Classifications

• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M6/00—Primary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M6/14—Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte
  • H01M6/18—Cells with non-aqueous electrolyte with solid electrolyte
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M10/00—Secondary cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M10/36—Accumulators not provided for in groups H01M10/05-H01M10/34
  • H01M10/39—Accumulators not provided for in groups H01M10/05-H01M10/34 working at high temperature
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M4/00—Electrodes
  • H01M4/02—Electrodes composed of, or comprising, active material
  • H01M4/36—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids
  • H01M4/58—Selection of substances as active materials, active masses, active liquids of inorganic compounds other than oxides or hydroxides, e.g. sulfides, selenides, tellurides, halogenides or LiCoFy; of polyanionic structures, e.g. phosphates, silicates or borates
  • H01M4/582—Halogenides
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M8/00—Fuel cells; Manufacture thereof
  • H01M8/18—Regenerative fuel cells, e.g. redox flow batteries or secondary fuel cells
• • H—ELECTRICITY
  • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
  • H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
  • H01M2300/00—Electrolytes
  • H01M2300/0017—Non-aqueous electrolytes
  • H01M2300/0065—Solid electrolytes
  • H01M2300/0068—Solid electrolytes inorganic
  • H01M2300/0071—Oxides
  • H01M2300/0074—Ion conductive at high temperature
  • H01M2300/0077—Ion conductive at high temperature based on zirconium oxide
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/10—Energy storage using batteries
• • Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
  • Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
  • Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
  • Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
  • Y02E60/30—Hydrogen technology
  • Y02E60/50—Fuel cells

Definitions

• the present disclosure relates in general to batteries. More particularly, the present disclosure provides a sodium-based secondary cell (or rechargeable battery) with a sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane and a liquid positive electrode solution that comprises a halogen and/or a halide.
• Batteries are known devices that are used to store and release electrical energy for a variety of uses. In order to produce electrical energy, batteries typically convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy. Generally, a single battery includes one or more galvanic cells, wherein each of the cells is made of two half-cells that are electrically isolated except through an external circuit. During discharge, electrochemical reduction occurs at the cell's positive electrode, while electrochemical oxidation occurs at the cell's negative electrode. While the positive electrode and the negative electrode in the cell do not physically touch each other, they are generally chemically connected by at least one (or more) ionically conductive and electrically insulative electrolytes, which can either be in a solid state, a liquid state, or in a combination of such states. When an external circuit, or a load, is connected to a terminal that is connected to the negative electrode and to a terminal that is connected to the positive electrode, the battery drives electrons through the external circuit, while ions migrate through the electrolyte.
• Batteries can be classified in a variety of manners. For example, batteries that are completely discharged only once are often referred to as primary batteries or primary cells. In contrast, batteries that can be discharged and recharged more than once are often referred to as secondary batteries or secondary cells. The ability of a cell or battery to be charged and discharged multiple times depends on the Faradaic efficiency of each charge and discharge cycle.
• rechargeable batteries based on sodium can comprise a variety of materials and designs, most, if not all, sodium batteries that require a high Faradaic efficiency employ a solid primary electrolyte separator, such as a solid ceramic primary electrolyte membrane.
• a solid primary electrolyte separator such as a solid ceramic primary electrolyte membrane.
• the principal advantage of using a solid ceramic primary electrolyte membrane is that the Faradaic efficiency of the resulting cell approaches 100%. Indeed, in almost all other cell designs, electrode solutions in the cell are able to intermix over time and, thereby, cause a drop in Faradaic efficiency and loss of battery capacity.
• the primary electrolyte separators used in sodium batteries that require a high Faradaic efficiency often consist of ionically conductive polymers, porous materials infiltrated with ionically conductive liquids or gels, or dense ceramics.
• many rechargeable sodium batteries that are presently available for commercial applications comprise a molten sodium metal negative electrode, a sodium ⁇ ''-alumina ceramic electrolyte separator, and a molten positive electrode, which may include a composite of molten sulfur and carbon (called a sodium/sulfur cell).
• sodium-based rechargeable batteries may have significant shortcomings.
• the sodium ⁇ ''-alumina ceramic electrolyte separator is typically more conductive and is better wetted by molten sodium at a temperature in excess of about 270° C and/or because the molten positive electrode typically requires relatively high temperatures (e.g., temperatures above about 170° or 180° C) to remain molten
• many conventional sodium-based rechargeable batteries operate at temperatures higher than about 270° C and are subject to significant thermal management problems and thermal sealing issues.
• some sodium-based rechargeable batteries may have difficulty dissipating heat from the batteries or maintaining the negative electrode and the positive electrode at the relatively high operating temperatures.
• the relatively high operating temperatures of some sodium-based batteries can create significant safety issues.
• the relatively high operating temperatures of some sodium-based batteries require their components to be resistant to, and operable at, such high temperatures. Accordingly, such components can be relatively expensive.
• such batteries can be expensive to operate and energy inefficient.
• the present disclosure provides a sodium-halogen secondary cell. While the described sodium-halogen secondary cell can include any suitable component, in some embodiments, it includes a negative electrode compartment housing a negative, sodium-based electrode. In such embodiments, the cell also includes a positive electrode compartment housing a current collector disposed in a liquid positive electrode solution that includes a halogen and/or a halide. The cell also includes a sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane that separates the negative electrode from the liquid positive electrode solution.
• the negative electrode can comprise any suitable sodium-based anode, in some embodiments, it comprises a sodium metal that is molten as the cell operates. In other implementations, however, the negative electrode comprises a sodium anode or a sodium intercalating carbon that remains solid as the cell functions. In some such implementations in which the negative electrode remains in a solid state as the cell operates, the cell includes a non-aqueous anolyte solution that is disposed between the negative electrode and the electrolyte membrane.
• the sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane can comprise any membrane (which is used herein to refer to any suitable type of separator) that: selectively transports sodium ions; is stable at the cell's operating temperature; is stable when in contact with the positive electrode solution and the negative electrode (or the non-aqueous anolyte); and otherwise allows the cell to function as intended.
• the electrolyte membrane comprises a NaSICON-type membrane (e.g., a NaSELECT® membrane, produced by Ceramatec, in Salt Lake City, Utah) that is substantially impermeable to water.
• the water impermeable electrolyte membrane can allow the positive electrode solution to comprise an aqueous solution, which would react violently if it were to contact the sodium negative electrode.
• the current collector in the positive electrode compartment can comprise any suitable material that allows the cell to function as intended.
• the current collector comprises a wire, felt, mesh, plate, foil, tube, foam, or other suitable current collector configuration.
• the current collector can comprise any suitable material, in some implementations, it includes carbon, platinum, copper, nickel, zinc, a sodium intercalation cathode material (e.g., NaxMn0 2 ), and/or any other suitable current collector material.
• the liquid positive electrode solution in the positive electrode compartment can comprise any suitable material that is capable of conducting sodium ions to and from the electrolyte membrane and that otherwise allows the cell to function as intended.
• suitable positive electrode solution materials include, but are not limited to, aqueous (e.g. , dimethyl sulfoxide, NMF (N-methylformamide), ethylene glycol, and the like) and non-aqueous (e.g., glycerol, ionic liquid, organic electrolyte, etc.) solvents that readily conduct sodium ions and that are chemically compatible with the electrolyte membrane.
