the hydrogen nucleus 103 is coupled to the artificial nucleus 104 by Debye force.

The chemical bonding of the picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 is illustrated by self-selective atom substitution in the monocrystalline silicon unit cell 200 of FIG. 9, and the unit cell has 8 silicon apical atoms 201, 6 silicon It consists of a face-centered atom 202 , and four silicon-based atoms 203 . Four base atoms 203 exist along the <111> cube diagonal in a tetrahedral arrangement. The monocrystalline silicon unit cell 200 is a monocrystalline silicon, wherein the silicon apex atom 201 and the silicon face-centre atom 202 are covalently bonded to only four silicon-based atoms 203 along the <111> crystalline orientation. Translate periodically through space to form a grid. <111> along the crystal orientation. The resulting monocrystalline silicon lattice has a long-range periodic translational sequence in terms of cubic unit cells of ˜0.5431 nm along each edge without any <100> chemical bonds.

The diamond-shaped picocrystalline silaborane unit cell 300 is constructed by replacing each silicon apex atom 201 in the monocrystalline silicon unit cell 200 with a borane molecule 101, as shown in FIG. do. Eight borane molecules 101 at the apex of the silaborane unit cell 300 of FIG. 10 are shared among the eight picocrystalline silaborane unit cells 300 in an extended solid lattice (not shown). Thereby, the periodic translation of the picocrystalline silaborane unit cell 300 across space results in a picocrystalline silaborane that effectively acts as a self-assembled diamond-like picocrystalline lattice structurally similar to monocrystalline silicon B ₁₂ H ₄ )Si ₇ resulting in a solid lattice. The picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 of FIG. 8, which has a near-symmetrical nuclear configuration, replaces the eight silicon apical atoms 201 of FIG. 10 in the picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ )Si ₇ lattice. do.

The picocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention constitutes an almost transparent solid, and this transparent solid is described in the paper "The Atomic Arrangement in Glass" (Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 54, 1932, pp. 3841 to 3851). It is believed to be formed by a continuous random network of polyatomic unit cells following a modification of the rule developed by Zachariasen. All citations to Zachariasson below are understood to refer to the above article. Zachariasson focused on oxide glasses, particularly amorphous SiO ₂ and amorphous B ₂ O ₃ . Zachariasson demonstrated that amorphous SiO ₂ is constituted by a continuous random network of SiO ₄ tetrahedra. Similarly, phycocrystalline oxysilaborane is believed to be constituted by a continuous random network of polyhedra with nearly-symmetric boron icosahedrons at each of the eight polyhedral edges.

Whereas conventional oxide glasses are constituted by a continuous random network of oxygen tetrahedra or oxygen triangles, picocrystalline oxysilaborane, by definition, consists of a hexahedron with picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 at the hexahedral edges. Boranes constitute a solid formed by a continuous random network of hexahedrons. While the monocrystalline silicon unit cell 200 shown in FIG. 9 is a hexahedral (cube), the diamond-shaped picocrystalline silaborane unit cell 300 of FIG. 10, shown as a cube for illustrative purposes is actually is an irregular hexahedron. Zachariasson described the atomic arrangement of oxide glasses by a continuous random network of polymorphic oxygen tetrahedra or triangles, whereas the atomic arrangement of borane solids is described by a random network of irregular hexahedrons.

Eight corners of the borane hexahedron 300 of FIG. 10 are made of picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 . Each corner picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 is ideally bound to four tetravalent natural atoms 303 surrounded by eight corner picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 . A preferred tetravalent natural atom 303 is a natural silicon atom. Each of the tetravalent natural atoms 303 is bonded to one or more face-centered atoms 302 of the borane hexahedron 300 shown in FIG. 10 . Each face-centered atom 302 is a tetravalent natural atom such as silicon; hexavalent natural atoms such as oxygen; or perhaps any one of a tetravalent picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101, but is not limited thereto. With the aid of the irregular borane hexahedron 300 shown in FIG. 10 , the atomic arrangement of the borane solid can be understood.

First, the four tetravalent natural atoms 303 are surrounded by eight corner picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 in the solid borane lattice. Second, the bound irregular borane hexahedron 300 shares a common edge picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 within a continuous random network. The center of the edge picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 is ideally motion-invariant. Third, each corner picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 is covalently bonded to four tetravalent natural atoms 303 along the <111> crystalline orientation. It is important to recognize that there is a tetravalent natural atom 303 at the position of a silicon-based atom 203 (as shown in 9 in a unit cell of monocrystalline silicon) that is subjected to spatial displacement to preserve unit cell size. Do.

The structure described above can be understood by considering the believed structure of (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ , which is an extreme of a new class of picocrystalline oxysilaborane to be defined. In (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ , each irregular borane hexahedron 300 forming the solid lattice is ideally 8 edged picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 , 6 face-centered picocrystalline It is composed of an artificial borane atom (101) and four natural silicon atoms (303). Due to the sharing of the eight hexahedral edges and the sharing of the two hexahedral surfaces, the translation of the irregular borane hexahedron 300 across space ideally results in picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ . do. In this way, picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ is picocrystalline similar to monocrystalline silicon, composed of tetravalent natural silicon atoms (303) and tetravalent picocrystalline artificial borane atoms (101). Form polymorphism. This type of structure makes spin-orbit coupling physically significant.

Preferred aspects of the present invention include sequences of a type unknown in the prior art. A long-range periodic translational sequence is defined herein as the regular repetition of a constant invariant arrangement of atoms known as a unit cell through space, whereby the regular arrangement of natural atoms far beyond the first and second nearest neighboring natural atoms. form a translationally-invariant tiling in Monocrystalline and polycrystalline materials exhibit long-range periodic translational sequences throughout space. Periodic repetition of atomic positions is conserved throughout the entire space of a monocrystalline material. The periodic repetition of atomic positions in polycrystalline materials is maintained over a limited finite space within grains, which themselves can be arbitrarily oriented across space. As used herein, a nanocrystalline material is any picocrystalline material having a grain size in the range between 300 pm and 300 nm.

The short-distance periodic translational sequence is then defined as the repetition of the natural atomic positions over a space substantially confined only to the first and second nearest neighboring natural atoms. The radii of isolated neutral atoms range from 30 to 300 pm. As a result, and as used herein, any picocrystalline material exhibits a short-distance periodic translational sequence limited to repeating atomic positions in a finite group of first and second nearest neighboring natural atoms. material that represents The amorphous material used below is a material without a regularly repeating arrangement of atoms, and thus can support constructive interference of x-rays. The short-distance periodic translational sequence predominates in picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ .

It may seem that these definitions for the various types of crystalline materials fully describe the allowable sequence of repeated atomic positions in space. However, these definitions are still limited in the sense that they are based strictly on repeating the positions of individual atoms through space. They cannot be applied to materials that contain tightly packed clusters of atoms, which can be arranged in space so that these clusters are bound to a single natural atom that is not itself clustered. These definitions should be extended to understand quantum dots defined for the purposes of this specification as clusters of natural atoms in which discrete quantizations of energy levels exist. In the prior art, the size of quantum dots is typically on the order of 10 nm. The aforementioned definitions of the various types of crystalline solids also depend on energy quantization.

This raises the requirement for a new definition that understands both the spatial arrangement of atoms and the existence of discrete quantization of energy levels. Thus, “picocrystalline artificial atoms,” as used herein, are clusters of less than 300 pm in size of natural atoms that are interconnected to each other to support short-distance periodic translational ordering and internal discrete quantization of energy levels. As discussed below, special types of picocrystalline artificial atoms can be bound to other natural atoms to form an extended lattice of natural atoms and picocrystalline artificial atoms. As used herein, a natural atom is any isotope of a stable chemical element included in the periodic table. A special type of picocrystalline artificial atom includes boron icosahedrons with a nearly-symmetrical nuclear configuration.

The single-layer material most responsible for the solid-state electronic revolution over the past 60 years is single-crystalline silicon. As the scaling of feature sizes in monolithic integrated circuits approaches molecular sizes, the displacement of charges in extended energy bands across space becomes increasingly granular due to underlying quantum conditions. In a related manner, charge conduction in extended energy bands within low-dimensional metal interconnects further degrades the performance of monolithic integrated circuits. In recent years, extensive research on the incorporation of single-layer graphene into monolithic integrated circuits has been made in a decisive effort to address fundamental scaling limitations. Single-layer graphene presents challenges for integration into monolithic integrated circuits due to its lack of band gap energy and deposition processes that are incompatible with integrated circuits.

A preferred aspect of the present invention improves the scaling limits of monolithic integrated circuits by material incorporation of monocrystalline silicon and graphene to support displacement of electrical motion through space. Referring now to FIG. 10 , it can be observed that the picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 replaces the silicon apex atom 201 of FIG. 10 . In the specific case of picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ , the six face-centered atoms 302 are picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 (although not shown in FIG. 10 ). Due to the conservation of short-distance icosahedral symmetry in each picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 , picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ can be of any long-distance in the manner of monocrystalline silicon. It does not have a periodic translation sequence.

Due to the lack of long-distance periodic translational sequences, picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ cannot physically support extended conduction and valence energy bands across space. The presence of a van der Waals force (more specifically a Debye force) between the picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 is determined by the presence of a picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ It further removes the extended conduction and valence energy bands across the space within. However, the icosahedral symmetry of the picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 causes a displacement of a very new type of electrical action unknown in the prior art. In order to more fully understand the profound novelty and utility of preferred embodiments of the present invention, consider the low-frequency extremes of equations (36a and 36b).

를 갖는 양자 공진기의 하이브리드화를 구성한다. U=

를 갖는 이산 양자 공진기의 양자 온도

는 다음과 같이 식(38)에 의해 구체적으로 주어진다:A Planck resonator is composed of (1) a thermal resonator with vibrational energy U=kT and (2) vibrational energy U=

constitute a hybridization of a quantum resonator with U=

The quantum temperature of a discrete quantum resonator with

is specifically given by equation (38) as follows:

=10.9GHz에서, 인공 핵(104)의 양자 온도

= 0.77°K는 우주 마이크로파 배경 복사와 관련된 절대 온도 2.72°K보다 훨씬 낮다.Microwave frequencies from Tables 1 and 2

= At 10.9 GHz, the quantum temperature of the artificial nucleus 104

= 0.77°K is much lower than the 2.72°K absolute temperature associated with cosmic microwave background radiation.

는 주위 온도 T보다 훨씬 더 크다. 피코결정성 실라보란 (B₁₂H₄)₄Si₄를 형성하는 인공 핵(104)이 개방형 20면체 플로케-다체-페르미온 피코결정성을 구성하기 때문에, 임의의 인공 핵(104)의 양자 온도

는 주위 온도 T에서 고정된다. 피코결정성 실라보란 (B₁₂H₄)₄Si₄의 열 평형을보다 잘 이해하기 위해, 20면체 내의 반결합 및 결합 고유상태를 식 (23a 및 23b) 및 표 1 및 2에 따라 전자에 의한 순서화된 채움을 고려하는 것이 목적이다. n=±2 및 n=±3 쉘 내의 반결합 및 결합 에너지 준위는 금지된 에너지 구역에 비해 크게 과장되어 있다.In contrast, the quantum temperature of a continuous thermal resonator with U = kT

is much greater than the ambient temperature T. Since the artificial nuclei 104 forming the picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ constitute an open icosahedral Floquet-polyhedral-fermion picocrystalline, the quantum temperature of any artificial nuclei 104 .

is fixed at ambient temperature T. In order to better understand the thermal equilibrium of phycocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ , antibonding and bonding eigenstates within the icosahedron were analyzed by electrons according to equations (23a and 23b) and Tables 1 and 2 The purpose is to consider ordered filling. The antibonding and binding energy levels within the n=±2 and n=±3 shells are greatly exaggerated relative to the forbidden energy region.

According to FIG. 11, 4 electrons initially occupy the antibonding suborbital of +2p ⁴ _{3 /2} , and 4 electrons initially occupy the binding suborbital of -2p ⁴ _{3 /2} of the Dirac quasiparticle. The two results in Figure 11 distinguish Dirac quasiparticles from fermions that follow Schrödinger's non-relativistic wave equation. First, there is a charge-conjugate symmetry between the positive-energy electrons in the antibonding suborbital and the negative-energy electrons in the bonding suborbital of the Diark quasiparticle. There is no charge-conjugate symmetry in the fermion, which is governed by Schrödinger's non-relativistic equation, which assumes that all energy levels are positive definite. According to Schrödinger's equation, charge conduction in the valence energy band formed by bonding orbitals is assumed to be due to mobile holes resulting from electron vacancies. The physical relationship between negative-energy electrons and positive-energy holes (electron vacancies) will develop later.

Second, the high-angle-momentum suborbital ±2p ⁴ _{3 /2 is} filled with electrons, whereas interestingly the low-angle-momentum suborbital ±2sp ⁰ _1/2 is electron-free according to FIG. 11 . Spin-orbit coupling produces a doublet of half-integer quantized sub-orbitals from full-integer-quantized orbitals as expressed according to equations (24a and 24b). Due to an as-yet-unknown natural phenomenon (hereinafter referred to as spectral derivation), the suborbital of high-angle-momentum (j=ℓ+1/2) of any doublet due to spin-orbit coupling is initially the Dirac quasi It will be shown that the particle is occupied before the suborbital of low-angle-momentum momentum (j = l-1/2). Although spectral derivation is not known in the prior art, it is used in the successful operation of the preferred aspect of the present invention.

The binding energy intrinsic state of Dirac quasiparticles is included in the chemical fusion of boron icosahedrons comprising preferred embodiments of the present invention. The inner electrons occupying the n=±1 shell are not included in the chemical bonding of the boron icosahedron. As set forth below, the spectral quantum number (k) of the electron microstructure is polar except for the highest binding energy eigenstate in the shell. At the highest binding energy eigenstates in the n=+2 and n=+3 shells of the positive-energy antibonding suborbitals of Dirac quasiparticles, k, according to equation (23a), and only It is noteworthy that only in this eigenstate, it is a negative definite sign. Also, the spectral quantum number k, according to equation (23b), at the highest binding energy eigenstates in the n=-2 and n=-3 shells of the negative-energy binding suborbitals of Dirac quasiparticles, and only It is noteworthy that only in this eigenstate, it is positive definite.

Spin-orbit coupling separates the full-integer-quantized orbitals into doublets of positive-energy half-integer-quantized suborbitals (n>0) according to FIG. 11 . In a complementary manner, spin-orbit coupling separates the full-integer-quantized orbitals into pairs of negative-energy half-integer-quantized suborbitals (n<0) in FIG. 11 . The half-integer-quantized suborbitals of FIG. 11 follow the energy eigenvalues of Dirac quasiparticles in equations (23a and 23b). Quantum entanglement of the half-integer-quantized suborbitals of Dirac quasiparticles results in the highest energy level in each shell with the highest confinement energy in that shell. This seemingly strange phenomenon (discussed further below) will be described as a relative change in Gibbs free energy.

The |+2p ⁴ _{3 /2} > and |-2p ⁴ _{3 /2} 2 > eigenstates of the n =±2 shell are filled with 4 electrons in Fig. 11 due to the decrease in Gibbs free energy according to equations (44a and 44b) .

In FIG. 11, |±2sp ⁰ _{1 / 2} > With the empty state of the eigenstate |±2p ⁴ _{3 / 2} > Occupation of the eigenstate is, |±2p _{3 / 2} > Gibbs free energy of the eigenstate is |±2sp _{1 / 2} > due to the fact that it is lower than the Gibbs free energy of the eigenstate. A major property of the artificial nuclei 104 comprising the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention is the presence of an excited eigenstate of lower Gibbs free energy than the bottom eigenstate in each shell.

The stable unfilled shell condition in Fig. 11 is due to the spontaneous excitation of valence electrons into suborbitals of high-angle-momentum of the doublet created by spin-orbit coupling. This spontaneous excitation of the electrons, according to equations (44a and 44b), is the result of the Gibbs free energy in the high-angle-momentum eigenstate |+2sp _{3 / 2} > compared to the low-angle-momentum eigenstate |+2sp _1/2 >. due to a decrease When the valence electrons fill the |± _2sp ² _1/2 > eigenstate of FIG. 12, the n=±2 shell is completely closed. In the n=+3 shell, |+3s _{1 /2} > +3d _{5 /2} > and |+3p _{3 /2} > compared to the eigenstate, the decrease in the Gibbs free energy of the electron in the eigenstate becomes positive, so that the electron It is raised by spin-orbit coupling.

In the n= _-3 shell, | _{-3s 1/2} > compared to the eigenstate |-3d _5/2 > _{and |} -3p _3/2 > in the eigenstate, the decrease in the electron's Gibbs free energy becomes positive _- definite , the valence electrons are lowered by spin-orbit bonding.

〉0은 전자가 |+3d_5/2〉고유상태를 점유하게 하는 반면, 식 (46a)의 깁스 자유 에너지의 변화

〉0은 전자가 |-3d_{5 / 2}〉고유상태를 점유하게 한다.Change in Gibbs free energy in equation (45a)

>0 causes the electron to occupy |+3d _5/2 > eigenstate, while the change in Gibbs free energy in equation (46a)

>0 causes the electron to occupy |-3d _{5 / 2} > eigenstate.

=+17.9μeV 및 식 (46a)에 따른

=+17.9μeV는 도 13에 도시된 바와 같이 디락 준입자의 n=±3 쉘의 부분 점유를 지원한다. 식 (45b)에 따른 깁스 자유 에너지의 더 작은 감소

=+13.4μeV 및 식 (46b)에 따른

=+13.4μeV는 도 14에 표시된 디락 준입자의 n=±3 쉘의 부분 점유를 야기한다. 마지막으로, 디락 준 입자의 n=±3 쉘은, 도 15에 도시된 바와 같이 |±3sp_{1 / 2}〉고유상태가 완전히 채워질 때, 닫힌다. 도 11 내지 도 15에 도시된 n=±2 및 n=±3 쉘의 순서화된 점유는 종래 기술에서는 알려져있지 않다.Change in Gibbs free energy according to equation (45a)

=+17.9 μeV and according to equation (46a)

=+17.9 μeV supports partial occupation of n=±3 shells of Dirac quasiparticles as shown in FIG. 13 . Smaller decrease in Gibbs free energy according to equation (45b)

=+13.4 μeV and according to equation (46b)

=+13.4 μeV causes partial occupation of n=±3 shells of Dirac quasiparticles shown in FIG. 14 . Finally, the n=±3 shell of the Dirac quasi particle is closed when _{the |±3sp 1/2 > eigenstate} is completely filled, as shown in FIG. 15 . The ordered occupancy of the n=±2 and n=±3 shells shown in FIGS. 11-15 is not known in the prior art.

Dirac quasi particles physically constituted by boron icosahedrons with a near-symmetrical nuclear configuration are ideal for their periphery due to antibonding and bonding orbitals within the entangled icosahedron occupied by valence electrons in the manner shown in FIG. It is a closed quantum-many system. A boron icosahedron with a near-symmetrical nuclear configuration can be transformed into a semi-open quantum-multibody system that can interact with its surroundings due to the boron nucleus. There are two naturally occurring stable boron isotopes ¹⁰ ₅ B and ¹¹ ₅ B with spherically deformed nuclei. The eccentric spheroid nucleus exhibits a negative electric quadrupole moment, whereas the elongate spheroid nucleus exhibits a positive electric quadrupole moment. Among the stable nuclides, boron ¹⁰ ₅ B constitutes a stable nuclide exhibiting the maximum nuclear electric quadrupole moment per nucleon due to the deformed nucleus.

인 핵 각도 모멘트 및 +0.085×10^-28e-㎡인 큰 양의 핵 전기 4중극 모멘트를 갖는 반면, 붕소 ¹¹ ₅B는 3/2

인 핵 각도 모멘트 및 +0.041×10^-28e-㎡인 핵 전기 4중극 모멘트를 갖는다. 붕소 핵의 핵 전기 4중극 모멘트와 연관된 에너지는 가우스의 법칙의 도움으로 다음과 같이 표현된다.boron ¹⁰ ₅ b 3

Phosphorus has a nuclear angular moment and a large positive nuclear electric quadrupole moment of +0.085×10 ⁻²⁸ e-m 2 , whereas boron ¹¹ ₅ B has 3/2

It has a nuclear angular moment of phosphorus and a nuclear electric quadrupole moment of +0.041×10 ⁻²⁸ e-m 2 . The energy associated with the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of a boron nucleus is expressed with the help of Gauss's law as

The energy associated with the nuclear electric quadrupole moment Q(B) of boron is related to the boron concentration n(B) in the picocrystalline silaborane. Assuming for the present purpose that the major boron isotopes ¹⁰ ₅ B and ¹¹ ₅ B are in naturally occurring proportions, the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of boron is

Applying this value to equation (47), the quadrupole energy E _Q (B) is calculated.

