CN1809382A - 通过肝细胞生长因子拮抗物预防人的疟疾感染的方法 - Google Patents
通过肝细胞生长因子拮抗物预防人的疟疾感染的方法 Download PDFInfo
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Abstract
提供了预防疟原虫寄生虫对人类感染的方法。所述方法为应用干扰间日疟原虫对肝细胞感染的化合物。
Description
相关申请的交叉参考
本申请是基于并要求保护2003年3月12日申请的美国临时申请号60/453,483的权利(Attorney Docket No.08907.6001)。本文依赖于此临时申请的完整公开并在此处引用作为参考。
发明领域
本申请涉及肝细胞生长因子受体拮抗物并涉及肝细胞生长因子所诱导信号的抑制剂。更特别地,本申请涉及此类化合物用于预防恶性疟原虫(plasmodium falciparum)和间日疟原虫(plasmodium vivax)感染的用途。
发明背景
疟疾的发病机理已有广泛的研究并在许多科学出版物和综述文章中得以描述[新近的实例见Miller等人,Nature 415:673-679,(2002)]。该疾病的原因是恶性疟原虫,较次要的原因是间日疟原虫、三日疟原虫(Plasmodiummalariae)和卵形疟原虫(Plasmodium ovale)。疟疾造成的死亡几乎全部由恶性疟原虫引起。寄生虫由载体冈比亚按蚊(Anopheles gambiae)传播,该寄生虫优先以人为食并且寿命长。由于蚊叮咬,子孢子得以注入皮肤。它们移动至肝脏,在此处它们在穿过几个肝细胞后建立感染并分裂。每个子孢子发展成几万个裂殖子,这些裂殖子从肝脏中释放并侵入红细胞。恶性疟原虫和间日疟原虫在红细胞内部以无性方式繁殖。在两天的时期内,每个裂殖子产生大约20个裂殖子。红细胞破裂并释放再次侵入红细胞的裂殖子。该疾病起始于红细胞内寄生虫的无性繁殖。少数裂殖子发育成配子体,该配子体不引起疾病但通过雌性按蚊将感染传播给其他人。间日疟原虫在从肝脏释放后不久即发育成配子体,而恶性疟原虫配子体发育则晚得多。
在亚洲和南美洲的一些地区以及特别是撒哈拉沙漠以南的非洲疟疾是重要的健康问题。在任一给定年中,全球人口的几乎10%将患疟疾——6亿临床病例。根据近来估计,每年至少发生100万疟疾导致的死亡——每30秒钟一例疟疾导致的死亡[Greenwood和Mutabingwa,Nature 415:670-672(2002)]。在非洲每20名五岁前儿童中的1名就死于疟疾。近来,由于许多造成疟疾负担加重的因素的结果,疟疾形势已恶化,最重要的因素是对便宜并有效的药物有抗性的恶性疟原虫和间日疟原虫变种的出现,及杀虫剂抗性蚊子的出现。
发明概述
本发明帮助实现本领域中的这些需要。疟疾的逃避已使确定性治疗变得困难。本文所提供的是能够预防疟疾感染的传播或获得并能够帮助预防和治疗此类感染的活性剂和方法。
更特别地,本发明提供了在体内抑制疟疾活性的方法,其中该方法包含对人类宿主施用抗疟疾活性剂,所述活性剂能够通过防止受感染的宿主例如人的肝脏中疟疾寄生虫的起始复制而表现出保护效果。该抗疟疾活性剂由HGF活性的至少一种抑制剂,和任选地,抗疟疾药物例如伯胺喹组成。将抗疟疾活性剂以足以预防或至少抑制体内疟疾造成的肝细胞感染或者预防或至少抑制体内疟疾寄生虫的复制或传播的量施用于人。
本发明涉及肝细胞支持引起人类疟疾的寄生虫生长的能力。引起人类疾病的疟原虫属寄生虫是恶性疟原虫、间日疟原虫、三日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫。更特别地本发明揭示了疟原虫感染建立所必需的Met激活和下游信号。以前已知疟原虫子孢子在它们能够在肝细胞中形成泡并在肝细胞中分裂之前穿过几个肝细胞。以前未知子孢子穿过肝细胞与众所周知的称为肝细胞生长因子(HGF)的细胞因子有关。已知HGF以无活性的单链蛋白质释放。其通过蛋白酶解剪切活化,该剪切形成二硫键连接的异二聚体。异二聚体结合并激活受体蛋白质酪氨酸激酶Met。激活的Met的胞质结构域募集了通过几个不同通路传递信号的多种蛋白质。这些信号导致了多种反应,例如细胞分散、增殖、管泡发生(tubulogenesis)和侵入性生长。本发明揭示了新的Met介导的针对HGF的肝细胞反应。HGF致使肝细胞以允许子孢子在泡内部繁殖的方式允许子孢子的侵入。
本发明还提供了预防疟原虫感染的新策略。
在优选的实施方案中,肝细胞的疟原虫感染通过分子得以预防,所述分子干扰受损肝细胞的HGF产生。
还适合感染预防的是干扰HGF蛋白酶剪切成其活性形式的分子,及隔离HGF并因此阻止它经其受体Met结合到肝细胞上的分子。
在另一方面,本发明揭示了Met是预防疟疾感染的药物靶标。
在本发明优选的实施方案中,疟疾感染通过干扰HGF对其受体Met的结合的分子来预防。此类分子是对HGF特异性的抗体,其封闭了HGF对Met的结合位点。而且在本发明优选的实施方案中此类分子是针对Met的抗体,或者此类抗体的片段,其阻断HGF结合但不激活Met。在本发明的另一实施方案中,此类分子是结合到Met但不激活Met的寡核苷酸(适体)。在本发明的又一个实施方案中,此类分子是通过HGF干扰Met激活的HGF变体。此类变体包括,但不限于NR4。
在本发明的另一方面,通过药物预防肝细胞的疟原虫感染,该药物干扰受激活的Met的信号转导。在本发明的优选实施方案中,此类药物是蛋白质酪氨酸抑制剂。此种药物的实例是染料木黄酮。
在另一优选的实施方案中,此类药物是蛋白质酪氨酸激酶Met的选择性抑制剂。在优选的实施方案中这些抑制剂是小分子量的化合物并通过经口途径或作为栓剂施用。
附图简述
图1显示子孢子通过细胞迁移以及机械性细胞损伤诱导“感染易感性诱发因子”(ISIF)的释放。
图2显示由子孢子穿过的宿主细胞分泌的HGF是感染所需的。
图3显示HGF对于疟原虫感染的作用通过其受体MET介导。
图4显示在体外和体内HGF由疟原虫穿过的细胞表达并且其通过MET的信号转导是疟疾感染所必需的。
图5显示在体外染料木黄酮影响由柏氏疟原虫(Plasmodium berghei)子孢子导致的肝感染。
图6显示在体内染料木黄酮影响由柏氏疟原虫子孢子导致的肝感染。
发明详述
如此处所用,术语“抗疟疾活性剂”意指包含一种或多种HGF活性抑制剂的组合物。术语“HGF活性抑制剂”意指独立地选自HGF受体拮抗物、HGF介导的信号转导的抑制剂和蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂的一种或多种化合物。HGF活性抑制剂可单独使用或相互联合使用。HGF活性抑制剂可任选地联合一种或多种已知的抗疟疾药物而形成本发明的抗疟疾活性剂。
本发明涉及疟疾寄生虫对肝细胞的侵入。在经蚊叮咬传播至人类宿主后,疟疾子孢子找到它们进入肝脏的途径,在此每个子孢子可产生多至10000个释放入血液的裂殖子。肝细胞的侵入是疟疾感染的必须步骤。子孢子可通过破坏质膜然后寄生虫迁移通过细胞或者,像胞内细菌或其它寄生虫一样,通过在侵入的病原体周围形成内化泡来侵入肝细胞。最初子孢子穿过肝细胞不形成内化泡。子孢子突破肝细胞的质膜进入肝细胞,穿过胞质溶胶并离开宿主细胞,该宿主细胞死亡或成功修复质膜。疟原虫通过肝细胞和随后寄生泡形成的潜在分子机制鲜有了解。由约氏疟原虫(plasmodium yoelii)和恶性疟原虫而不是由啮齿类动物疟疾寄生虫柏氏疟原虫导致的泡形成依赖于肝细胞表达的tetraspin蛋白质CD81。已知CD81是丙型肝炎病毒的受体,但其似乎不与子孢子表面的任何配体相互作用。其在某些疟原虫种类导致的肝细胞侵入中的作用有待阐明[Silvie等人,Nature Medicine 9:93-96,(2003)]。有趣的是,子孢子在通过形成寄生泡侵入肝细胞之前必须穿过几个细胞的胞质溶胶,这对进入下一感染阶段的分化是必不可少的[Mota等人,Science 291:440-42,2001]]。此发现暗示子孢子造成的肝细胞损伤释放一种或多种使邻近肝细胞对感染敏感的感染易感性诱发因子(ISIF)。本发明的重要方面是发现被称为肝细胞生长因子的蛋白质在疟疾感染中用作ISIF。
I.HGF和其受体Met
肝细胞生长因子被发现作为肝细胞的有丝分裂原[Michalopolous等人,Cancer Res.,44:441-4419(1984);Rusasel等人,Cell Physiol.,119:183-192(1984);Nakamura等人,Biochem.Biophys.Res.Comm.,122:1450-1459(1984)]并独立地作为促进上皮细胞和血管内皮细胞解离的分散因子[Stocker等人,Nature 327,239-242(1987)]。为简单起见,将此因子称作HGF。HGF首次从肝脏切除的大鼠血清纯化[Nakamura等人,Biochem.Biophys.Res.Comm.,122:1450-1459(1984)]并随后从大鼠血小板[Nakamura等人,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA,83:6849-6493(1986)]和人血浆纯化[Gohda等人,J.Clin.Invest.81:414-419(1988)]。编码大鼠HGF、人HGF和称为“delta5 HGF”的天然存在的变体的cDNA得以克隆[Miyazawa等人,Biochem.Biophys.Res.Commun.,163:967-973(1989);Nakamura等人Nature 342:440-443(1989);Seki等人,Biochem.Biophys.Res.Commun.,172:321-327(1990);Tashiro等人,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA,87:3200-3204(1990);Okajima等人,Eur.J.Biochem.,193:375-381(1990)]。人HGF由440个氨基酸的α-亚基(M,62kDa)和234个氨基酸的β-亚基(M,34kDa)组成。它以生物学上无活性的(728个氨基酸)产生,所述前HGF经蛋白酶在Arg494和Val495之间剪切而形成二硫键连接的异二聚体。62-kDa的α-亚基包含N-末端发夹结构域(大约27个氨基酸),接着是4个规范的三环(canonical kringle)结构域,该结构域是由3个S-S桥稳定的80个氨基酸的双环结构。第一个环结构域结合到蛋白质酪氨酸激酶受体Met上,下面将对Met有更详细的描述。发夹环和第二个三环结构域以低亲和力结合膜结合的硫酸乙酰肝素蛋白聚糖。34kDa的β-亚基包含丝氨酸蛋白酶样的结构域,该结构域与丝氨酸蛋白酶凝血因子的丝氨酸蛋白酶样结构域非常相似,但其无蛋白酶活性。HGF显示出与纤溶酶原38%的总序列同一性及与另一称为巨噬细胞刺激蛋白质(MSP)的细胞因子45%的同一性。HGF结合到称为Met的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶受体上,而其近亲MSP结合到另一称为Ron的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶受体上。
HGF以单链前HGF分泌。此HGF前体结合到与胞外基质或与生产细胞邻近的细胞表面相结合的蛋白聚糖上。通过Arg494和Val495之间的蛋白酶剪切完成的单链前体向生物活性异二聚体的激活是严格受控的过程[(综述见Kataoka等人,Life XY 1:1036-1042(2001))。