• the positive electrode solution comprises a molten fluorosulfonyl amide (e.g., l-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-(bis(fluorosulfonyl) amide) (' ' [EMIM] [F S A] ”) .
• a molten fluorosulfonyl amide e.g., l-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-(bis(fluorosulfonyl) amide
• the positive electrode solution also comprises a halogen and/or halide.
• suitable halogens include bromine, iodine, and chlorine.
• suitable halides include bromide ions, polybromide ions, iodide ions, polyiodide ions, chloride ions, and polychloride ions. While the halogen/halide can be introduced into the positive electrode solution in any suitable manner, in some embodiments, they are added as NaBr, Nal, or NaCl.
• the described cell is modified to limit the amount of free-floating halogen that is present in the positive electrode solution and/or in the positive electrode compartment.
• halogen in the cell can be reduced and/or controlled in any suitable manner, in some implementations, it is done by: including a sufficient amount of a sodium halide (e.g., NaBr, Nal, etc.) and/or an elemental halogen (e.g., bromine, iodine, etc.) to form polyhalides (e.g., Br ⁇ , I ⁇ , etc.) from free halogen molecules in the positive electrode solution; by adding a complexing agent (e.g., tetramethyl ammonium bromide, tetramethyl ammonium iodide, N-methyl-N-methylmorpholinium bromide, N- methyl-N-methyl-morpholinium iodide, etc.) that is capable of forming an adduct (or otherwise complexing) with halides, halogens, and/or polyhalides in the positive electrode solution; using a current collector comprising a metal (e.g., copper, nickel, nickel
• the casing of the cell may be made of peak stainless steel with Teflon® on the inside, although other less expensive materials, such as other types of stainless steel, may also be used.
• a cathode chamber may be made of a polyether ether ketone (PEEK) with a Teflon® lining. Teflon® is a registered trademark of the DuPont Company.
• the cell includes a first reservoir that is in fluid communication with the positive electrode compartment.
• the reservoir is connected to a pumping mechanism that is configured to force the liquid positive electrode solution to flow from the reservoir and past the current collector in the positive electrode compartment.
• the cell also includes a second reservoir that is in fluid communication with the negative electrode compartment.
• the reservoir is connected to a pumping mechanism that is configured to force the molten negative electrode (or the non-aqueous anolyte) to flow from the reservoir and through the negative electrode compartment.
• the described secondary cell may operate at any suitable operating temperature. Indeed, in some implementations in which the negative electrode is molten as the cell operates, the cell functions (e.g., is discharged or recharged) while the temperature of the negative electrode is between about 100 °C and about 150 °C (e.g., about 120 °C ⁇ about 10 °C). Additionally, in some implementations in which the negative electrode remains in a solid state as the cell functions, the temperature of the negative electrode remains below about 60 °C (e.g., about 20 °C ⁇ about 10 °C). Further embodiments may be designed in which the cell operates at less than 250 °C, or at less than 200 °C, or at less than 180 °C, or at less than 150 °C, etc.
• Figure 1 depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of a sodium- halogen secondary cell comprising a molten sodium negative electrode, wherein the cell is in the process of being discharged;
• Figure 1A depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of a sodium-halogen secondary cell comprising a molten sodium negative electrode and a pumping mechanism, wherein the cell is in the process of being discharged;
• Figure 2 depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell comprising the molten sodium negative electrode, wherein the cell is in the process of being recharged;
• Figure 2A depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell comprising the molten sodium negative electrode and a pumping mechanism, wherein the cell is in the process of being recharged;
• Figure 3 depicts a cross-sectional perspective view of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell, wherein the cell comprises a tubular design in which a negative electrode compartment is at least partially disposed within a positive electrode compartment of the cell;
• Figure 3A depicts a cross-sectional perspective view of another representative embodiment of a sodium-halogen secondary cell, wherein the cell comprises a tubular design in which a negative electrode compartment is at least partially disposed within a positive electrode compartment of the cell;
• Figure 4 depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell, wherein the cell comprises a solid negative electrode and a non-aqueous anolyte solution disposed between the negative electrode and a solid sodium conductive electrolyte membrane;
• Figure 4A depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell, wherein the cell comprises a solid negative electrode, a pumping mechanism and a non-aqueous anolyte solution disposed between the negative electrode and a solid sodium conductive electrolyte membrane;
• Figures 5A and 5B each contain a cross-sectional micrograph of a representative embodiment of a NaSICON-type material suitable for use with some embodiments of the invention
• Figure 6 depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell, wherein a positive electrode solution in the cell comprises a molten sodium halide and a molten sodium fluourosulfonyl amide;
• Figure 6 A depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell with a pumping mechanism, wherein a positive electrode solution in the cell comprises a molten sodium halide and a molten sodium fluourosulfonyl amide;
• Figure 7A depicts a schematic diagram of a representative embodiment of the sodium-halogen secondary cell with a pumping mechanism, wherein the cell is configured to cause the positive electrode solution to flow through the positive electrode compartment and to cause the negative electrode to flow through a negative electrode compartment of the cell;
• Figures 8-12 each depict a graph showing experimental results obtained from a test run of representative embodiments of an experimental cell
• Figure 13 is a schematic drawing of another cell according to the present disclosure.
• Figure 14 is a schematic drawing of another cell according to the present disclosure.
• Figure 15 is a schematic drawing of another cell according to the present disclosure.
• Figure 16 is a schematic drawing of another cell according to the present disclosure.
• Figures 17-21 each depict a graph showing experimental results obtained from a test run of representative embodiments of an experimental cell.
• Figures 22A and 22B depict schematic representation of the secondary cell similar to Figs. 2 and 2A, above, showing details of battery chemistries 1 and 2.
• the present embodiments provide a sodium-halogen secondary cell, which includes a negative electrode comprising sodium and a liquid positive electrode solution that comprises at least one of a halogen and a halide.
• the described cell can comprise any suitable component
• Figure 1 shows a representative embodiment in which the sodium- halogen secondary cell 10 comprises a negative electrode compartment 15 that includes a sodium-based negative electrode 20, a positive electrode compartment 25 that comprises a current collector 30 that is disposed in a liquid positive electrode solution 35, a sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane 40 that separates the negative electrode from the positive electrode solution, a first terminal 45, and a second terminal 50.
• a brief description of how the cell functions is provided below. Following this discussion, each of the cell's components shown in Figure 1 is discussed in more detail.
• Figure 1 illustrates that as the cell 10 is discharged and electrons (e ) flow from the negative electrode 20 (e.g., via the first terminal 45), sodium is oxidized from the negative electrode 20 to form sodium ions (Na + ).
• Figure 1 shows these sodium ions are respectively transported from the sodium-based negative electrode 20, through the sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane 40, and to the positive electrode solution 35.
• Figure 2 shows that as the secondary cell 10 is recharged and electrons (e ) flow into the sodium-based negative electrode 20 from an external power source (not shown), such as a recharger, the chemical reactions that occurred when the cell 10 was discharged (as shown in Figure 1) are reversed.