열에 의해 주어졌다.This energy is transferred to the |-3sp _1/2 > eigenstate in FIG. 15 and the _two liberated | _{-3s 1/2 > and} |-3p _1/2 > eigenstate in FIG. 16, and also |-3pd in FIG. _{3 / 2} > the two liberated |-3p _{3 /2} > and |-3d _{3 /2} > in FIG. 17 of the eigenstate are related to disentanglement. The total energy E _Q (B)=17.9 μeV +13.4 μeV = 31.3 μeV released by the bonds |-3sp _1/2 > and |-3pd _{3 / 2} > liberation of the eigenstate due to the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of boron is Previously in Table 2

given by heat.

가 주위 온도 T₀에서 고정된다는 점에서, 작은 농도(2p₀)의 호스트 피코결정성 인공 보란 원자(101)가 자체-열중성자화된다.| _{-3sp 1/2} > _and | _{-3pd 3/2} > total energy released by the liberation of _the bond eigenstate E _Q (B)=17.9 μeV +13.4 μeV = 31.3 μeV is the picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) results in self-thermal neutronization of a relatively small number of host picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 in ₄ Si ₄ . quantum temperature

A small concentration (2p ₀ ) of the host picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 is self-thermalneutralized, in that is fixed at ambient temperature T ₀ .

The concentration of picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 in phycocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ is ˜10 ²² cm ^-3 , whereas picocrystalline artificial borane atoms ionized at room temperature T ₀ ( 101) trace concentrations are as follows.

(51)For T ₀ = 300 °K,

(51)

The self-thermalization of the picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 makes the picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ behave as a p-type semiconductor according to FIG. 17 . This is due to the fact that the local liberation of | _{-3sp 1/2} > _and | _{-3pd 3/2} > intrinsic state in FIG. 17 causes _the picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 to interact with its surroundings, thereby, By the capture of a pair of electrons, the remaining entangled | _{-2sp 1/2} > represents a complete tendency to liberate _the energy eigenstate. Without the ability to capture a pair of electrons from any external source, phycocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ undergoes disproportionation, and this disproportionation results in dianions and dications. ) causes the ionization of the partially liberated picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 into pairs.

Based on actual experimental data, p-type picocrystalline silaborane is preferably chemically expressed as p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ . In equation (52), α ² is the square of the microstructural constant, which is the approximate size of the trace disproportionation of the double cation-dianion pair in the p-type phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ . provides Therefore, p-type picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ is ˜10 ²² mainly composed of a solid of p-type picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ . cm ^-3 of picocrystalline artificial borane atom (101) B ₁₂ H ₄ It is a semi-open mixed quantum-multibody system comprising ˜10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ of ionized picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 B ² ₁₂ H ₄ and B ²⁺ ₁₂ H ₄ distributed between. Ionization of the artificial nucleus 104 of the immobilized picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 provides charge displacement by free charges trapped in the various artificial nuclei 104 .

Under disproportionate mutual ionization, a pair of valence electrons hop from the liberated eigenstate of the artificial nucleus 104 to some neighboring artificial nucleus 104 (|-3p ² _1/2 > _- > |- 3p ⁰ _1/2 >), thus releasing only the remaining entangled bond eigenstates according to FIGS. 18a and 18b (|-2sp ² _1/2 >-> |-2s ² _1/2 >+ | _{-2p 2} ¹ _/2 >). Disproportionation results in trace concentrations of counter-ionized pairs of picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 B ² ₁₂ H ₄ and B ²⁺ ₁₂ H ₄ . The total concentration of neutral picocrystalline artificial borane atoms (101) B ₁₂ H ₄ is ˜10 ²² cm ⁻³ , whereas ionized picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 B ² ₁₂ H ₄ and B ²⁺ ₁₂ H A much smaller trace concentration of ₄ is ˜10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ . It should be understood that the ionization of the two neutral ^{phycocrystalline} artificial borane atoms 101 B ₁₂ H ₄ is due to the ionization of the associated artificial nuclei 104 B _2-12 and B ²⁺ ₁₂ .

A trace of ~10 ¹⁸ cm ^-3 of the double anion B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ and the double cation B ²⁺ ₁₂ H ₄ is ~10 ²² cm ^-3 of the neutral phycocrystalline artificial borane atom (101) B ₁₂ H ₄ effectively jump, which leads to thermal neutronization of p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ , picocrystalline silaborane. At thermal equilibrium with the surrounding T ₀ , the average vibrational energy U(T ₀ ) of the Planck resonator of the picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 is:

Under thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, the vibrational energy of equation (53) is the same for neutral and ionized picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 in picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ . The concentration of ˜10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ ionized picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 is much smaller than the concentration of neutral picocrystalline artificial borane atoms 101 in silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ . .

The charge can be self-captured within the induced potential well and displaced as quasi-particles through space with the self-captured potential well. This type of quasiparticle is called a polaron. It is possible to self-capture a pair of charges known as a bipolaron. See, eg, "Polarons" by Emin (Cambridge University Press, 2013). A pair of charges trapped in a double polaron can generally be a pair of electrons or a pair of holes. Boron-rich solids are particularly suitable for the formation of double polarons because the boron icosahedron has a strong tendency to ionize (B ₁₂ -> B ² ₁₂ ) to obtain electronic stability by filling bonding orbitals within the unoccupied icosahedron. . The displacement of the mobile charge is sufficiently different in the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane, it is better explained by a special type of bipolaron.

Two different types of double polarons have been identified in the prior art of icosahedral boron-rich solids. Electron orbital degeneracy can be lifted by symmetry-breaking atomic displacement, so that a pair of holes of opposite spins can self-trap within the singlet's Jan-Teller double polaron. In a completely different way, a pair of holes of opposite spins can be self-captured in the double polaron of a soft singlet by symmetry-breaking oscillations in certain vibro-electron (ie, oscillation and electron) eigenstates. These two types of singlet double polarons exhibit different physical properties. Self-entrapped hole-pairs in singlet yarn-teller double polarons can be excited from the bottom intrinsic state by light-absorption, whereas self-entrapped hole-pairs in singlet soft double polarons are similarly excited. can't be The hole-pair remains self-entrapped within the singlet ductile double polaron through stabilization that occurs by lowering the free energy of the atomic vibrations of the lattice.

Although an unusually high Seebeck modulus is known to occur in boron carbide (B _12+x C _3-x ) over the compositional range (0.15≤x≤1.7), the physical basis of the Seebeck modulus and conduction mechanism of boron carbide is within the literature. is being discussed in As established by Emin in "Unusual Properties of Icosahedral Boron-Rich Solids" (Journal of Solid-State Chemistry, Vol. 179, 2006, pp.2791-2798), consistent with the leap of the double polaron hall , heat-activated low hole mobility is observed in high heat compressed boron carbide. Despite the high double polaron hole density of ˜10 ²¹ cm ⁻³ , a low spin density of ˜10 ¹⁹ cm ⁻³ was confirmed in boron carbide by susceptibility measurements. This difference is due to self-capture of hole-pairs of opposite spins.

Since no carrier-induced light-absorption bands were observed in boron carbide, Emin and others found that a clear decrease in spin density in hot-compressed boron carbide could lead to the formation of singlet ductile double polaron hole-pairs. It was considered to be due to the resulting symmetry-breaking oscillations. The carrier-induced formation of the singlet ductile double polaron contributes to the increase of the Seebeck coefficient due to the softening of the symmetry-breaking lattice oscillations. Another enhancement of the Seebeck coefficient within boron carbide (B _{12+ x} C _{3 -x} ) over the composition range (0.15≤x≤1.7) may be related to the change in entropy due to the jump softening the double polaron hole. . The contribution to the Seebeck coefficient by carrier-induced softening of lattice vibrations, and by jumping of singlets softening double polaron hole-pairs, is not significantly affected by compositional changes. There is a variation in the Seebeck coefficient over the boron carbide (B _{12+ x} C _{3 -x} ) composition range, in part due to disproportionation.

The disproportionation of boron carbide is extremely different from the disproportionation of picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ due to the Jan-Teller distortion of the boron icosahedron in boron carbide. Electron orbital degeneracy is a spin-orbit coupling, picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ lifted within, maintaining a symmetric nuclear configuration that avoids Jan-Teller distortion. Jan and Teller ignored the spin effect in their paper. The three-centre chemical bond supporting the boron _icosahedron with a symmetrical nuclear configuration, in Fig. 5, due to the convoluted rotational and oscillating degrees of freedom, according to Eqs . oscillates along the

A change in rotational degrees of freedom necessarily corresponds to a change in oscillatory degrees of freedom, and vice versa, such entangled rotational and oscillating degrees of freedom are hereinafter referred to as rovibrational degrees of freedom. Here, the picocrystalline silaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z of the present invention deviates from conventional chemistry. On page 113 of a book titled "Symmetry and Spectroscopy" (Oxford Univ. Press, 1978), Harris and Bertolucci noted: “Since neither θ nor φ, neither depends on the shape of V(r), the rotational wavefunction is the same regardless of the model chosen for the vibration of the molecule.” This is picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ This is not the case for boron icosahedrons with a symmetrical nuclear configuration, due to the entangled rotational-oscillation degrees of freedom that influence the disproportionation in .

Disproportionation is an irreversible aperiodic process in which the entropy of a mixture is maximized according to the second law of thermodynamics. To quantify disproportionation, the fraction of borane molecules ionized with borane double cations is denoted c. The entropy of mixing associated with mobile ions can be generally described by the relation

In formula (52), p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ phycocrystalline silaborane Since disproportionation in the striae causes a maximization in the charge-induced entropy of the mixture, there are equal numbers of double anions and double cations (c = 0.5) supporting:

phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ The profound novelty and usefulness of the self-thermal neutronization and disproportionation of the new class of picocrystalline silaborane to be defined could be appreciated by considering the opposite polarity p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} _. can In a practical sense, the ionized eigenstate is displaced between the artificial nuclei 104 of the stationary picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 by atomic engineering by controlled changes in quantum entanglement. This requires an oxygen-containing species of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane, with p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} being _the preferred oxygen-containing species. Natural oxygen atom 304 occupies 6 face-centered atoms in the unit cell of FIG. 19 .

Linus Pauling, in the development of electronegativity in his book "Nature of the Chemical Bond" (Cornell University Press, 3rd ed., 1960, pp.64-108), is a measure of the ionicity of a covalent bond. to establish electronegativity as Pauling's concept of electronegativity, assuming a two-center chemical bond, cannot be directly applied to the picocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention. The phycocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 is covalently bonded to another natural atom by a hydrogen valence electron. The availability of phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ depends on its strong affinity to trap electron pairs, thereby liberating |-2sp _1/2 > eigenstates, otherwise this eigenstate is the only bonding suborbital within the entangled icosahedron. When the electron pair capture is realized, the neutral phycocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) is thus converted into an ionized artificial borane atom 101 (B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ), as shown in FIG. 17 . The electronic configuration becomes that represented in FIG. 20 .

It can be said that picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ has a large quantum electronegativity. The phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ , on the contrary, has a low quantum electronegativity due to the binding eigenstate of negative-energy in the fully liberated icosahedron. The phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 has a picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ region 401 and a thin picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-( B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ constituted by multiple bonding pairs of regions 402 . It should be understood that the phonovoltaic cell 400 is generally comprised of any number of such pairs of coupled regions 401 and 402 interposed by a metal electrode 403 .

any two bound picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} regions are _each p - make up the anode section 401 and the cathode section 402 of the isotype rectifier 404 . The phonovoltaic cell 400 consists of a plurality of p-isotype rectifiers 404 interposed with a metal electrode 403, with aluminum being the preferred metal. The phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} region 402 is substantially free of mobile holes, whereas _the bound phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 contains migrating holes in a trace concentration of ˜10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ at room temperature. Thus, the moving hole is the p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 of each p-isotype rectifier 404 of picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ² ) bound to picocrystalline oxysilaborane. ^- ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ diffuse spontaneously into the cathode region 402 , maximizing the mixing entropy between the regions 401 and 402 according to the equation:

Under ideal conditions, there is no contribution due to the change in enthalpy. Consequently, the contribution to the Seebeck coefficient due to the carrier-induced mixing entropy change disappears in p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ .

In sharp contrast to the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ , the picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ is bipolar under ideal conditions. represents the infinite Seebeck coefficient of mixing due to the absence of Ron Hall-pairs.

It is emphasized that the above mixing conditions are ideal. The occupied energy levels of boron icosahedrons containing phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ are ideally shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B . Similarly, _the occupied energy levels of boron icosahedrons comprising phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ are ideally further shown in FIG. 20 . The bonding regions 401 and 402 in the phonovoltaic cell 400 are each picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ bonded picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-( B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ supports diffusion of double polaron hole-pairs into region 402 . The double polaron hole-pair is p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ region 401 of |-3p ⁰ _1/2 > _{picocrystalline} oxysilaborane p-( B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ |-2p ⁰ _1/2 > spontaneous diffusion in the intrinsic state of the region 402. The mixing of moving holes between the anode and cathode sections 401 and 402 of each p-isotype rectifier 404 is due to the different composition of the coupling sections.

It is an irreversible process that proceeds spontaneously until the entropy (S _mix ) of the mixing of the moving holes between the anode region 401 and the cathode region 402 is maximized. This process is such that the electrical charge transferred to the electrical load moves electron-hole pairs in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 of each p-isotype rectifier 404 . If, and only in this case, is fully supplemented by the self-thermal neutronization and disproportionation of This can be better explained in terms of quantum thermodynamic cycles that generalize the Carnot cycle. In accordance with the above object, it is the following object to configure a quantum thermodynamic cycle that manages the phonovoltaic cell 400 in a manner comparable to the Carnot cycle of FIG. 2 . To compare these two thermodynamic cycles, the state indicated by Clausius 1851 in FIG. 2 is again represented according to FIG. 22 .

The power stroke of the Carnot cycle of FIG. 22 is the adiabatic expansion (A->B) of the working material of an ideal gas under natural cooling. During adiabatic expansion (A->B) in FIG. 22 , the working material of the ideal gas naturally cools from an elevated temperature (T ₀ +dT) until it is fixed at a low ambient temperature (T ₀ ). Thermomechanical action is performed by the moving material during adiabatic expansion (A->B). In comparison, the power stroke of the quantum thermodynamic cycle of FIG. 23 is an adiabatic mixture (A->B) of moving-Hall motion materials under natural cooling. During adiabatic mixing (A->B) according to FIG. 23 , there is a change in the Seebeck coefficient (entropy per unit charge) due to a change in the entropy of the mixing.

The Seebeck coefficient (α _mix ) due to the change in mixing entropy (S _mix ) is over the composition range (0.15≤x≤1.7) of single-phase boron carbide (B _12+x C _3-x ), B ₁₃ C ₂ . It ranges from 0 for _{B 12.15} to 105 μV/K for C _2.85 . Although the generation of electromotive force by the phonovoltaic cell 400 shown in FIG. 21 is due to the difference in the Seebeck coefficient of the bonding region, it is impossible for this to be realized by the bonded configuration of boron carbide. This eliminates the ability to continuously deliver on-demand electrical energy to an applied load while maintaining the difference in mixed entropy between the boron carbide regions coupled to the icosahedral symmetry break in boron carbide according to the Jan-Teller theory. due to the fact that This is, as now explained, the bound silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ region 401 and ^{oxysilaborane} p-(B _2-12 ) in the phonovoltaic cell 400 shown in FIG. 21 . can be healed by H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ region 402 .

<< kT₀이기 때문에)를 포함한다. 초기 상태(A)에서, 피코결정성 실라보란 p-(B₁₂H₄)₃Si₅ 애노드 구역(401) 내의 각 연화 이중 폴라론 전자-쌍은 전기 전하(2e^-) 및 진동 에너지(U(T₀)=3kT₀)(

<< kT₀이기 때문에)를 포함한다. 단열 혼합(A->B) 동안, 이중 폴라론 홀-쌍은, 확산된 이중 폴라론 홀-쌍의 농도가 농도(p₀)보다 훨씬 낮은 저-레벨의 방출 하에서, 피코결정성 실라보란 p-(B₁₂H₄)₃Si₅ 애노드 구역(401)으로부터 결합된 피코결정성 옥시실라보란 p-(B^2- ₁₂H₄)₂Si₄O^{2 +} ₂ 캐소드 구역(402)으로 자발적으로 확산된다.In the initial state (A) of FIG. 23 , each softening double polaron hole-pair in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 has an electrical charge (2e ⁺ ) and a vibrational energy (U(T ₀ )=3kT ₀ )(

<< kT ₀ ). In the initial state (A), each softening double polaron electron-pair in the phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 has an electrical charge (2e ⁻ ) and a vibrational energy (U( T ₀ )=3kT ₀ )(

<< kT ₀ ). During adiabatic mixing (A->B), the double polaron hole-pairs, under low-level emission where the concentration of the diffused double polaron hole-pairs are much lower than the concentration (p ₀ ), picocrystalline silaborane p -(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ spontaneously diffuses from the anode region 401 to the bound phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ cathode region 402 . do.

The double polaron hole-pair (2e ⁺ ) injected into _the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} zone 402 under adiabatic mixing (A->B) is They diffuse into the bonded metal electrode 403, where they are collected. At the same time, the double polaron electron-pair (2e ⁻ ) diffuses spontaneously from the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 to the bonded metal electrode 403 , where These are collected. In this way, during the adiabatic mixing (A->B) in the phonovoltaic cell 400 shown in FIG. 21 , the transition current flows from the anode electrode 403 to the cathode electrode 403 in a positive sense. Under low levels of emission, the bipolaron electron-hole concentration in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 in B is the adiabatic mixing (A->B) in FIG. 23 . ), while the temperature decreases from T ₀ in A to T ₀ -dT in B, it remains at p ₀ .

의 음역으로 "엔트로피(entropy)"라는 단어를 소개하였다. Any such decrease in temperature during adiabatic mixing (A->B) indicates that an irreversible increase in entropy of mixing (S _mix ) during adiabatic mixing (A->B) results in some other type of irreversible quantum thermodynamic cycle in FIG. 23 . can be maintained only if complemented by an irreversible increase in entropy of In doing so, the fundamental limitation of the Carnot cycle of FIG. 22 can be healed. Rudolf Clausius, in his 1865 treatise, The Second Law of Thermodynamics, edited by J. Kestin, Dowden, entitled "On Different Forms of the Fundamental Equations of the Mechanical Theory of Heat and Their Convenience for Application" Hutchinson & Ross, 1976, p.162) introduced entropy into physics. This article will be cited as Clausius (1865). Clausius (1865) is a Greek word meaning "turn toward"

introduced the word "entropy" as a transliteration of

로 표시된다. 이들 두 미소 변동 간의 차이는 열역학 제 2 법칙의 일반적인 진술에 기인한다. 클라우지우스(1865)의 식(2)는 다음과 같이 표현된다.Although not explicitly used by Clausius (1865), the path-independent exact microvariability is denoted herein by d, whereas the path-dependent, imprecise microvariability is herein denoted by d.

is displayed as The difference between these two microscopic fluctuations is due to the general statement of the second law of thermodynamics. Equation (2) of Clausius (1865) is expressed as follows.

Q가 동작 물질에 의해 추출된 경로-의존적인 미소 열로 정의된다는 사실에 기인한다.

Q가 동작 물질에 의해 방출된 열의 항에 의해 정의된다면, 부등식은 역전된다. 클라우지우스(1865)에 의해 인식된 바와 같이, 불등식은 불가역성을 나타낸다: "여기서 등호는 사이클 과정을 구성하는 모든 변화가 가역적일 때 사용되어야 한다. 변화가 불가역적이 아니라면, 부등호가 우세하다." 클라우지우스(1865)는 불가역적인 사이클을 제공했다: "지금 본체가, 사이클 과정을 형성하지는 않지만 최종 상태가 초기 상태와 다른 상태에 도달하는, 변화 또는 일련의 변화를 겪는다면, 우리가 본체가 이 최종 상태로부터 진행하여 초기 상태로 되돌아갈 수 있게 하는 성격의 추가적인 변화를 도입하는 경우, 이러한 일련의 변화에서 사이클 과정을 구성할 수 있다." 기술되는 바와 같이, 도 23의 포노볼테익 전지(400)의 양자 열역학 사이클은 다음을 조건으로 하는 불가역적인 사이클을 구성한다:Clausius (1865) emphasizes that the numerator of the integrand is expressed as dQ, even though he recognized the integrand as path-dependent. The direction of the inequality in equation (1) is

It is due to the fact that Q is defined as the path-dependent microheat extracted by the moving material.