在HGF激活中首先涉及的酶是尿激酶类型纤溶酶原激活剂(uPA)和组织类型纤溶酶原激活剂(tPA)。随后鉴定了三种另外的HGF激活酶,即凝结因子XIIa、也称为matriptase的膜类型丝氨酸蛋白酶-1(MT-SP1)和HGF激活剂(HGFA)。这些酶中的每一种均在内源性抑制剂蛋白质的控制之下。HGFA是最有效的HGF切割酶。像HGF一样,HGFA是通过Arg407后的切割而从单链前HGFA产生的异二聚体。HGFA切割酶之一是凝血酶,是一种通过凝结级联(coagulation cascade)激活于受伤组织的酶。活性HGFA异二聚体不由主要血清蛋白酶抑制剂抑制,但在两种蛋白质:HGA抑制剂I类(HAI-1)和HGA抑制剂II类(HAI-2)的控制下,后者等同于胎盘尿抑胰酶素(PB)。HAI-1在受伤的和再生的组织中是上调的。它表达于细胞表面,在此处它结合和抑制HGFA。细胞因子例如IL-1β通过TNF-α转化酶(TACE)和ADAM(解联蛋白和金属蛋白酶)蛋白质家族的TACE样金属蛋白酶诱导HGFA/HAI-1复合体的脱落。脱落后HGFA从HAI-1解离,然后能够激活HGF。因而,HAI-1不仅是成熟HGFA的抑制剂而且是HGFA的特异接纳体,作为细胞表面上此酶的存储器。HAI-1在公开于2002年10月15日的美国专利号6,465,622B2中有所描述,其中要求保护HAI-1作为HGF和HGFA的控制因子的用途。
HGF受体Met最初作为致癌融合蛋白的组分发现,所述致癌融合蛋白产生于经致癌物处理过的肉瘤细胞系[Cooper等人,Nature,311:29-33(1984)]。在正常细胞中,原代Met转录物产生150kDa的多肽,该多肽经糖基化然后切割形成S-S连接的异二聚体。HGF及其受体Met是公开于7月15日的美国专利号5,648,273的主题,该专利要求保护配体-受体用于诊断增殖病症和疾病例如肝炎和肝癌发生的用途。
Met异二聚体由高度糖基化和完全胞外的β-亚基及具有大的胞外区域和胞内酪氨酸激酶结构域的α-亚基组成。Met是受体酪氨酸激酶(RTKs)超家族的成员。该超家族分为至少19个家族,包括Her家族(EGFR、Her2、Her3、Her4)、胰岛素受体家族(胰岛素受体、IGF-1R、胰岛素相关受体)、PDGF受体家族(PGFRa和b、CSF-R、kit、FIk2)、FIk家族(F1k-1、F1t-1、F1k-4)、FGF受体家族(FGF-R1、2、3和4)及其它。Met及其近亲Ron分别形成配体HGF和巨噬细胞刺激蛋白(MSP)的不同的受体家族。
HGF结合时,c-Met经历特异酪氨酸残基的自磷酸化。当定位在酪氨酸激酶结构域的激活环内的Tyr1234和Tyr1235磷酸化激活了c-Met的内在激酶活性时,C-末端Tyr1349和Tyr1356的磷酸化产生信号转导蛋白质,例如磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶(PI3K)、磷脂酶C-γ(PLC-γ)、src、Stat3、Grb2和Grb2结合的停靠蛋白质Gab1的多底物停靠位点。Grb2也通过衔接蛋白质Shc与Met相互作用。Grb2募集Ras核苷交换蛋白质SOS,其激活Ras-MAPK信号通路。因而,信号转导蛋白对激活的Met受体的停靠通过多种通路起始信号转导。Met C-末端26个氨基酸不仅为信号转导蛋白提供停靠位点,而且调节Met的酶活性。激酶结构域的突变(M1250T)绕开了C-末端氨基酸的调节作用[Gual等人,Oncogene 20:5493-502(2001)]。
不同的Met表达靶细胞中针对HGF的多种反应已有所描述。这些反应包括增殖、程序性细胞死亡、细胞的解离(dissociation)、相互排斥、细胞通过胞外基质的运动和分枝形态发生。在胚胎发生过程中,产生HGF的间叶细胞和表达Met的上皮细胞之间的相互作用似乎参与多种器官例如胎盘、乳腺、肝脏、肌肉和神经元组织的形成。HGF基因敲除小鼠及Met基因敲除小鼠显示出胎盘、肝脏和肌肉发育的缺陷并在E13.5和15.5之间死亡[(Schmidt等人,Nature 373:699-702(1995);Uehara等人,Nature 373:702-705(1995);Bladt等人,Nature 376:768-771(1995)]。在成体生命中,HGF-Met相互作用涉及伤口愈合、血管生成和组织再生。并不令人惊讶地,HGF导致的Met激活已涉及肿瘤的生长、侵入和转移。HGF和其受体Met的生物学在几篇综述文章[Maulik等人.,Cytokine & Growth FactorReviews,13:41-59(2002)]及其中所参考的众多出版物中有充分描述。
基于它们的生物学特性,HGF和HGF拮抗物都已被建议对于多种疾病的治疗是有用的。HGF的生产和其治疗性应用已在几项专利中要求保护。基于其对于肝素的高亲和力,已从血液中分离HGF(公开于1991年4月2日的US 5,004,805)。HGF的聚乙二醇化延长了其清除率,减少了所需剂量,并被认为改善了HGF治疗的副作用(公开于1999年11月2日的美国专利号5,977,310)。HGF降解抑制性多糖例如肝素、透明质酸、葡聚糖、硫酸葡聚糖、硫酸乙酰肝素、硫酸皮肤素、硫酸角质素、软骨素、或硫酸软骨素(公开于1998年4月17日的美国专利号5,736,506)可提高HGF水平。已经要求保护HGF激活性蛋白酶(公开于1997年10月14日的美国专利号5,677,164)。HGF治疗的应用包括动脉阻塞性疾病的治疗(公开于2000年10月17日美国专利号6,133,231),炎性肠病的治疗(公开于2001年11月20日的美国专利号6,319,899B1),受到损伤和破坏的血管再表面化(resurfacing)的增加,例如通过血管手术或者血管成形术(公开于2000年10月17日的美国专利号6,133,234)。还声称HGF能够改善由普遍应用的免疫抑制剂引起的副作用(公开于1998年7月7日的美国专利号5,776,464)。最后,包含HGF基因的载体对于血管或其它靶器官的局部应用已有描述用于多种治疗目的(公开于2001年6月19日的美国专利号6,248,722B1)。Met和下游信号转导通路长期被认为是癌症治疗的引人注目的靶标。首先,利用肿瘤细胞系和动物中肿瘤模型的研究已表明Met在癌细胞侵入生长和转移中发挥重要的作用。第二,在结肠直肠癌的肝转移中观察到Met基因的扩增。第三,在几种类型的人类肿瘤例如甲状腺癌和胰腺癌中Met过表达。第四,在遗传性乳头状肾癌发现有Met基因的种系(germ line)突变,且在散发性乳头状癌中发现有体细胞Met基因突变。
本发明鉴定了Met受体以前未知的功能,该受体的抑制代表了Met拮抗物新的治疗性应用。通过Met的信号转导使肝细胞允许疟疾子孢子的生产性侵入。Met信号转导对于子孢子通过内化泡的形成和/或子孢子在由肝细胞质膜形成的泡内部增殖而进入肝细胞是必需的。Met此功能的发现是预防疟疾感染的新方法的基础。本发明进一步的实施方案是化合物的用途,所述化合物通过干扰HGF介导的Met激活或Met下游的信号事件预防疟疾感染的形成,所述Met激活或Met下游的信号事件涉及致使肝细胞允许疟疾寄生虫的感染。几种Met拮抗物在文献中已有描述,且某些已在专利要求保护用于治疗至少部分由Met过度或异常的功能引起的疾病的用途。以前要求保护的有关Met拮抗物的适应症是恶性肿瘤的治疗。Met拮抗物对于感染性疾病并且尤其是疟疾寄生虫感染治疗的潜在应用通过本发明变得显而易见。本发明要求保护的是Met拮抗物对于预防疟疾寄生虫造成的人类感染的用途。已知的HGF拮抗物在下面的部分中有所描述。
II.HGF受体拮抗物
A.HGF变体
HGF的多种形式——天然存在的和通过对HGF编码cDNA的遗传操作所产生的,均能拮抗某些或所有Met功能。未切割的前HGF结合但不激活Met。通过最初HGF转录物的不同剪接产生了几种HGF同工型。这些同工型包括NK1(由HGF的N结构域和第一个三环结构域组成)和NK2(由HGF的N结构域和前两个三环结构域组成)。发现于猕猴子宫内膜和胎盘中的另外两种变体即dNK1和dNK2与NK1和NK2同工型相似,只是dNK1和dNK2编码在第一个三环结构域中带有5个氨基酸缺失的蛋白质[Lindsey和Brenner,Mol Human Reprod.8:81-87(2002)]。NK1和NK2以高亲和力结合到HGF受体Met上并已报道作为HGF拮抗物[Lokker和P.J.Godowski,J.Biol.Chem.268:17145-17150(1993);Chan等人,Science254:1382-1387(1991)]。然而,随后的研究显示,依赖于细胞环境、肝素的存在或缺乏、和所分析的HGF的功能,这些HGF变体既可作为部分HGF激动剂也可作为HGF拮抗物。利用过表达转基因HGF、NK1、NK2、HGF+NK1或HGF+NK2的小鼠的体内研究揭示了HGF同工型潜在的体内功能。HGF的转基因表达具有多种表型结果,例如增强的肝生长、进行性肾血管球硬化症、嗅粘膜的破坏、肌细胞在中枢神经系统的异常定位及黑色素细胞在真皮和表皮中异常定位、早熟的乳腺小叶肺泡发育(lobuloalveolar)和对肿瘤诱导的易感性。NK1的转基因表达产生类似的表型,而NK2的转基因表达未显示出HGF和NK1诱导的表型特征。在HGF+NK2双转基因小鼠中NK2拮抗HGF过表达的病理结果并下调移植的Met表达型肿瘤细胞的皮下生长。然而,NK2的转基因过表达促进这些相同肿瘤细胞的转移。因而,NK2拮抗许多针对HGF的反应,但与HGF都具有解离(分散)细胞的能力——促进转移的应答[Otsuka等人,Molecular和Celleular Biology 20:2055-2065(2000)]。
另一种NGF变体NK4是通过用弹性蛋白酶对HGF的单切割消化产生的。NK4包含N末端发夹结构和4个三环结构域。与NK1和NK2相比,NK4是纯的HGF拮抗物[Date等人,FEBS Letters 420:1-6(1997)]。像分离的HGFα链一样,NK4结合Met但不诱导其自磷酸化,除非加入HGFβ链。由于其拮抗HGF的能力,NK4蛋白质或NK4基因转移的施用[Hirao等人,Cancer Gene Ther 9:700-7(2002);Maehara等人,Clin ExpMetastasis 19:417-26(2002)]估计为治疗Met表达型癌症的新方法。已经工程化而对蛋白酶剪切呈抗性的类似于NK4的单链HGF变体在公开于1999年3月9日的美国专利号5,879,910和公开于1996年12月3日美国专利号5,580,963中有所描述。
B.可溶性Met受体
Met的可溶性形式释放自培养的内皮细胞、平滑肌细胞和多种肿瘤细胞系。认为可溶性受体阻碍HGF对细胞表面结合的Met的激活。已产生Met-IgG融合蛋白,其保持了以高亲和力结合HGF的能力并因此能够中和HGF的活性。
C.制管张素
制管张素——血管发生的抑制剂,是包含3-4个三环结构域的纤溶酶原的片段。认为制管张素的抗血管发生效应是基于其抑制内皮细胞表面的ATP酶、及干扰整联蛋白功能和细胞外周蛋白质水解的能力。最近的研究指出制管张素的抗血管发生活性至少部分是由于其中和HGF效应的能力[Wajih和Sane,在线预先发表在Blood,October 24,(2002)]。
制管张素与HGF具有47%的序列同源性,结合Met并防止内皮细胞和平滑肌细胞中HGF介导的信号转导。它抑制这些细胞应答HGF的增殖,但不抑制这些细胞应答通过蛋白质酪氨酸激酶受体而不是Met起作用的其它生长因子例如血管内皮细胞生长因子(VEGF)或碱性成纤维细胞生长因子(BFGF)的增殖。因此制管张素作为选择性Met拮抗物起作用。