• Figure 2 shows that as the cell 10 is recharged, sodium ions (Na + ) are respectively transported from the positive electrode solution 35, through the electrolyte membrane 40, and to the negative electrode 20, where the sodium ions are reduced to form sodium metal (Na).
• the cell can comprise a negative electrode compartment 15 and a positive electrode compartment 25.
• the two compartments can be any suitable shape or size and have any other suitable characteristic that allows the cell 10 to function as intended.
• the negative electrode compartment and the positive electrode compartments can be tubular, rectangular, or be any other suitable shape.
• the two compartments can have any suitable spatial relationship with respect to each other.
• Figure 3 shows some embodiments in which one compartment (e.g., the negative electrode compartment 15) is disposed, at least partially, within the other compartment (e.g., the positive electrode compartment 25), while the contents of the two compartments remain separated by the electrolyte membrane 40 and any other compartmental walls.
• one compartment e.g., the negative electrode compartment 15
• the other compartment e.g., the positive electrode compartment 25
• the cell 10 can comprise any suitable sodium-based negative electrode 20 that allows the cell 10 to function (e.g., be discharged and recharged) as intended.
• suitable sodium-based negative electrode materials include, but are not limited to, a sodium sample that is substantially pure, a sodium alloy comprising any other suitable sodium-containing negative electrode material, and a sodium intercalation material.
• the negative electrode comprises or consists of an amount of sodium that is substantially pure. In other embodiments, however, the negative electrode comprises or consists of a sodium intercalation material.
• the intercalation material can comprise any suitable material that allows sodium metal in the negative electrode to be oxidized to form sodium ions (Na + ) as the cell 10 is discharged, and that also allows sodium ions to be reduced and to intercalate with the intercalation material as the cell is recharged.
• the intercalation material also comprises a material that causes little to no increase in the resistance of the electrolyte membrane 40 (discussed below). In other words, in some embodiments, the intercalation material readily transports sodium ions there through and has little to no adverse effect on the rate at which sodium ions pass from the negative electrode compartment 15 to the positive electrode compartment 25 (and vice versa).
• the intercalation material in the negative electrode 20 comprises sodium metal (and/or a sodium metal alloy) intercalated with carbon ⁇ e.g., graphite, mesoporous carbon, boron-doped diamond, carbon, and/or graphene).
• carbon e.g., graphite, mesoporous carbon, boron-doped diamond, carbon, and/or graphene.
• some embodiments of the negative electrode comprise a sodium intercalating carbon material.
• the sodium-based negative electrode 20 may be at any suitable temperature that allows the cell to function as intended. Indeed, in some embodiments ⁇ e.g., embodiments in which the negative electrode comprises sodium metal), the cell functions at any suitable operating temperature that allows the negative electrode to be molten as the cell functions. Indeed, in some embodiments in which the cell comprises a molten negative electrode, the temperature of the negative electrode as the cell functions (or the operating temperature) is between about 100 °C and about 155 °C. In other embodiments, the operating temperature of the cell is between about 110 °C and about 150 °C.
• the operating temperature of the cell is between about 115 °C and about 125 °C.
• the cell has an operating temperature that falls within any sub-range of the aforementioned operating temperature ranges ⁇ e.g., about 120 °C ⁇ 2 °C).
• the cell may operate at higher temperatures, such as less than 250 °C, less than 200 °C, less than 180 °C, etc.
• the negative electrode 20 remains solid as the cell 10 operates (e.g.
• the cell functions at any suitable operating temperature that allows the cell to function as intended.
• the operating temperature of the cell is between about -20 °C and about 98 °C.
• the operating temperature of the cell is between about 18 °C and about 65 °C.
• the operating temperature of the cell is between about 20 °C and about 60 °C.
• the operating temperature of the cell is between about 30 °C and about 50 °C.
• the negative electrode remains in a solid state as the cell operates, the cell has an operating temperature that falls within any sub-range of the aforementioned operating temperature ranges (e.g., about 20 °C ⁇ 10 °C).
• the negative electrode 20 is in direct contact with (and/or wets) the electrolyte membrane 40
• the negative electrode is optionally not in direct contact with the electrolyte membrane.
• Figure 4 shows that, in some embodiments in which the negative electrode 20 remains solid as the cell 10 operates, a non-aqueous anolyte solution 65 separates the negative electrode 20 from the electrolyte membrane 40.
• the non-aqueous anolyte solution can perform any suitable function, including, without limitation, providing a physical buffer between the negative electrode and the electrolyte membrane to prevent (or at least impede) the negative electrode from cracking or otherwise damaging the electrolyte membrane.
• the anolyte solution can comprise any suitable chemical that is chemically compatible with the negative electrode 20 and the electrolyte membrane 40, and that is sufficiently conductive to allow sodium ions to pass from the negative electrode to the electrolyte membrane and vice versa.
• suitable non-aqueous anolytes include, but are not limited to, propylene carbonate; ethylene carbonate; one or more organic electrolytes, ionic liquids, polar aprotic organic solvents, polysiloxane compounds, acetonitrile base compounds, etc.; ethylacetate; and/or any other suitable non-aqueous liquid and/or gel.
• the membrane can comprise any suitable material that selectively transports sodium ions and permits the cell 10 to function with a non-aqueous positive electrode solution 35 or an aqueous positive electrode solution 35.
• the electrolyte membrane comprises a NaSICON-type (sodium Super Ion CONductive) material.
• the NaSICON-type material may comprise any known or novel NaSICON-type material that is suitable for use with the described cell 10.
• the NaSICON-type membrane comprises Na 3 Si 2 Zr 2 POi 2 .
• the NaSICON-type membrane comprises one or more NaSELECT ® materials, produced by Ceramatec, Inc. in Salt Lake City, Utah.
• the NaSICON-type membrane comprises a known or novel composite, cermet-supported NaSICON membrane.
• the composite NaSICON membrane can comprise any suitable component, including, without limitation, a porous NaSICON-cermet layer that comprises NiO/NaSICON or any other suitable cermet layer, and a dense NaSICON layer.
• the NaSICON membrane comprises a monoclinic ceramic.
• the electrolyte membrane 40 comprises a first porous substrate 70 ⁇ e.g., a relatively thick, porous NaSICON-type material) supporting a relatively thin, dense layer 75 of a NaSICON-type material.
• the first porous substrate can perform any suitable function, including acting as a scaffold for the dense layer.
• some implementations of the electrolyte membrane can minimize ohmic polarization loss at the relatively low operating temperatures discussed above.
• the electrolyte membrane can have a relatively high mechanical strength ⁇ e.g., such that it allows the pressure in the cell 10 to change as the cell is pressurized, operated, etc.).
• the porous substrate layer 70 can be any suitable thickness, in some embodiments, it is between about 50 ⁇ and about 1250 ⁇ thick. In other embodiments, the porous substrate layer is between about 500 ⁇ and about ⁇ , ⁇ thick. In still other embodiments, the porous substrate layer is between about 700 ⁇ and about 980 ⁇ . In still other embodiments, the porous substrate layer has a thickness that falls in any suitable subrange of the aforementioned ranges (e.g., between about 740 ⁇ and about 960 ⁇ ).