If Q is defined in terms of the heat dissipated by the working material, the inequality is reversed. As recognized by Clausius (1865), the inequality signifies irreversibility: "Here the equal sign must be used when all the changes constituting the cycle process are reversible. If the change is not irreversible, the inequality sign prevails. " Clausius (1865) provided an irreversible cycle: "If a body now undergoes a change or series of changes, which does not form a cycle process but reaches a state different from the initial state, then we If we proceed from the final state and introduce additional changes in nature that make it possible to return to the initial state, we can constitute a cyclic process in this set of changes." As described, the quantum thermodynamic cycle of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 23 constitutes an irreversible cycle subject to the following conditions:

The electron energy condition in the icosahedron in the bound picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 in the phonovoltaic cell 400 in the initial state (A) of FIG. 23 is shown in FIG. 24A and 24b. The double polaron hole-pair (2e ⁺ ) in the ionized artificial nucleus 104 is due to the loss of an electron-pair in the |-3p ⁰ _1/2 > eigenstate _shown in FIG. 24B. These lost valence electrons jump to the neighboring artificial nucleus 104, and the liberated eigenstate (|-2sp ² _{1 /2} >-> |-2s ² _1/2 >+|-2p ² _{1 /2} > ) resulting in a double polaron electron-pair (2e ⁻ ). In Fig. 24a, |-2p ² _1/2 > _double polaron electron-pair in eigenstate (2e ⁻ ) and in Fig. 24b |-3p ⁰ _1/2 > complementary double polaron hole-pair in eigenstate (2e ⁺ ) is due to ionic disproportionation.

As described above, disproportionation involves the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 of each p-isotype rectifier 404 of the phonovoltaic cell 400 . This results in a double polaron electron-hole pair with a trace concentration of -10 ¹⁸ cm ^-3 distributed in -10 ²² cm ^-3 of the neutral artificial nucleus 104 . As shown in FIGS. 24c and 24d , no double polaron holes are p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² in the phonovoltaic cell 400 in the initial state (A) of FIG. 23 _. Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ is not ideally present in the cathode region 402 . phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 according to FIGS. 24A and 24B , and picocrystalline ^{oxysilaborane} p-(B _2-12 ) shown according to FIGS. 24C and 24D There is charge neutrality in both H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ cathode region 402 . During adiabatic mixing (A->B), the double polaron hole-pairs are formed from the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 according to FIGS. 25b and 25c to the picocrystalline oxysila. Borane p-(B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ diffuses into the cathode region 402 .

The double polaron hole-pair injected into the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ cathode region 402 is the cathode region 402 according to FIGS. 26c and 26d . It jumps toward the metal electrode 403 in contact with the . As a result of the adiabatic mixing (A->B), the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ moving double polaron holes leaping within the cathode region 402- The pair 2e ⁺ is then collected by the metal electrode 403 contacting the cathode region 402 . Also, with the same conclusion of the adiabatic mixing (A->B) of FIG. ₂₃ , a _migrating double _polaron electron _- pair ( 2e ⁻ ) is collected by the metal electrode 403 contacting the anode region 401 . The conclusion of the adiabatic mixing (A->B) of FIG. 23 is expressed, in part, by the electron energy level of the phonovoltaic cell 400 shown in FIGS. 27A-27D .

It should be understood that only a relatively low number of double polaron electron-hole pairs are collected by the anode and cathode electrodes 403 of each p-isotype rectifier 404 of FIGS. 27A-27D . Although not clearly shown in FIGS. 27A and 27B , ˜10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ of double polaron electron-hole pairs still remain in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 . there is. The double polaron electron-hole pair concentration is a broad thermodynamic variable that depends on the amount of material. Since a low level of emission is assumed, the double polaron electron-hole pair concentration (p ₀ ) does not change substantially in the adiabatic mixture (A->B). Not the same for temperature. Since temperature is a intensive thermodynamic variable, as a result of the adiabatic mixing (A->B) in the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 , the temperature decreases by a very small amount (dT).

<< kT₀이기 때문에)를 포함하는 이온화된 이동 플랑크 공진기이다. 이러한 방식으로, 전극(403)에 의해 수집된 각각의 이동 전하의 에너지는 등분배 이론에 따라 3/2kT₀이다. 단열 혼합(A->B) 동안 열 에너지의 손실은 도 23에서 A에서의 T₀로부터 B에서의 T₀-dT로의 온도의 감소를 야기한다. 이러한 온도의 감소는 포노볼테익 전지(400)를 포함하는 p-아이소타입 정류기(404)의 피코결정성 실라보란 p-(B₁₂H₄)₃Si₅ 애노드 구역(401)에서 이온화된 인공 핵(104)의 외인성 농도를 교란시킨다. 고정된 자연 붕소 핵(102)의 핵 전기 4중극 모멘트가 변하지 않고 남아 있어서, 식 (50)의 좌측은 불변으로 남는다. 그 결과, 단열 혼합(A->B)에 기인한 온도의 감소는 이중 폴라론 홀-쌍의 위치를 나타낸다.A double polaron electron-hole pair displaced under adiabatic mixing (A->B) has a pair of charges (2e ⁻ or 2e ⁺ ) and vibrational energy (3kT ₀ ) (

<< kT ₀ ) as an ionized mobile Planck resonator. In this way, the energy of each mobile charge collected by electrode 403 is 3/2 kT ₀ according to the equal distribution theory. The loss of thermal energy during adiabatic mixing (A->B) causes a decrease in temperature from T ₀ in A to T ₀ -dT in B in FIG. 23 . This decrease in temperature results in ionized artificial nuclei in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 of the p-isotype rectifier 404 comprising the phonovoltaic cell 400 . (104) perturb extrinsic concentrations. The nuclear electric quadrupole moment of the immobilized native boron nucleus 102 remains unchanged, so that the left-hand side of equation (50) remains invariant. As a result, the decrease in temperature due to adiabatic mixing (A->B) indicates the position of the double polaron hole-pair.

The exogenous concentration (p > p ₀ ) increases in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 during the isothermal transition (B->C).

Under the isothermal phase transition (B->C), the extrinsic hole-pair concentration of the double polaron hole-pair (p > p ₀ ) is the phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region (401). ) increases from This constitutes a quantum phase transition between quantum thermal neutronization and quantum localization, whereby the entropy of the transition (S _trans ) is reduced. Entropy can decrease if, and only in this case, the entropy decrease is correctly compensated for by an increase in entropy elsewhere.

Q_B->C)은 등온 압축(B->C) 동안 주변으로 방출된다. 등온 상 전이(B->C) 동안 포노볼테익 전지(400) 내에서 어떠한 잠열 방출도 존재하지 않는다. 양자 열역학은 고전적인 열역학과 근본적인 방식에서 상이하다. 앞서 논의한 바와 같이, 얽힘은 양자 역학과 고전 역학을 근본적으로 구별한다. 이상에서 추가로 논의된 바와 같이, 20면체 대칭 조작은, 식 (23a 및 23b)의 디락의 상대론적 에너지 고유값을 따르는 20면체 내의 반결합 및 결합 전자 에너지 준위를 초래하도록, 원자 궤도 Ψ_i(p_{111})의 얽힘을 최대로 한다.Under the isothermal phase transition (B->C) of FIG. 23 , the entropy (S _trans ) reduction of the transition involves latent heat exchange. In the classical case of the Carnot cycle according to FIG. 23, the latent heat (−

Q _B->C ) is released to the environment during isothermal compression (B->C). There is no latent heat release within the phonovoltaic cell 400 during the isothermal phase transition (B->C). Quantum thermodynamics differs from classical thermodynamics in a fundamental way. As previously discussed, entanglement fundamentally distinguishes quantum mechanics from classical mechanics. As discussed further above, the icosahedral symmetry manipulation results in antibonding and bonding electron energy levels within the icosahedron following Dirac's relativistic energy eigenvalues in equations (23a and 23b), such that the atomic orbital Ψ _i ( The entanglement of p _{111} ) is maximized.

Because of the entanglement, the electron orbital degeneracy of the artificial nucleus 104 is enhanced by spin-orbit coupling instead of Jan-Teller distortion. In this sense, the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention is distinct from all other icosahedral boron-rich solids. That is, the icosahedral symmetry is broken by the Yarn-Teller distortion in all known icosahedral boron-rich solids in the prior art. For this purpose, arbitrarily lowering the temperature of the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ inevitably results in an increase in entanglement entropy (S _ent ), so that the former is It is excited from the condition to the condition shown in Fig. 28B. An increase in entanglement entropy (S _ent ) exactly compensates for a decrease in transition entropy (S _trans ).

The latent heat extracted from the isothermal phase transition (B->C) is physically converted into electrical energy stored by the excitation of valence electrons in FIG. 28B . The physical means by which this may be achieved will be described below. For the present purpose, unlike the Carnot cycle, it is sufficient that latent heat is not released to the surroundings during the isothermal phase transition (B->C). Quantum localization is a dominant phenomenon due to the physical nature of quantum entanglement. The extrinsic double polaron electron-hole pair concentration (p>p ₀ ) is the phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode due to increased proton localization under the isothermal phase transition (B->C). It increases within zone 401 . When the double polaron electron-hole pair is sufficiently localized, the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of the boron nucleus 102 causes self-thermal neutronization (C->D) of the localized double polaron electron-hole pair.

The self-thermal neutronization is shown in Fig. 29b. The released energy increases the temperature of the localized neutral artificial nucleus 104 in FIG. 29B as electrons fall from the antibonding suborbital in the entangled icosahedron to the entangled bonding suborbital. This increased temperature is fixed at the ambient temperature (T ₀ ) due to self-thermal neutronization (C->D). Under self-thermal neutronization (C->D), the self-thermal neutronized neutral artificial nucleus 104 undergoes ionized disproportionation in the manner shown in FIGS. 30A and 30B . The resulting double polaron hole-pair concentration (p > p ₀ ) remains localized during adiabatic self-thermal neutronization (C->D) according to FIG. 23 . The quantum phase transition is then induced by the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of the boron nucleus 102 .

As a result, the isothermal phase transition (B->C) is bipolar in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 in the phonovoltaic cell 400 according to resulting in a decrease in the hole-pair concentration p.

The isothermal phase transition (D->A) of FIG. 23 is, according to FIGS. 24A and 24B , the uncompensated entropy (S _trans ) of the transition from the localized state in D of FIG. associated with an increase The isothermal phase transition (D->A) constitutes an uncompensated increase in the transition entropy (S _trans ), since the entanglement entropy (S _ent ) of the artificial nucleus 104 can never decrease by itself. The decrease in entanglement entropy (S _ent ) associated with entanglement of energy levels in the icosahedron is due to the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of the boron nucleus 102 during adiabatic self-thermal neutronization (C->D) shown in FIG. 23 .

S_trans)을 추출한다. 포노볼테익 전지(400)의 등온 상 전이(D->A) 도중에 잠열(T₀

S_trans)의 추출은 원래 고려한 엔트로피 평형을 구성하지만, 깁스(1873)에 의해 결코 물리적으로 구현되지는 않는다. 등온 상 전이(D->A) 동안 엔트로피 평형의 결과로서 주변으로부터 추출된 잠열(T₀

S_trans)은 A->B 동안 혼합의 기브 자유 에너지(-

G_mix)의 감소로 직접 변환된다.Isothermal phase transitions (D->A) necessarily result in latent heat (T ₀ ) from the surroundings

S _trans ) is extracted. During the isothermal phase transition (D->A) of the phonovoltaic cell 400, the latent heat (T ₀

S _trans ) constitutes the entropy equilibrium originally considered, but is never physically implemented by Gibbs (1873). Latent heat (T ₀ ) extracted from the surroundings as a result of entropy equilibrium during isothermal phase transition (D->A)

S _trans ) is the Gibb free energy of mixing during A->B (-

G _mix ) is directly converted to a decrease.

Since the Seebeck coefficient constitutes entropy per unit charge, the above relationship can be expressed as the Seebeck coefficient.

This relationship supports the complementary Seebeck effect described below:

Q_D->A-

Q_B->C)을 이상 기체 동작 물질의 단열 팽창(A->B)과 관련된 열 기계적 작업(-dW)으로 변환시키는 반면, 도 31에 따른 불가역적 열역학적 사이클은 추출된 잠열(eT₀

α_trans)을 고유 전하 동작 물질의 단열 혼합(A->B)과 관련된 기전력(eV_out)으로 변환시킨다. 도 21의 포노볼테익 전지(400)의 출력 전압(V_out)은 제 2 열 저장소를 요구하지 않고 주변으로부터의 잠열(eT₀

α_trans)의 등온 추출에 기인한다.The quantum thermodynamic cycle of FIG. 23 is modified in FIG. 31 to describe the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 . The reversible Carnot cycle in FIG. 22 shows that the net consumption latent heat (−

Q _D->A -

Q _B->C ) transforms the thermomechanical work ( -dW ) associated with the adiabatic expansion (A->B) of an ideal gas operating material, whereas the irreversible thermodynamic cycle according to FIG _.

α _trans ) into the electromotive force (eV _out ) associated with the adiabatic mixing (A->B) of the intrinsically charge-operating material. The output voltage (V _out ) of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 does not require a second thermal storage and the latent heat eT ₀ from the surroundings

α _trans ) due to isothermal extraction.

While the Carnot engine constitutes a reversible thermomechanical engine operating between two thermal reservoirs of different temperatures, the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. It is an irreversible thermoelectric engine operating in thermal equilibrium with The phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 overcomes the fundamental limitation of all heat engines of the prior art.

First, and most importantly, the phonovoltaic cell 400 eliminates the need to create a high-temperature heat reservoir by means of combustion or any other process using a depleting energy source. The energy source of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 is potential entropy in the ecosystem. Organizations that perform tasks on demand inevitably increase the entropy of the ecosystem due to the work. The thermoelectric work (eV _out ) delivered by the phonovoltaic cell 400 to an electrical load is converted directly from the entropy reduction of the surrounding, as originally contemplated by Gibbs 1873 , due to the performance of the work on demand There is no net entropy change in the ecosystem. That is, the decrease in entropy of the ecosystem due to the operation of the phonovoltaic battery 400 is compensated by the increase in entropy of the ecosystem related to the work performed according to the demand by the applied electrical load.

The profound novelty and usefulness of aspects of the present invention can be framed in terms of the Earth's energy balance of Figure 32, prepared by NASA through real data averaged over a period of 10 years. Solar radiation impinging on Earth's atmosphere is emitted from the solar photosphere, which is at an effective temperature of 5,777°K, which corresponds to a radiation frequency of 120 THz. The infrared radiation emitted by the Earth at 300°K has a frequency of 6.2 THz. The irradiance of the back radiation from the atmosphere in FIG. 32 is 340 W/m 2 (or 34 mW/cm 2 ). Earth's energy balance can be constructed by Planck's law of blackbody radiation in equation (16).

The Planck blackbody radiation law in equation (16) completely describes the spectral radiance emitted by a blackbody radiator at thermal equilibrium at any given temperature. A graph of various spectral radiance curves according to Planck's law of blackbody radiation for various radiant temperatures is provided in FIG. 33 . The integral of each spectral radiance curve over all wavelengths and total solid angle is the power flux density |E×H| , known as irradiance. causes The irradiance of blackbody radiation is only a function of the radiation temperature. For a first-order approximation, the Earth's surface has a temperature T ₀ =300°K and |E×H| At an irradiance of =34 mW/cm2, it can be treated as a blackbody in thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere. Wien's law of spectral displacement supports the relationship of equation (32), which can be applied to the Earth's surface at T ₀ =300°K.

Wien's law of spectral displacement states that the constant irradiance |E×H| For a radiation of =34 mW/cm 2 gives the work performed by this radiation. At T=5777°K, the radiation frequency of the solar photosphere is v'=120 THz. For comparison, the frequency of the infrared terrestrial radiation emitted by the Earth's surface at T ₀ =300°K is v = 6.2 THz. Assuming that the Earth's surface is in thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere at T ₀ =300°K, the 120 THz solar radiation incident on the Earth's surface and the 6.2 THz terrestrial radiation emitted by the Earth's surface are equal to the constant irradiance |E ×H| =34mW/cm2. The energy of a photon at 120 THz is 0.50 eV and the energy of a photon at 6.2 THz is 25.9 meV.

The energy balance of the Earth's ecosystem is a constant irradiance |E×H| It can be seen as the energy difference between incoming solar radiation and emitted terrestrial radiation at =34mW/cm2. Although this energy balance of the Earth's ecosystems is superficial, it is useful in describing the novelty and utility of preferred embodiments of the present invention. The work done by the thermodynamic engine on demand, essentially limited in efficiency by the Carnot cycle, releases latent heat into the ecosystem, thereby increasing the entropy of the ecosystem. This results from the fact that the Carnot heat engine is the only reversible thermomechanical engine operating between two heat reservoirs of different temperatures. All other thermomechanical engines are irreversible heat engines with lower efficiencies than the Carnot heat engines.

The Carnot heat engine extracts latent heat from hot heat reservoirs and releases less latent heat into the cold heat reservoirs associated with the ecosystem. Due to the reversibility of the Carnot heat engine, the entropy associated with the latent heat released is equal to the entropy associated with the latent heat extracted. The Carnot heat engine's ability to perform thermomechanical work on demand is due to the spontaneity of irreversible exothermic chemical reactions (usually combustion) that create high-temperature heat reservoirs. Combustion disrupts ecosystems by releasing thermal energy into the atmosphere and by releasing chemical by-products that harmfully disturb the atmosphere. The performance of work by thermomechanical bodies increases the entropy of the ecosystem.

The tipping point of unnatural, uncompensated entropy increases in ecosystems related to climate change, due to thermomechanical institutions, is currently controversial. However, it is irrefutable that the widespread proliferation of thermomechanical bodies detrimentally disturbs ecosystems with ever-increasing entropy. "The only means of redressing the detrimental increase in ecosystem entropy by doing work on demand is the exploitation of the entropy equilibrium considered by Gibbs (1873): finding the largest quantity that makes it possible to reduce the entropy of an external system under these conditions is to Obviously this would be an amount that would allow the entropy of a body to be increased without changing its energy or increasing its volume." This is Gibbs free entropy.

There is no known method in the prior art for increasing the entropy of a body without changing its energy or increasing its volume. This defect is remedied by a preferred aspect of the present invention by using Kirchhoff's black body in a manner not known in the prior art. Although Kirchhoff's description of the radiation emitted by a blackbody is precisely provided by Planck's law of blackbody radiation, the physical basis of the Planck's resonator emitting such radiation is unknown in the prior art. It is known from the prior art that radiation can generate an electromotive force in a phonovoltaic cell that is outside the limits imposed by the Carnot cycle. The radiation generation of mobile electron-hole pairs is limited by solar irradiance, so the power density of phonovoltaic cells is too small for direct energy conversion.

The low power density of all forms of renewable energy known in the prior art is healed by novel and useful utilization of the vibrational energy of the Planck resonator of the artificial nucleus 104 in the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 . The uncompensated increase in entanglement entropy (S _ent ) during isothermal phase transitions (B->C) within the phonovoltaic cell 400 causes a decrease in surrounding entropy, as predicted by Gibbs (1873). do. The only way to perform work on demand in harmony with the Earth's energy balance of Figure 32 is to cause a decrease in the entropy of the ecosystem that is compensated for by the increase in entropy associated with the work performed on demand. The uniqueness of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 is the performance of tasks on demand by the induced reduction of the entropy of the ecosystem to be discussed.

The present invention includes a new type of solid-state composition of matter derived from the heating of boron and silicon hydrides in the presence of hydrogen and optionally an oxidizing agent. The compositional range of the material is hereinafter referred to as "phycocrystalline oxysilaborane", wherein x, y and z are numbers in each range: 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0≤z≤2. (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z ", including (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ and (B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ at _the extremes, respectively. phycocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z is hereinafter referred to as “oxysilaborane”, and w, x, y and z are 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤ Included in the broader compositional range of solid-state materials, denoted by "(B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y O _z ", where y≤5 and 0≤z≤3 are numbers in each range. These novel compositions can be described as “boranes” because of their hydrogen content.