D.抗-HGF受体抗体
虽然某些抗Met抗体是受体激动剂,其它则阻断配体介导的受体激活。Met阻断性单克隆抗体和多种此类抗体的衍生物已由Genentech公司开发并在US 6,468,529B1(公开于2002年10月22日)、US 6,214,344B1(公开于2001年4月10日)、US 6,207,152B1(公开于1996年5月)和US 5,686,292(公开于1995年6月)中有所描述。声称这些抗体或此类抗体的衍生物可用于癌症治疗。
E.Met选择性适体
含有随机序列的单链寡核苷酸能够形成很多种结构。结合到特异靶标的寡核苷酸可通过被称为SELEX方法的方法从大的随机寡核苷酸文库中筛选出来。选择性地结合到Met并阻断配体介导的Met激活的寡核苷酸配体已由Gilead公司利用SELEX方法鉴定出。这些HGF拮抗物在US6,344,321B1(公开于2002年2月2日)、US 5,843,653(公开于1995年6月)和US 5,475,096(公开于1991年6月)中有所描述。
III.HGF介导的信号转导的抑制剂
A.Met c-尾肽
Met胞质结构域的建模表明c-末端尾与催化口袋相接触并因而作为受体的分子内调节子。Bardelli等人设计了对应于Met的c尾中序列的肽。通过利用相应于触角足同源域的内化介导性序列的序列延伸所述肽使得这些肽成为细胞渗透性的。Met尾肽阻断了配体诱导的自磷酸化以及下游Met信号转导。此肽也阻断了通过Met的近亲Ron的信号转导,但并不影响通过经其它蛋白质酪氨酸激酶受体的EGF、PDGF或VEGF的信号转导。因此,Met c-尾肽是选择性的Met/Ron拮抗物。
B.Grb2拮抗物
SH2结构域利用Tyr-P残基C-近侧的2或3个氨基酸内另外的二级结合相互作用识别磷酸酪氨酸残基(Tyr-P)。Tyr-P临近残基的差别产生了对于SH2结构域亚家族的不同亲和力。因而,特定组的信号转导蛋白的SH2结构域可由包含Tyr-P的三肽选择性地阻断。SH2结构域与磷酸化酪氨酸相互作用的抑制剂在公开于1999年7月13日的美国专利号5,922,697中有所描述。在其中以膦酰甲基苯丙氨酸或相关结构替换Tyr-P残基的化合物对降解磷酸酶是抗性的。肽的多种其它修饰增加了对于特异SH2结构域的亲和力或增强了化合物通过质膜到达它们胞内靶标的能力[Yao等人J.Med.Chem.,42:25-35(1999)]。已有报道Grb2 SH2结构域的基于三肽的抑制剂可阻断HGF介导的细胞运动性、基质侵入和分枝形态发生。这些相同的抑制剂对HGF介导的细胞增殖只有较小的影响。具有对Grb2的SH2结构域的特异高亲和力的抑制剂在公开于2001年7月12日的美国专利号6,254,742B1中描述可用于治疗癌症、转移、牛皮癣以及过敏性疾病、自身免疫疾病、病毒性疾病和心血管疾病的化合物。
C.Gab1磷酸化的诱导物
PKC-α和PKC-β对Grb2相关的粘合剂1(Gab1)的丝氨酸/苏氨酸残基的磷酸化为Met信号下调提供了机制。通过冈田酸对丝氨酸/苏氨酸磷酸酶PP1和PP2A的抑制导致了丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶例如PKCs的激活,以及gab1的丝氨酸/苏氨酸残基的高磷酸化。伴随的酪氨酸残基的高磷酸化阻止了Gab1为Met募集PI3激酶[Gual等人,Oncogene 20:156-166(2001)]。
D.显性失活的src变体
Src经其SH2结构域结合到配体激活的Met的磷酸化酪氨酸残基上。突变受体METM1268T组成性地结合src,并且表达突变受体基因的NIH3T3细胞在裸鼠中形成肿瘤。报道称显性失活的src构建体转染进入这些细胞阻止了它们的生长,并下调了黏着斑激酶(FAK)和paxicillin的磷酸化,但对Grb2结合或PLC-γ磷酸化无影响[Nakaigawa等人,Oncogene19:2996-3002(2000)]。
E.PI3K抑制剂
PI3K对Met的结合是不寻常的,在于它不包括规范基序YXXM而是新基序YVXV。尽管新基序对PI3K的p85亚单位的N-和C-末端SH2结构域具有低亲和力,但是Met c-尾的两个相距很近的YVXV基序却代表着PI3K的停靠位点。该结合受合成的磷酸肽的抑制。PI3K介导的信号看来似乎对HGF诱导的细胞分散(细胞骨架重组、胞间连接点的丢失、细胞迁移)和形态发生是必须的。一种PI3K的抑制剂渥曼青霉素抑制Met诱导的胶原蛋白基质上肾细胞的分枝。PI3K信号似乎对细胞转化并不是必需的,但却有助于转移。
F.NFkB抑制剂
在肝细胞中,HGF经规范IkappaB磷酸化降解循环以及经胞外信号调节激酶1/2和p38促分裂原活化蛋白激酶级联刺激NF-kappaB DNA结合和转录激活。利用NFkB抑制剂的研究指出HGF诱导的NGkB激活是增殖和管泡发生所需的,但不是HGF的分散和抗细胞凋亡功能所需的[(Muller等人,Mol Cell Biol 22:1060-72,(2002)]。
G.小GTP结合蛋白质的抑制剂
Ras的抑制干扰上皮细胞的扩散、肌动蛋白重组、和分散。显性失活的Rac消除非小细胞肺癌细胞中HGF诱导的扩散和肌动蛋白重组。Rho的显微注射抑制HGF诱导的扩散和分散但不抑制运动性。
H.Hsp90拮抗物
伴侣蛋白Hsp90稳定许多涉及信号转导的蛋白质。此伴侣蛋白似乎是多种突变的或异常表达的信号蛋白质的稳定性和功能所需的,所述信号蛋白质促进癌细胞的生长和/或存活。Hsp90的客户蛋白质包括突变的p53、Bcr-Abl、src、Raf-1、Akt、ErbB2和低氧诱导因子1α(HIF-1α)。苯醌安沙霉素化合物格尔德霉素和除莠霉素(herbimycin)以及结构上不相关的根赤壳菌素(radicicol)阻断Hsp90N-末端的核苷结合口袋并引起Hsp90客户蛋白质的降解,所述客户蛋白质中有许多涉及肿瘤发展。一种Hsp90的抑制剂17-烯丙基氨格尔德霉素(17AAG)目前处于I期临床试验,以及新的根赤壳菌素的肟衍生物(KF58333)正在临床前评估中[(Soga等人,Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 48:435-45,(2001))。
最近研究显示Met是Hsp90客户,其对格尔德霉素或相关化合物尤其敏感。在纳摩尔浓度,格尔德霉素下调Met蛋白质表达,抑制HGF介导的细胞运动性和侵入并使表达HGF和Met或组成型激活的Met突变体的细胞转化表型得以回复。Met信号通路下游对于Hsp90抑制剂似乎更加敏感。格尔德霉素在飞摩尔(femtomolar)浓度抑制HGF介导的纤溶酶激活,该浓度是在它们的生长抑制浓度以下的9个数量级。有趣的是,已有报道称在小鼠中根赤壳菌素对柏氏疟原虫具有适当活性。[Tanaka等人,J.Antibiot.51:153-60(1998)]。然而,此活性可能与Met抑制无关[Tanaka等人,J Antibiot 10:880-8(1999)]。
IV.蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂
蛋白质上酪氨酸残基的可逆磷酸化是信号转导的重要机制。已知很多种天然的或合成的化合物是酪氨酸激酶抑制剂。几乎所有这些抑制剂通过阻断酶的ATP口袋来阻断蛋白质激酶。因此,许多具有不仅针对酪氨酸激酶而且针对丝氨酸/苏氨酸和/或其他利用ATP的蛋白质的广谱活性。
1.通用的蛋白质激酶抑制剂
Indrocarbazole K252a最初分离自马杜拉放线菌(Actinomadura)的培养液中,后来在对Ca2+介导的信号转导的拮抗物的筛选中分离自拟诺卡氏菌(Nocardiopsis)。K252a抑制丝氨酸/苏氨酸蛋白质激酶例如蛋白质激酶C(PKCs)的多种同工型,cAMP和cGMP依赖性激酶以及蛋白质酪氨酸激酶,尤其是Trk和Met家族的那些。K252a在纳摩尔浓度抑制Met介导的信号。该化合物抑制Met自磷酸化并阻止其下游效应子MAPK激酶和Akt的活化。它防止MLP-29细胞中HGF介导的分散,减少GTL-16胃癌细胞中Met驱动的增殖,并逆转NIH3T3成纤维细胞的Met介导的转化。K252a及相关化合物是可用于治疗Trk和Met驱动的癌症的有前景的药物的榜样[Morotti等人,Oncogene 21:4885-4893,(2002)]。令人信服地,K252a可作为Met特异性抑制剂开发中的榜样。
2.对蛋白质酪氨酸激酶具有选择性的抑制剂
几类化合物是已知的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂。几种这类化合物已分离自植物或微生物并已广泛用于研究目的。最著名的是染料木黄酮、熏草菌素A、酪氨酸磷酸化抑制剂47、除莠霉素、星形孢菌素和根赤壳菌素。除莠霉素A是苯醌型安沙霉素抗生素,其通过与它们的激酶结构域共价相互作用而抑制广谱的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶。星形孢菌素是吲哚咔唑抗生素,其抑制多种激酶,包括scr家族成员,及丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶。新近大量蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂已得以合成并在几项专利申请中要求保护。1)双单环的、双环的或杂环的芳基化合物(PCT WO 92/20642);2)1,2-亚乙烯基-吖吲哚衍生物(PCT WO94/14808);3)1-环丙基-4-吡啶基-喹诺酮(美国专利号5,330,992)。4)苯乙烯基化合物(美国专利号5,217,999);2)苯乙烯基取代的吡啶基化合物(美国专利号5,302,606);5)喹唑啉衍生物(EP申请号0 566 266A1和美国专利号6,103,728);6)硒代吲哚和硒化物(PCT WO94/03427);7)三环多羟基化合物(PCT WO 92/21660);8)苯甲基膦酸化合物(PCT WO91/15495);9)酪氨酸磷酸化抑制剂样的化合物(美国专利号6,225,346B1);10)噻吩基化合物(美国专利号5,886,195);11)对src和FGF-r酪氨酸激酶具有选择性的基于苯二氮杂的化合物(公开于2000年8月8日的美国专利号6,100,254)。来自多种类别的酪氨酸激酶抑制剂被申请用于癌症的治疗,所述癌症由酪氨酸激酶例如Met以及HER2、EGFR、IGFR、PDGFR、scr和KDR/FLK-1驱动。已知的酪氨激酶抑制剂中没有对于Met是选择性的。然而,可想象将来能够开发出Met特异性的抑制剂。这种乐观是基于已合成几种化合物的事实,所述化合物抑制有限的一组蛋白质酪氨酸激酶,其中之一经批准用于癌症治疗且其中的几种处于临床开发中。这些化合物包括:1)吡唑嘧啶PP1显示对lck和src激酶的选择性,该选择性高于对ZAP-70、JAK2和EGF受体激酶的选择性。2)STI-571(GLEEVEC)抑制abl、PDGF受体和c-kit酪氨酸激酶的所有形式。3)ZD1839是对EGF受体具有一定选择性的合成的苯胺基喹唑啉。4)OSI-774是另一个对EGF受体具有一定选择性的经口活性喹唑啉衍生物。5)4-苯胺基喹唑啉衍生物显示对VEGF-R的选择性(美国专利6,291,455B1,公开于2001年9月18日)。6)SU101显示对PDGF受体的选择性,但其抗增殖效应部分是由于开环代谢物,该代谢物抑制二氢乳清酸脱氢酶,其是一种对嘧啶的生物合成至关重要的线粒体酶。7)芳基和杂芳基喹唑啉化合物显示对CSF-R(美国专利RE37,650E,公开于2002年4月9日)的选择性,在吲哚满-2-酮药效团和FGF受体酪氨酸激酶结构域的晶体学研究基础上设计出VEGF受体(Flk1/KDR)拮抗物SU 5416。9)二单环和二环芳基及杂芳基化合物显示对EGFR和PDGFR(美国专利号5,409,930)的选择性。10)Piceatannol(3,4,3,5V-四羟基-反式-芪)显示对syk和lck的选择性,但也抑制丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶和腺苷三磷酸酶。11)基于苯二氮杂的几种化合物显示对非受体型酪氨酸激酶src及对FGF-R酪氨酸激酶受体家族的一定选择性。这些实例表明可产生出对一种或几种酪氨酸激酶具有选择性的化合物。
