CN112614904A - Micron line array optical detector with vertical structure and preparation method thereof - Google Patents

Micron line array optical detector with vertical structure and preparation method thereof Download PDF

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CN112614904A
CN112614904A CN202011425254.XA CN202011425254A CN112614904A CN 112614904 A CN112614904 A CN 112614904A CN 202011425254 A CN202011425254 A CN 202011425254A CN 112614904 A CN112614904 A CN 112614904A
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silicon substrate
layer
aln
graphene
insulating layer
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CN112614904B (en
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李述体
邓琮匆
高芳亮
陈飞
吴国辉
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South China Normal University
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Abstract

The invention relates to a micrometer line array vacuum ultraviolet detector with a vertical structure and a preparation method thereof, wherein the vacuum ultraviolet detector comprises a p-type silicon substrate, the surface of which is provided with a plurality of grooves which are arranged in parallel, the cross section of each groove is in an inverted trapezoid shape, an n-type AlN micrometer line array is formed along the side wall of the groove in an epitaxial growth mode, a graphene conducting layer is arranged on the silicon substrate and is in contact with the AlN micrometer line array, and a metal electrode layer is arranged on the silicon substrate and is opposite to the surface provided with the graphene conducting layer. According to the invention, the n-type AlN micron line array microstructure with excellent crystal quality is obtained through the patterned silicon substrate and the selective epitaxial growth, and compared with the traditional single thin-film detector, the heterostructure formed by the patterned silicon substrate and the p-type silicon can further improve the response rate of the vacuum ultraviolet detector, reduce dark current, improve the responsivity, have good working stability, have the advantages of good self-power supply performance and the like.

Description

Micron line array optical detector with vertical structure and preparation method thereof
Technical Field
The invention relates to the technical field of semiconductor technology and devices, in particular to a micrometer line array photodetector with a vertical structure and a preparation method thereof.
Background
Vacuum ultraviolet (VUV, 10-200nm) photodetectors have wide applications in optics, materials science, information science, biomedicine, environmental science, and space technology. At present, the development of high-quality ultra-wide band gap (UWBG) semiconductor materials is rapid, so that high-performance VUV photodetectors with various structures can be realized, and a way is provided for overcoming various defects of the conventional VUV photodetector.
In recent decades, some day-blind VUV photodetectors based on ultra-wide band gap group iii nitrides have emerged. The third-generation semiconductor material AlN has the excellent performances of wide forbidden bandwidth, large breakdown electric field, high electronic saturation rate, high thermal conductivity, strong radiation resistance and the like, and has wide application prospect in the field of VUV photodetectors. But the detector prepared by the single AlN thin film has slow response speed and low sensitivity and is difficult to industrialize.
Disclosure of Invention
Aiming at the technical problems in the prior art, the invention mainly aims to provide a micrometer line array vacuum ultraviolet detector which has high responsivity, low dark current, high response speed, good working stability and good self-powered performance. Based on the purpose, the invention at least provides the following technical scheme:
a vertical structure microwire array vacuum ultraviolet light detector, comprising:
the surface of the p-type silicon substrate is provided with a plurality of grooves which are arranged in parallel, and the cross sections of the grooves are in an inverted trapezoid shape;
the n-type AlN micron line array is formed by epitaxial growth along the side wall of the groove;
the graphene conducting layer is arranged on the silicon substrate and is in contact with the AlN microwire array;
and the metal electrode layer is arranged on the silicon substrate and is opposite to the surface on which the graphene conducting layer is arranged.
Furthermore, the section of the AlN micron line is triangular, and the doping concentration of the AlN micron line is 1 multiplied by 1018～1×1019cm-3。
Further, an insulating layer is arranged between the graphene conducting layer and the silicon substrate, the insulating layer is arranged on the surface of the silicon substrate except the groove, and the graphene conducting layer is in contact with the insulating layer and the AlN micron line array.
Furthermore, the width of an upper opening of the inverted trapezoidal groove is 5-7 microns, the width of the bottom of the inverted trapezoidal groove is 3-5 microns, and the depth of the inverted trapezoidal groove is 3-5 microns; the width of the insulating layer between adjacent inverted trapezoidal grooves is 1-3 mu m.
Further, the graphene conducting layer is single-layer graphene, and the single-layer graphene is transferred to the surface of the AlN micron line array through a wet method.
Further, a thin AlN buffer layer is arranged between the silicon substrate and the AlN microwire, and the thickness of the thin AlN buffer layer is 10-28 nm.