• the dense layer 75 on the substrate layer 70 can be any suitable thickness that allows the cell 10 to function as intended. Indeed, in some embodiments the dense layer (e.g., a dense layer of a NaSICON-type material) has a thickness between about 20 ⁇ and about 400 ⁇ . In other embodiments, the dense layer has a thickness between about 45 ⁇ and about 260 ⁇ . In still other embodiments, the dense layer has a thickness that falls in any sub-range of the aforementioned thicknesses (e.g., about 50 ⁇ ⁇ ⁇ ).
• the electrolyte membrane 40 can have any suitable sodium conductivity that allows the cell 10 to operate as intended. Indeed, in some embodiments (e.g., where the electrolyte membrane comprises NaSELECT ® or another suitable NaSICON-type material),
• the electrolyte membrane has a conductivity of between about 4x10 " S/cm " and about
• the NaSICON-type material may provide the cell 10 with several beneficial characteristics.
• NaSICON-type materials as opposed to a sodium ⁇ ''-alumina ceramic electrolyte separator, are substantially impermeable to, and stable in the presence of, water, NaSICON-type materials can allow the cell to include a positive electrode solution 35, such as an aqueous positive electrode solution, that would otherwise be incompatible with the sodium negative electrode 20.
• a NaSICON-type membrane as the electrolyte membrane can allow the cell to have a wide range of battery chemistries.
• NaSICON-type membranes As another example of a beneficial characteristic that can be associated with NaSICON-type membranes, because such membranes selectively transport sodium ions but do not allow the negative electrode 20 and the positive electrode solutions 35 to mix, such membranes can help the cell to have minimal capacity fade and to have a relatively stable shelf life at ambient temperatures. Indeed, some NaSICON-type materials (e.g., NaSELECT ® membranes) eliminate self-discharge, crossover, and/or related system inefficiencies due to the materials' solid-solid perm-selectivity.
• NaSELECT ® membranes some NaSICON-type materials (e.g., NaSELECT ® membranes) eliminate self-discharge, crossover, and/or related system inefficiencies due to the materials' solid-solid perm-selectivity.
• the cell 10 can comprise any suitable current collector that allows the cell to be charged and discharged as intended.
• the current collector can comprise virtually any current collector configuration that has been successfully used in a sodium-based rechargeable battery system.
• the current collector comprises one or more wires, felts, foils, plates, parallel plates, tubes, meshes, mesh screens, foams (e.g., metal foams, carbon foams, etc.), and/or other suitable current collector configuration.
• the current collector comprises a configuration having a relatively large surface area (e.g., one or more mesh screens, metal foams, etc.).
• the current collector 30 can comprise any suitable material that allows the cell 10 to function as intended.
• suitable current collector materials include carbon, platinum, copper, nickel, zinc, a sodium intercalation material (e.g., Na x Mn0 2 , etc.), nickel foam, nickel, a sulfur composite, a sulfur halide (e.g., sulfuric chloride), and/or another suitable material.
• these materials may coexist or exist in combinations.
• the current collector comprises carbon, platinum, copper, nickel, zinc, and/or a sodium intercalation material (e.g., Na x Mn0 2 ).
• the current collector 30 can be disposed in any suitable location in the positive electrode compartment 25 that allows the cell 10 to function as intended. In some embodiments, however, the current collector is disposed on (e.g., as shown in Figure 3) or in close proximity to the electrolyte membrane 40 (e.g., as shown in Figure 6).
• the positive electrode solution 35 can comprise any suitable sodium ion conductive material that allows the cell 10 to function as intended.
• the positive electrode solution comprises an aqueous or a nonaqueous solution.
• suitable aqueous or water-compatible solutions comprise, but are not limited to, dimethyl sulfoxide (“DMSO"), water, formamide, N-methylformamide (NMF), ethylene glycol, an aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, an ionic aqueous solution, and/or any other aqueous solution that is chemically compatible with sodium ions and the electrolyte membrane 40.
• DMSO dimethyl sulfoxide
• NMF N-methylformamide
• NaOH aqueous sodium hydroxide
• positive electrolyte solution comprises NMF, formamide, and/or DMSO.
• the positive electrode solution 35 comprises a non-aqueous solvent.
• the positive electrode solution can comprise any suitable nonaqueous solvent that allows the cell 10 to function as intended.
• nonaqueous solvents include, without limitation, glycerol, ethylene, propylene, and/or any other non-aqueous solution that is chemically compatible with sodium ions and the electrolyte membrane 40.
• the positive electrode solution 35 comprises a molten sodium-FSA (sodium- bis(fluorosulfonyl)amide) electrolyte.
• Na-FSA has a melting point of about 107° C (which allows Na-FSA to be molten at some typical operating temperatures of the cell 10), and as Na-FSA has a conductivity in the range of about 50-100 mS/cm , in some embodiments, Na-FSA serves as a useful solvent (e.g., for a molten sodium halide (NaX, wherein X is selected from Br, I, CI, etc.)).
• NaX molten sodium halide
• the solution can comprise any suitable fluorosulfonyl amide that is capable of conducting sodium ions to and from the electrolyte membrane and that otherwise allows the cell 10 to function as intended.
• suitable fluorosulfonyl amides include, without limitation, l-Ethyl-3- methylimidazolium-(bis(fluorosulfonyl) amide ("[EMIM][FSA]”), and other similar chemicals.
• the positive electrode solution 35 also comprises one or more halogens and/or halides.
• the halogens and halides, as well polyhalides and/or metal halides that form therefrom can perform any suitable function, including, without limitation, acting as the positive electrode as the cell 10 operates.
• suitable halogens include bromine, iodine, and chlorine.
• suitable halides include bromide ions, polybromide ions, iodide ions, polyiodide ions, chloride ions, and polychloride ions. While the halogens/halides can be introduced into the positive electrode solution in any suitable manner, in some embodiments, they are added as NaX, wherein X is selected from Br, I, CI, etc.
• the cell may have the following reactions as at the negative electrode 20, the positive electrode/current collector 30, and the overall reaction of the cell as it operates:
• X halogen
• the cell may have the following reactions as at the negative electrode 20, the positive electrode/current collector 30, and the overall reaction of the cell as it operates:
• the cell 10 may have the following chemical reactions and the following theoretical voltage (V) and theoretical specific energy (Wh/kg):
• the cell may have the following chemical reactions and the following theoretical voltage and theoretical specific energy:
• the cell 10 may have the following chemical reactions and the following theoretical voltage (V vs. SHE (standard hydrogen electrode)) and theoretical specific energy (Wh/kg):
• the charging reactions at the positive electrode may occur in two steps: 1) iodide to triiodide and 2) triiodide to iodine.
• discharging reactions at the positive electrode may occur in two steps: 1) iodine to triiodide and 2) triiodide to iodide.
• the charging and discharging reactions may occur using the combination of reaction chemistries above.
• the cell 10 may have the following chemical reactions and the following theoretical voltage (V vs. SHE) and theoretical specific energy (Wh/kg):
• the charging reactions at the positive electrode may occur in two steps: 1) bromide to tribromide and 2) tribromide to bromine.