V.蛋白质激酶抑制剂的抗疟疾效果
像植物一样,有关的apicomplexan寄生虫例如疟原虫似乎不产生蛋白质酪氨酸激酶。少数报道指出疟原虫中发生蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化(见下面的A部分)。然而同源性搜索未能检测到任何与已知蛋白质酪氨酸激酶家族有关的序列。因此可以想象,蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂的抗疟疾效果是由于人类宿主产生的这些酶的抑制。已报道多种喹唑啉衍生物具有抗疟疾活性。这些化合物包括2,4-二氨基-6(3,4-二氯苄胺喹唑啉(PAM1392[Thompson等人,Exp.Parasitol 25:32-49,1969])、2,4-二氨基-6-[93,4-二氯苄基-亚硝基氨基]-喹唑啉(CI-679)[Schmidt和Rossan,Am.J.Trop.Med.Hyg.28:781-92,(1979)]、由Elslager和同事[Elsager等人,J.Med.Chem.21:1059-70,(1978)]及中国科学家[Gy等人,Xao Xue Bao 19:108-18,(1984),Yao等人,Yao Xue Bao 19:76-8,(1984)]合成的几种其它2,4-二氨基-6-取代的喹唑啉衍生物。2,4-二氨基-5-甲基-693,4,5-三甲氧基苯胺基甲基)喹唑啉盐在公开于1983年3月15日的美国专利号4,376,858中有所描述。喹唑啉衍生物抗疟原虫作用的一种可能模式是酪氨酸激酶的抑制(公开于2000年8月15日的美国专利号6,103,728)。
A)疟原虫蛋白质激酶的抑制
1)Dluzeski和Garda报道了几种蛋白质激酶抑制剂(星形孢菌素、染料木黄酮、2,5-二羟基肉桂酸甲酯、酪氨酸磷酸化抑制剂B44和B46,熏草菌素A和RO3)抑制恶性疟原虫的红细胞周期[Dluzewski和Garda,Experientia 52:621-623,(1996)]。除了星形孢菌素——一种强的丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶抑制剂之外,这些化合物优选地抑制蛋白质酪氨酸激酶。这些抑制剂阻止了寄生虫在红细胞内部的发育和/或侵入。由于这些抑制剂的广谱活性,蛋白质酪氨酸激酶的抑制是否在所观察到的效果中起到任何作用还不清楚,也不清楚靶蛋白质是来源于红细胞还是寄生虫。
2)在从微生物中筛选青蒿素样的化合物时,Tanaka和同事鉴定了几种具有抗疟疾活性的真菌代谢物。这些化合物中之一、广谱蛋白质激酶抑制剂根赤壳菌素对于小鼠中的柏氏疟原虫是中等活性的[Tanaka等人,J.Antibiot 51:153-60,(1998)]。
3)新近Sharma报道了膜结合的PTK活性在从环形期到营养子期的成熟过程中增加。氯喹对PTK活性的抑制经建议代表了此种药物对抗疟原虫作用的一种可能机制[Sharma和Mishra,Indian J.Biochem.Biophys.36:299-304(1999);Sharma,Indian J.Exp.Biol.38:1222-6(2000)]。
B)人类蛋白质酪氨酸激酶的抑制
疟原虫的多种致病作用均由人类宿主的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶介导,因而可通过蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂来抑制。文献中已报道了几个实例。
1)受感染的红细胞对血管内皮的粘附涉及恶性疟原虫膜蛋白质1(PfEMP1)对由宿主的内皮细胞表达的CD36的结合。CD36介导的信号对于粘附是必需的。Src和lck激酶的选择性抑制剂吡唑嘧啶PP1抑制此种信号并阻止粘附[Yipp等人,Blood online,(2002)]。
2)CD36和CD36介导的蛋白质激酶依赖性信号还涉及由单核细胞和巨噬细胞对恶性疟原虫感染的红细胞的非调理性清除。染料木黄酮及选择性ERK和p38 MAPK抑制剂(PD98059和SB203580,分别地)都将受感染的红细胞的摄取减少到与CD36阻断几乎相同的程度[McGilvray等人,Blood 96:3231-40,(2000)]。
3)糖基磷脂酰肌醇(GPI)是恶性疟原虫的主要毒素。疟疾的GPI在加入细胞的1分钟内诱导多重胞内底物快速起始酪氨酸磷酸化。这些信号涉及寄生虫粘附的上调及诱导巨噬细胞和内皮细胞释放一氧化氮(NO)。粘附和NO释放均可由酪氨酸激酶拮抗物酪氨酸磷酸化抑制剂和染料木黄酮抑制[Tachado等人,J Immunol 156:1897-1907,(1996);Schofield等人,J.Immunol.156:1886-96]。
在以前的工作中蛋白质酪氨酸激酶受体Met未涉及疟疾感染。本发明将蛋白质酪氨酸激酶Met确认为肝细胞对由疟疾子孢子导致的感染的易感性极其重要的介质。
VI.HGF相关的抗疟疾药
A.硫酸多糖
如上所述,HGF的水平可通过HGF降解抑制性多糖增加,所述多糖包括硫酸葡聚糖、硫酸乙酰肝素、硫酸皮肤素、硫酸角质素、软骨素和硫酸软骨素而得以提高。硫酸化多糖例如硫酸化凝乳聚糖、硫酸糊精、硫酸软骨素、肝素、carageenan与奎宁的组合用于治疗疟疾在1998年7月14日公开的美国专利号5,780,452中有所描述。所建议的策略是以硫酸化多糖抑制疟疾寄生虫对人类红细胞的侵入的能力为基础。本发明提高了关于此策略的关注,因为硫酸化多糖可通过抑制HGF降解而提高HGF水平,这是在1998年4月17日公开于美国专利号5,736,506中所描述的事实。因此将硫酸化多糖排除于本发明的抗疟疾活性剂之外。
实施例
实施例1
与疟原虫子孢子孵育的肝细胞释放‘感染易感性诱导因子’(ISIF)
从包含小鼠肝癌细胞Hepa1-6和约氏疟原(P.yoelii)虫子孢子的培养物中(mH/Py条件培养基)产生上清液。为检测ISIF活性,用mH/Py条件培养基孵育新鲜的肝癌细胞不同的时段。然后洗涤细胞并与约氏疟原虫子孢子一起孵育。24小时后通过对寄生虫的红细胞外形式(EEFs)染色来检验感染。作为对照,我们用经新鲜培养基预孵育过相同时段的Hepa1-6细胞,之后加入约氏疟原虫子孢子。用mH/Py条件培养基对肝癌细胞的预处理提高了感染水平(图1a)。在用mH/Py条件培养基预处理1小时的肝癌细胞中观察到对感染的易感性的最大增强(图1a)。用热灭活的子孢子所获得的mH/Py条件培养基是无效的(图1b)。由于子孢子是通过对感染的蚊唾液腺解剖而得,我们也测试了从包含肝癌细胞和未感染的蚊子的唾液腺材料的培养物获得的条件培养基。如此所得条件培养基是无效的(图1b)。
实施例2
受损肝细胞的ISIF释放
为研究ISIF的来源(子孢子或肝细胞)及其释放的必要条件,利用机械应力将Hepa1-6细胞损伤。将受损的细胞放入组织培养孔中并在1小时后收集上清液。在加入约氏疟原虫子孢子之前用此上清液预孵育新鲜的Hepa1-6细胞。上清液的预孵育导致了类似于用mH/Py条件培养基所观察到的感染的增强(图1c)。该发现说明ISIF不是衍生自子孢子而是由于损伤而释放自肝细胞。
实施例3
ISIF是肝细胞生长因子(HGF)
为测试ISIF活性是否由已知的生长因子介导,对已知在损伤后释放的两种详细表征的生长因子进行了测试:碱性成纤维细胞生长因子(bFGF)和肝细胞生长因子(HGF)。在加入柏氏疟原虫子孢子之前用人的HGF或bFGF预孵育HepG2细胞。作为阳性和阴性对照,用hH/Pb条件培养基或新鲜培养基分别孵育细胞。HGF比hH/Pb条件培养基更大程度地增强感染(图2a)。bFGF是无效的。为确定hH/Pb条件培养基中的ISIF是否是HGF,在与新的HepG2细胞和子孢子孵育前,将中和性单克隆抗HGF抗体加入此培养基中。抗体不仅消除了hH/Pb条件培养基的效果,还将感染降低至在照培养物中所观察到的基础水平之下(图2a)。单克隆抗bFGF抗体的加入没有效果(图2a)。这些结果表明条件培养基中的ISIF是HGF,并说明HGF释放是肝细胞的子孢子感染的先决条件。
实施例4
ISIF/HGF由肝细胞在损伤后分泌
用布雷菲德菌素-A(BFA)处理HepG2细胞,布雷菲德菌素-A(BFA)是蛋白质向高尔基小泡运输的抑制剂,可阻断真核细胞中固有分泌。然后洗涤BFA处理过的细胞和未处理的对照细胞,并与柏氏疟原虫子孢子一起孵育以产生条件培养基。此条件培养基的测试显示BFA处理抑制ISIF/HGF分泌(图2b)。BFA的效果是剂量依赖性的。在不同时间段的孵育后收集机械损伤的HepG2细胞的上清液。如通过感染易感性试验(图2c)和蛋白质印迹分析(图2d)所测定的ISIF/HGF水平随时间而增加。ISIF活性通过加入中和性抗HGF抗体而得以消除(图2c)。
实施例5
ISIF/HGF活性与感染水平的相关性
尽管具有较低的效率,但是柏氏疟原虫能够感染非肝的上皮细胞系HeLa(图2e)。进行了一系列实验以比较HepG2细胞和HeLa细胞对于寄生虫诱导的ISIF/HGF产生和对ISIF/HGF的反应性。条件培养基产生自寄生虫与HepG2细胞(hH/Pb条件培养基)及与HeLa细胞(HeLa/Pb条件培养基)的培养物。两种条件培养基均包含ISIF/HGF,虽然其水平不同。如通过蛋白质印迹和ELISA所确定的,ISIF活性与HGF水平显著相关。像HepG2细胞一样,HeLa细胞对ISIF/HGF是敏感的。通过hH/Pb条件培养基增强了HeLa细胞感染且通过HeLa/Pb条件培养基增强了HepG2感染。hH/Pb条件培养基中的ISIF活性总是高于HeLa/Pb条件培养基中的ISIF活性(图2e)。这些数据说明HeLa细胞对ISIF/HGF起反应且感染的程度随HGF剂量而提高。
实施例6
HGF对感染的作用通过Met介导
应用多种实验方案以证明HGF经其受体Met而作用。首先,用柏氏疟原虫子孢子与Hepa1-6细胞孵育1小时,致使Met激酶的激活,如通过受体的酪氨酸磷酸化所证实的(图3a)。第二,在用组成性激活的MET酪氨酸激酶(tpr-Met)14转染的HepG2细胞中(图3b),以及在用针对MET15胞外结构域的对抗性单克隆抗体处理过的HepG2细胞中(图3c)柏氏疟原虫的感染得以增强。这些结果显示MET的激活增强了肝细胞对子孢子导致的感染的易感性。另外,由于在tpr-Met中tpr序列取代了Met的胞外结构域,这就排除了如发生在利斯特氏菌(Listeria)感染中的疟原虫子孢子能够利用Met作为受体进入肝细胞的可能性。