Furthermore, the insulating layer is preferably silicon dioxide or silicon nitride, and the thickness of the insulating layer is 50-450 nm; the metal electrode layer is preferably silver, and the thickness of the metal electrode layer is 100-200 nm; the crystal orientation of the silicon substrate is preferably <100 >.
A method for preparing a micrometer line array vacuum ultraviolet detector with a vertical structure comprises the following steps:
sequentially arranging an insulating layer and a striped mask layer on the p-type silicon substrate;
etching the insulating layer by taking the mask layer as a mask to form a stripe-shaped insulating layer;
etching the p-type silicon substrate by taking the strip-shaped insulating layer as a mask, and forming a plurality of grooves which are arranged in parallel on the surface of the p-type silicon substrate, wherein the cross sections of the grooves are in an inverted trapezoid shape;
epitaxially growing an n-type AlN micron line array on the side wall of the groove;
transferring single-layer graphene to the surface of the p-type silicon substrate to contact the n-type AlN microwire array;
and depositing a metal electrode layer on the p-type silicon substrate corresponding to the surface provided with the graphene.
Further, in the step of transferring the single-layer graphene, the single-layer graphene with a Cu substrate and a PMMA film is selected, the Cu substrate is removed by using an aqueous solution of ferric chloride, then the single-layer graphene with the PMMA film is transferred to the surface of the p-type silicon substrate, and is dried after natural drying, and then the PMMA film is removed, wherein the drying temperature is preferably 40 ℃.
Further, before the n-type AlN micron wire array is epitaxially grown, a thin AlN buffer layer is epitaxially grown on the side wall, nitrogen is used as a carrier gas of the AlN buffer layer, the air pressure of a chamber is set to be 340-420 mbar, the temperature is 800-900 ℃, trimethylaluminum and ammonia gas are introduced, the use amounts of the trimethylaluminum and the ammonia gas are respectively 150-250 sccm and 400-600 sccm, and the thickness of the AlN buffer layer is 10-28 nm; keeping the pressure of the chamber unchanged, adjusting the temperature of the chamber to be 960-1020 ℃, the flow rate of trimethylaluminum to be 10-40 sccm and the flow rate of ammonia gas to be 2000-3000 sccm, and growing the n-type AlN microwire on the thin AlN buffer layer by adopting low-temperature epitaxial growth.
Further, 5-20 g of anhydrous ferric chloride is dissolved in 30-50 ml of water to form the ferric chloride aqueous solution; and removing the PMMA film by sequentially adopting acetone and alcohol.
Further, lifting the single-layer graphene with the PMMA film out of the deionized water with the surface of the silicon substrate on which the AlN nanowire array grows facing upwards, so that the single-layer graphene with the PMMA film is transferred to the surface of the p-type silicon substrate.
The invention has at least the following beneficial effects:
the patterned p-type silicon substrate is obtained by arranging a groove array with an inverted trapezoidal cross section on the p-type silicon substrate, an n-type AlN micron line array with excellent crystal quality is selectively grown on the patterned silicon substrate, the n-type AlN micron line array and the p-type silicon substrate form a pn heterojunction, a graphene conducting layer is arranged on the surface of the micron line array, and a metal electrode layer is arranged on the back surface of the silicon substrate to form the micron line array vacuum ultraviolet detector with a vertical structure. According to the invention, the n-type AlN microwire array microstructure with excellent crystal quality is obtained through the patterned silicon substrate and the selective epitaxial growth, the high-quality n-type AlN microwire array microstructure has large specific surface area and low defect density, and compared with a heterostructure formed by p-type silicon, the heterostructure formed by the high-quality n-type AlN microwire array microstructure can further improve the response rate of a vacuum ultraviolet detector, reduce dark current, improve the responsivity, has good working stability, has the advantages of good self-power supply performance and the like. In addition, the high-quality AlN micron line is suitable for mass production while improving the performance of the vacuum ultraviolet detector.
On the other hand, the micron linear array vacuum ultraviolet light detection device obtained by the invention has better application prospect compared with the traditional ultraviolet chromatography system due to small size, low working voltage and good spectrum selectivity, and provides potential application value for future space technology.
Drawings
Fig. 1 is a schematic structural diagram of a vertical structure microwire array vacuum ultraviolet light detector according to an embodiment of the present invention.
FIG. 2 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process according to an embodiment of the present invention.
FIG. 3 is a schematic structural diagram of a patterned silicon substrate according to an embodiment of the invention.
Fig. 4 is a schematic structural diagram of an AlN nanowire array after epitaxial growth in an embodiment of the present invention.