34 shows a photomicrograph obtained by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) of picocrystalline oxysilaborane 502 deposited on a single crystal (001) silicon substrate 501 . The interfacial layer 503 is due to specific deposition conditions, as will be described later. An HRTEM fast Fourier transform (FFT) image of a monocrystalline silicon substrate 501 is shown in FIG. 35 . An FFT image of a picocrystalline oxysilaborane film 502 is shown in FIG. 36 . Although the FFT image of the silicon substrate 501 of FIG. 35 is a typical monocrystalline lattice with a long-range periodic translational sequence, the FFT image of the picocrystalline oxysilaborane film 502 of FIG. 36 may affect aspects of the present invention. For reasons of influence, it represents a short-range order rather than a monocrystalline lattice or characteristic of amorphous glass.

To better understand the short-range ordering of the picocrystalline oxysilaborane 502, the HRTEM diffraction intensity of the monocrystalline silicon substrate 501 is determined by the interplanar interstitial d between the parallel Bragg planes of atoms supporting constructive electromagnetic interference. - Intervals are plotted graphically in FIG. 37 . The highest-intensity peak shown in FIG. 37 is associated with a planar interlattice d-spacing of 3.135 Angstroms between parallel {111} planes of atoms in a monocrystalline silicon substrate 501 . Another high-intensity peak in FIG. 37 is associated with an interplanar d-spacing of 1.920 Angstroms between parallel {220} planes of atoms in monocrystalline silicon substrate 501 . There is no single high-intensity peak in the FFT diffraction pattern of the picocrystalline oxysilaneborane film 502 shown in FIG. 38 obtained by HRTEM microscopy.

The speckled circular rings in the FFT image of the picocrystalline borane film 502 of FIG. 36 correspond to the speckled planar interstitial spacing between d=2.64 Å and d=2.74 Å, in FIG. 38 . In order to more fully understand the significance of these speckled rings, it is aimed to consider the ω-2θ x-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of a thin picocrystalline borane film, as shown in FIG. 39 . In the conventional ω-2θ XRD diffraction pattern, both the angle of incidence (ω) of the X-ray beam and the angle (2θ) of the diffracted X-ray beam are relatively constant, and collectively through the angle of X-ray diffraction (2θ) change In doing so, a set of regularly-spaced grating planes results in sharp diffraction peaks. A thin picocrystalline borane film scanned in FIG. 39 was also deposited on a monocrystalline (001) silicon substrate. The high-intensity peak in FIG. 39 is associated with x-ray diffraction from a regularly-spaced silicon lattice plane.

In Figure 39 there are two smeared diffraction peaks centered around 2θ = 13.83° and 2θ = 34.16°. These low intensity speckled diffraction peaks are associated with thin picocrystalline borane films. To separate the diffraction peaks associated with the thin film from those associated with the substrate, grazing incident X-ray diffraction (GIXRD) spectroscopy was used. This type of spectroscopy is also referred to as glancing angle X-ray diffraction. Both of these terms are used interchangeably. A GIXRD scan of the same picocrystalline borane film scanned in FIG. 39 is shown in FIG. 40 . For any low fragment (ω), the GIXRD diffraction peak is attributed to the regularly-spaced lattice planes of atoms of a thin picocrystalline borane film rather than a silicon substrate.

The picocrystalline borane film appears as an amorphous film in FIG. 40, with the exception of the short-sequence, possibly due to the speckled diffraction peak around the diffraction angle 2θ=52.07°. In the GIXRD scan of the picocrystalline borane film scanned in FIG. 41 , the fixed angle of incidence of the X-ray beam is ω=6.53°, and the X-ray detector is in the range of diffraction angles from 2θ=7.0° to 2θ=80°. changed over A sharp low-intensity X-ray peak exists at 2θ=13.07° in FIG. 41 . This x-ray diffraction peak corresponds to a planar interlattice d-spacing of d=6.76 Å, which is included in a broad range of low-intensity x-ray peaks around 2θ=13.83° in FIG. 39 . This X-ray diffraction peak is related to the Bragg condition of a fixed X-ray angle of incidence (ω=6.53°). If the fixed X-ray incidence angle (ω) is changed, different Bragg peaks are obtained depending on the new X-ray incidence angle (ω) in some different GIXRD scans. This behavior is strange because the presence of a range of low-intensity X-ray peaks related to the X-ray incidence angle (ω) of the GIXRD scan proves that the picocrystalline borane film is not amorphous.

However, this analysis further reveals that the picocrystalline borane film is not polycrystalline. A polycrystalline film consists of a large number of randomly arranged crystalline grains, so that any set of regular planar interlattice spacing is Bragged in any GIXRD scan due to the random order of the polycrystalline grains. This is not the case in FIGS. 40 and 41 . A possible explanation of the structure of the picocrystalline borane film was introduced by adjusting the experimental diffraction data to the theoretical symmetry analysis provided above.

20C ₃ icosahedron symmetry motion holds any regular icosahedron unchanged under 120° rotation about the axis connecting the midpoints of 10 pairs of parallel (albeit inverted) triangular faces. For a regular boron icosahedron with edges of 1.77 Å, the interplanar spacing of the parallel triangular faces is d=2.69 Å. The grating spacing within this icosahedron corresponds to a diffraction angle of 2θ=33.27° for 1.54 Å X-rays (which is the x-ray wavelength used in all XRD scans in the figure above). This diffraction angle is included in the broadened, low-intensity diffraction peak at 2θ=34.16° of the ω-2θ XRD scan in FIG. 39 , which in turn relates to the speckled circular electron diffraction ring in FIG. 36 . It is the next objective to provide a possible explanation for the X-ray and electron diffraction peaks and the broadening of the rings.

), 및 +0.111×10^-24e-㎠의 큰 양의 핵 전기 4중극 모멘트를 나타낸다. 붕소 ¹¹ ₅B는 핵 각도 모멘트(3/2

), 및 +0.0355×10^-24e-㎠의 양의 핵 전기 4중극 모멘트를 나타낸다. The symmetrical nuclear configuration of the boron icosahedron assumes that the boron nuclei at the vertices of the 12 icosahedrons are all identical. This is not the case in reality. There are stable, naturally occurring isotopes of boron, ¹⁰ ₅ B and ¹¹ ₅ B, with spherically deformed nuclei. The eccentric spheroid nucleus exhibits a negative electric quadrupole moment, whereas the elongate spheroid nucleus exhibits a positive electric quadrupole moment. Of the 267 stable nuclides, boron ¹⁰ ₅ B is the stable nuclide with the maximum nuclear electric quadrupole moment per nucleon, which tends to destabilize the boron nuclei. boron ¹⁰ ₅ B is the nuclear angular moment (3

), and a large positive nuclear electric quadrupole moment of +0.111×10 ⁻²⁴ e-cm 2 . boron ¹¹ ₅ B is the nuclear angular moment (3/2

), and a positive nuclear electric quadrupole moment of +0.0355×10 ⁻²⁴ e-cm 2 .

The naturally occurring isotopes of boron are -20% ¹⁰ ₅ B and ˜80% ¹¹ ₅ B. For this purpose, assuming that the boron nuclei comprising the boron icosahedron of the picocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention are distributed according to the naturally occurring isotopic ratio, the center of the boron nucleus is shifted from the geometric center of the icosahedron . This tends to alter the symmetrical nuclear configuration of the boron icosahedron. This modification may relate to the isotopic enrichment discussed by Nishizawa in "Isotopic Enrichment of Tritium by Using Guest-Host Chemistry" (Journal of Nuclear Materials, Vol. 130, 1985, p. 465). Nishizawa used guest-host thermochemistry to remove radioactive tritium from the nuclear facility's wastewater via a crown ether and ammonium complex.Ammonium (NH ₃ ), weakly entrapped by the crown ether, is three hydrogens at the corners of the triangle. It exists in a symmetrical triangle with the nucleus and the center of gravity at the geometric center.The distance between the hydrogen nuclei along the edge of the triangle is 1.62 A. When one hydrogen atom is replaced by a tritium atom, the center of gravity shifts towards the tritium atom by 0.28 A.

In tritiated ammonium, the shift of the center of gravity from the geometric center of the triangle is associated with a decrease in Gibbs free energy due to an increase in entropy. It essentially constitutes a spontaneous thermochemical reaction in which the isotopic enrichment of tritiated ammonium (weakly entrapped by the crown ether) results from an increase in the amount of entropy in which the decrease in Gibbs free energy exceeds the increase in the amount of enthalpy. . Similar conditions can be established in phycocrystalline oxysilaborane.

The geometric distortion due to the mixture of the boron isotopes ¹⁰ ₅ B and ¹¹ ₅ B in the boron icosahedron containing phycocrystalline oxysilaborane is, within the icosahedron due to the nearly-parallel planes of the ten sets of component boron icosahedrons. It causes broadening of the Bragg peak associated with the augmented X-ray diffraction pattern. However, this isotopic distortion is similarly conserved for most boron icosahedrons, so it is believed that the Bragg peaks are related to inter-icosahedral reinforced X-ray diffraction patterns between parallel planes formed by boron icosahedrons at the edges of continuous random polyhedral networks. . The distance between the body centers of the boron icosahedron at the edges varies randomly, resulting in sharp Bragg peaks between the parallel icosahedral faces for each X-ray angle of incidence over a range around 2θ = 13.83°.

Nanocrystalline solids are typically taken as polycrystalline solids with small grains with a grain size of less than 300 nm. As the grain size decreases, the periodic translational sequence becomes shorter in scope and the X-ray diffraction peak broadens. Whereas any typical nanocrystalline material does not have any long-range ordering, the picocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention has a short periodic translational sequence and a long-range binding-orientation sequence, the long-range binding-orientation sequence being nearly- It is believed to be due to the self-alignment of the boron icosahedron with a symmetrical nuclear configuration. By the definition herein, a picocrystalline borane solid is a solid consisting of at least boron and hydrogen, and is subject to grazing-incident x-ray diffraction (GIXRD) as a long-range bond- Indicates the order of orientation.

In order to understand the long-range binding-orientation sequence that characterizes phycocrystalline oxysilaborane, we aimed to focus on the artificial nucleus 104 . The artificial nucleus 104 constituting the picocrystalline oxysilaborane is a boron icosahedron with a near-symmetrical nuclear configuration, supporting a short-range periodic translational sequence. The 10 pairs of parallel planes of the artificial nucleus 104 are ideally separated by d=269 pm, which supports the X-ray diffraction peak within the broad icosahedron at 2θ=33.27°. As described above, the X-ray diffraction peak in the icosahedron of the artificial nucleus 104 is broadened by a mixture of two boron isotopes ( ¹⁰ ₅ B and ¹¹ ₅ B). It is an object to define more precisely what is meant by "broad" and "sharp" X-ray diffraction peaks in a preferred embodiment of the present invention.

Any sharp x-ray diffraction peak is characterized by a peak width at half intensity that is at least 10 times less than the peak height. Conversely, broad X-ray diffraction peaks are characterized by a peak width at half intensity greater than half the peak intensity. In FIG. 40, the x-ray diffraction peak at 2θ=52.07° is a broad X-ray diffraction peak characteristic of small grains. The x-ray diffraction peak at 2θ=34.16° of the ω-2θ XRD scan of FIG. 39 is a broad x-ray diffraction peak due to x-ray diffraction within the reinforced icosahedron by the artificial nucleus 104 . A preferred embodiment of the present invention is constituted by an artificial nucleus 104 that supports a broad X-ray diffraction peak around 2θ=33.27°. An extended three-dimensional network of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane is formed by translation through an irregular hexahedral space.

Since the fivefold symmetry of an icosahedron is incompatible with the quadruple symmetry of a hexahedron (cube), the icosahedral unit cell spans space in a translationally invariant manner, with the icosahedral quantum dots at their vertices. It is impossible to periodically translate Symmetry breakdown should occur in the irregular borane hexahedron 300 shown in FIG. 10 . In most of the boron-rich solids known in the prior art, the pentahedral icosahedral symmetry is broken by the Jan-Teller distortion, so that the inter-icosahedral bonds tend to be stronger than those within the icosahedron. It is for this reason that boron-rich solids in the prior art are called inverted molecules. Removal of the penta-icosahedral symmetry by breaking the icosahedral symmetry reduces the spherical orientation associated with the bond localization of the boron icosahedron.

The fivefold rotational symmetry of the icosahedral artificial nucleus 104 is maintained, and the quadruple symmetry of the irregular borane hexahedron 300 is broken. Each irregular borane hexahedron 300 is formed by an artificial nucleus 104 of the hexahedral edge. It should be understood that the artificial nucleus 104 is formed by a boron icosahedron, and has a near-symmetrical nuclear configuration that preserves the quintuple rotational symmetry. Although the fivefold rotational symmetry cannot be observed by x-ray or electron diffraction, novel electronic and vibrational properties due to the fivefold rotational symmetry of the artificial nucleus 104 can be observed. The artificial nucleus 104 consists of a regular arrangement of first and second closest natural boron atoms 102 supporting a short-range translational sequence.

Similar to the natural atom, the artificial atom 101 of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane limits the discrete quantization of energy levels in the spatial region below 300 pm. However, the discrete energy level of the artificial nucleus 104 is fundamentally different from the discrete energy level of a natural atom. The problem is the spectroscopy principle of conventional chemistry. The spectroscopy principle was constructed with reference to a book by Harris and Bertolucci, "Symmetry and Spectroscopy" (Oxford Univ. Press, 1978). Harris and Bertolucci, on pages 1-2 of their book, emphasized, "Light at infrared frequencies can usually activate molecules from one vibrational energy level to another. Therefore we refer to infrared spectroscopy as vibrational spectroscopy. Visible light and ultraviolet light are much more powerful, and the electron potential energy of a molecule can be changed by promoting the redistribution of electrons within the molecule. Therefore, we refer to visible and ultraviolet spectroscopy as electron spectroscopy."

In the artificial nucleus 104 of picocrystalline oxysilaborane, rotation, vibration, and electron degrees of freedom are entirely intertwined at rovibronic energy levels that support redistribution of electrons in response to microwave radiation. The redistribution of electrons between microwave energy levels is due to the internal quantization of the energy levels arising from the fivefold rotational symmetry of the near-symmetric icosahedron, corresponding to an ideal spacing of d=269 pm between opposite pairs of icosahedral surfaces. It can support a wide diffraction peak at the diffraction angle (2θ=33.27°). Unlike natural nuclei, artificial nuclei 104 have a detectable underlying structure.

Because the edges of the irregular borane hexahedron 300 of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane are occupied by the artificial nucleus 104 , the X-ray diffraction peak between the icosahedrons is associated with the nearest-neighbor artificial nucleus 104 . . Referring to FIG. 10 , the corresponding icosahedral faces of the artificial nucleus 104 are phycocrystalline oxysilaborane ( B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z ideally self-aligns. Due to the symmetry breaking of the irregular borane hexahedron 300 , the self-alignment of the faces of the icosahedron of the artificial nucleus 104 is maintained in the presence of random separation between the centers of the icosahedral body of the artificial nucleus 104 . . The alignment of natural atoms within a molecule is typically described in terms of the bonding angles of the atoms' valence electrons. This property is related to the fact that natural atoms do not have any apparent nuclear infrastructure externally.

The artificial nuclei 104 in phycocrystalline oxysilaborane show a near-symmetrical icosahedron-related underlying structure with boron nuclei 102 at each icosahedral apex according to FIG. 5 . In order to maintain a near-symmetrical nuclear configuration, the boron nucleus 102 of the artificial nucleus 104 is chemically constituted by three-centre bonds, so that the peak electron density is determined by the four k _<111> wave vectors according to FIG. 5 . Ideally located near the center of eight icosahedral faces perpendicular to . It is important that the artificial nucleus 104 comprises a caged boron icosahedron devoid of radial boron valence electrons. The artificial atom 101 is bound to a natural atom in the picocrystalline oxysilaborane by a hydrogen atom, which in turn is bound by a Debye force.

The self-alignment of the artificial atom 101 in the irregular borane hexahedron 300 results in the valence electrons of the hydrogen nucleus 103 being aligned along the k _<111> wave vector. In that the four valence electrons of the tetravalent atom 303 in the irregular borane hexahedron 300 are aligned along the k _<111> wave vector, then the artificial atom 101 is replaced by the k _<111> wave vector by the hydrogen atom. is covalently bonded to the tetravalent atom (303) along If the 20 icosahedral faces of the artificial atom 101 are self-aligned, and the body center of the icosahedron varies randomly over a finite range, then the bond angle between the artificial atom 101 and the natural tetravalent atom 303 is k _<111> is aligned along the wave vector.

The self-alignment of the icosahedral face and the random spatial variation of the body center of the icosahedron of the artificial nucleus 104 can be evaluated by x-ray diffraction spectroscopy. This is due to the fact that, unlike natural atoms, the artificial nucleus 104 has a periodically repeating infrastructure of first and second nearest neighbor boron atoms. The short-range periodic translational sequence of the artificial nucleus 104 is detected by the diffraction peak within the icosahedron associated with the interplanar spacing d=269 pm between the parallel icosahedral faces. The short periodic translational sequence of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane is characterized, at least in part, by broad x-ray diffraction peaks under conventional ω-2θ x-ray diffraction that lie within the diffraction angle range (32° < 2θ < 36°). do it with The short-range periodic translational sequence of artificial nuclei 104 supports detection of edges of irregular borane hexahedron 300 forming picocrystalline oxysilaboranes over a range of desirable compositions.

The X-ray diffraction peaks between the icosahedrons due to the parallel faces in the nearest-neighbor artificial nucleus 104 are broad X-ray diffraction under conventional X-ray diffraction that fall within the diffraction angle range (12°< 2θ < 16°). It collectively results in line diffraction peaks. In conventional ω-2θ x-ray diffraction, the angle of incidence (ω) and diffraction angle (2θ) of the X-ray remains relatively constant and then changes collectively over a very wide range of diffraction angles. Conventional ω-2θ x-ray diffraction by itself cannot establish the self-alignment of the artificial nucleus 104 within the picocrystalline oxysilaborane. This defect can be repaired when conventional ω-2θ x-ray diffraction is further augmented by grazing-incident X-ray diffraction (GIXRD). While many Bragg conditions can be detected under conventional ω-2θ x-ray diffraction, there is only one specific Bragg condition in GIXRD diffraction for each fixed angle X-ray incidence (ω).

For a given fixed X-ray incidence angle (ω) in the range (6° < 2θ < 8°), a sharp X-ray diffraction peak shows the reinforcement X-ray between the icosahedron between the parallel faces of the corner artificial nucleus 104 . It is present in the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane due to interference. The icosahedral body centers of the nearest-neighbor edge artificial nuclei 104 are randomly separated over a limited finite range of ˜640 pm. The random separation of the edge artificial nuclei 104 in the irregular borane hexahedron 300 of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane results in a range of sharp X-ray diffraction peaks. The presence of a sharp x-ray diffraction peak for any fixed angle of incidence ω is characteristic of the long-range bond-orientation sequence. Preferred phycocrystalline oxysilaborane will be described by way of practical examples.

The method for preparing an oxysilaborane film of the present invention is chemical vapor deposition causing precipitation of a solid film by passing a gaseous vapor containing boron, hydrogen, silicon and oxygen over a heated substrate in a sealed chamber maintained at sub-atmospheric pressure. am. Preferred vapors are nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) and lower hydrides of boron and silicon, most preferably diborane (B ₂ H ₆ ) and monosilane (SiH ₄ ). Both hydrides can be diluted in a hydrogen carrier gas. By passing diborane and monosilane diluted with hydrogen, and optionally nitrous oxide, over a sample heated to above ˜200° C. at a pressure of ˜1 to 30 torr, a solid oxysilaborane film is formed on the substrate to form a picocrystalline oxynitride under the desired conditions. It self-assembles with silaborane.

Heating can be realized with equipment commonly known to those skilled in the art of semiconductor processing. As an example, a molybdenum susceptor may provide a solid substrate carrier that may be resistively or inductively heated. The substrate can be heated without a susceptor in a resistance heated quartz tube. In all of these methods there may be a heated surface (not the intended deposition base layer) on which the oxysilaborane film is deposited. The substrate can be heated without a susceptor in a cold-wall reactor by radiant heat by a halogen lamp in a low pressure rapid thermal chemical vapor deposition that minimizes outgassing of the reactor from the heated surface coated by the pre-deposition. A preferred method for preparing the picocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention is described after the treatment in various examples is considered.

Whenever the deposition temperature exceeds ˜350° C., the hydrogenation effect can be substantially eliminated. Conversely, lowering the deposition temperature below ˜350° C. significantly hydrogenates the thin picocrystalline solid, allowing hydrogen to be actively involved in chemical bonding. The relative atomic concentration of hydrogen in picocrystalline oxysilaborane solids deposited below ˜350° C. is usually in the range of 10 to 25%, depending on the degree of oxygen inclusion. When hydrogen is not actively involved in the chemical bonds of the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane solid, it is more specifically called an oxysilaboride solid. An oxysilaborane solid that is substantially free of oxygen is more specifically referred to as a silaborane solid.