将两种方案用于下调MET。首先,用包含融合到gfp序列上的met的胞外和跨膜结构域的嵌合构建体转染HepG2。该构建体的产物表达于质膜上,并结合HGF但由于其缺乏用于激酶结构域和用作胞内转导物的停靠位点的酪氨酸,所述产物不能将信号转导入细胞;此嵌合体起显性干涉蛋白质的作用,由于其与内源性MET形成二聚物,阻止其激活。由于只有54.3±2.1%的转染效率,柏氏疟原虫子孢子感染在总细胞群体中减少了大约60%(图3d)。如通过GFP表达所显示的受转染的个体细胞完全抵抗感染。利用FGF受体的显性干涉构建体的类似实验不影响HepG2对于柏氏疟原虫感染的易感性。在第二种方法中,利用干扰RNA下调MET。用特异met oligos转染HepG2细胞的两个独立群体引起了如蛋白质印迹检测的MET表达的减少(图3e)。这些细胞的感染率与模拟转染的细胞相比降低了90%(图3f)。这些结果证实HGF通过其受体MET的信号转导是疟原虫子孢子对肝细胞感染的先决条件。
实施例7
疟疾感染中HGF/MET的体内相关性
通过肝脏灌注获得了原代肝细胞。由这些细胞限定条件的培养基具有与由肝细胞系限定条件的培养基类似的ISIF活性(图4a)。特异的HGF受体抑制剂K252a消除了ISIF活性(图4a)。利用只渗透进入损伤细胞的细胞-不透性荧光示踪剂大分子可检测到已被子孢子穿过的细胞。对HGF染色前,在荧光标记的葡聚糖存在下将约氏疟原虫子孢子与Hepa1-6细胞一起孵育。为检测体内由子孢子穿过的细胞,利用了用于小鼠中受损细胞检测的标准试验。获得了肝组织切片并对HGF染色。在体外和体内葡聚糖阴性细胞均不表达HGF,而大多数葡聚糖阳性细胞对于HGF染色也是阳性的(图4b)。结果表明在肝细胞感染过程中由子孢子穿过的肝细胞表达HGF,这大概是由于损伤引起的胁迫,且表明HGF通过其受体MET的信号转导是感染所需的。为证明在疟疾的自然感染中MET信号转导是肝细胞感染过程所需的,用表达针对MET的显性干涉蛋白质(MET-GFP,实施例7)的慢病毒注射一组3只小鼠。作为对照,用类似但只表达GFP的病毒注射一组3只小鼠。两天后,用300000个疟原虫子孢子刺激两组的小鼠。并在2或3天后检查寄生虫血症。获得每个肝脏切片以确定病毒感染的水平(图4c)。结果显示肝脏中MET-GFP的表达是自然感染所需的(图4d)。
实施例8
染料木黄酮对体外柏氏疟原虫子孢子引起的肝脏感染的影响
在DMEM 10%FCS,1mM谷氨酰胺中培养HepG2细胞。从感染的印度按蚊(Anopheles stephensi)唾液腺的解剖中获得了柏氏疟原虫子孢子。将柏氏疟原虫子孢子(5×104)加入到2×105HepG2细胞的单层中(染料木黄酮存在或不存在下)达24小时,之后固定并用抗EEF的mAb(2E6)随后用抗小鼠IgG-FITC抗体染色。通过计数每盖玻片EEFs的数目来定量感染。结果显示于图5中。结果显示了受感染细胞的数目。25μM的染料木黄酮已经显示出感染减少大约75%。
实施例9
染料木黄酮对体内柏氏疟原虫子孢子引起的肝脏感染的影响
再次从感染的印度按蚊唾液腺的解剖中获得了柏氏疟原虫子孢子。将柏氏疟原虫子孢子(5×104)静脉注射进入两组小鼠,每组5只。其中一组在6小时前用含4mg染料木黄酮的DMSO注射注射,而另一组只用DMSO注射(对照)。42小时后用寄生虫特异的引物通过实时RT-PCR对肝感染进行定量。结果显示于图6中。感染减少大约80%。
I.目前应用的抗疟疾药物
如前所述,本发明的抗疟疾活性剂可任选地包含目前应用的抗疟疾药物,联合HGF活性抑制剂。
尽管很久前就已知抗疟疾药物存在于开花植物青蒿(artemisia annua)和金鸡纳树皮中,目前却只有少数可用于治疗或预防该疾病的药物。目前应用的抗疟疾药物在最近的综述文章中[Ridley,Nature 415:686-693,(2002)]和由P.Rosenthal编辑的书中[Antimalarial chemotherapy.Mechanisms of action,resistance,and new directions in drug discovery,Humana,Totowa,New jersey,(2001)]有所描述。最广泛研究的抗疟疾药物是喹啉、抗叶酸药、青蒿素、电子转移抑制剂例如阿托代醌(atoquavone),和抗生素例如四环素。为消除抗性的产生,将一些药物以固定的组合使用,且几种新的药物组合目前正在研究中。
A.喹啉
在南美洲,产生自金鸡纳树树皮的粉末长久以来被用于治疗发烧。17世纪金鸡纳树粉末引入欧洲且在1820年由Pelletier和Caventou将抗发热的成分——奎宁分离出来。奎宁目前用于严重疟疾、多种药物抗性疟疾和怀孕的前三个月期间疟疾的治疗。奎尼丁是奎宁的右旋非对映异构体,比奎宁活性更强,但也是更具心脏毒性且更加昂贵。由于其作为抗心率不齐活性剂的广泛有效性,肠胃外奎尼丁在美国用于严重疟疾的治疗。当以快速浓注注射方式施用时,奎宁和奎尼丁可能引起低血压,以及低血糖,这在怀孕妇女尤其是问题。为了鉴定更有效和更安全的抗疟疾药物,以奎宁结构为基础合成了大量相关化合物。1934年氯喹首先在德国合成并被独立地确定为二战期间美国所合成的一系列4-氨基喹啉中最有希望的首选药物。具有多种商品名例如Nivaquine、Malarquine和Aralen的氯喹几十年来已成为恶性疟原虫化学疗法的支柱。它便宜、当以正确的剂量应用时安全、高效且对于门诊病人使用是可行的。氯喹通常是良好耐受的,尽管它可能引起瘙痒,尤其是在黑皮肤病人中,还可引起恶心,和少见的神经精神症状或小脑功能紊乱。氯喹可通过肌内或皮下施用或者通过静脉内灌注给药。针对氯喹的抗性已缓慢发展,但目前是广泛存在的,不仅在东南亚,而且在非洲的许多地区。它目前用于非恶性感染的治疗以及还未出现其抗性的地区的恶性疟原虫疟疾的治疗和预防。
氯喹是4-氨基喹啉。为鉴定针对氯喹抗性疟原虫株系有活性的新药,合成了大量的4-氨基喹啉类。该努力导致了目前用于治疗氯喹抗性疟疾的氨酚喹(氨酚喹啉)的发现。然而,其显示出与氯喹的一些交叉抗性的事实和用于预防时的副作用,例如肝炎和粒细胞缺乏症限制了氨酚喹的用途。尽管过去三十年的广泛努力,但是科学家们未能产生出替代氯喹的便宜且有效的4-氨基喹啉[由O′Neill等人综述,Pharmacol.Ther.77:29-58,(1998)]。
在20世纪60年代,两种抗疟疾药甲氟喹和卤泛曲林在美国Walter Reed医学研究所(Walter Reed Institute of Medical Research)中的奎宁相关结构测试中浮现出来。由Hoffmann La Roche以商品名Lariam开发的甲氟喹于1985年首先应用于预防,且后来已用于1450万人的预防和160万人的治疗。它目前用于有氯喹抗性的地区的治疗和预防中。甲氟喹具有2到3周的消除半衰期。治疗的过程包括2或3个剂量,副作用包括消化道失调和神经精神影响。像甲氟喹一样,紧密相关的卤泛曲林是昂贵的。由于其吸收在病人与病人间有所不同,已开发了静脉内制剂。卤泛曲林用在疑为氯喹抗性的恶性疟原虫引起的疟疾治疗中。其用途受到致命性心脏毒性的限制。
伯胺喹是一种8-氨基喹啉,其在Paul Ehrlich 1891年发现甲基蓝具有弱的抗疟原虫活性后开发出来。从一大系列甲氧基和8-氨基喹啉衍生物中,首先将扑疟喹啉确定为引导者并于1926年引入药物。在更少毒性、更有效的此类化合物的探索中出现了戊胺喹、异戊胺喹和伯胺喹。伯胺喹在朝鲜战争期间得以广泛测试并且现在用于特定适应症中。伯胺喹与氯喹尽管结构上相关,但是在作用模式上有所不同。不像其它的奎宁抗疟疾药,伯胺喹针对恶性疟原虫的肝阶段起作用并破坏间日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫的晚期肝阶段和潜伏形式。后一活性在目前所用的抗疟疾药中是独一无二的,并使得伯胺喹成为预防疟疾复发的药物选择,所述疟疾复发可能直到间日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫最初侵袭后的40周才会发生。尽管伯胺喹针对间日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫的红细胞形式起作用,它并不抑制这些寄生虫的最初侵袭。与间日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫的红细胞形式相反,恶性疟原虫的那些形式对伯胺喹是不敏感的。因此,伯胺喹不用于由恶性疟原虫引起的疟疾治疗。伯胺喹具有很短的半衰期而必须每天给药。胃肠副作用通常是温和的,但可能发生更严重的氧化性溶血,尤其是在葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶缺乏的病人中。相关化合物他非诺喹(tafenoquine)清除慢得多,具有大约14天的终末半衰期。此新的化合物可能比伯胺喹具有更大的治疗指数,但其治疗作用还有待于确定。
B.青蒿素
青蒿素是中国开花植物青蒿(Artemisia annua)的活性成分,中国的草药医生对所述青蒿在过去的2000年前已有所使用。20世纪60年代发现青蒿的醚提取物青蒿素对抵抗小鼠疟疾有效。1972年中国科学家分离了其活性成分。中国生产了基于水的青蒿酯制剂并安全地用于100多万疟疾病人的治疗中。在美国,Klayman发现了蒿属物种青蒿,并开发了基于油的提取物,其用于严重性疟疾治疗测试。由于动物中神经毒性影响,基于油的制剂在西方世界未经批准。然而,由于喹啉为基础的抗疟疾药抗性的出现,对于青蒿素的兴趣已有所增强并已生产了几种半合成的衍生物。除了已通过从青蒿植物中提取所获得的青蒿素外,目前还使用几种半合成的衍生物。它们包括蒿甲醚、青蒿素甲醚、青蒿酯和二氢青蒿素。后一化合物是所有其他基于青蒿素药物的代谢物及体内的主要活性剂。青蒿素具有抗红细胞内所有寄生虫阶段,尤其是幼年的环形体的广谱活性。青蒿素比其它抗疟疾药物能更快速度地降低寄生虫血症并抑制配子体传播。半合成青蒿素衍生物的缺点是它们比母本药物更加昂贵。当这些化合物单独应用时,青蒿素衍生物及其活性代谢物二氢青蒿素的短半衰期需要5-7天的治疗。蒿甲醚最初用于治疗严重疟疾。然而,此药物的肌内应用证明并不比奎宁的静脉内应用更好。青蒿素及其衍生物目前与其它抗疟疾药联合用于对非并发疟疾的治疗。
B.喹啉和青蒿素的作用模式
理解已知的抗疟疾药物的作用和疟原虫针对这些药物发展的抗性所潜在的分子机制对于将来药物的开发是重要的。喹啉和青蒿素浓缩在溶酶体食物泡中,在此处它们似乎通过与血红素相互作用而发挥其抗疟疾活性。血红素由宿主红细胞中丰富的血红蛋白降解产生。亚铁血红素(FeII)氧化成为正铁血红素(FeIII)并作为叫作疟原虫色素的惰性色素隔离于胞质中。疟原虫色素包含聚集的血红素二聚体的结构晶格。血色素的隔离保护了寄生虫免受游离血红素的脂质过氧化作用或其它毒性影响。喹啉的首要靶标是较老的营养子,它们在其食物泡中产生大量的亚铁血红素。人们认为氯喹和其它抗疟疾喹啉抑制亚铁血红素的二聚化或阻止其从食物泡至胞质的处理,胞质是疟原虫色素形成的地方。青蒿素的抗疟疾作用也依赖于血红素。人们认为这些药物经自由基杀死寄生虫,所述自由基由于在亚铁血红素存在下药物的过氧化物键的氧化切割而产生。然而,喹啉抗疟疾药[Sullivan等人,J.Biol Chem 273:31103-31107,(1998)]和青蒿素[OlIiaro等人,Trends in Parasitology 17:122-126,(2001]的精确作用模式仍有待于阐明。
恶性疟原虫对氯喹和可能其它喹啉的抗性似乎是由于药物向食物泡运输的减少。药物运输的缺陷可能由推定的氯喹抗性转运蛋白基因(PFCRT)和P-糖蛋白编码基因(Pfmdr1)的突变造成。尽管青蒿素转运似乎受Pfmdr1基因突变的影响,但是还未观察到针对青蒿素及其衍生物的临床抗性。