Fig. 5 is a schematic diagram of a process for transferring single-layer graphene according to an embodiment of the present invention.
FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a process of vacuum thermal evaporation of a metal electrode layer according to an embodiment of the present invention.
Detailed Description
The technical solutions in the embodiments of the present invention will be described clearly and completely with reference to the accompanying drawings, and the described embodiments are only a part of the embodiments of the present invention, but not all of the embodiments. Based on the embodiments of the present invention, other embodiments obtained by persons of ordinary skill in the art without any creative effort belong to the protection scope of the present invention.
The present invention will be described in further detail below. An embodiment of the present invention provides a vertical-structure microwire array vacuum ultraviolet light detector, as shown in fig. 1, which includes a p-type silicon substrate 1, a groove with an inverted trapezoidal cross section is disposed on a surface of the silicon substrate 1, an n-type AlN microwire array 2 is formed by epitaxial growth on a side wall of the groove, a graphene conductive layer 3 is disposed on a surface of the AlN microwire array 2, and a metal electrode layer 4 is disposed on the silicon substrate 1 opposite to the surface on which the graphene conductive layer 3 is disposed.
The p-type silicon substrate 1 has a crystal orientation of <100>, a thickness of 300-430 μm, preferably 400 μm, and an electrical conductivity of less than 1 Ω & cm. The silicon substrate 1 is provided with an insulating layer, which may be silicon dioxide or silicon nitride, preferably silicon dioxide. The thickness of the insulating layer is preferably 50 to 450 nm. And etching the insulating layer by adopting an etching process to form a plurality of strip-shaped insulating layers which are arranged in parallel. At this time, the width of the stripe-shaped insulating layer is 2 to 4 μm, and the interval between two adjacent stripes, i.e., the width of the insulating layer uncovered between two adjacent stripes, is 4 to 6 μm.
And etching the surface of the silicon substrate 1 by taking the strip-shaped insulating layer as a mask to form a groove structure. After the etching process is finished, as shown in fig. 3, the stripe-shaped insulating layer 5 is remained, and in one embodiment, due to the influence of the etching process, the width of the insulating layer 5 between two adjacent grooves is 1 to 3 μm, and immediately after the etching process is finished, the stripe width of the stripe-shaped insulating layer 5 is 1 to 3 μm. The cross section of the groove is in an inverted trapezoid shape, the width of an upper opening of the inverted trapezoid is 5-7 mu m, the width of a bottom of the inverted trapezoid is 3-5 mu m, and the depth of the inverted trapezoid is 3-5 mu m. The n-type AlN microwires 2 are epitaxially grown along the side walls of the groove to form a microwire array. The section of the micron line is triangular. In one embodiment, the AlN micron line is doped with silicon at a doping concentration of 1 × 1018～1×1019cm-3. Preferably, in the same inverted trapezoidal groove, two side walls of the grooveThe micron line grows on the substrate, and a gap exists on one side far away from the bottom of the groove, wherein the gap is preferably 0-5 nm. More preferably 0 nm. In a preferred embodiment, a thin AlN buffer layer is epitaxially grown between the AlN microwire and the groove, and the thickness of the AlN buffer layer is 10-28 nm. The AlN micron line crystal obtained by epitaxial growth on the AlN buffer layer has good quality and low defect density, and is favorable for improving the performance of the vacuum ultraviolet detector compared with the traditional single film detector.
The single-layer graphene conductive layer 3 is disposed on the surface of the AlN microwire. In a preferred embodiment, the graphene conducting layer is of a single-layer graphene structure. There is a remaining insulating layer 5 between the graphene conducting layer 3 and the silicon substrate, ensuring that the graphene conducting layer does not contact the silicon substrate 1.
The metal electrode layer 4 is disposed on the silicon substrate 1 opposite to the surface on which the graphene conductive layer 3 is disposed, and in a preferred embodiment, the metal electrode layer 4 is preferably silver and has a thickness of 100-200 nm.