Oxygen can be introduced into the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane solid either by individual oxygen atoms or as part of a water molecule. While any phycocrystalline oxysilaborane solid containing water molecules is termed hydrous, a picocrystalline oxysilaborane solid composed of individual hydrogen and oxygen atoms along with a relatively negligible amount of water is It is called Mercury. A tendency was observed for water-soluble phycocrystalline oxysilaborane solids to undergo color and stoichiometric changes over time, apparently due to changes in entrapped water. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, it is understood that in the embodiments described below the picocrystalline oxysilaborane solid is anhydrous. To minimize hydration, the deposition reactor is coupled with a load-lock chamber that shields the reaction chamber from direct exposure to ambient moisture. However, the absorbed moisture is difficult to completely remove during sample loading.

In addition to changing color, hydration can change the boron-to-silicon ratio. In one preferred embodiment of the oxysilaborane, the boron-to-silicon ratio is ideally 6. The incorporation of unhydrated atomic oxygen in the oxysilaborane tends to decrease the boron-to-silicon ratio, whereas the inclusion of water molecules in the hydrous oxysilaborane tends to increase the boron-to-silicon ratio. These two effects can exist simultaneously. The preferred introduction of oxygen into the anhydrous oxysilaborane is by nitrous oxide. The relative atomic concentration of boron in oxysilaborane among the boron, silicon and oxygen atoms is ideally -83%. In the absence of any hydration effect, the relative atomic concentrations of boron among boron, silicon and oxygen atoms do not significantly exceed -89%. The sensitivity to hydration depends in part on the relative oxygen atom concentration of the oxysilaborane film and the method by which oxygen is introduced.

Self-assembled picocrystalline oxysilaborane has properties useful in electronic integrated circuits using shared semiconductors such as monocrystalline silicon. The electronic properties of oxysilaborane solids can be modified in a controlled manner by processing conditions during wafer deposition. The phycocrystalline oxysilaborane exhibits a long-range bond-orientation sequence. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) established the binding energy of boron 1s electrons to ˜188 eV in picocrystalline oxysilaborane, which is characteristic of chemical bonding in icosahedral boron molecules. The binding energy of oxygen 1s electrons, ~532 eV, is very similar to that of oxygen 1s electrons in metal oxides, and is different from that of oxygen 1s electrons in solids.

The silicon 2p electron binding energy of the oxysilaborane solid of the present invention exhibits a sharp energy peak of about ˜99.6 eV over the composition range. This is important for several reasons. First, the absence of two energy peaks in oxysilaborane means that the Si-Si and Si-B bonds have the same binding energy. Second, the measured binding energy of the silicon 2p electrons in the oxysilaborane is essentially the binding energy of monocrystalline silicon formed by tetrahedral chemical bonds in the diamond lattice. The silicon 2p electron binding energy in silicon dioxide is -103.2 eV. When oxysilaborane is deposited on amorphous silicon dioxide, there is a distinct difference in the silicon 2p electron binding energy in the two compositions. The silicon 2p electron binding energy in oxysilaborane is the binding energy of monocrystalline silicon in the diamond lattice, despite deposition on the amorphous oxide due to the self-assembly of picocrystalline oxysilaborane.

By appropriately controlling the chemical vapor deposition treatment conditions, picocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z can be converted to picocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ in one composition limit. The preferred composition range (2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0≤z≤) constrained by oxysilaborane (B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ ^{2 +} 2) self-assembled. The self-assembly of the preferred composition range of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z is due to the reasons developed below. To better understand the preferred processing conditions, a wide range of oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ ) _x Si _y O _z H _w (0≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0≤z≤ 3) treatment of undesirable species will be taught by a limited number of examples of picocrystalline boron solids.

Now, various embodiments of the oxysilaborane composition according to the present invention are described by way of examples, but the scope of the present invention is not limited thereto. As will be understood by those skilled in the art, the present invention may be embodied in other forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The following disclosure and description are intended to be illustrative of the scope of the invention and not to limit it. The first few examples are silaborides over a wide range (0≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0≤z≤3) of (B ₁₂ ) _x Si _y O _z H _w . Preferred treatment of phycocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₄ Si ₄ is taught, with the aid of the two examples in which treatment with oxysilaborane is taught.

Example 1

Phosphorus was diffused into a monocrystalline (001) p-type silicon substrate 504 with a diameter of 100 mm with a resistivity of 15 Ω-cm to yield a resistance of 8.7 Ω/□ as measured with a four-point probe. The oxide film was removed from the sample wafer by hydrofluoric acid deglaze. The sample was subjected to rapid thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of the type described by Gyurcsik et al. in "A Model for Rapid Thermal Processing" (IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1991, p. 9). RTCVD) chamber. After loading the sample wafer into the quartz ring, the RTCVD chamber was closed and mechanically pumped to a pressure of 10 mtorr. Diborane mixture B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) of 3% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 364 sccm and monosilane mixture SiH ₄ (7%)/H by volume 7% in hydrogen at a flow rate of 390 sccm ₂ (93%) was introduced into an evacuated RTCVD deposition chamber.

The reaction gas flow rate was stabilized at a pressure of 3.29 torr, where the tungsten-halogen lamp was turned on for 30 seconds and adjusted to hold the sample wafer at 605°C. 42 , a thin silaboride solid 506 was deposited over the donor-doped region 505 . The composition of the silaboride solid 506 was studied by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The binding energy of boron 1s electrons was measured to be 187.7 eV, which is consistent with icosahedral boron. The binding energy of silicon 2p electrons was measured to be 99.46 eV, which is characteristic of monocrystalline (001) n-type silicon. The XPS depth profile of the silaboride solid 506 measured the relative atomic concentrations of boron and silicon in the silaboride solid 506 as 86% and 14%, respectively. Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) measured the relative atomic concentrations of boron and silicon in the thin silaboride solid 506 as 83.5% and 16.5%, respectively.

The relative hydrogen concentration in the thin silaboride solid 506 was determined by hydrogen forward scattering (HFS), in which the hydrogen atoms are elastically scattered by the incident high-energy helium atoms. Hydrogen forward scattering (HFS) is not as quantitative as Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) because of the tilt angle of the incident helium atoms, which causes changes in charge accumulation in various samples. Although the number of hydrogens per unit solid angle is constant, the solid angle itself can vary between different samples. No hydrogen was detected. Any solid composed of boron and silicon in the absence of hydrogen is referred to as a silaboride composition.

Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) analysis established the ¹¹ ₅ B/ ¹⁰ ₅ B ratio of the silaboride solid 506 as a naturally-occurring ratio of 4.03. The absence of any hydrogen or isotopic enrichment in the silaboride solid 506 in this example is due to the deposition temperature. Hydrogenation of silaborane can be realized when the deposition temperature is below ˜350° C. or when oxygen is introduced, which will be discussed in the examples below. The silaboride solid 506 of this example was confirmed to be a picocrystalline boron solid by x-ray diffraction. A GIXRD scan of the picocrystalline silaboride solid 506 of this example is shown in FIG. 43 . The diffraction peak at 2θ=14.50° corresponds to the Bragg condition associated with the X-ray incident angle ω=7.25° of the GIXRD scan.

Example 2

The procedure described above in Example 1 was carried out with the two exceptions that undiluted nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) was introduced at a flow rate of 704 sccm and the flow rates of the two hydride gases were doubled. Diborane mixture of 3% by volume in hydrogen B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) at a flow rate of 728 sccm, monosilane mixture SiH ₄ (7%)/H of 7% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 780 sccm ₂ (93%), and undiluted nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) was introduced at a flow rate of 704 sccm. The vapor flow rate was stabilized at 9.54 torr, where the tungsten-halogen lamp was turned on for 30 seconds, adjusted to hold the sample substrate 504 at 605°C. 44 , a silaboride solid 507 was deposited over the donor-doped region 505 . The composition of the thin silaboride solid 506 was evaluated by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

A typical ω-2θ XRD scan of a thin oxysilaborane solid 507 is shown in FIG. 45 . The speckled diffraction peaks around 2θ = 13.78° and 2θ = 33.07° are characteristic of picocrystalline boron solids. This is further corroborated by the GIXRD scan of FIG. 46 , the diffraction peak at 2θ=13.43° corresponding to the Bragg condition associated with the X-ray incident angle ω=6.70°. The composition of the oxysilaborane solid (507) was established by XPS spectroscopy. The binding energy of boron 1s electrons is 187.7 eV, and the binding energy of silicon 2p electrons is 99.46 eV, which is the same as in Example 1. The binding energy of oxygen 1s electrons was 524 eV. The relative bulk atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen measured by XPS were 81%, 12% and 7%, respectively.

By both Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) and hydrogen forward scattering (HFS), the relative bulk atomic concentrations of boron, hydrogen, silicon and oxygen in the oxysilaborane film 507 of this example were 72%, 5.6%, and 13.4%, respectively. and 9.0%. The picocrystalline boron solid 507 of this example is not a borane solid, but rather an oxygen-rich composition (B ₁₂ ) ₂ Si ₃ , in which the hydrogen atom is most likely bound to the oxygen _{. 5} O _{2 .5} H is further characterized. Secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) set the isotopic ratio ¹¹ ₅ B/ ¹⁰ ₅ B as the ratio of the two naturally occurring boron isotopes within the experimental error. As is immediately established, the presence of a naturally occurring isotopic ratio of ¹¹ ₅ B/ ¹⁰ ₅ B indicates the absence of entangled rotational-oscillation energy levels that can promote the redistribution of electrons in response to microwave radiation.

Example 3

The pyrolysis of boron and silicon hydride was performed by low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) in a horizontal resistance-heated reactor containing a 5 inch diameter quartz deposition tube fixed on a tabletop. The resistive heating element was mounted on a motorized track so that a 75 mm silicon substrate could be loaded into a quartz holder in front of the tube at room temperature. Water vapor adsorbed on the quartz wall during sample loading provided a source of water vapor for subsequent chemical reactions. A single crystalline (001) n-type silicon substrate 508 with a diameter of 75 mm with a resistivity of 20 Ω-cm was loaded onto a quartz holder in a quartz tube, and the quartz holder was sealed and mechanically pumped up to a base pressure of 30 mtorr.

As shown in FIG. 47 , a diborane mixture B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) of 3% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 180 sccm and a monosilane mixture of 10% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 120 sccm By introducing SiH ₄ (10%)/H ₂ (90%), a boron-rich film 509 was deposited on the (001) n-type silicon substrate 508 . The gas flow was stabilized at a deposition pressure of 360 mtorr. A powered heating element was moved over the sample. Due to the thermal mass of the quartz tube and the quartz sample holder, the deposition temperature stabilized at 230 °C after a temperature rise of ~20 min. The pyrolysis was continued at 230°C for 8 min, at which time the electric heating element was repositioned and the reactive gas was established. The relative atomic concentrations of boron and silicon in the silaborane film 509 were measured by different types of spectroscopy.

An X-ray photoelectron spectral analysis (XPS) depth profile of the sila-borane film 509 was performed. Oxygen in the silaborane film 509 is due to the release of water vapor from the quartz wall. FIG. 48 shows the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen in silaborane solid 509 to be 85%, 14%, and 1%, respectively. The binding energy of boron 1s electrons was 187 eV, which is characteristic of bonds in icosahedral boron molecules. The XPS binding energy of silicon 2p electrons was 99.6 eV, which is characteristic of silicon 2p electrons in (001) monocrystalline silicon. The XPS binding energy of oxygen 1s electrons was measured to be 532 eV. Depth analysis of the solid 509 by Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) determined the relative bulk atomic concentrations of boron and silicon to be 82.6% and 17.4%, respectively.

The Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) depth profile of FIG. 49 shows the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen in the silaborane solid 509 to be 73.9%, 26.1%, and 0.1%, respectively. The thickness of the solid 509 was set to 998A, 826A and 380A by XPS, AES and RBS. The relative bulk atomic concentrations of boron, hydrogen and silicon were all set at 66.5%, 19.5% and 14.0% by the RBS/HFS depth profile of the silaborane solid 509 of this example. To establish the presence of any isotopic enrichment, a secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) depth profile was performed. The isotopic enrichment of boron ¹⁰ ₅ B to boron ¹¹ ₅ B was demonstrated by SIMS depth profiles. The naturally occurring ¹¹ ₅ B/ ¹⁰ ₅ B ratio was 4.03, whereas SIMS analysis determined the ¹¹ ₅ B/ ¹⁰ ₅ B ratio in the silaborane solid (509) to be 3.81.

The film of Example 3 is referred to as a silaborane solid 509 because the small relative atomic concentration of oxygen is considered to be in the form of water. Consequently, this membrane is better referred to as hydrated silaborane solid 509 . The conventional ω-2θ XRD diffraction pattern of FIG. 39 and the GIXRD diffraction pattern of FIG. 41 were both obtained from the hydrated silaborane solid 509 of Example 3. As a result, the hydrated silaborane solid 509 is a picocrystalline borane solid by the definition above. The typical ω-2θ XRD diffraction pattern of the hydrated silaborane solid 509 of FIG. 39 is substantially the diffraction pattern of the oxysilaborane solid 507 of FIG. 45 , wherein the picocrystalline boron solid is boron to boron ¹¹ ₅ B They are fundamentally distinguished by isotopic enrichment of ¹⁰ ₅ B. This distinction affects preferred embodiments of the present invention.

One object of the present invention is to provide an object of transfer of electrons between rotational-oscillation energy levels in response to microwave radiation due to an uncompensated increase in entropy characterized by isotopic enrichment of boron ¹⁰ ₅ B to boron ¹¹ ₅ B. To establish a new class of self-assembled phycocrystalline oxysilaboranes that promote redistribution. The novelty and usefulness of this redistribution of electrons by microwave radiation can be better understood by other examples.

Example 4

50, the EMCORE D-125 MOCVD reactor by a load-lock system in which a 100 mm diameter monocrystalline (001) p-type silicon substrate 510 with a resistivity of 30 Ω-cm is isolated from the atmosphere in the deposition chamber. It is inserted onto a resistance-heated molybdenum susceptor in the The chamber is pumped to less than 50 mtorr, where the diborane mixture B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) by volume 3% in hydrogen at a flow rate of 360 seem and mono 2% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 1,300 seem A silane mixture SiH ₄ (2%)/H ₂ (98%) was introduced into the chamber, and then the reaction gases were mixed. Upon stabilization of the gas flow rate, the chamber pressure was adjusted to 9 torr, and the molybdenum susceptor was rotated at 1,100 rpm.

The substrate temperature was increased to 280° C. by a resistance-heated rotating susceptor. Upon stabilization at the deposition temperature of 280°C, the chemical reaction proceeded for 5 minutes, where the susceptor heating was stopped, and the sample was cooled to below 80°C before being removed from the deposition chamber. A thin film 511 having a polymer translucent color was deposited on the substrate 510 as shown in FIG. The thickness of the silaborane solid 511 was measured to be 166 nm by variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsography. The silaborane solid 511 was smooth with no signs of grain structure. Silaborane solid 511 did not show any visible hydration effect. The XPS depth profile of FIG. 51 measured the relative atomic concentrations of boron and silicon in the bulk solid 511 as 89% and 10%, respectively.

RBS and HFS analysis determined the relative atomic concentrations of boron, hydrogen and silicon to be 66%, 22% and 11%. The silaborane solid 511 of this example is very similar to the silaborane solid 509 of Example 3, except that the silaborane solid 511 of this example did not exhibit a measurable hydration effect. The electrical properties of the silaborane solid 511 were measured by a HP-4145 parametric analyzer through a sweep signal by a mercury probe. A linear graph and a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the silaborane solid 511 are shown in FIGS. 52 and 53 . The nonlinear current-voltage characteristic of the silaborane solid 511 is due to the space-charge-limited conduction current deviating beyond the onset of relaxation from Ohm's law according to FIG. 53 .

Space-charge-limited current conduction in any solid was proposed by Mott and Gurney in "Electronic Processes in Ionic Crystals" (Oxford University Press, second edition, 1948, pp.168 ^- 173). . Similar to the child's law of vacuum tube devices, Mott and Gurney observed that the space-charge-limiting current density (J) between an electrode interposed with a solid dielectric changes quadratically with the applied electromotive force (V). where d is the electrode separation interval, μ is the charge mobility, and ε is the permittivity of the solid-state dielectric or semiconductor. The Mott-Gurney law is satisfied whenever there is a unipolar excess mobile charge due to the non-dissipating divergence of the electric field according to Gauss' law. As expected, the space-charge-limited conduction current in phycocrystalline oxysilaborane is due to a hitherto unknown charge conduction mechanism in the prior art.

When the net charge density is dissipated in any solid such that charge neutrality is conserved, the conduction current density (J) changes linearly with V according to Ohm's law according to the relationship below, where n is the moving-charge concentration . The distinction between conduction mechanisms is related to the relaxation time τ.

Conduction current density in a solid is usually constrained by Ohm's Law, Equation (65) and Mott-Gurney Law, Equation (65). If Ohm's law is satisfied, then the transfer-charge transition time t must necessarily be greater than the relaxation time τ so that charge neutrality remains in this way. If the transition time is less than the relaxation time, the conduction current becomes space-charge-limited according to the Mott-Gunner law. The space-charge-limiting current conditions are:

The evolution of solid-state space-charge-limited conduction by Mott and Gurney has been concentrated in the dielectric due to the low moving-charge density inherent in the dielectric. However, the genome usually has a large capture density that opposes the presence of mobile space-charges. As built by Lampert in "Simplified Theory of Space-Charge-limited Currents in an Insulator with Traps" (Physical Review, Vol. 103, No. 6, 1956, p. 1648), - The current-voltage characteristic of a carrier is generally constrained by three curves: Ohm's Law, Mott-Gurney Law, and Trap-Field type limiting curve. The secondary current-voltage dependence extends to the third order dependence on the two-carrier charge conduction.

Example 5

The procedure described in Example 4 was followed with one exception that nitrous oxide was introduced at a flow rate of 40 seem. As shown in FIG. 54, a thin oxysilaborane film 512 having a polymer translucent color was deposited on a (001) monocrystalline p-type silicon substrate 510 . The thickness of the oxysilaborane film was measured to be 159 nm by variable-angle spectroscopy ellipsography. The XPS depth profile of FIG. 55 determined the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen in the bulk oxysilaborane solid 512 to be 88.0%, 10.4%, and 1.6%, respectively. The inclusion of oxygen transformed the silaborane solid 511 of FIG. 50 of Example 4 to the oxysilaborane solid 512 of FIG. 54 of this example. The incorporation of oxygen changed the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example to the silaborane solid 511 of Example 4.

The electrical impedance of the oxysilaborane film 512 of this example was measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer through a sweep signal provided by a mercury probe. A linear graph and a log-log graph of the impedance characteristic of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example are shown in FIGS. 56 and 57, respectively. The impedance of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example was increased compared to the silaborane solid 511 of Example 4. While the space-charge-limiting current in the silaborane solid 511 is saturated in the quaternary current-voltage characteristic, the space-charge-limiting current of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example is 5, as shown in FIG. Saturated in the differential current-voltage characteristic. Space-charge current is limited by mobile charge drift.

Example 6

The procedure described in Example 5 was followed with one exception that the flow rate of nitrous oxide was increased from 40 sccm to 80 sccm. The thickness of the oxysilaborane solid 512 in this example was measured to be 147 nm by variable angle spectroscopy ellipsography. The XPS depth profile of FIG. 58 determined the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen in the bulk oxysilaborane solid 512 to be 88.1%, 9.5%, and 2.5%, respectively. The relative atomic concentration of boron in the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example is the same as that of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of Example 5. The atomic concentration of silicon in the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example was reduced compared to the silicon atomic concentration of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of Example 5. The bulk atomic concentration of oxygen in the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example was increased compared to the oxygen bulk atomic concentration of the picocrystalline oxysilaborane solid 512 of Example 5.

RBS and HFS analysis determined the bulk relative atomic concentrations of boron, hydrogen, silicon and oxygen as 63%, 23%, 11% and 3%. The relative atomic concentration of oxygen is not accurate because it is close to the limit of RBS detection. The impedance of the oxysilaborane membrane of this example was measured on an HP-4145 parametric analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe. A linear graph and a logarithmic graph of the impedance characteristics of the oxysilaborane solid 512 are shown in FIGS. 59 and 60, respectively. The impedance characteristic of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example showed an impedance slightly larger than that of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of Example 5.