• discharging reactions at the positive electrode may occur in two steps: 1) bromine to tribromide and 2) tribromide to bromide.
• the charging and discharging reactions may occur using the combination of reaction chemistries above.
• the battery chemistry 1 , battery chemistry 2, and the combination of battery chemistries 1 and 2 happening at the positive electrode can be chosen or tailored according to several factors, including but not limited to, aqueous and non-aqueous sodium iodide solutions, voltage limits, additives, concentrations of the solution, temperature, the equilibrium between polyiodide and iodine (polybromide and bromine), the presence of free iodine (free brome) at the operating temperature, and the like.
• the various ingredients in the positive electrode solution 35 can be present in the cell at any suitable concentrations that allow the cell 10 to function as intended.
• halogens e.g., bromine, iodine, or chlorine
• the halogens can have several effects on the cell as it functions.
• halogens produced in the positive electrode solution 35 can have relatively high vapor pressures that, in turn, can expose the cell to undesirable pressures.
• halogens in the positive electrode solution can react with other reagents in the solution to form undesirable chemicals (e.g., HOX and/or HX, where the positive electrode solution is aqueous and wherein X is selected from Br, I, etc.).
• the cell in order to reduce and/or prevent the challenges that can be associated with halogens produced in the positive electrode solution, the cell is modified to reduce the total amount of elemental halogen (e.g., bromine, iodine, etc.) that is present in the positive electrode solution.
• the cell can be modified in any suitable manner that allows the cell to operate while controlling the amount of halogens that are present in the positive electrode solution.
• the solution comprises an excess amount of a sodium halide (e.g., sodium bromide, sodium iodide, sodium chloride, etc.) and/or an excess amount of an elemental halogen (e.g., bromine, iodine, chlorine, etc.).
• the positive electrode solution can comprise any suitable amount of the sodium halide and/or the elemental halogen that allows one or more polyhalides (e.g., Br 3 ⁇ , I 3 ⁇ , Cl 3 " , etc.) to form in the positive electrode solution 35 (as shown in Figure 2 and 2A, wherein X represents Br, I, or CI).
• the polyhalides can have a lower vapor pressure than their corresponding halogens, while still having an electroactively similar to their corresponding halogens.
• the positive electrode solution comprises one or more complexing agents that are capable of complexing with or otherwise forming an adduct (e.g., a halide-amine adduct, a halide-ammonium adduct, etc.) with halogens, halides, and/or polyhalides in the positive electrode solution.
• the complexing agent can comprise any chemical that is capable of forming an adduct and/or complex with halogens, halides, and/or polyhalides in the positive electrode solution.
• Such complexing agents include one or more bromide-amine adducts, iodide-amine adducts, chloride-amine adducts tetramethyl ammonium halides (e.g., tetramethyl ammonium bromide, tetramethyl ammonium iodide, tetramethyl ammonium chloride, etc.), ammonium compounds, N-methyl- N-methyl-morpholinium halide, etc.
• the complexing agent comprises tetramethyl ammonium bromide, which reacts with bromine to form tetramethyl ammonium tri-bromide.
• the complexing agent comprises N-methyl-N-methylmorpholinium bromide.
• the cell 10 in order to reduce the amount of halogen produced in the positive electrode solution 35, the cell 10 circumvents the generation of halogens (e.g., bromine, iodine, chlorine, etc.) by utilizing a metal current collector 30 that forms a metal halide that corresponds to the metal used in the current collector and the halide ions in the solution.
• the current collector can comprise any suitable metal that is capable of circumventing the generation of a halogen by forming a metal halide as the cell operates.
• metals include copper, nickel, zinc, combinations thereof, and alloys thereof.
• corresponding half-cell reactions for cells comprising such metal current collectors include the following:
• cells comprising metal current collectors 30 can generate a wide variety of voltage ranges, in some cases in which the cell 10 comprises NaBr/Br 2 in the positive electrode solution 35 and the current collector comprises copper, nickel, or zinc, the voltage produced by such a cell is about 2.57V, about 2.61V, and about 2V, respectively.
• the cell 10 is modified to include any suitable combination of the aforementioned techniques.
• some embodiments of the cell include a current collector 30 comprising copper, nickel, zinc, or another suitable metal, and the positive electrode solution 35 comprises a complexing agent, an excess amount of a sodium halide, and/or an excess amount of an elemental halogen.
• the cell 10 can comprise any suitable terminals that are capable of electrically connecting the cell with an external circuit (not shown), including without limitation, to one or more cells.
• the terminals can comprise any suitable material, be of any suitable shape, and be of any suitable size.
• Figures 1A and 2A additional embodiments of the cell 10 are described. Figures 1A and 2 A are similar to the embodiments shown in Figures 1 and 2 respectively; however, Figures 1A and 2A comprise additional components.
• Figure 1A shows the discharging of the cell 10 while Figure 2A shows the charging of the cell 10.
• Figures 1A and 2 A show a representative embodiment in which the sodium- halogen secondary cell 10 comprises a negative electrode compartment 15 that includes a sodium-based negative electrode 20, a positive electrode compartment 25 that comprises a current collector 30 that is disposed in a liquid positive electrode solution 35, a sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane 40 that separates the negative electrode from the positive electrode solution, a first terminal 45, a second terminal 50, an external reservoir 55 that houses the positive electrode solution, and a pumping mechanism 60 that is configured to force the positive electrode solution to flow from the reservoir and past the current collector in the positive electrode compartment.
• the cell 10 can comprise any suitable pumping mechanism that is capable of forcing fluids to flow from a reservoir 55 and into the cell.
• Figure 7A shows that in some embodiments, the cell 10 is connected to a first reservoir 55 and pumping mechanism 60 that is configured to pump the positive electrode solution 35 from the reservoir and past the current collector 30 in the positive electrode compartment 25.
• the cell 10 is also connected to a second reservoir 56 and a second pumping mechanism 62.
• the second pumping mechanism can comprise any suitable pump that is capable of forcing liquids from the second reservoir 56 (e.g., molten sodium, the non-aqueous anolyte 65, a secondary anolyte, etc.) to flow through the negative electrode compartment 15.
• a pumping mechanism that forces fluids through the negative compartment can provide the cell with several beneficial characteristics, in some embodiments, such a configuration reduces the total amount of sodium in the negative electrode compartment at any time, and thereby reduces the damage and/or danger that could occur if the positive electrode solution 35 were to contact the negative electrode 20.
• the cell by pumping the positive electrode solution through the positive electrode compartment, the cell can limit the amount of positive electrode solution that is in the cell and, can thereby limit or control the amount of halogen that is present in the cell.
• the pumping mechanisms can be configured to force fluids through the cell (e.g., the positive electrode compartment 25 and/or the negative electrode compartment 15) at any suitable rate that allows the cell to function as intended.
• the specific flow rates of the various embodiments of the cell will depend on the solubility of the various species in the positive electrode solution 35, the components of the negative electrode compartment 15, and/or upon the cells' intended charge and/or discharge rates.
• FIG. 4 A shows an embodiment of a cell 10 that is similar to that which is described in connection with Figure 4.
• the pumping mechanism 60 and the reservoir 55 have been added to the cell 10 to pump the positive electrode solution 35 so that it contacts the electrode 30.