D.抗叶酸物
除氯喹外,最重要的抗疟疾药物是设计为抑制叶酸辅助因子合成的化合物,所述叶酸辅助因子对于核苷酸合成是必需的并参与氨基酸代谢。最普遍应用的抗叶酸物是2,4-二氨基嘧啶、乙胺嘧啶、氯胍(氯胍或白乐君)及硫磺药物周效磺胺、磺胺甲氧吡嗪或氨苯砜。乙胺嘧啶抑制以与胸苷酸合成酶(TS)的融合蛋白质的形式存在于疟原虫中的二氢叶酸还原酶(DHFR)。磺胺药物周效磺胺抑制dihydroopteroate合酶(DHPS)——叶酸通路中的另一种酶。针对恶性疟原虫的抗叶酸治疗的成功已归因于宿主-寄生虫的参与叶酸辅助因子合成的相应酶的药物结合的差异。乙胺嘧啶对疟原虫DHFR-TS比人类DHFR具有更高的亲和力。然而,其它DHFR-TS抑制剂对于寄生虫也是选择毒性的,而不更强烈的地结合疟原虫酶。与哺乳动物细胞相比,寄生虫对抗叶酸物提高的敏感性似乎至少部分是由于疟疾寄生虫和人类宿主间在DHFR翻译的调节方面的差异[Zhang和Rathod,Science 296:545-7,(2002)]。
当抗叶酸药物单独使用时,由于靶酶中的突变,针对其效果的抗性快速发展,所述靶酶对于乙胺嘧啶指二氢叶酸还原酶(DHFR),对于周效磺胺和相关硫磺药物指dihydroopteroate(DHPS)。因此,抗叶酸物被联合使用。将乙胺嘧啶与其它抗叶酸物化合物例如周效磺胺、磺胺甲氧吡嗪或氨苯砜以固定组合配制。已知商品名为Fansidar的乙胺嘧啶和周效磺胺的固定组合代表了疟疾的最重要的抗叶酸物治疗。将周效磺胺/乙胺嘧啶或磺胺甲氧吡嗪/乙胺嘧啶用于被认为是氯喹抗性的严重恶性疟原虫感染的治疗。经证明这些组合对于怀孕期间的间歇治疗是有用的。对于硫磺成分偶然的超敏性可引起皮肤的疼痛起疱。该副作用阻碍了周效磺胺/乙胺嘧啶的预防用途。设计了两种化合物的组合以降低抗性发展的风险,所述两种化合物相互独立地对叶酸通路中两种不同的酶起作用。然而,不幸地,由于广泛的组合使用,出现了恶性疟原虫的株系。
新近已将抗叶酸物与通过与叶酸合成不相关的机制抵抗疟疾寄生虫的药物组合在固定组合中。阿托代醌——最初开发用来抵抗AIDS病人中肺囊虫感染的药物,证明对疟疾是有效的,大概通过干扰线粒体中的电子传递发挥效果。为抵消抗性的快速发展,将阿托代醌与氯胍(氯胍、白乐君)相组合。氯胍的抗疟疾活性是由于其环状三嗪代谢物环氯胍,其选择性地抑制疟原虫双功能二氢叶酸还原酶-胸苷酸合成酶(DHFR-TS)。由GlaxoSmithkline有限公司以商品名Malarone出售的阿托代醌-氯胍组合是安全且有效的新型抗疟疾药物。然而,由于其复杂合成,阿托代醌是昂贵的。制造商已为非洲发起了药物捐赠计划,但捐赠的治疗数目对于其一线使用可能并不充足。
E.抗生素
疟原虫和其他寄生虫拥有称为顶体(apicoplast)的质体细胞器,其包含35kb的环状DNA。质体整合那些类似原核转录和翻译系统的元件。此系统对已知为抑制细菌蛋白质合成的化合物例如四环素、强力霉素和氯林肯霉素敏感,。由于它们缓慢的作用模式,这些抗生素主要与其他快速作用药物联合使用。四环素和强力霉素的使用限于8周岁以上的病人且在怀孕和哺乳妇女中禁用。这两种抗生素与奎宁联合使用。氯林肯霉素(7-氯-林肯霉素),其是林肯霉素的半合成衍生物,于20世纪60年代引入作为抗生素。氯林肯霉素对于儿童和孕妇是安全的。可以利用氯林肯霉素的几种一般的制剂。三天的疗程花费高于周效磺胺/乙胺嘧啶但低于阿托夸酮-氯胍或卤泛曲林。在几个试验中已将氯林肯霉素用于疟疾的单治疗中,但其在与快速作用药物的组合中最有效[Lell和Kremsner,AntimicrobialAgents and Chemotherapy 46:3215-2320,(2002)]。
F.抑制疟疾寄生虫的肝内发育的治疗
目前所用的抗疟疾药物中仅有少数针对肝细胞中疟原虫的发育起作用。这些药物包括伯胺喹和抗叶酸物组合乙胺嘧啶/周效磺胺。虽然伯胺喹抗疟原虫的肝形式的作用机制是未知的,抗叶酸物组合可能抑制子孢子增殖所需的疟原虫DNA的合成。本发明提供了干扰疟原虫肝内发育的新的药物靶标和药物靶标候选者。
II.目前在抗疟疾药物开发方面的努力
A.药物抗性逆转剂
抗疟疾物的主要问题是药物抗性疟原虫株系的产生。对药物的抗性可通过将药物与逆转抗性的化合物联合来抵消。在体外通过多种化合物降低恶性疟原虫对氯喹的抗性[Singh和Puri,Acta tropica 77:185-193,(2000)]。然而,在小鼠模型中只有二苯环庚啶经证明是对yoelii nigeriensis疟原虫的氯喹抗性系有效的,而其他如戊脉安和抗组胺氯苯那敏显示出中等活性。氯苯那敏常常用于治疗由氯喹引起的瘙痒症。在临床研究中,氯喹/氯苯那敏组合产生了比单独氯喹更高的治疗效率[Sowumi等人,Tropical Mecicine and International Health 3:177-185,(1998)],而在先前的研究中氯喹与去甲丙咪嗪的组合没有临床益处[Warsame等人,Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 86:235-236,(1992)]。设计用来降低参与药物运输的蛋白质表达的反义寡核苷酸在公开于2002年8月27日的美国专利号6,440,660B1中有所描述。
B.新的抗疟疾药物组合
防止抗性最重要的策略是使用药物组合。如上面已经提到的,过去通过利用固定组合例如乙胺嘧啶和sulfodoxine(Fansidar)或者阿托代醌和氯胍(Mlalarone)的组合,对此策略已有所应用。新近,多种新策略得以实施且其它几个正在研究中[综述见最近的World Health Organization出版物(WHO/CDS/RBM/2001.35)]。喹啉化合物例如氯喹、氨酚喹、甲氟喹和奎宁与抗叶酸物组合周效磺胺/乙胺嘧啶进行组合。基于这些化合物具有相加的抗疟疾活性这一观察,开发了甲氟喹与周效磺胺/乙胺嘧啶(Fansimef,Roche)的组合。然而,出乎意料地,使用此组合作为非并发疟疾的一线治疗导致了对甲氟喹抗性的快速发展。因此,没有推荐将该组合用于预防或治疗。将青蒿素与更长半衰期的药物相组合以减少治疗时间及增加依从性。认为寄生虫对青蒿素的快速清除降低了产生针对伴侣药物的抗性的机会。基于青蒿素的组合包括青蒿酯加氯喹,或氨酚喹,或甲氟喹,或周效磺胺/乙胺嘧啶及蒿甲醚与苯芴醇(lumefantrine)的组合。已知以商品名Coartem and Riamet(Novartis)命名的后一组合可作为固定组合得到,且代表了目前可利用的最有希望的组合治疗。该组合最近已通过管理机构批准。正在研究中的组合包括多种哌喹-dihydroartesmisinin-三甲氧苄二氨嘧啶(Artecom)、Artecom加伯胺喹(CV8)、青蒿酯加双喹哌、磷酸萘酚喹(naphtoquine)加二氢青蒿素,以及chloroguanil-氨苯砜加artesinate(CDA或Lapdap plus)。抗生素四环素和强力霉素常常用于与奎宁的组合中,且氯林肯霉素与奎宁、氯喹相组合,及新近与新型抗疟疾药物膦胺霉素(fosmidomycin)相组合,膦胺霉素抑制1-脱氧-D-木酮糖-5-磷酸(DOXP)还原异构酶,其是类异戊二烯生物合成的非甲羟戊酸通路的关键酶。
C.新型抗疟疾药物
由于药物作用和药物抗性潜在的机制得以阐明以及对疟原虫疾病所利用的生物化学通路的了解增加,目前可期望抗疟疾药物的开发比过去更快地前进。有关疟原虫中代谢通路的综述可在因特网上获得(http://sites.huii.ac.il/malaria/)。疟原虫基因组计划的实施、改进的转染技术的发展及RNA干扰技术的应用加速了学习过程。抗疟疾药物开发的新方法在最近的出版物中有所综述[Winstanley,Parasitology Today 16:146-153,(2000);Antimalarial chemotherapy.Mechanisms of action,resistance,and new directions in drug discovery,Humana,Totowa,NewJersey,由P.Rosenthal编辑,(2001);Ridley,Nature 415:686-693(2002);Robert和McConkey,Molecular & Biochemical Parasitology 119:273-278(2002)])。为了将这些成果与作为本发明主题的策略相对比,在下面部分中提供了这些成果的简短描述。
目前针对疟疾治疗的方法可分为三类:已知药物的改进类型、针对新鉴定靶标的药物、及具有未知或很不明确的靶标的药物。
1)已知药物的改进类型
氯喹仍是新型药物开发的有吸引力的引导者。新的引导化合物的实例包括短链氯喹类似物(bisquionlines)、缺乏形成毒性代谢物能力的氨酚喹的类似物、及双喹哌——最初由中国开发的4-氨基喹啉。大化合物文库的高通量筛选已用于鉴定以与喹啉的结合相似的方式结合血红素的新结构。青蒿素相关的三噁烷在公开于2000年10月24日的美国专利6,136,847中有所描述。新型药物候选物还包括针对乙胺嘧啶的靶标DHFR的双胍,和疟原虫中嘌呤和嘧啶代谢的其它抑制剂(公开于1997年9月2日的美国专利号5,663,155)。细胞色素c还原酶-阿托夸酮的靶标的新型抑制剂包括β-甲氧基丙烯酸酯类。
2)针对新发现靶标的药物
2.1蛋白酶抑制剂。用于治疗后生动物寄生虫感染的蛋白酶抑制剂在公开于1998年4月14日的美国专利号5,739,170和公开于2001年2月27日的美国专利号6,194,421 B1中有所描述。
2.1.2参与血红蛋白降解的蛋白酶。疟原虫的红细胞形式在食物泡中降解高达80%的宿主细胞血红蛋白。血红蛋白在食物泡内降解为肽,这些肽然后输出到细胞质,最终降解成氨基酸。参与血红蛋白降解的酶包括天冬氨酸蛋白酶(plasmepsins)、半胱氨酸蛋白酶falcipain,一种金属肽酶和其它肽酶。最知名的血红蛋白降解蛋白酶是天冬氨酸蛋白酶[Coombs等人,Trends in Parasitology 17:532-7,(2001)]。以前已开发了抑制人类免疫缺陷性病毒(HIV)的天冬氨酸蛋白酶的催化活性的药物,并已鉴定出抑制人类天冬氨酸蛋白酶例如肾素和来自多种致病微生物例如曲霉(Aspergillus)和假丝酵母(Candida)的天冬氨酸的引导者。疟原虫基因组的同源性搜索揭示了除两种先前已知的plasmepsins I和II之外的8种plasmepsins。疟原虫plasmepsins的抑制剂在大量化合物中发现,所述化合物已经合成用于筛选针对人类天冬氨酸蛋白酶的药物。同源性建模揭示了半胱氨酸蛋白酶falcipain-2的抑制剂(乙烯基砜,isopuinolone),其在体外抑制疟疾寄生虫的生长[Sabnis等人,J.Biomol.Struct.Dyn.19,765-74,(2002)]。难题是发现对疟原虫酶有活性但对同源的人类蛋白酶无活性或活性程度低得多的抑制剂。
2.1.3.涉及红细胞侵入的蛋白酶。裂殖子进入红细胞需要寄生虫和红细胞表面的几种蛋白质的蛋白酶剪切。已研究了裂殖子表达的两种蛋白酶:恶性疟原虫枯草杆菌蛋白酶样蛋白酶-1和-2(PfSUB-1和PfSUB-2)。这些和几种其它的蛋白酶潜在的药物靶标[Blackman,Curr.Drug Targets 1:59-83,(2000)]。