Example 7

The procedure described in Example 6 was performed with one exception that the flow rate of nitrous oxide was increased from 80 sccm to 100 sccm. The thickness of the oxysilaborane solid 512 in this example was measured to be 140 nm by variable-angle spectroscopy ellipsography. The XPS depth profile of FIG. 61 measured the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen of the oxysilaborane solid 512 to be 85.9%, 10.7%, and 3.4%, respectively. The impedance of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example was measured by an HP-4145 analyzer through two sweeping signals obtained by a mercury probe. A linear graph and a log-log graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example are shown in FIGS. 62 and 63 . The oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example exhibited a slightly higher impedance than that of Example 6.

Example 8

The procedure described in Example 7 was carried out with the exception that the flow rate of nitrous oxide was increased from 100 sccm to 300 sccm. The thickness of the thin oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example was measured to be 126 nm by variable-angle spectroscopy ellipsography. The XPS depth profile of FIG. 64 measured the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen in the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example to be 83.4%, 10.5%, and 6.2%. The impedance of the oxysilaborane solid 512 was measured with an HP-4145 parametric analyzer. A linear graph and a log-log graph of the impedance characteristic of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example are shown in FIGS. 65 and 66 .

Example 9

The procedure of Example 8 was followed except that the nitrous oxide flow rate was increased from 300 sccm to 500 sccm. The thickness of the thin oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example was measured to be 107 nm by variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsography. The XPS depth profile of FIG. 67 sets the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen in the bulk oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example to 82.4%, 10.0%, and 7.6%. RBS and HFS analyzes set the bulk relative atomic concentrations of boron, hydrogen, silicon and oxygen at 66%, 20%, 9% and 5%. The relative atomic concentration of oxygen is close to the limit of RBS detection. The impedance of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example was measured by an HP-4145 parametric analyzer through a sweep signal obtained by a mercury probe. A linear graph and a log-log graph of the impedance characteristic of the oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example are shown in FIGS. 68 and 69 .

The oxysilaborane solid 512 of this example is oxygen-rich, so that the preferred composition range of picocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z (2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0) ≤z≤2), but a wider composition range of oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ ) _x Si _y O _z H _w (0≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0≤ z≤3). It is important that picocrystalline oxysilaborane unfixes the surface Fermi level of monocrystalline silicon, thereby controlling the surface electrochemical potential of monocrystalline silicon and simultaneously conducting electricity. In order to understand this property more fully, it is an object to consider an example in which the electrochemical rectifier is formed of monocrystalline silicon.

In the prior art, due to the undesirable contact potentials associated with transfer-charge diffusion between monocrystalline silicon regions of different work function and the bonded material, it also conducts electrical charge in the region of monocrystalline silicon through forbidden energy regions. It is not possible to change the electrochemical potential. This defect is cured by self-assembled phycocrystalline oxysilaborane by way of practical example.

Example 10

Monocrystalline silicon was epitaxially deposited on a (001) boron-doped p-type monocrystalline substrate 521 with a diameter of 100 mm and a thickness of 525 μm. The resistivity of the degenerate monocrystalline silicon substrate 521 is 0.02 Ω-cm, which corresponds to an acceptor concentration of ˜4×10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ . A non-degenerate p-type monocrystalline silicon layer 522 was deposited on a silicon substrate 521 . The epitaxial silicon layer 522 has a thickness of 15 μm and a resistivity of 2 Ω-cm, which corresponds to an acceptor impurity concentration of ˜7×10 ¹⁵ cm ⁻³ . All oxides were removed by hydrofluoric acid deglaze. After the acid deglaze, a silicon substrate 521 was inserted onto a resistance-heated susceptor in the EMCORE MOCVD reactor by a load-lock system that shuts off the deposition chamber from the surroundings. The deposition chamber was pumped to less than 50 mtorr, where it contained a diborane mixture B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) of 3% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 150 seem and 2% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 300 seem. A monosilane mixture SiH ₄ (2%)/H ₂ (98%) was introduced into the deposition chamber. Nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) was introduced at a flow rate of 100 sccm.

The gases were allowed to mix before entering the deposition chamber. Upon stabilization of the reaction gas, the chamber pressure was adjusted to 1.5 torr while the susceptor was rotated at 1,100 rpm. The substrate temperature was increased to 230° C. for 2 minutes. The susceptor temperature was further increased to 260° C., where the susceptor stabilized and the chemical reaction was allowed to proceed for 12 minutes. Susceptor heating was ensured and the sample was allowed to cool below 80° C. in the reaction gas before being removed from the deposition chamber. An oxysilaborane film 523 was deposited. The thickness was measured to be 12.8 nm by variable-angle spectroscopy ellipsography. Because of the thickness, the oxysilaborane film 523 did not show coloration.

Aluminum was evaporated over the entire backside of the substrate 521 in a vertical evaporator, and then a similar layer of aluminum was deposited on the oxysilaborane film 523 through a shadow mask in the vertical evaporator. As shown in FIG. 70 , the aluminum on the upper side forms the cathode electrode 524 , and the aluminum on the rear side forms the anode electrode 525 . The electrical properties of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier 520 of this example were measured by a HP-4145 parameter analyzer through sweeping signals obtained from the anode electrode 525 and the cathode electrode 524 by a microprobe. The linear current-voltage characteristics of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier 520 of this example are shown as two distinct current-voltage ranges in FIGS. 71 and 72 . The electrochemical rectifier 520 achieves asymmetric electrical conductivity without the aid of a p-n junction by fluctuations in surface electrochemical potential.

71, when the cathode electrode 524 is negatively biased (forward-biased) with respect to the anode electrode 525, a fairly large current flows. When the cathode electrode 524 is positively biased (reverse-biased) with respect to the anode electrode 525, a much smaller current increases through the reverse-bias increased beyond ˜1V. The increased reverse-bias current is believed to be due to detrimental interfacial effects due to non-ideal process conditions. Forward-biased and reverse-biased log current-voltage graphs are shown in FIGS. 73 and 74 . Asymmetric current conduction is due to the built-in electric field.

Example 11

The procedure described in Example 10 was performed, with one exception that the flow rate of nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) was increased from 20 sccm to 65 sccm. The thickness of the oxysilaborane film 523 in this example was measured to be 12.4 nm by variable-angle spectroscopy ellipsography. The electrical properties of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier 520 of this example were measured by a HP-4145 parameter analyzer through sweeping signals obtained from the anode electrode 525 and the cathode electrode 524 by a microprobe. The linear current-voltage characteristic of this example p-isotype electrochemical rectifier 520 is shown in two different ranges in FIGS. 75 and 76 . Forward-biased and reverse-biased log current-voltage graphs are shown in FIGS. 77 and 78 . Although the bulk composition of the oxysilaborane film 523 of this example is a bulk composition of substantially circular oxysilaborane (B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ , rectification is not ideal for reasons to be discussed later. seems to be

Example 12

The procedure described above in Example 11 was carried out with the exception that the reaction time at 260° C. was reduced from 12 minutes to 6 minutes. The thickness of the oxysilaborane film 523 in this example was measured to be 7.8 nm by variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsography. The electrical properties of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier 520 of this example were measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through sweeping signals obtained from the anode electrode 525 and the cathode electrode 524 by two microprobes. The linear current-voltage characteristics of the p-isotype electrochemical commutator 520 of this example are shown in three different current-voltage ranges in FIGS. The log current-voltage characteristics of forward-bias and reverse-bias are provided in FIGS. 82 and 83 . The rectifying properties of this example are improved compared to Examples 10 and 11, mostly due to the thinner film 523.

Example 13

The procedure of Example 12 was followed except that no nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) was introduced. The thickness of the silaborane film 526 shown in Fig. 84 was measured to be 11.4 nm by variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsography. The electrical properties of the device 520 were measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer through sweeping signals obtained from the anode electrode 525 and the cathode electrode 524 by a microprobe. The linear current-voltage characteristic of device 520 is shown in FIGS. 85 and 86 . The log current-voltage graphs of forward-bias and reverse-bias are shown in FIGS. 87 and 88 .

A fundamental difference between p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 + 2} _and p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ picocrystalline oxysilaborane is that oxygen plays a crucial role. This is illustrated by the fundamental difference in rectification of the electrochemical device 520 due to Example 11 and Example 13. The difference in device 520 of these examples is the oxygen concentration of picocrystalline films 523 and 526 . Referring now to FIG. 75 , the current in the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier 520 of Example 11 is progressively forward-biased (ie, negatively-biased) with the cathode electrode 524 relative to the anode electrode 525 . increases considerably as the 77, the forward-bias current of the p-isotype electrochemical rectifier 520 of Example 11 increases linearly with the bias voltage at low-current, and beyond the relaxation voltage, the quaternary voltage dependence increases according to The forward-bias current-voltage characteristic of the rectifier 520 of Embodiment 11 is space-charge-limited by the oxysilaborane film 523 beyond the relaxation voltage, where the transition time is shorter than the relaxation time.

Another situation arises when the electrochemical rectifier 520 is reverse-biased. Referring to FIG. 75 , the current of the p-isotype electrochemical commutator 520 of Example 11 decreases as the cathode electrode 524 is reverse-biased (ie, positively biased) with respect to the anode electrode 525 . increases at a given rate. This is due to the fact that the oxysilaborane film 523 of Example 11 is almost picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ constituting a solid of closed-shell electronic configuration. is due to The conduction current represented by the log-log graph of FIG. 77 is a characteristic of the injected charged plasma.

When a charge plasma is injected into a semiconductor or dielectric, the current density and voltage change linearly until a sufficiently high level of charge injection results in a space-charge-limited current density due to the breakdown of charge neutrality. High-level charge injection in semiconductors tends to result in a quadratic dependence of space-charge-limiting current density on voltage, whereas high-level charge injection in dielectrics is space-charge-limiting on voltage. tends to lead to a tertiary dependence of The main difference between semiconductors and dielectrics is that semiconductors are characterized by large mobile-charge concentrations of negative or positive polarity, whereas dielectrics are characterized by negligible mobile-charge concentrations.

In principle, the log-log current-voltage characteristic of the rectifier 520 shown in Fig. 77 is such that the oxysilaborane film 523 of Example 11 is a picocrystal having an ideally closed-shell electronic configuration similar to that of a dielectric. Since the sex _{oxysilaborane} has a bulk configuration of p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ , it should be characteristic of the charged plasma injected into the dielectric. As established by Lampert and Mark in a book titled "Current Injection in Solids" (Academic Press, 1970, pp. 250 ^- 275), transfer-charge diffusion is the diffusion of either contact. Overwhelms the plasma-injecting current-voltage characteristic of any dielectric within its length, so that the current density changes exponentially with voltage. When the dielectric length is much larger than the diffusion length, the moving-charge drift overwhelms the current-voltage characteristic, where the current changes linearly with the voltage up to the relaxation voltage (V _τ ), where the space-charge- Limited.

For example, according to the above reference by Lampert and Mark, a silicon pin diode with an intrinsic silicon domain length of 4 mm has a space-charge with a third-order dependence of the current density on the applied voltage beyond a relaxation voltage of 10 V. -Limited current-voltage characteristic. When the length of the intrinsic silicon region of the pin diode decreases to approximately 1 mm, the current density changes exponentially with the applied voltage due to the dominance of moving-charge diffusion. Referring again to FIG. 77, the electrochemical rectifier 520 of Example 11 has a drift space-charge-limiting current-voltage characteristic within a thin oxysilaborane film 523 of only 12.4 nm, which is substantially picocrystalline. Holy oxysilaborane has a bulk composition of p-( _{B 2-12} H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ .

근처에서 일정하다. 외부 농도(p₀)는 밴드갭 축소의 개시에 기여하는 단결정성 규소에서의 불순물 도핑 농도에 대응한다. 피코결정성 옥시실라보란 (B₁₂H₄)_xSi_yO_z은, 폐쇄-쉘 전자 구성 및 또한 규소에서 밴드갭 축소의 시작 근처에서 외부 이동-전하 농도를 나타낸다는 점에서 새로운 구성이다.This is possible only when the external transfer-charge concentration is sufficiently large such that the Debye length of the oxysilaborane film 523 is less than approximately 4 nm. External transfer-charge of self-assembled picocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z over the preferred composition range (2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0≤z≤2) The concentration is ideally due to the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of a boron icosahedron with an ideally symmetrical nuclear configuration.

constant nearby. The external concentration p ₀ corresponds to the impurity doping concentration in monocrystalline silicon that contributes to the onset of bandgap narrowing. The phycocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z is a novel configuration in that it exhibits a closed-shell electronic configuration and also an external transfer-charge concentration near the onset of bandgap narrowing in silicon.

A major component of charge conduction in phycocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z over the preferred composition range (2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0≤z≤2) is boron It is an invariant external charge concentration (p ₀ ) resulting from the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of an icosahedron, and consequently not affected by conventional semiconductor impurity doping. The external charge concentration (p ₀ ) is not affected by the incorporation of oxygen in the oxysilaborane film. To understand this, equations (66)-(67) are combined to obtain the following relation.

)을 나타낸다. 실시예 11에 따른 피코결정성 옥시실라보란 p-(B^2- ₁₂H₄)₂Si₄O^{2 +} ₂ 고체(523)는 도 77 및 도 78에서 12.4nm의 두께 및 완화 전압(

)을 나타낸다. 실시예 13에 따라 증착된 피코결정성 실라보란 p-(B₁₂H₄)₃Si₅ 고체(526) 및 실시예 11에 따른 피코결정성 옥시실라보란 p-(B^2- ₁₂H₄)₂Si₄O^{2 +} ₂ 고체(523)가 공통 완화 전압(V_τ)을 갖지만, 이들은 상이한 전하 이동도(μ)로 인해 상이한 전도율(σ)을 갖는다. 결과적으로, 엔탈피는 본질적으로 일정하여, 전하 확산이 근본적으로 혼합의 엔트로피에 기인한다.The relaxation time (τ) depends on both the charge mobility (μ) and the external charge concentration (p ₀ ), while the relaxation voltage (V _τ ) is in the favored composition range (2≤X≤4, 3≤y≤5, 0). ≤z≤2) depends on the latter being invariant in phycocrystalline oxysilaborane (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z . As a result, oxysilaborane films having a common thickness have a common relaxation voltage (V _τ ). The picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ solid 526 deposited according to Example 13 had a thickness of 11.4 nm and a relaxation voltage (

) is indicated. The phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} solid 523 according to Example 11 had _a thickness of 12.4 nm and a relaxation voltage (

) is indicated. Picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ solid 526 as deposited according to Example 13 and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ according to Example 11 Although Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ solids 523 have a common relaxation voltage (V _τ ), they have different conductivity (σ) due to different charge mobility (μ). Consequently, the enthalpy is essentially constant, such that charge diffusion is essentially due to the entropy of mixing.

The double polaron hole-pair is about two Dibye long into the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} cathode region 402 of _the phonovoltaic cell 400 . It spreads. In the space-charge zone near the metallurgical junction of zones 401 and 402 , an open-circuit electric field E emanates from the oxysilaborane double cation in zone 402 of FIG. 21 , phonovoltaic cell 400 . It terminates at the silaborane double anion in the region 401 of The open-circuit electric field between the coupling regions 401 and 402 of the phonovoltaic cell 400 as an electric field line is associated with a pair of charges, and the extension of the electric field into region 402 is about 2 diby long (L _D ) into region 402 . ( E ) is given by the first approximation as

Since the Planck resonator generated by quantum thermal neutronization has an ideal heat capacity of 3k, the electric field in Equation (69) becomes as follows.

At room temperature, the electric field ( E ) according to equation (70) is ∼5×10 ⁴ V/cm for a Debye length ( _LD ) of ∼4 nm. Only when the thickness of the cathode region 402 of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 is less than the diffusion length, the open-circuit electric field in equation (70) is the open-circuit field between the coupled anode and cathode regions 401 and 402 - will appear partially as the circuit electromotive force (V). The electrical energy stored in the electric field at room temperature is ~39meV. The electric field in equation (70) can appear at the outer electrode if, and only in this case, the space-charge-limited current density is at least partially diffusion limited.

While the thinnest picocrystalline oxysilaborane film in the above examples is 7.8 nm in Example 12, the film thickness is not thin enough because the space-charge-limiting current density is at least partially due to diffusion of mobile charges. To generate an open-circuit voltage (V _out ) between the external cathode electrode 403 and the external anode electrode 403 in the phonovoltaic cell 400 , picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ The thickness of _the Si ₅ anode region 401 and the picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ₂ ^{+ 2} cathode region 402 should be less than ˜4 nm. This causes problems, as described in the example below.

Example 14

Referring to FIG. 89, a 100 mm diameter monocrystalline (001) p-type silicon substrate 527 with a resistivity of 5 Ω-cm is resisted in an EMCORE D-125 MOCVD reactor by a load-lock system that shuts off the deposition chamber. - Loaded on a heated molybdenum susceptor. The deposition chamber was pumped to less than 50 mtorr, where the diborane mixture B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) by volume 3% in hydrogen at a flow rate of 150 seem and mono 2% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 300 seem. A silane mixture SiH ₄ (2%)/H ₂ (98%) was introduced into the deposition chamber. At the same time, undiluted nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) was introduced at a flow rate of 20 sccm. The reactant gases were allowed to mix together before entering the deposition chamber. Upon stabilization of the reaction gas, the chamber pressure was adjusted to 1.2 torr while the susceptor was rotated at 1,100 rpm. The substrate temperature was increased to 230° C. by a resistance-heated susceptor before raising the temperature further.

After 2 minutes, the susceptor temperature was further increased to 260° C. to stabilize, and the chemical reaction proceeded for 12 minutes. Susceptor heating was ensured and the sample was cooled to less than 80° C. in the reaction gas before being removed from the deposition chamber. 89, a thin oxysilaborane film 528 was deposited on the silicon substrate 527. As shown in FIG. The thickness of the oxysilaborane film 528 in this example was set to 8.2 nm by variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsography. The small thickness introduces deleterious abnormalities into the oxysilaborane film 528 .

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of the oxysilaborane film 528 of this example was hampered by its small thickness. XPS is a surface analysis method that can be used to establish a depth profile by argon sputtering of a sample between multiple repeated surface measurements. The photoelectrons are not confined to the actual surface, but rather can be emitted at depths below the surface of 5.0 nm or more. To better improve the depth profile resolution, the escape angle was reduced to 20° so that the escape depth of the photoelectrons was on the order of 2.5 nm. Since the thickness of the oxysilaborane film 528 in this example is 8.2 nm, each bulk measurement incorporates the interfacial effect into it. The best data point is only 4.1 nm at each interface. Subject to this understanding, the XPS depth profile of the oxysilaborane film 528 of this example of FIG. 90 determined that the relative bulk atomic concentrations of boron, silicon and oxygen at peak boron concentrations were 83.4%, 11.1%, and 5.5%. .

The composition at the peak boron concentration is according to the circular phycocrystalline oxysilaborane p-( _{B 2-12} H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ . Detrimental compositional variations (actual and measurable) occur in the vicinity of both interfaces. In this example, _the compositional deviations in the circular picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ measured by XPS depth profile were determined by the binding energies of internal photoelectrons, especially silicon 2p electron binding energies. is related to the change of The oxygen 1s electron binding energy was measured to be 531.5 eV at the surface, 531.4 eV near the middle of the oxysilaborane film 528 of this example, and 530.8 eV near the silicon substrate 527 . The boron 1s electron binding energy of this example was measured by XPS to be 187.3 eV at the surface, 187.6 eV in the middle of the oxysilaborane film 528 of this example, and 187.6 eV near the silicon substrate 527 . The above binding energies are almost ideal.

These binding energies are consistent with the boron binding energies measured by XPS in the previous example above. However, significantly different from all other examples is the presence of a dual energy peak at the silicon 2p electron binding energy near the surface, the lower peak being 99.7 eV. The binding energy of silicon 2p electrons is 99.3 eV in the middle of the oxysilaborane film 528 and near the silicon substrate 527 . The binding energy of this single energy peak coincides with the single energy peak in the conventional example disclosed above. A heat treatment profile of a picocrystalline oxysilaborane solid similar to this example is shown in FIG. 91 . Temperature is displayed along the vertical axis, and elapsed time is displayed in seconds along the abscissa.

It is noteworthy that the cooling time in FIG. 91 is 12 minutes (from 840 seconds to 1680 seconds). Film integrity can be improved with faster cooling. Undesirable surface oxidation of the oxysilaborane film 528 of this example is known to occur during sample cooling. This detrimental oxidation must be removed in the phonovoltaic cell 400 shown in FIG. 21 . It is further known that excess oxygen and silicon are incorporated into the oxysilaborane film 528 near the silicon substrate 527 due to native oxides and other adsorbed contaminants introduced during temperature rise to the desired temperature. As shown in the high-resolution transmission electron micrograph (HRTEM) of FIG. 34 , the hazardous interfacial layer 503 is ˜2 nm thick. The interfacial layer prevents successful operation of the phonovoltaic cell 400 shown in FIG. 21 .