• this cell 10 is similar that which is shown in Figure 6, but that this cell 10 includes a pumping mechanism 60 and the reservoir 55 have been added to the cell 10 to pump the positive electrode solution 35 so that it contacts the electrode 30.
• the embodiment of Figure 7A could also be constructed in which one or more of the pumping mechanisms 60, 62 and/or one or more of the reservoirs 55, 56 are removed.
• Figures 1A, 2 A, 3 A and 4 A, 6 A and 7 A show that, in at least some embodiments, the positive electrode compartment 25 is relatively small, such that a significant portion of the positive electrode solution 35 is stored outside of the positive electrode compartment (e.g., in one or more external reservoirs 55 that are configured to hold a portion of the positive electrode solution).
• the cell allows a relatively small amount of the positive electrode solution to be in the positive electrode compartment, and can, thereby, allow a relatively large portion of the positive electrode solution in the positive electrode compartment to be in contact with the current collector 30.
• the cell 10 can optionally comprise any other suitable component and characteristic.
• Figure 6 shows that some embodiments of the cell 10 comprise one or more heat management systems 80.
• the cell can comprise any suitable type of heat management system that is capable of maintaining the cell within a suitable operating temperature range.
• Some examples of such heat management systems include, but are not limited to, a heater, a heat exchanger, a cooler, one or more temperature sensors, and/or appropriate temperature control circuitry.
• some embodiments of the cell comprise one or more collectors (not shown) between the reservoir 55 and the positive electrolyte compartment 25. While such collectors can perform any suitable function, in some embodiments, the collectors are used to collect halogens (e.g., bromine, iodine, etc.) from the liquid positive electrode solution 35 as the solution flows through the collectors.
• halogens e.g., bromine, iodine, etc.
• the cell 10 can be modified in any suitable manner that allows it to accommodate the transfer of sodium from the negative electrode compartment 15 to the positive electrode compartment 25 during discharge.
• some embodiments of the described cell 10 comprise a volume compensating cell casing (not shown).
• the positive electrode solution 35 can comprise any other suitable ingredient that allows the cell 10 to function as described herein.
• the positive electrode solution comprises carbon (e.g., ground carbon, a carbon containing material, etc.), and/or any other material that allows the solution to be sodium conductive and to be chemically compatible with the electrolyte membrane 40 and the current collector 30.
• the cell 10 can be modified in any suitable manner that allows the safety of the cell to be improved while still allowing the cell to function as intended.
• the cell comprises one or more pressure relief values (not shown).
• the cell comprises one or more protective outer covers.
• the cell is divided into 2 or more smaller cells to reduce any dangers that can be associated with a cell that is damaged or malfunctioning.
• the cell in addition to the electrolyte membrane 40, the cell comprises one or more additional separators between the negative electrode 20 and the positive electrode solution 35 to minimize the possible exposure that can occur between the negative electrode and the positive electrode solution if the electrolyte membrane becomes damaged.
• some embodiments of the cell include a pressure management system that is configured to control pressure in a portion of the cell, including without limitation, the positive electrode compartment 25 and/or the negative electrode compartment 15. While this pressure management system can perform any suitable function, in some embodiments, it helps maintain a sufficiently high pressure in the positive electrode compartment to retain halogens in solution such that the halogens can chemically react with other chemical species (e.g., excess sodium halides, excess elemental halogen, one or more complexing agents, metal ions from the current collector 30, etc.) in the positive electrode solution 35.
• chemical species e.g., excess sodium halides, excess elemental halogen, one or more complexing agents, metal ions from the current collector 30, etc.
• the described cell may have several other beneficial characteristics.
• the cell 10 may operate at significantly lower operating temperatures than some conventional molten sodium rechargeable batteries. Accordingly, the described cell may require less energy to heat and/or dissipate heat from the cell as the cell functions, may be less dangerous use or handle, and may be more environmentally friendly.
• some embodiments of the described cell can be created using less-expensive materials (e.g., polymeric materials, epoxies, epoxies and/or plastic mechanical sealing components, such as the O-rings 85, caps 90, tube flanges 92, etc. shown in Figure 3).
• less-expensive materials e.g., polymeric materials, epoxies, epoxies and/or plastic mechanical sealing components, such as the O-rings 85, caps 90, tube flanges 92, etc. shown in Figure 3).
• Figure 3 A shows another embodiment of a cell 10 having a tubular design in which one compartment (e.g., the negative electrode compartment 15) is disposed, at least partially, within the other compartment (e.g., the positive electrode compartment 25), while the contents of the two compartments remain separated by the electrolyte membrane 40 and any other compartmental walls.
• one compartment e.g., the negative electrode compartment 15
• the other compartment e.g., the positive electrode compartment 25
• some embodiments of the described cell 10 are capable of maintaining themselves at a suitable operating temperature through Joule heating. As a result, such cells may allow for relatively high efficiencies, as additional energy may not be required to maintain such cells at high operating temperatures.
• some embodiments of the described cell 10 have a relatively high theoretical cell voltage (e.g., between about 3.23V and about 3.79V), when compared to some competing conventional batteries (e.g., to some Na/S batteries that have a theoretical voltage of about 2.07V and some Zn/Br 2 batteries that have a theoretical voltage of about 1.85V).
• some competing conventional batteries e.g., to some Na/S batteries that have a theoretical voltage of about 2.07V and some Zn/Br 2 batteries that have a theoretical voltage of about 1.85V.
• some embodiments of the described cell have a relatively high theoretical specific energy (e.g., about 987 Wh/kg for a NaBr/Br 2 cell and about 581 Wh/kg for a Nal/I 2 cell) when compared with some competing cells (e.g., some Na/S rechargeable batteries that have a theoretical specific energy of about 755 Wh/kg or some conventional Zn/Br 2 rechargeable batteries that have a theoretical specific energy of about 429 Wh/kg).
• some competing cells e.g., some Na/S rechargeable batteries that have a theoretical specific energy of about 755 Wh/kg or some conventional Zn/Br 2 rechargeable batteries that have a theoretical specific energy of about 429 Wh/kg.
• some embodiments of the described cell have relatively high practical specific energies (e.g., between about 330 and about 440 for some NaBr/Br 2 embodiments the cell) when compared to some competing conventional batteries (e.g., some Na/S batteries having a practical specific energy between about 150 and about 240 Wh/kg and some Zn/Br 2 batteries that have a practical specific energy of about 65 Wh/kg).
• some competing conventional batteries e.g., some Na/S batteries having a practical specific energy between about 150 and about 240 Wh/kg and some Zn/Br 2 batteries that have a practical specific energy of about 65 Wh/kg.
• some embodiments of the described cell 10 may have relative long cycle lives when compared to some competing batteries (e.g., about 5,000 deep cycles for some NaBr/Br 2 embodiments of the cell, as opposed to about 4,000 cycles for some Na/S batteries and about 2,000 for some Zn Br 2 batteries). Additionally, as some embodiments of the described cell are capable of the extensive utilization of sodium and a halogen during cycling, the discharge/charge cycles of such embodiments can be relatively deep (e.g., having a high SOC (state of charge) and DOD (depth of discharge) of between about 70% and about 80%) compared to some conventional batteries.