2.2.脂肪酸合成。脂肪酸的合成利用2-碳供体丙二酰辅酶A(CoA)以酰基链的反复延长的方式出现。细菌中该通路(称为II类通路)包括几种脂肪酸合成酶(FAS)。动物中该通路(称为I类通路)由一种大的多功能蛋白质催化。用于从头脂肪酸合成的II类通路不仅存在于细菌中,还存在于植物中以及某些寄生虫包括疟原虫的顶体中。疟原虫II类通路包括酰基载体蛋白质(ACP)、β-酮脂酰-ACP-合成酶III(FabH)和I/II(FabB/F)、及烯酰-ACP还原酶(FabI)。抗生素三氯生和硫乳霉素及其衍生物是抑制脂肪酸合成的新抗疟疾药物研究中的引导化合物[Waller等人,Antimicrobial Agents and chemotherapy 47:297-301,(2003);Prigge等人,Biochemistry 42:1160-69,(2003)]。
2.3.类异戊二烯合成的非甲羟戊酸通路。虽然类异戊二烯在人类中经甲羟戊酸通路合成,在疟原虫中它们通过非甲羟戊酸通路也称为MEP通路而合成。该通路已知在某些细菌和植物中起作用。在疟原虫中它包括由顶体中的环状DNA编码的酶。1-脱氧-D-木酮糖-5-磷酸[DOXP]还原异构酶——非甲羟戊酸通路的关键酶受膦胺霉素抑制。该抗生素最初分离自淡紫灰链霉菌(Streptomyces lavendulae)。膦胺霉素在体外和鼠疟疾中具有强烈抗疟疾活性。最初的临床试验表明此药是良好耐受的。然而,不幸地,此药导致抗性的快速产生。因此它必须用于与其它药物的组合中。临床前研究表明膦胺霉素与林肯霉素和氯林肯霉素的组合可能是有用的。
2.4蛋白质异戊烯转移酶。多种蛋白质包括小G蛋白质,例如Ras、Rac、Rap、Rho、Rab、异三聚体G蛋白质γ-亚基、核内核纤层蛋白、蛋白质激酶和蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸酶在翻译后用法呢基(C15)或忙牛儿基忙牛儿基(C20)在羧基末端得以异戊二烯化。法呢基或忙牛儿基忙牛儿基的连接由异戊烯转移酶来催化。这些酶的抑制剂是广泛研究的抗癌药物候选物。已鉴定了恶性疟原虫中的两种异戊烯转移酶,PET和PGGT-1。几种模拟肽和单萜、柠檬烯抑制异戊二烯化和寄生虫生长[Chakrabarti等人,J.Biol.Chem.277:42066-73,(2002)]。法呢基转移酶抑制剂(phosphosequiterpene)在公开于2002年8月2日的美国专利6,429,203中有所描述。
2.5.乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)。疟原虫LDH(pLDH)对于疟原虫的性阶段和无性阶段的ATP的厌氧产生是必需的。发现pLDH的不同异构体存在于不同的疟原虫种类中。将它们的检测用作诊断测试和用于监测药物的抗疟疾功效。由于与人类LDH的结构差异,认为pLDH是有前景的药物靶标[Dunn等人,Nat.Struct.Biol.3:912-5,(1996)]。
2.6.磷脂生物合成抑制剂。红细胞疟原虫的发育和增殖需要大量磷脂。磷脂酰胆碱(PC)——存在于受感染的红细胞中的主要磷脂——主要通过寄生虫的酶从血浆来源的胆碱合成而来。大量胆碱样的化合物已得以合成且一些具有抗疟疾活性。引导化合物:G25及其类似物、VB5-T、VB5-T在对哺乳动物细胞系无毒性的浓度下在体外抑制恶性疟原虫和间日疟原虫的生长。非常低剂量的G25治疗治愈了由恶性疟原虫和食蟹猴疟原虫(P.cynomolgi)感染的猴子。这些基于胆碱的药物似乎干扰胆碱吸收因而干扰PC合成[Wengelnik等人,Science 295:1311-14,(2002)]。
2.7.糖基磷脂酰肌醇(GPI)合成。GPIs在真核细胞中是普遍存在的。它们通过糖基转移酶的作用通过向磷脂酰肌醇(PI)的连续添加糖残基在内质网(ER)中合成。成熟的GPI移位穿过膜,从胞质进入ER的腔面。合成完成后,GPI糖脂输出至细胞表面,游离或与蛋白质共价结合。GPIs是疟原虫以及其它寄生虫重要的炎症诱导化合物。两种GPI锚定蛋白质环子孢子蛋白质(CS)及裂殖子表面蛋白质MSP-1和MSP-2以及GPI本身是疫苗候选物。由于疟原虫的GPIs和由哺乳动物合成的GPIs之间存在差异,疟原虫中GPIs的合成是具有吸引力的药物靶标[Delorenzi等人,Infection and Immunity 70:4510-4522,(2002)]。
在布鲁斯锥虫(Trypanosoma brucei)中已获得了对于此方法原理的证据:通过破坏PIG-B基因阻断GPI合成使布鲁斯锥虫的血液阶段无法生存。
2.8.蛋白质激酶。疟原虫蛋白质激酶可分为几个组和家族[Kappes等人,Parasitology Today 15:449-454(1999)]。这些激酶的大多数在氨基酸水平上显示出与其哺乳动物的对应激酶的40至60%同源性。对于药物开发尤其重要的是经发现存在于植物和一些原生动物种类中但不存在于哺乳动中的钙依赖性蛋白质激酶(CDPKs)以及在催化结构域中具有大的插入的几种激酶,例如PfPK1、PfPK4和FEST。Pfnek-1是这一类中潜在的药物靶标的一个实例。它显示出与涉及真核细胞分裂的蛋白质激酶的从未存在于有丝分裂/曲霉菌(NIMA)/NIMA样激酶(Nek)家族的同源性。与其它恶性疟原虫蛋白质激酶和NIMA/Nek家族相似,Pfnek-1除了催化结构域还具有大的C末端延长。其底物之一是Pfmap-2——非典型的恶性疟原虫MAPK同源物。细菌表达的重组Pfnek-1蛋白质可用于抑制试验中筛选抑制剂[Dorin等人,Eur J Biochem 268:2600-8,(2001)]。在疟原虫中还未发现与已知的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶具有同源性的蛋白质,尽管已报道发生蛋白质酪氨酸磷酸化。
2.9.多胺。像所有真核生物一样,疟原虫包含三种多胺:二胺腐胺和其衍生物、亚精胺和精胺。化合物在细胞增殖和分化中具有多效性功能。干扰多胺功能的策略包括对多胺合成、多胺反转变(back conversion)和多胺运输的抑制,或通过结构类似物使多胺代谢失调。多胺合成抑制剂与多胺结构类似物的组合用于疟疾和由其它致病原生生物引起的疾病的治疗正在研究中。此方法受益于在新型抗癌药物研究中产生的大型化合物文库[Muller等人,Trends in Parasitology 17:242-9,(2001)]。
2.10.组蛋白脱乙酰酶
组蛋白是经特定赖氨酸残基的连续乙酰化/脱乙酰化参与转录调节的核蛋白质。在恶性疟原虫中,组蛋白是丰富的且至少已鉴定了一种组蛋白脱乙酰酶。Apicidin——分离一种镰孢霉(Fusarium)的环状四肽——可能通过干扰连续的乙酰化/脱乙酰化的过程抑制哺乳动物细胞增殖和Apicomplexan寄生虫包括疟原虫物种的体外发育[Darkin-Rattray等人,Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:13143-7,(1996)]。该发现导致对疟原虫选择性组蛋白脱乙酰酶抑制剂的探求。引导化合物包括制滴菌素A(TSA)、正-丁酸钠、六亚甲基双乙酰胺(HBMA)和新近开发的HMBA类似物例如壬二酸二异羟肟酸(ABHA)和辛二酸双二甲基酰胺[Andrews等人,International Journal For Parasitology 30:761-768,(2000)]。
2.11.莽草酸通路。莽草酸通路存在于原核生物、真菌及植物和藻类的质体中,但不存在于脊椎动物中。此通路产生分枝酸——对氨基苯甲酸(PABA)和叶酸合成的必需底物。它也是泛醌、芳香族氨基酸和几乎所有其它芳香族化合物合成所需的。哺乳动物没有莽草酸通路,依赖外源叶酸。利用最近开发的RNA干扰技术已将分枝酸合成酶(CS)确认为有用的药物靶标[Robert和McConkey,Molecular & Biochemical Parasitology119:273-278(2002)]。已获得了抑制该通路的药物的引导者。除草剂草甘膦(通过其RoundUp、Zero或Tumbleweed的商品名更为知名)是5-enopyruvyl莽草酸-3-磷酸合成酶的抑制剂,其抑制疟原虫在体外的生长。
2.12.亲环蛋白。亲环蛋白存在于所有活的生物体中。人亲环蛋白A(hCyPA)最初鉴定为免疫抑制药物环孢菌素A(CSA)的胞质靶标。用CSA抑制小鼠免疫性的尝试揭示了CSA抑制啮齿类动物疟疾生长这一意外事实。CSA和几种非免疫抑制性CSA类似物随后已显示在体外具有抗疟疾活性。早期红细胞环形期寄生虫显得尤其敏感。在三种克隆的疟原虫亲环蛋白之一中,PfCyP19是人CypA的最近的同系物。像其它亲环蛋白一样,PfCyP19具有肽基脯氨酸顺反异构酶(PPIase或旋转异构酶)活性。它以高亲和力结合CSA。其抑制寄生虫生长的能力似乎并不与旋转异构酶活性的抑制有关,而是与PfCyP19-CSA复合体对未鉴定的靶标蛋白质的抑制有关。
2.13.运送系统。红细胞的寄生虫侵入与在未感染的红细胞中未发现的红细胞膜运送系统中的变化和新的渗透通路(NPP)的出现有关[由Kirk,Physiological Reviews 81:495-537,(2001)综述]。寄生虫和/或红细胞衍生的转运蛋白质定位于泡膜和寄生虫表面。寄生虫表面的一些转运蛋白例如ATP/ADP交换子、V-型H1-ATP酶、H1-PPase通常发现于胞内细胞器的膜上。转运蛋白质对于疟疾化学疗法的新方法是重要的。一方面,可设计阻断寄生虫营养摄取的药物。另一方面可将运送系统作为细胞毒性剂靶向胞内寄生虫的途径。正在研究中的药物靶标候选物包括定位于受感染的红细胞表面的电压依赖性通道,其在营养摄取中发挥作用[Desai等人,Nature406:949-51,(2000)]、参与δ-氨基乙酰丙酸脱水酶(ALAD)和可能由疟原虫用于血红素合成的其它宿主酶的摄取的蛋白质[Bonday等人,NatureMedicine 6:898-903,(2000)],以及定位于受感染的红细胞内部寄生虫质膜的寄生虫编码的己糖转运蛋白[Woodrow等人,J.Biol.Chem.274:7272-7,(1999)]。
3.作用机制不清楚的抗疟疾药物
3.1色胺酮。在其于1963年合成后,吲哚并[2,1-b]-喹唑啉-6,12-二酮(色胺酮)从菘蓝(Isatis tinctoria)中得以分离,菘蓝是一种古老的欧洲和中国的染料植物和药草。该化合物可容易地合成,且由解脂假丝酵母(Candida lipolytica)在包含过量的色氨酸和邻氨基苯甲酸的培养基中生长时产生,因而名为色胺酮。色胺酮对多种微生物有活性,尤其是胞内微生物,例如分枝杆菌(mycobacteria)、多氏利什曼虫(Leishmaniadonovani)、克氏锥虫(Trypanosoma cruzi)和疟原虫[Bhattacharjee等人,Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry 10:1979-1989,(2002);Scovill等人,Antimicrobial Agents And Chemotherapy 46:882-883,(2002)]。该化合物是芳基氢受体的激动剂,诱导细胞色素P4501A1在肝细胞中的表达[Schrenk等人,Biochem.Pharmacol.54:165-71,(1997)]并抑制环加氧酶-2及5-脂肪加氧酶[Danz等人,Planta Med.68:152-7,(2002)]。针对胞内微生物的作用机制还是未知。为获得针对疟疾寄生虫的最佳活性而开发的系列衍生物在公开于2001年9月4日的美国专利号US6284772中有所描述。