To compensate for deleterious variations in the composition of the picocrystalline anode region 401 and cathode region 402, the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 must be subjected to an in situ and constant deposition temperature. The metal electrode 403 in the phonovoltaic cell 400 is deposited in situ by MOCVD deposition using a suitable aluminum precursor. One such precursor is trimethylamine alan (TMAA) H ₃ AlN(CH ₃ ) ₃ . Deposition of aluminum nanowires by TMAA is detailed in "Chemical Vapor Deposition of Aluminum Nanowires on Metal Substrates for Electrical Energy Storage Applications" (ACS Nano 6(1), pp. 118-125(2012)) by Benson et al. has been discussed For example, a suitable substrate, such as a silicon wafer, may be inserted into an EMCORE D-125 MOCVD reactor according to Example 14 that is pumped to less than 50 mtorr.

Trimethylamine alan (TMAA) H ₃ AlN(CH ₃ ) ₃ is introduced into the deposition chamber by a hydrogen carrier gas at a flow rate of 50 sccm. The deposition chamber pressure is adjusted to 2-4 torr while the substrate is heated to ~230°C. After approximately 10 nm of aluminum was deposited, the flow of TMAA was stopped, and the diborane mixture B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) of 3% by volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 150 sccm and hydrogen at a flow rate of 300 sccm A monosilane mixture SiH ₄ (2%)/H ₂ (98%) of 2% internal volume is introduced into the deposition chamber together. The substrate temperature is maintained at ˜230° C., and the reaction is allowed to proceed for several minutes until a thin layer of ˜1 to 3 nm of picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ is deposited, There undiluted nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) is suddenly introduced into the deposition chamber while flowing a hydride gas at a flow rate of 20 sccm.

The substrate temperature is maintained at ~230 °C, _and the reaction takes several minutes until a thin layer of ~1-3 nm picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B _2-12 H ₄ ) ² Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ is deposited. is allowed to proceed, where the flow of hydride and nitrous oxide is stopped, and the hydrogen carrier gas of TMAA is reintroduced into the deposition chamber at a flow rate of 50 seem. The reaction is allowed to proceed until approximately 10 nm of aluminum has been deposited. At this point in the process, a p-isotype rectifier 404 was formed in situ. It should be understood that the deposition pressure and temperature can be adjusted to minimize the co-deposition of carbon during aluminum deposition and to optimize the growth rate of the thin anode region 401 and cathode region 402 .

phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ cathode region 402 The deposition time of can be adjusted to minimize the thickness of the zone. As discussed above, the in situ deposition of the p-isotype rectifier 404 is shown in FIG. 21 by in situ MOCVD deposition resulting in a number of p-isotype rectifiers 404 called phonovoltaic piles. It can be repeated on an in situ basis to form a phonovoltaic cell 400 that has been replaced. The in situ phonovoltaic cell 400 includes a phonovoltaic pile with 20 to 50 p-isotype rectifiers 404 . Upon removal from the MOCVD deposition chamber, individual phonovoltaic cells 400 are formed by plasma etching the phonovoltaic piles of p-isotype rectifier 404 using conventional lithography.

As discussed above, phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 of p-isotype rectifier 404 and bound picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ) ^- ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ The open-circuit electric field E traversing the metallurgical junction of cathode region 402 extends into each such region by about 2 Diby lengths L _D . The magnitude of the open-circuit electric field E of the p-isotype rectifier 404 is ideally given by equation (70). phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ cathode region 402 By making the thickness of m shorter than the diby length (ie, less than ˜4 nm), the work performed by the compression of the open-circuit electric field appears as the open-circuit voltage of each p-isotype rectifier 404 . The open-circuit voltage of each p-isotype rectifier 404 can be optimized at ˜26 mV. A preferred aspect of the present invention maintains an open-circuit voltage.

It is believed that a logical description of the highly novel mode of operation of a phonovoltaic cell 400 made in accordance with the present invention can be given in terms of Gibbs free energy and Gibbs free entropy. These two entities are described in "A Method of Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties of Substances by Means of Surfaces" (Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, II. pp. 382-404, December 1873) in a manner strictly following Gibbs (1873). will be limited As used herein, Gibbs free energy is the energy that allows a body or multibody system to decrease without increasing its volume or decreasing its entropy. According to Gibbs (1873), Gibbs' free energy is "geometrically represented by the distance of the point A representing the initial state from the surface of the dissipated energy measured parallel to the [E] axis" in FIG.

Gibbs free entropy, as used herein, is the entropy that allows a body or multiple body system to increase without changing its energy or increasing its volume. Following the initial orientation of Gibbs (1873), the Gibbs free entropy is "geometrically represented in FIG. 93 by the distance of the point representing the initial state from the surface of the dissipated energy measured parallel to the [S] axis". Gibbs free energy is widely used in the prior art for equilibrium in a non-equilibrium state. A preferred aspect of the present invention exploits Gibbs free entropy in a novel and useful way. Gibbs free energy and Gibbs free entropy are included in the quantum thermodynamic cycle of FIG. 23 , which represents the operation of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 21 . The initial focus is on the Gibbs free entropy during the isothermal phase transition (B->C) in FIG. 23 .

The volume of the artificial nucleus 104 containing the phycocrystalline oxysilaborane remains unchanged during the operation of the phonovoltaic cell 400 . Both the energy and temperature of the phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 remain unchanged during the isothermal phase transition (B->C). The decrease in the phase transition entropy (S _trans ) is due to the Gibbs free entropy of the artificial nucleus 104 in the picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 . During the isothermal phase transition (B->C), the Gibbs free entropy (in the form of entangled entropy (S _ent ) within the icosahedron) undergoes an uncompensated increase, so that upon the development of the Gibbs free entropy, the phase as predicted by Gibbs (1873) There is this concomitant quantum localization of the artificial nucleus 104 by a decrease in the transition entropy (S _trans ).

The novel ability of the artificial nucleus 104 to undergo a spontaneous increase in Gibbs free entropy associated with entanglement entropy (S _ent ) is a novel and useful property of a preferred aspect of the present invention, which is a boron-rich icosahedral of any other known in the art. could not be explained by the solid. The ability to take advantage of Gibbs free entropy in the phonovoltaic cell 400 is that, instead of lifting of polyatomic electron orbital degeneracy due to Jan-Teller distortion in all other icosahedral boron-rich solids in the prior art, spin, The result is an artificial nucleus 104 that retains icosahedral symmetry due to the lifting of polyatomic electron orbital degeneracy by orbital bonding. This is due to the highly new and useful Lorentz power, first considered by Maxwell in 1861, and soon permanently lost in the prior art.

The ability to displace electrical action throughout space without the actual displacement of an electric charge was first considered by James Clerk Maxwell in his early developments in electromagnetism. In an 1865 seminar paper entitled "A Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" (The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell, Vol. I, Dover, 2003, p. 526), Maxwell, as summarized below in modern form, , formally introduced his general equations for electromagnetic fields.

Equation of total current (A)

Magnetic force equation (B)

Equation of Current (C)

electromotive force equation (D)

Equation of Electrical Elasticity (E)

Electrical resistance (F) in the equation

Equation of free electricity (G)

Continuity Equation (H)

Equations 71a to 71f contain six vector equations defined by Maxwell as 18 equations containing 18 Cartesian components. The scalar equation in equation (71g) is an expression of Gaussian law, whereas the scalar equation in equation (71h) is a continuity equation. In 1865 Maxwell expressed the general equation of the electromagnetic field in 20 equations using 20 variables. There is a very important concept introduced by Maxwell, which has been lost over the years in the prior art. With the profound impact of this lost concept on modern integrated circuits, a concise discussion of Maxwell's lost concept is provided.

Maxwell always expressed his equations of electromagnetic fields in terms of a vector potential ( A ) and a scalar potential (Ψ). It is common in modern times to express Maxwell's general equations of electromagnetic fields in terms of electromagnetic field equations that do not include Maxwell's potentials ( A and Ψ). In order to better understand the important loss concept in Maxwell's electromagnetics that affects modern integrated circuits, it is the purpose to define equations (71a to 71h) as electromagnetic field equations related to modern forms of Maxwell's equations. For this purpose, consider the following set of electromagnetic field equations.

Newton's dot convention is used in equations (72a to 72d), so that the above dot is understood to represent the overall temporal derivative of any variable. This is important because time fluctuations can occur either explicitly or implicitly. As discussed by Jackson in "Classical Electrodynamics, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1975, p.212", the total time derivative can be extended with the help of the convective derivative by including the velocity v , the convective derivatives of equations (72b and 72c) result in the following relation in which the divergence of equation (73b) dissipates according to equation (73d).

), 또는 전자기 교란의 주기적인 진동으로 인한 위상 속도(

)로 규정될 수 있다. 맥스웰에 의한 패러데이 유도 법칙의 일반화는, 기존의 로렌츠 힘이 아니라 할지라도, 로렌츠 힘의 자기 성분(v×B)을 발생시켰다. 확립될 수 있는 바와 같이, 맥스웰 유도의 시험은 순간 속도(v)가 위상 속도(

)임을 나타내어, 식 (73a 내지 73d)는 다음과 같다:In general, the instantaneous velocity v can be decomposed into two distinct velocities recognized by Maxwell in 1861-1865. In general, any microscopic electromagnetic disturbance is the velocity due to the motion of a non-extensible electromagnetic disturbance through space

), or the phase velocity due to periodic oscillations of electromagnetic disturbances (

) can be defined as The generalization of Faraday's law of induction by Maxwell gave rise to the magnetic component ( v×B ) of the Lorentz force, if not the existing Lorentz force. As can be established, the test of Maxwell's induction shows that the instantaneous velocity ( v ) is the phase velocity (

), so that the formulas (73a to 73d) are:

을 포함하는 항은 공간을 통해 확장할 수 없는 전자기 교란(

= 0)의 변위와 관련된 전도 전류 밀도(J)이어서, 식 (74a 내지 74d)는 보다 친숙한 형태로 규정될 수 있다. 그것은 외적의 반가환성 피승수로 인해

×B와 B×

가 극성이 다르다는 것을 언급할 이유가 된다. 비슷한 조건은 D×

와

×D에도 존재한다.

A term containing is an electromagnetic disturbance that is not extensible through space (

= 0), the conduction current density ( J ) associated with the displacement, so that equations (74a to 74d) can be defined in a more familiar form. It is due to the semi-commutative multiplicand of the cross product

×B and B×

is reason to mention that the polarities are different. A similar condition is D×

Wow

It is also present in ×D .

B)와 스펙트럼 변위 전류 밀도(

D)는 종래 기술에서 알려지지 않았다. 이들 두 항은 다른 논문, "On Physical Lines of Force"(The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell, Vol. I, Dover, 2003, p.526)에서 1861년 Maxwell에 의해 물리학에 도입된 로렌츠 힘의 형태에 속한다. 이 논문에서 맥스웰(Maxwell)은 Prob. XI의 목적을 "움직이는 본체에서 기전력을 발견하는 것"으로 표현했다. Prop. XI에서 맥스웰의 식 (69)은 현대 용어로 다음과 같이 표현된다.Two terms in equations (75a to 75d), the spectral derivation (

B ) and the spectral displacement current density (

D ) is unknown in the prior art. These two terms refer to the form of the Lorentz force introduced into physics by Maxwell in 1861 in another paper, "On Physical Lines of Force" (The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell, Vol. I, Dover, 2003, p. 526). belong In this paper, Maxwell (Prob. The purpose of XI was expressed as "to discover electromotive force in a moving body". Prop. In XI, Maxwell's equation (69) is expressed in modern terms as

The terms in parentheses include small changes in the x-coordinate of extensible electromagnetic disturbances. Ignoring this coordinate change causes Eq. (76) to be reduced to the x-component of Faraday's law of induction. Prop. In the mathematical implementation of the XI derivative, Maxwell obtained the following relation (modern formula) in 1861:

Prop. Maxwell's electric field ( E ) in Equation (77) of XI is expressed as

B)의 심오한 물리적 중요성을 이해하기 위해, 하나의 미분이 미국 가특허출원 제62/591,848호의 [0682] 내지 [0703]에 제공되고, 본 명세서에 참조로서 통합된다.This relationship of electric fields supports a new type of Lorentz force first induced by Maxwell in 1861 when Hendrik Lorentz was only seven years old. From Eq. (77), the spectral derivation (

In order to understand the profound physical significance of B ), one derivative is provided in US Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848 [0682] to [0703], which is incorporated herein by reference.

The artificial nucleus 104 is formed by chemical fusion of 12 natural boron atoms into an icosahedron with a nearly-symmetrical nuclear configuration, with all 36 boron valence electrons occupying the bonding and antibonding suborbitals of the icosahedron. As previously disclosed, fusion necessarily involves the transformation of matter into positive energy. In the artificial nucleus 104 of FIG. 5 , a small amount of matter is transformed into the "tremor motion" (zitterbewegung) of Dirac's quasi-particles. As derived from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848 and incorporated herein by reference, the "quivering motion" (zitterbewegung) of Dirac's quasiparticles results in:

)만을 발견했다. 종래 기술에서는 알려지지 않았지만, 식 (79b)에서 한정된 마이크로파 지터베베궁 주파수(

)는 본 발명의 바람직한 양태에서 중요한 역할을 한다. 본 명세서에서 사용된 바와 같이, 음향 양자(phonon)는 주기적이고 탄성적인 배열로 인해 균일한 주파수의 원자 또는 분자의 집단 진동이다. 식 (26a 및 26b)의 우측에 있는 2개의 진동 구속-에너지 항은 질량 감소에 의해 지터베베궁을 유도한다.Schrödinger first discovered and named zitterbewegung (tremor motion) in random Dirac quasiparticles in 1930. However, Schrödinger in Equation (79a) shows the Compton Jitterbewegung frequency (2mc ² /

) was found only. Although not known in the prior art, the microwave jitter-webgong frequency (

) plays an important role in a preferred embodiment of the present invention. As used herein, an acoustic phonon is a group vibration of atoms or molecules of uniform frequency due to their periodic and elastic arrangement. The two oscillation confinement-energy terms on the right side of equations (26a and 26b) induce a Jitterbewe curve by mass reduction.

The jitterbewe curve of the first constraint-energy in parentheses on the right-hand side of equations (26a and 26b) reduces the electron mass by α ² /8π, which is of ∼1.08 eV supporting antibonding and bonding orbitals within the icosahedron. cause an energy difference. Although the corresponding jitterbewegong frequency is too high to contribute to the conduction of electrical action, the valence of atoms from bonding suborbitals in the icosahedron to antibonding suborbitals in the icosahedron is due to an uncompensated increase in the entangled entropy (S _ent ) within the icosahedron. Supports the spectral induction of electrons. The entanglement entropy (S _ent ) constitutes the Gibbs free entropy that supports the generation of mobile electron-hole pairs by spectral induction of the phonovoltaic cell 400 .

This can be better understood by comparing the p-isotype rectifier 404 of a phonovoltaic cell 400 to a p-n unisotype rectifier 414 of a silicon photovoltaic cell. For this purpose, an unisotype rectifier 414 of p-n in the dark is shown in FIG. 94A and a rectifier p-isotype 404 is shown in FIG. 94B. Various dimensions are greatly exaggerated in these and other related drawings for easy representation of new concepts. The p-n unisotype rectifier 414 of FIG. 94A consists of an acceptor-doped monocrystalline silicon p-Si anode region 411 and a combined donor-doped monocrystalline silicon n-Si cathode region 412 . These regions are electrically contacted by two aluminum electrodes 413 . A thermal equilibrium is established in the pn anisotype rectifier 414 by diffusion of mobile holes and mobile electrons between the bonding regions 411 and 412 so that the open-circuit electric field is immobile donor ions and acceptor ions. exist between

The open-circuit electric field line between the floating donor and acceptor ions in the pn unisotype rectifier 414 exists in the depletion space-charge region where the floating charge concentration far exceeds the moving charge concentration. As a result, the crystallinity restoring force in the pn unisotype rectifier 414 is mobile charge recombination. In contrast, in the p-isotype rectifier 404 in FIG. 94B the open-circuit electric field dominates between the moving double cation and the double anion. The migrating double cations and double anions in the p-isotype rectifier 404 are picocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p under open-circuit conditions. -(B ² - ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ²⁺ ₂ due to charge diffusion across the metallurgical junction of cathode region 402 .

The open-circuit electric field line between the mobile double positive ion and the double negative ion in the p-isotype rectifier 404 exists in the accumulated space-charge region where the moving charge concentration far exceeds the floating charge concentration. Consequently, the crystallinity restoring force in the p-isotype rectifier 404 is mobile charge generation. phycocrystalline silaborane p-(B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ anode region 401 and picocrystalline oxysilaborane p-(B ² ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ^{2 +} ₂ cathode region 402 Since the thicknesses of are all less than the Diby length, the anode potential floats below the cathode potential, stopping the open-circuit current in the p-isotype rectifier 404 of FIG. 94B. Due to the absence of a moving electron-hole pair available for conduction, no open-circuit voltage develops in the pn unisotype rectifier 414 in the dark at all. This is solved by the radiation generation of moving electron-hole pairs in FIG. 95a in response to the incident radiation (hv).

The open-circuit electric field between the floating acceptor and donor ions in the p-n unisotype rectifier 414 separates mobile electron-hole pairs that diffuse randomly into the depletion space-charge region. This charge separation causes mobile holes to diffuse toward the anode electrode 413 and mobile electrons to diffuse toward the cathode electrode 413 . Since there is no current flow under open-circuit conditions, the anode potential floats above the cathode potential according to FIG. 96A. Current flow occurs when an electrical load is applied between the anode and cathode of the pn unisotype rectifier 414 of the photovoltaic cell of FIG. 97A and the p-isotype rectifier 404 of the phonovoltaic cell of FIG. 97B , exist. The open-circuit voltage of the p-n unisotype rectifier 414 is -0.6V, but the open-circuit voltage of the p-isotype rectifier 404 is -26mV.

The output voltage of the p-isotype rectifier 404 of the phonovoltaic cell 404 is several orders of magnitude lower than the output voltage of the p-n unisotype rectifier 414 of the photovoltaic cell. This discrepancy is very deceptive because the power density of solid-state devices typically varies by several orders of magnitude due to fluctuations in current density. In this regard, the opposite polarity difference between the p-n unisotype rectifier 414 and the p-isotype rectifier 404 is important. As the anode floats over the cathode, a reverse-bias current is delivered to the applied electrical load by the p-n unisotype rectifier 414 of the photovoltaic cell of Figure 97A. Conversely, since the positive electrode floats below the negative electrode, a forward-bias current is delivered to the applied electrical load by the p-isotype rectifier 404 of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of FIG. 97B . This distinction is very important.

The forward-bias current density of a rectifier is typically several orders of magnitude larger than the reverse-bias current density. This limitation of the reverse-bias current density delivered to the electrical load by the p-n unisotype rectifier 414 of the photovoltaic cell is fully consistent with the limitation of solar irradiance. The maximum power density of silicon photovoltaic cells is limited by solar irradiance to less than 34 mW/cm 2 . The efficiency of photovoltaic cells is fundamentally limited in that the crystallinity resilience of the p-n non-isotype rectifier 414 is a mobile charge recombination as opposed to the desired crystallinity resilience of charge generation. This is due to the limitations of the contact technology of monocrystalline semiconductors that support extended conduction and valence energy bands across space.

The practical means of exploiting the ability of a monocrystalline silicon lattice to support a wide range of changes in intrinsic state in the absence of any mechanical action is fundamentally limited by its structure. First, monocrystalline silicon can only be epitaxially deposited onto a monocrystalline silicon substrate. Second, the ends of the monocrystalline silicon lattice to electrically contact the monocrystalline silicon lattice result in a Tamm-Shockley state, which is in the forbidden energy region between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band. Fix the electrochemical potential. This fixation of the electrochemical potential results in a rectifying contact independent of the metal workfunction of the electrode. See, eg, Bardeen, "Surface States at a Metal Semi-Conductor Contact" (Phys. Rev. 10 , No. 11, 1947, p.471). The density of Tom-Shockley interface states should be reduced.