• some embodiments of the described cell 10 produce relatively high currents (and hence power) because of the high mobility of sodium ions through the electrolyte membrane 40 (e.g., a fully dense NaSICON-type material on a porous support) and the relatively fast kinetics of the redox reactions—especially at the low and intermediate temperatures described herein (e.g., ambient temperature to about 150° C).
• the electrolyte membrane 40 e.g., a fully dense NaSICON-type material on a porous support
• relatively fast kinetics of the redox reactions especially at the low and intermediate temperatures described herein (e.g., ambient temperature to about 150° C).
• the present embodiments include a sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane 40, such as a NaSICON membrane that is sold under the NaSELECT trademark by Ceramatec, Inc. of Salt Lake City, Utah.
• the cell 10 also includes a sodium-based negative electrode 20, which in the embodiment of Figure 13, comprises sodium metal.
• the negative electrode is housed within the negative electrode compartment 15.
• the sodium ions are respectively transported from the negative electrode 20 to the positive electrode compartment 25 through the sodium ion conductive electrolyte membrane 40.
• a current collector 30a may also be used in the negative electrode compartment 15, as desired. Those skilled in the art will appreciate the particular types of materials that may be used for the current collector 30a.
• the positive electrode compartment 25 includes a current collector 30, which in this case may be a carbon current collector, although other types of materials (such as metals) may be used.
• a liquid positive electrode solution 35 is also housed in the positive electrode compartment 25. In the embodiment of Figure 13, this solution comprises a mixture of NaBr/Br 2 in a solvent. Of course, other types of halogen/halide containing materials may also be used.
• the cell 10 is constructed with molten sodium anode and an aqueous or non-aqueous bromine cathode.
• This battery has a theoretical voltage of 3.79 V. Since the melting point of Na metal is about 100 °C, this battery may operate above 110 °C and preferably at or above 120 °C.
• the catholyte for this embodiment may be formulated with excess sodium bromide along with elemental bromine resulting in the formation of sodium polyhalides, such as Br 3 ⁇ . These species have lower vapor pressure but are electroactive similar to bromine. (Of course, although bromine is illustrated as the halide material, other types of halides may be used.)
• the embodiment of Figure 13 may have specific advantages.
• one of the potential applications for this embodiment invention is to use the cell as large-scale secondary batteries, e.g. grid scale Energy Storage Systems (ESS) and Electric Vehicle (EV) markets.
• the membrane 40 may have a room-temperature conductivity in the range of 5x10-3 S/cm.
• the NaSICON membrane may be completely insensitive to moisture and other common solvents (e.g., methanol).
• an additional embodiment may be constructed in which the liquid positive electrode solution 35 includes an added species that forms an adduct with the bromine and/or polybromides, such as the bromide-amine adducts.
• the bromine and/or polybromides such as the bromide-amine adducts.
• the following is an example of tetramethyl ammonium bromide acting as a complexing agent:
• the membrane is a NaSICON tubes that allows the battery system to be pressurized. Pressure could be used to keep the bromine in solution form.
• FIG. 14 another embodiment of a cell 10 is illustrated. This embodiment of the cell 10 is similar to that which was shown in Figure 13. However, in the embodiment of Figure 14, the cell 10 circumvents the generation of bromine by utilizing a metal current collector 30 that oxidizes and forms the corresponding bromide.
• a metal current collector 30 that oxidizes and forms the corresponding bromide.
• This cell 10 relies on oxidation of the current collector 30 metal before the oxidation of bromide ion to bromine so the result is the formation of non-volatile metal bromide.
• the voltages for these batteries may be 2.57, 2.61 and 2 volts respectively for Cu, Ni and Zn.
• the battery may include a bromide or bromine electrode, a complexing agent, and an aqueous or non-aqueous solvent at 120 °C.
• the battery may have a NaSICON membrane that is stable in these conditions.
• the cell 10 may include a solid sodium anode. However, as shown in Figure 15, the cell 10 includes a sodium intercalating carbon anode 20a.
• the positive electrode compartment 25 comprises an aqueous or non-aqueous bromine or bromide solution that is used as the liquid positive electrode solution 35.
• the anolyte 60 is positioned adjacent the membrane 40 (which may be a NaSICON membrane).
• the cell 10 of Figure 15 may be operated at ambient to 60 °C, where the elemental bromine can be effectively complexed (e.g. N-methyl-N-methylmorpholinium bromide) such that the free bromine can be reduced by greater than 100-fold.
• the elemental bromine can be effectively complexed (e.g. N-methyl-N-methylmorpholinium bromide) such that the free bromine can be reduced by greater than 100-fold.
• Other complexing agents that can complex bromine effectively at ambient temperature can be used.
• MEMBr may be used in a zinc-bromine system.
• this cell 10 utilizes the non-aqueous anolyte 65 in-between the sodium intercalating carbon and the NaSICON membrane 40.
• One particular embodiment of the cell 10 shown in Figure 15 uses bromide or bromide as the halogen/halide material in the positive electrode compartment 25.
• the cell 10 may be capable of the reversible plating of Na and have a bromine cathode.
• the battery may operate with at least twenty five reversible cycles at practical C- rates (C/5) and practical Depth of Discharge (DOD > 50%).
• C/5 practical C- rates
• DOD Depth of Discharge
• FIG. 16 an additional embodiment of a cell 10 is illustrated. This cell uses Zn negative electrode 20b and a positive electrode.
• the cell 10 uses a dense NaSICON membrane 40 that is sodium ion selective and water impervious.
• the anolyte 65 and the liquid positive electrode solution 35 may be sodium bromide based solutions and not zinc bromide solutions.
• the Zn anode 20b will be placed in an aqueous solution containing sodium bromide (or another solution of alkali metal ions and halide ions).
• the anode shown in this Figure is Zn, but other metals may also be used.
• the liquid positive electrode solution 35 (catholyte) will be a bromine/sodium bromide solution with a graphite current collector.
• Zn will oxidize to form Zinc bromide and the sodium ions will be transported to the cathode current collector where they react with bromine to form sodium bromide.
• Zn will redeposit and bromine is regenerated.
• the advantages of this cell 10 compared to a microporous type battery are:
• the composition of the anolyte can be adjusted to allow reversible deposition of Zn.
• the anolyte can be a mixture of NaBr and NaOH so that no zinc dendrites can be formed resulting in loss of capacity;
• the cell 10 of this embodiment will have a Zn anode in sodium bromide and/or sodium hydroxide solution in a NaSICON based cell and will be capable of reversible deposition.
• the NaSICON membrane in this battery will be stable in the presence of bromide/bromine/complexing agent/aqueous or non-aqueous solvent at ambient temperature.
• the cell 10 may be configured to have reversible NaBr/Br 2 cathode operation at ambient temperature. This cell 10 may have at least twenty five reversible cycles at practical C-rates (C/5) and practical Depth of Discharge (DOD > 50%) in a stagnant battery with Zn anode and NaBr/Br 2 cathode.
• a cell 10 was set up to include a molten sodium negative electrode 20, a platinum mesh current collector 30, a positive electrode solution comprising up to about 25wt% Nal and more than about 75% DMSO, with a NaSICON-type membrane having a current density of between 5 mA/cm 2 and 10 mA/cm 2.