3.2.常山碱。20世纪40年代末和50年代初,在黄常山(Dichroafebrifuga)或伞形绣球(Hydrangea umbellate)的提取物中发现了常山碱和异常山碱作为抗疟疾活性剂。尽管常山碱显示出与氯喹的结构类似性[Chang,J.Theor.Biol.59:497-501,1976]],但是其抗疟疾活性似乎并不与血红蛋白降解有关。该化合物提高了一氧化氮产生——一种抗疟原虫作用的可能模式[Murata等人,Biochemical Pharmacology 58:1593-1601,(1999)]。常山碱合成及其抗疟疾活性在美国专利号6,420,372B1中有所描述。
3.3.杂合肽。由天然存在的环肽例如杀菌肽、天蚕抗菌肽、爪蟾抗菌肽、sacrotoxin、sapecin、牛白细胞抗菌肽、alamethidicin、防卫素和PGLA2与毒素例如链球菌溶血素、蜂毒肽、barbatolysin、paradaxin和δ溶血素组成的肽在公开于1998年2月3日的美国专利5,714,467中作为抗疟疾化合物有所描述。
III.细胞因子的抗疟疾效应
白细胞介素-1(IL-1)抑制猕猴中恶性疟原虫子孢子的肝内发育,但只是当子孢子接种前应用有效[Maheshwari,Bull.World Health Organ.68:138-44,1990]]。IL-1的保护效应可能由于其能够诱导急性期蛋白质例如IL-6[Vreden等人,Eur.J.Immunol.22:2271-5,(1992)]或c-反应性蛋白质(CRP)。CRP可能经磷酸胆碱结合位点结合到恶性疟原虫和约氏疟原虫的子孢子上,并因而抑制体外和体内肝细胞的感染。松节油的注入也诱导CRP产生并保护大鼠免受疟原虫感染。此保护效应可通过松节油注射过的大鼠的血清转移并且此保护可通过抗-CRP的抗体消除[J.Immunol 139:4192,(1987)]。γ干扰素(IFN-γ)似乎干扰肝细胞内部疟原虫的红细胞外型(EEFs)的发育[J.Immunol 138:4447]。在低剂量下IFN-γ在体外[J.Immunol 139:2020,(1987)]和体内[Ferreira等人,Science 232:881-884,(1986);Masheshwari等人,Inf.Immunity 53:628-630,1986]]抑制肝细胞内部EEF的发育。在第-2、0和+2天给予的五个剂量的人IFN-γ保护了猕猴免受食蟹猴虐原虫子孢子在第0天的感染。未观察到针对营养子诱导的感染的保护[Maheshwari,Bull.World Health Organ.68:138-44,1990]]。IFN-γ对于疟疾治疗的用途在公开于1993年12月14日的美国专利号5,270,037和公开于1990年4月10的美国专利号4,915,941中有所描述。肿瘤坏死因子(TNF)施用未能保护免受文氏疟原虫(P.vinckei)的感染[Acta Tropica 45:289,(1988)],但通过微型泵长时间施用减少了用来自查氏疟原虫(P.chabaudi)的子孢子感染后的寄生虫血症[J.Immunol.139:3493,1987)]。
IV.疟疾疫苗
对抗疟疾的另一重要策略是接种疫苗。通过用减毒的微生物或非致病性成分免疫接种进行的保护性免疫的诱导是医学上的的巨大成功。接种疫苗实际上已经消除了来自几种急性传染病的发病和死亡。不幸地,接种疫苗在预防慢性感染例如肺结核和疟疾中较少成功。在20世纪下半期已大力开发针对恶性疟原虫和间日疟原虫的三个主要发育阶段的疫苗。针对红细胞前期的疫苗目的在于防止感染进入人类宿主的血液。针对无性血液期寄生虫的疫苗目的在于一旦感染已经进入血液就对抗这些疾病引起期。针对血液和蚊中肠中寄生虫有性阶段的疫苗目的在于预防寄生虫感染蚊载体并因而切断疟疾在人类和蚊种群中的传播。目前,多成分疫苗正在开发中。这些疫苗旨在诱导针对疟原虫发育的不同阶段表达的多种抗原的体液和细胞介导的免疫[最近的实例见Kumar等人,Trends in Parasitology 18:129(2002)]。过去所测试的疫苗中没有一个已证明是有效的。
V.靶定宿主成分
疫苗和大多数抗疟疾药物的靶标是寄生虫的成分。这些靶标中的许多涉及对寄生虫存活和生长所必需的宿主寄生虫相互作用和/或涉及由感染引起的病理。目前策略可能的备选策略是调节已知与寄生虫产生的分子相互作用的宿主成分。乍看起来此策略是违反直觉的。事实上,传统的抗微生物化学疗法的重要要求是不干扰宿主的功能。然而,宿主成分的靶定具有药物靶标的变化不会引起药物抗性的优势。两类重要的抗疟疾药物喹啉和青蒿素是非常好的,因为它们靶定宿主的成分血红素。针对喹啉的抗性发展很慢,因为它需要选择影响药物转运的变种。如果靶定的宿主成分保持在微生物的外面,抗性甚至更少可能发生。在疟疾的啮齿动物模型中,可通过阻断肝细胞或红细胞表面的宿主细胞蛋白质,以及通过多种信号转导抑制剂预防或减轻疾病(见下面)。这些发现有助于对疾病发病机理的了解和疫苗的设计,但未能促进任何抗疟疾药物开发的计划。本发明涉及宿主产生的并且疟疾寄生虫形成感染所需的蛋白质。该宿主蛋白质不是包围在寄生虫膜的内部。它是称为Met的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶,其用作称为肝细胞生长因子的另一种宿主蛋白质的受体。
也将可以理解,可用在体内改变为抗疟疾活性剂的化合物以及在体内产生与抗疟疾活性剂所产生的代谢物类似的代谢物的化合物来实施本发明的方法。
一种或多种抗疟疾药物的组合可用于实施本发明的方法。因而,例如,HGF活性的抑制剂可与其它抗疟疾药物例如氯喹一起或与抗疟疾药物组合例如周效磺胺/乙胺嘧啶一起使用。抗疟疾药物可以游离碱的形式或药学上可接受的加酸盐的形式使用。适合的盐的实例是氯化物、盐酸盐、硫酸盐、磷酸盐和二磷酸盐。其它水溶性的、无毒的、无机的或有机的盐也可使用。
实施本发明的方法中,通过经口途径将抗疟疾活性剂施用于人类宿主,因为其作用方式主要是在肝脏中。为了经口施用,本发明的抗疟疾活性剂可制备成固体形式,例如,胶囊剂、片剂、丸剂、粉剂、锭剂和颗粒剂,或者包含通常用于本领域的惰性稀释剂(例如水)的液体形式,例如,乳剂、溶液剂、混悬剂、糖浆剂和酏剂。也可使用其它的施用方式。
本发明方法中以充足的量使用抗疟疾活性剂从而提供足够浓度的活性剂以预防或至少抑制疟疾载体在体内的感染,或者预防或至少抑制疟疾在体内的传播。活性剂的量从而依赖于人类宿主的吸收、分配和清除。当然,抗疟疾活性剂的效果是剂量相关的。抗疟疾活性剂的剂量应该足够产生最小的可检测的效果,但该剂量应至少低于所确定的致死剂量的10倍。施用于宿主的抗疟疾活性剂的剂量可在宽限制范围内变动。可以在治疗上是有效的最小量施用活性剂,且该剂量可根据需要提高到病人所能承受的最大剂量。抗疟疾活性剂可以相对高的负荷剂量施用,随后是较低的维持剂量,或者可以以统一剂量施用。
施用的剂量和频率将随本发明方法中所使用的抗疟疾活性剂而改变。例如,染料木黄酮可通过经口途径以每天5mg至每天约5000mg,优选地每天约50mg至每天约500mg的量使用。通常,剂量不超过每天约500mg,且最通常不超过每天约50mg。对平均大小的成人指定抗疟疾活性剂的剂量。因此,可以理解对于具有较轻或较重体形的病人该剂量可调整20-25%。类似地,对于儿童的剂量可利用众所周知的计算公式来调整。
与HGF活性抑制剂相组合以形成本发明的抗疟疾活性剂所用的抗疟疾药物的量通常不超过所发现的对疟疾治疗安全和有效的量。因此,作为实例,二磷酸伯胺喹可以以包含5mg-7.5mg的药物的片剂形式,以每天2-3片的速率经口施用。伯胺喹对于成人的剂量是经口大约15mg/天的碱(26mg/天的盐)或者经口大约45mg/周的碱(79mg/周的盐)。对于儿童剂量是经口每天约0.3mg/kg的碱(每天0.5mg/kg的盐)或者经口大约每周0.9mg/kg的碱(每周1.5mg/kg的盐)。
利用标准的体外试验,阐明了本发明的抗疟疾活性剂在预防和抑制细胞感染中的效果。因此,抗疟疾活性剂对疟疾感染或复制的抑制效果可通过将疟疾子孢子加入含有或不含抗疟疾活性剂的肝细胞培养物中并而后通过标准方法测试肝细胞内子孢子的增殖来证明。抗疟疾活性剂在预防或抑制疟疾感染或复制的中的效果可在疟疾感染的哺乳动物模型中在体内得以证实。进行这些试验所需的疟疾可利用常规技术从常规来源获得。
抗疟疾活性剂及其药学上可接受的盐可用于哺乳动物,包括但不限于人类,以丸剂、片剂、锭剂、含锭(troche)、胶囊剂、栓剂、可注射的或可吸收的溶液剂等等形式的预防或治疗。
为制备用于哺乳动物中病理状况的药物组合物,可将适当的药学上可接受的载体、稀释剂、佐剂与此处所述的抗疟疾活性剂相结合。本发明的药物组合物包含活性剂和固体或液体的药学上可接受的无毒载体。这类药物载体可为无菌液体,例如水和油,包括石油、动物、蔬菜或合成来源的油。合适的液体的实例有花生油、大豆油、矿物油、芝麻油等等。当静脉内施用药物组合物时,水是优选的载体。生理盐水溶液和水性葡萄糖及甘油溶液也可用作液体载体,特别是用于可注射的溶液。合适的药物赋形剂包括淀粉、葡萄糖、乳糖、蔗糖、明胶、麦芽、稻、面粉、白垩、硅胶、碳酸镁、硬脂酸镁、硬脂酸钠、一硬脂酸甘油酯(glycerol monstearate)、滑石、氯化钠、脱脂奶、甘油、丙二醇、水、乙醇等等。这些组合物可采取溶液剂、混悬剂、片剂、丸剂、胶囊剂、粉剂、缓释制剂等等。合适的药物载体由E.W.Martin在″Remington′s Pharmaceutical Sciences″中有所描述。该药物组合物包含有效治疗量的活性剂和合适量的载体以便提供正确施用于宿主的形式。
总之,该抗疟疾活性剂可用作预防人类疟疾感染活性剂。它显示出抗疟疾载体的活性,这是非常不寻常的和意外的。所述抗疟疾活性剂显示了对肝细胞培养物和注射了疟疾子孢子的小鼠肝脏中的疟疾子孢子增殖的显著抑制。抗疟疾活性剂可降低人类中死亡率和发病率现象,尤其通过降低感染的发生实现死亡率和发病率的降低。
Claims (16)
1.预防或抑制体内疟疾活性的方法,其中该方法包括将抗疟疾活性剂以足以预防或抑制疟疾寄生虫对人的感染或者预防或抑制疟疾在体内传播的量施用于需要其的人。
2.权利要求1的方法,其中将抗疟疾活性剂以与药学上可接受的载体的混合物施用于人。
3.人的治疗,其预防对人类致病的疟原虫株系感染的形成,其中此类疟原虫株系是恶性疟原虫、间日疟原虫、三日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫。
4.权利要求3的治疗,其中所述治疗包含干扰蛋白质酪氨酸激酶Met激活的分子,所述激活由疟原虫穿过肝细胞引起。
5.权利要求4的分子,其中所述分子干扰HGF的激活。
6.权利要求4的分子,其中所述分子隔离HGF并因此阻止其对Met的结合。
7.权利要求4的分子,其中所述分子是Met拮抗物。
8.权利要求7的分子,其中所述分子是针对Met的抗体或此类抗体的片段。
9.权利要求7的分子,其中所述分子是寡核苷酸(适体)。
10.权利要求7的分子,其中所述分子是结合但不激活Met的HGF变体。
11.权利要求10的分子,其中所述分子是NK4蛋白质。
12.权利要求5的分子,其中所述分子是小分子量的蛋白质酪氨酸激酶抑制剂。
13.权利要求11的分子,其中所述分子是染料木黄酮。
14.权利要求12的分子,其中所述分子是选择性Met拮抗物。
15.用于预防或抑制体内疟疾活性的方法,其中该方法包括将抗疟疾活性剂以足以预防或抑制疟疾寄生虫对人的感染或者预防或抑制疟疾在体内传播的量施用于需要其的人。
16.用于预防或抑制体内疟疾活性的方法,其中该方法包括将抗疟疾活性剂以足以预防或抑制疟疾寄生虫对人的感染或者预防或抑制疟疾在体内传播的量施用于需要其的人。
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