With well-known processing techniques, a substantial reduction in the density of Tom-Shockley interfacial states can be realized by terminating the crystalline silicon region with an amorphous silicon dioxide film such that, upon device operation, the surface electrochemical potential spreads across the forbidden energy region. can be tampered with. Field-effect transistors use the ability to modulate the electrical conductivity of a monocrystalline silicon surface by means of a capacitively-coupled electrode by interposing a silicon dioxide thin-film. However, due to the very high resistivity (~10 ¹⁶ Ω-cm) of silicon dioxide, any silicon dioxide must be removed from the semiconductor contact area. In order to significantly reduce the tom-shockley state in the semiconductor contact region, the semiconductor surface is degenerately doped to form an isotype homojunction so that the electrochemical potential of the semiconductor surface is fixed in the conductive or valence energy band.

A metal or silicide can be alloyed on the degenerate semiconductor surface so that mobile charges can tunnel through the potential barrier into the isotype homojunction. Under low-level implantation, the isotype homojunction acts as an ohmic contact to any high-resistivity semiconductor region. However, this type of ohmic contact precludes the use of monocrystalline semiconductors in electrochemical rectifiers where the electrochemical potential varies between external electrodes. These defects, as previously discussed above, replace the native silicon atom with the picocrystalline artificial borane atom 101 to form a self-assembled picocrystalline oxysilaborane that exhibits a bond-orientation sequence compatible with monocrystalline silicon. ) can be cured by replacing

Mobile charge conduction in the p-isotype rectifier 404 is achieved by jumping between the artificial nuclei 104 of picocrystalline borane atoms 101 with a mobility of ˜0.01 cm 2 /V-sec. Although the phonovoltaic cell 400 delivers current to an electrical load under forward-bias conditions, the current density is reduced due to the jump mobility. However, this trade-off provides a much more advantageous power density than that of a photovoltaic cell. To better understand these advantages, a proposed manufacturing cost analysis of the phonovoltaic cell 400 is provided in FIG. 98 . As established, the phonovoltaic file of the p-isotype rectifier 404 in the phonovoltaic cell 400 is deposited in situ within the MOCVD reactor under computer control. The effective processing cost is taken as the processing cost of the phonovoltaic pile of the phonovoltaic cell 400 .

It is assumed that the resistivity due to the jump mobility is 100 μΩ-cm 2 . It is contemplated that this resistivity may be reduced by other additional engineering improvements. The power density of 6.76W/cm2 is more than 200 times greater than that of the p-n non-isotype rectifier of the photovoltaic cell. Unlike the photovoltaic cell, the p-isotype rectifier 404 of the phonovoltaic cell 400 can be deposited in situ within the phonovoltaic file under computer control. For comparison, the phonovoltaic file of FIG. 98 is assumed to contain 36 p-isotype rectifiers 404 . The power density of 243 W/cm 2 consistent with the power density of the thermionic converter of FIG. 99A is four orders of magnitude greater than that of the one-photovoltaic cell. The cost of electricity at $2.25/kW is significantly less than the cost of any known form of renewable energy, and is competitive with combustion.

US Patent No. 307,031 is the first patent granted for any electronic device. Thomas A., the inventor of this patent. Edison (Thomas A. Edison) announced a new phenomenon: "I believe that a conductive material is inserted anywhere in the vacuum space within the sphere of an incandescent lamp, said conductive material being one terminal of the incandescent conductor, preferably the positive terminal. It has been found that if connected to the outside via , part of the current will pass through the shunt-circuit thus formed comprising part of the vacuum space inside the lamp during operation of the lamp.” This phenomenon was later known as the Edison effect. As used herein, the Edison effect is when one metal electrode (referred to as the cathode electrode) is heated by a sufficiently large temperature difference over the other metal electrode (referred to as the anode electrode), a pair in a vacuum region It is a phenomenon of the flow of electric charges between the metal electrodes.

As shown in Figure 99a, when the cathode electrode is heated by a sufficiently large temperature difference over the anode electrode, free electrons are thermionic emitted from the cathode electrode into a vacuum region, where the free electrons themselves cool the anode electrode. spread towards Since no open-circuit current can be present, the cathode potential floats below the anode potential, stopping any open-circuit current. Although thermionic converters are outside the limits of solar irradiance, they are limited by the Carnot efficiency. What is needed is a solid-state Edison effect that is not limited by solar irradiance or Carnot efficiency.

As used herein, the solid-state Edison effect is the phenomenon of charge flow between two metal electrodes, both of which have ambient temperature, wherein the two electrodes have two adjacent regions of different Seebeck coefficients of a solid semiconducting material. and causes a decrease in entropy of the surroundings by the flow of electric charge for any passive electrical load applied directly or indirectly between the metal electrodes. Although transitional charge flow can exist between regions of continuous material of different Seebeck coefficients, the charge flow is a higher-energy anti-bonding energy level due to the increase in mixed entropy between the regions, at least indirectly, due to the Jitterbewegong resonance of the infrared. As a result of the spectral induction of valence electrons, and only in this case, it continues continuously.

Although Maxwell considered spectral derivation in his seminar paper "On Physical Lines of Force" in 1861, the practical use of spectral derivation never occurred in the prior art. This is due to the impossibility of proper utilization of jitterbebegung in real materials and devices so far. The phonovoltaic cell 400 uses near-infrared jitterbewegong resonance to move charges through space in a new and useful way. Another preferred embodiment of the present invention uses the microwave jitter-bewe curve of equation (79b) to displace an electrical action, not a charge, through space in a way that generalizes Maxwell's displacement current. Maxwell's electrical motion is displaced across space by an externally-applied time-dependent and periodic driving force, whereas electrical motion is here essentially displaced by a jitterbewegung.

In Part 3 of "On Physical Lines of Force," Maxwell put it this way: "Here we have two independent body qualities. One allows them to pass electricity, the other One is to allow electrical motion to pass through without passing electricity.... As long as an electromotive force acts on a conductor, it creates an electric current, and because the current meets a resistance, it causes a continuous conversion of electrical energy into heat. and it is impossible for the heat to be restored to electrical energy by any reversal of the process.In dielectrics under induction, we see that the electricity in each molecule is displaced so that one becomes positive and the other is negative, but the electricity is It is conceivable that they are fully connected through

Maxwell's displacement current is not an actual current associated with the movement of an electric charge through space, but rather an electrical action displaced due to a time-dependent electric field. The displacement of an electric charge in a conductor is due to a time-independent electric field. The electric field ( E ) is generally the force per unit charge such that the charge displacement in a conductor in response to the charge ( E ) constitutes a form of work accompanied by Joule heat. Maxwell emphasized that the displacement of a charge unipolar in a conductor is always accompanied by the conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy. Displacement of electricity involves an electromotive force that is never regulated by normal mechanical forces. What is needed in the art is an electric field-free material in which electricity is displaced by an electromotive force.

The operation of the phonovoltaic cell 400 of the present invention involves the displacement of an electric charge through space by leaping between the artificial nuclei 104, while another preferred embodiment takes the space with all valence electrons remaining in molecular bonds. It involves a new displacement of electrical action through To achieve this condition, the physical impact of the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of the native boron atom 102 must be eliminated. According to this specific purpose, a trace metal impurity may be introduced at an impurity concentration equal to the impurity concentration due to the nuclear electric quadrupole moment of the native boron atom 102, which is clarified by one example.

Example 15

Referring to FIG. 100 , a silicon dioxide film 532 was deposited on a gallium arsenide substrate 531 . A titanium film 533 and a gold film 534 were deposited over the silicon dioxide film 532 . A substrate 531 was loaded onto a resistance-heated susceptor in the MOCVD chamber of D-125 of Example 14. The chamber was mechanically pumped to less than 50 mtorr, where the diborane mixture B ₂ H ₆ (3%)/H ₂ (97%) at 3% volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 360 seem and 2% volume in hydrogen at a flow rate of 1,300 seem A monosilane mixture of SiH ₄ (2%)/H ₂ (93%) was introduced into the deposition chamber. Simultaneously, undiluted nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) was introduced at a flow rate of 150 sccm. The reactant gases were allowed to mix and stabilize before entering the deposition chamber. Upon stabilization of the gas flow rate, the chamber pressure was adjusted to 20 torr, and the molybdenum susceptor was rotated at 1,100 rpm.

The substrate temperature was raised to 240° C. by a resistance-heating rotating susceptor. After stabilization at the deposition temperature of 240° C., the chemical reaction proceeded for 20 minutes, where the susceptor heating was stopped, and the sample was cooled to below 80° C. before being removed from the chamber. An oxysilaborane film 535 was deposited over the gold film 534 as shown in FIG. 100 . The film thickness was measured to be 91.8 nm by variable-angle spectroscopic ellipsography. The XPS depth profile of FIG. 101 determined that the relative atomic concentrations of boron, silicon, and oxygen, respectively, in the oxysilaborane film 535 were 85.2%, 10.0%, and 3.8%. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) was performed to determine the trace impurity concentration of gold in the oxysilaborane membrane 535 .

The SIMS depth profile in FIG. 102 set the gold atomic concentration to -10 ¹⁸ cm ^-3 . RBS and HFS analysis determined the relative atomic concentrations of boron, hydrogen, silicon and oxygen to be 70%, 17%, 10% and 3%, respectively. Metal electrodes 536 and 537 were deposited over the gold film according to FIG. 103 by evaporating aluminum through a shadow mask in a vertical evaporator. The current-voltage characteristics of the oxysilaborane film 535 were measured by an HP-4145 parameter analyzer using two sweeping signals obtained by a microprobe positioned on the metal electrodes 536 and 537. A graph of the current-voltage characteristic of the oxysilaborane film 535 is shown in FIG. 104 . The current-voltage characteristic shows ohmic conduction through the 2.9Ω resistance due to the microprobe measuring device.

The incorporation of gold as a trace impurity substantially changes the electrically conductive properties of the oxysilaborane film 535 . It is believed that a logical explanation for the change in conduction due to trace incorporation of coinage metals such as gold was given by Maxwell's developments in electromagnetism. Reconstruction of Maxwell's equations is described in detail in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848 [0682] to [0703], which is incorporated herein by reference. Maxwell's reconstruction field equation can be expressed as:

)를 포함하도록 식 (80c)에서 암페어의 회로 법칙의 일반화를 초래하였다. 맥스웰의 변위 전류는 실제 전하의 변위 없이 공간을 통한 전자기 에너지의 변위를 지원한다. 맥스웰의 변위 전류에 의해 공간을 통해 전파하는 복사의 전력 플럭스 밀도는 포인팅 벡터 (E×H)에 의해 표시된다. 맥스웰의 변위 전류로 인한 전자기 복사의 경우, 공간을 통해 변위된 복사 전력은 일종의 외부 주기적 구동력에 의해 제공되어야 한다. 맥스웰의 재구성된 전계 방정식은 종래 기술에서 알려지지 않은 스펙트럼 유도(

B)와 스펙트럼 변위 전류 밀도(

D)를 포함하도록 식 (75a 내지 75d)에서 더 일반화된다.The integration of electricity and magnetism by Maxwell is the displacement current density (

) resulted in a generalization of Ampere's circuit law in equation (80c) to include Maxwell's displacement currents support the displacement of electromagnetic energy through space without the displacement of an actual charge. The power flux density of radiation propagating through space by Maxwell's displacement current is denoted by a pointing vector ( E×H ). In the case of electromagnetic radiation due to Maxwell's displacement current, the radiant power displaced through space must be provided by some kind of external periodic driving force. Maxwell's reconstructed electric field equation is a spectral derivation (

B ) and the spectral displacement current density (

D ) is further generalized in equations (75a to 75d) to include

B)의 완전한 형태는 디락의 상대론적 파동 방정식에 다음과 같이 감추어져 있다:As further described in [0757] to [0780] of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848, and incorporated herein by reference, spectral derivation (

The complete form of B ) is hidden in Dirac's relativistic wave equation:

The following relationship is derived from [0757] to [0780] of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/591,848, which is incorporated herein by reference.

The above relationship is due to the merger of the Klein-Gordon and Schrodinger equations followed by Dirac, which includes a hitherto unknown pair of terms in the prior art. The above relation is reduced to the Klein-Gordon equation when the two terms, hitherto unknown, are equal.

)은 식 (79b)에 의해 기술된 마이크로웨이브 지터베베궁에 속한다. 상술한 바와 같이, 마이크로웨이브 지터베베궁의 존재는 종래 기술에서는 알려지지 않았다. 식 (83)에서 위의 관계는 본 명세서에서 마이크로웨이브 지터베베궁 아하로노프-봄(Aharonov-Bohm) 효과라고 하는 새롭고 유용한 현상을 나타낸다. 마이크로웨이브 지터베베궁 아하로노프-봄 효과는 어떠한 외부 기관의 도움없이 공간을 통해 전자기 전력 밀도(E×H)를 변위시킬 수 있는 피코결정성 옥시실라보란 내의 주기적인 구동력을 발생시키는 것으로 여겨진다.The term on the right side of equation (83) (

) belongs to the microwave jitterbewegung described by equation (79b). As mentioned above, the existence of microwave jitterbebe is unknown in the prior art. The above relationship in equation (83) represents a new and useful phenomenon referred to herein as the microwave jitterbebegung Aharonov-Bohm effect. The microwave jitterbebegung Akharonoff-Bomb effect is believed to generate a periodic driving force in phycocrystalline oxysilaborane that can displace electromagnetic power density ( E×H ) through space without the aid of any external organ.

As the physical size of monolithic integrated circuits is extended to the molecular size, the extended energy band of the conventional scaling paradigm is disrupted for fundamental reasons due to Heisenberg's quantum condition. The scaling paradigm of integrated circuits in the prior art involves planar scaling of a covalently-bonded semiconductor region in which a charge monopole is displaced in an extended energy band, where the average free path of a charge monopole in the extended energy band is generally It is many orders of magnitude larger than the interatomic spacing of atoms in the host semiconductor lattice. This type of charge monopole displacement exists in front end of line (FEOL) fabrication as well as back end of line (BEOL) fabrication of integrated circuits.

To reduce the detrimental resistive effect, the BEOL interconnect has been modified from aluminum to copper in the prior art. However, since the average free path of electrons in copper is 39 nm, a large increase in resistivity occurs when the copper line width is scaled to less than 50 nm. In a related manner, parasitic leakage current occurs when the feature size of a silicon transistor is scaled below about 28 nm because of the fundamental impossibility of confining a mobile charge monopole within an extended energy band spanning space. Many other deleterious scaling effects arise in response to attempts to confine mobile charge monopoles in the extended energy bands of deep-nanoscale integrated circuits. There is a need for a new type of integrated electric displacement that does not involve the actual displacement of a single pole of charge across space. The microwave jitterbebegung Aharonov-Bomb effect is useful.

D)를 지원하는 것으로 여겨진다. 결과적으로, 본 발명의 바람직한 양태는 실효 전류 밀도가 소정의 최대 전류 밀도를 초과하지 않는 한 이상적으로 실온 초전도체로서 작용하는 것으로 여겨진다. 상기 최대 전류 밀도는 그래핀의 최대 전류 밀도에 필적할만한 것으로 또한 여겨진다. 본 발명의 피코결정성 옥시실라보란은, 피코결정성 옥시실라보란의 증착이 그래핀과 달리 저온, 등각 증기상-증착에 의한 것이라는 점에서 BEOL 상호연결부로서 매우 유용하다. 산소가 없이 금-도핑된 피코결정성 실라보란은 BEOL 상호연결부로서 가장 유용하다고 여겨진다.The electromagnetic power density ( E × H ) displaced through space by the microwave jitterbebegung Akharonoff-Bomb effect is the spectral displacement current density (

D ) is believed to support. Consequently, it is believed that preferred embodiments of the present invention ideally function as room temperature superconductors as long as the effective current density does not exceed a predetermined maximum current density. It is also believed that the maximum current density is comparable to that of graphene. The picocrystalline oxysilaborane of the present invention is very useful as a BEOL interconnect in that the deposition of the picocrystalline oxysilaborane is by low-temperature, conformal vapor-phase-deposition unlike graphene. Oxygen-free, gold-doped picocrystalline silaborane is believed to be most useful as a BEOL interconnect.

Incorporation of trace impurity concentrations of gold atoms (˜10 ¹⁸ cm ⁻³ ) in gold-doped picocrystalline silaborane can be realized by including a gold precursor in the forming gas that results in the deposition of picocrystalline silaborane. A preferred gold precursor is a volatile organometallic dimethyl gold(III) complex, with dimethyl gold(III) acetate (CH ₃ ) ₂ Au(OAc) being the preferred gold precursor. The gold precursor may be introduced as a forming gas by a hydrogen carrier gas in a MOCVD reactor. By introducing gold impurities, the electrical conductivity of the picocrystalline silaborane and the picocrystalline oxysilaborane can be increased in a substantially controlled manner.

Claims (101)

As a device,
a first conductor layer;
a first boron layer in contact with the first conductor layer, the first boron layer comprising icosahedral boron and hydrogen and having a relative atomic concentration of boron greater than any other atom;
a second boron layer in contact with the first boron layer, the second boron layer comprising icosahedral boron, hydrogen and oxygen and having a relative atomic concentration of boron greater than any other atom; and
a second conductor layer in contact with the second boron layer. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the device is a phonovoltaic cell useful as part of a phonovoltaic pile of one or more adjacent phonovoltaic cells;
An electrical potential is generated between the first conductor layer and the second conductor layer. The device of claim 1 , wherein the device is a rectifier having an asymmetric electrical conductance between the first and second conductor layers. An integrated circuit comprising:
a first circuit element;
a second circuit element; and
a conductor comprising icosahedral boron and hydrogen and having a relative atomic concentration of boron greater than any other atom;
the conductor further comprises a trace amount of coinage metal;
wherein the conductor electrically connects a first circuit element to a second circuit element within the integrated circuit. 4. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the first boron layer further comprises silicon, the first boron layer is silaborane, or the first boron layer is picocrystalline silaborane. , device. According to claim 5, wherein the silaborane is (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y silaborane having the formula of 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4 and 3≤y≤5, (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y , wherein 2≤x≤4 and 3≤y≤5 silaborane, or (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ . 4. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the second boron layer further comprises silicon, the second boron layer is oxysilaborane, or the second boron layer is picocrystalline oxysila. Boran, Device. The method of claim 7, wherein the oxysilaborane is (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y O _z (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5 and 0<z≤3) oxysilaborane having the formula of (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z (wherein 2≤x≤4, 3≤y≤5 and 0<z≤3) (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ₂ , which is an oxysilaborane having the formula. The device according to claim 1 , wherein the first and second conductor layers are each a metal electrode, wherein the metal electrode may be aluminum. The device of claim 1 , wherein the relative atomic concentration of boron in the first boron layer and the second boron layer is at least 50% greater than any other atom. The device of claim 1 , wherein the icosahedral symmetry of the first and second boron layers is free of Jahn-Teller distortion. The device of claim 1 , wherein the first boron layer has a thickness of 4 nm or less and the second boron layer has a thickness of 4 nm or less. The device of claim 2 , wherein the phonovoltaic pile is formed of at least two phonovoltaic cells, and the second conductor of the first phonovoltaic cell forms the first conductor of the second phonovoltaic cell. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the conductor is oxysilaborane, the conductor is picocrystalline oxysilaborane, or the conductor is (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y O _z (where 3≤w≤5, 2≤ oxysilaborane having the formula of x≤4, 3≤y≤5 and 0<z≤3, or the conductor is (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y O _z (where 2≤x≤4, 3 ≤y≤5 and 0<z≤3), or the conductor is picocrystalline oxysilaborane with the formula (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₂ Si ₄ O ₂ , integrated circuits. 5. The method of claim 4,
(a) the conductor is substantially free of grains;
(b) the conductor may be formed using vapor deposition, or
(c) the coinage metal is incorporated into the conductor in an atomic concentration of up to 10 ¹⁸ cm ^-3 ;
(d) the resistance of the conductor is less than the resistance of a copper conductor of the same dimension,
(e) said coinage metal is gold, said gold being capable of being incorporated into said conductor in an atomic concentration of up to 10 ¹⁸ cm ^-3 ;
(f) the conductor carries electrical energy without carrying an electric charge, or
(g) the conductor forms a Back End Of Line (BEOL) interconnect. 5. The integrated circuit of claim 4, wherein the conductor further comprises silicon, the conductor is silaborane, or the conductor is picocrystalline silaborane. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the silaborane is (B ₁₂ H _w ) _x Si _y silaborane having the formula of 3≤w≤5, 2≤x≤4 and 3≤y≤5, (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) _x Si _y , wherein 2≤x≤4 and 3≤y≤5 silaborane, or (B ₁₂ H ₄ ) ₃ Si ₅ , an integrated circuit. . 5. The integrated circuit of claim 4, wherein the relative atomic concentration of boron in the conductor is at least 50% greater than any other atom. 5. The integrated circuit of claim 4, wherein the icosahedral symmetry of the conductor is free of Jan-Teller distortion.
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