• the cell after operating at a temperature up to about 120° C for over 150 hours, the cell had the performance characteristics shown in Figure 9, according to battery chemistry 1 described above. Specifically, the performance characteristics in Figure 9 show that the cell of this example had lower overpotentials than the cell in the earlier example.
• a first large cell was set up to include an electrolyte membrane 40 having a current density of about 3.65 mA/cm and having approximately 4 times the surface area of the membranes used in the first two examples, a molten sodium negative electrode 20, a platinum mesh current collector 30, and a positive electrode solution 35 comprising up to about 25wt% Nal and more than about 75wt% formamide with 0.5 moles of h per mole of Nal.
• a second large cell was set up to include an electrolyte membrane 40 having a current density of about 3.65 mA/cm and with approximately 4 times the surface area of the membranes used in the first two examples, a molten sodium negative electrode 20, a platinum mesh current collector 30, a positive electrode solution 35 comprising up to about 25wt% Nal and more than about 75wt% DMSO with 0.5 moles of I 2 per mole of Nal.
• These two cells were operated at a temperature of up to about 120° C for more than 120 hours with a depth of discharge of about 20% of the cells' available capacity.
• the performance characteristics of the cell using DMSO solvent are displayed in Figure 10, according to battery chemistry 1 described above.
• the performance characteristics of the cell using formamide was similar.
• Figure 11 shows some performance characteristics for the DMSO cell when the cell was operated at a depth of discharge of 50% of the cell's available capacity according to battery chemistry 1 described above. In this regard, Figure 11 shows the feasibility of operating such a cell with relatively deep discharge cycles.
• a cell 10 was set up to include a molten sodium negative electrode 20, an electrolyte membrane 40 comprising a NaSICON-type membrane having a current density of approximately 10 mA/cm , and a positive electrode solution 35 comprising Nal/I 2 dissolved in formamide solvent with added carbon. The cell was then operated at about 110° C for over 30 hours. Some performance characteristics of a test run of this experimental cell are shown in Figure 12, according to battery chemistry 1 described above. In this regard, while Figure 12 shows that the voltage drop in the experimental cell was relatively large, and that there is some noise in the data, Figure 12, nevertheless, shows the feasibility of a sodium-halogen based system using iodine.
• a standard electrochemical cyclic voltammetry (CV) method was used to study oxidation of near neutral pH sodium iodide solution.
• the test setup includes three platinum electrodes (one reference, one counter and one working) immersed in an aqueous solution of 0.2M NaI/0.1M I 2 .
• the test was conducted at ambient temperature. During the test, the cell voltage is gradually increased and decreased versus the cell open circuit voltage and the working electrode potential was measured using the reference electrode. Also measured was the cell current generated by the reactions at the working and counter electrodes.
• Figure 17 shows the different processes (represented by increased current) occurring during the working electrode potential scan at 500 mV/s (left) and 5 mV/s (right) versus the reference.
• the first process at 0.3V to occur was the oxidation of iodide to triiodide according to the reaction of battery chemistry 1, described above:
• a 263 mAh cell was set up to include a molten sodium negative electrode, an electrolyte membrane comprising a NaSICON-type membrane having a current density of approximately 8.8 mA/cm , and a positive electrode solution comprising 35 wt.% Nal dissolved in NMF solvent (no I 2 ).
• the cell was then operated at about 110° C for over 24 hours.
• Figure 18 shows the first six cycles used constant voltage charging first at high 3.25 voltage (flat voltage portion) followed by constant current charging (raising voltage portion). This was enough to raise the charge OCV of the system to above 3 V indicative of positive electrode battery chemistry 2.
• the last cycle is with constant current but the high charge OCV is maintained indicating the high voltage battery chemistry 2.
• a 263 mAh cell was set up to include a molten sodium negative electrode, an electrolyte membrane comprising a NaSICON-type membrane having a current density of approximately 7.5 mA/cm , and a positive electrode solution comprising 35 wt.% Nal dissolved in NMF solvent (no I 2 ). The cell was then operated at about 110° C for about 200 hours. Some performance characteristics of a test run of this experimental cell are shown in Figure 19. In this regard, Figure 19 shows the initial cycle used constant voltage charging at high voltage, which was enough to raise the charge OCV of the system for rest of the cycles to above 3 V indicative of positive electrode battery chemistry 2.
• a 263 mAh cell was set up to include a molten sodium negative electrode, an electrolyte membrane comprising a NaSICON-type membrane having a current density of approximately 3.8 mA/cm , and a positive electrode solution comprising 35 wt.% Nal dissolved in NMF solvent (no I 2 ). The cell was then operated at about 110° C over three charge/discharge cycles. Some performance characteristics of a test run of this experimental cell are shown in Figure 20. In this regard, Figure 20 shows that partial higher constant voltage charges increased the coulombic efficiency and deliverable capacity.
• two cells were set up to include a molten sodium negative electrode, an electrolyte membrane comprising a NaSICON-type membrane having a current density of approximately 8.3 mA/cm , and a positive electrode solution comprising 7M I 2 (precharged with excess iodine) and 3M Nal dissolved in NMF solvent or DMSO solvent.
• the cells were then discharged at about 120° C. The discharge characteristics of a test run of these experimental cells are shown in Figure 21.
• Figure 21 shows that battery chemistry 1 (triiodide to iodide) happens in NMF while a combination of battery chemistries 1 & 2 (iodine to triiodide to iodide) happens in DMSO. This result indicates that solvent used to dissolve Nal and I 2 affects which battery chemistry happens during discharge.
• a Na-Iodine battery may be implemented that uses DMSO or NMF as the solvent to dissolve the sodium iodide and (at least partially) dissolve the iodine.
• This system may be capable of deep discharge of about 50% of available capacity of Nal/Iodine cathode and possibly up to about 70% of available capacity of Nal/iodine cathode making it a practical battery system.
• a Pt cathode may be replaced with a lower-cost cathode such as graphite, hard carbon or metals such as manganese, molybdenum, tungsten, titanium, tantalum and other valve metals.
• the membrane used in the cells may be a NaSICON membrane and may have a current density that is greater than or equal to 10 mA/cm .
• the batteries (cells) that are described herein may have significant advantages over other types of batteries.
• many types of known sodium rechargeable batteries must be operated at high temperatures, such as, for example, above 250 °C or even above 270 °C.
• the present embodiments may be operated at temperatures below 250 °C.
• some embodiments may be operated at ambient temperatures, at temperatures less than about 60 °C, at temperatures less than about 150 °C, less than 200 °C, less than 180 °C, etc.
• These temperature ranges for batteries can provide significant benefits as resources do not have to be allocated to heat the batteries to extreme high temperatures (such as 270 °C).
• NaSICON in lieu of sodium ⁇ ''-alumina ceramic materials as the separator.
• NaSICON has specific advantages over sodium ⁇ ''-alumina ceramics as the NaSICON is compatible with water and other solvents. Further, NaSICON can separate the two sides of the cell such that each side may be optimized without worrying that the reactants on one side of the membrane will foul/interfere with the reactants on the other side of the membrane.

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