The invention also provides a preparation method of the detector based on the micrometer line array vacuum ultraviolet detector with the vertical structure, as shown in figure 2, the preparation method comprises the following steps:
firstly, a silicon substrate is selected, the size of the selected silicon substrate is not limited, 2-inch silicon substrates are selected as the prior growth equipment, the crystal orientation is <100>, the thickness is preferably 400 mu m, and the electric conductivity is less than 1 omega cm. The surface of the silicon substrate is provided with an insulating layer. In one embodiment, the insulating layer is preferably a silicon dioxide insulating layer having a thickness of 200 nm. A mask layer is spin-coated on the surface of the silicon substrate, and in one embodiment, the mask layer is preferably photoresist. And then carrying out soft baking treatment, and forming a periodic stripe photoresist layer with a certain width on the silicon dioxide insulating layer after exposure and development. In a preferred embodiment, the width of the periodic stripe photoresist is 3 μm and the spacing between stripe photoresists is 5 μm. And then, placing the silicon substrate with the mask layer in corrosive liquid to remove the exposed insulating layer to form a stripe-shaped insulating layer, wherein the width of the stripe-shaped insulating layer is 2-4 mu m, and the width of a gap (namely, the insulating layer-free part) between two adjacent stripe-shaped insulating layers is 4-6 mu m.
In one embodiment, the etching solution is BOE solution (HF solution, NH solution)4And F, mixing aqueous solution), placing the silicon substrate with the periodic stripe photoresist in BOE solution for 10-200 s to remove the silicon dioxide insulating layer without the photoresist part, so that the silicon dioxide insulating layer forms periodic alternate strip-shaped parallel grooves, and preferably, placing the silicon substrate in the BOE solution for 60s to remove the silicon dioxide insulating layer without the photoresist part.
And then, etching the silicon substrate by taking the strip-shaped insulating layer 5 as a mask, forming a plurality of grooves which are arranged in parallel on the surface of the silicon substrate, preferably, forming the grooves on the surface of the silicon substrate by adopting a wet etching method, and preferably, preparing etching liquid by potassium hydroxide, isopropanol and water, wherein the dosage of the etching liquid is 30-50 g, 5-15 ml and 100-150 ml respectively. The cross section of the formed groove is in an inverted trapezoid shape, the width of an upper opening of the inverted trapezoid is 5-7 mu m, the width of a bottom of the inverted trapezoid is 3-5 mu m, and the depth of the inverted trapezoid is 3-5 mu m. After the etching is finished, the width of the insulating layer between the adjacent inverted trapezoidal grooves is 1-3 mu m. In a preferred embodiment, the silicon substrate treated by the BOE solution is put into a water bath box at 50 ℃ for wet etching for a certain time, the used etching solution is prepared by 30g of potassium hydroxide, 5ml of isopropanol and 100ml of water, inverted trapezoidal Si grooves which are arranged in parallel at equal intervals are formed, the width of an upper opening of each groove is 6 microns, the width of a bottom of each groove is 4 microns, the depth of each groove is 4 microns, and the width of an insulating layer between every two adjacent inverted trapezoidal grooves is 2 microns. In another embodiment, the width of the upper opening of the inverted trapezoidal groove is 5 μm, the width of the bottom is 3 μm, the depth is 3 μm, and the width of the insulating layer between adjacent inverted trapezoidal grooves is 3 μm. As shown in fig. 3, the silicon substrate is a patterned silicon substrate required for subsequent growth.
The patterned silicon substrate is preferably rinsed with deionized water prior to epitaxial growth of AlN microwire. Epitaxially growing an n-type AlN micron wire array on the side wall of the groove, and selecting silicon for doping, wherein the concentration of the silicon doping is 1 multiplied by 1018～1×1019cm-3. In a preferred embodiment, a Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) process is selected for epitaxial growth of AlN microwires. Preferably, a thin AlN buffer layer 6 is pre-laid before the AlN micro-wire array is grown. As shown in fig. 4Specifically, a patterned silicon substrate is placed in a reaction cavity of MOCVD (metal organic chemical vapor deposition), an AlN buffer layer with the thickness of 10-28 nm grows on the side wall of a groove, nitrogen is used as a carrier gas, the pressure of the cavity is set to be 340-420 mbar, the heating temperature is set to be 800-900 ℃, trimethylaluminum and ammonia gas are used as reaction gases, and trimethylaluminum (TMAl) and ammonia gas (NH)3) The amount of the surfactant is 150 to 250sccm and 400 to 600sccm, respectively. In a more preferred embodiment, the chamber pressure is set at 400mbar, the heating temperature is set at 820 ℃, and the gas flow rate is 180sccm of trimethylaluminum (TMAl) and 450sccm of ammonia (NH)3) And selectively and epitaxially growing an AlN buffer layer with the thickness of 10nm on the inner wall of each trapezoidal groove. In another preferred embodiment, the heating temperature of the chamber is 840 ℃.
Then, keeping the pressure of the chamber constant, setting the temperature of the chamber to 960-1020 ℃, adjusting the flow of trimethyl aluminum (TMAl) to 10-40 sccm, and adjusting the flow of ammonia (NH)3) The flow rate of the AlN micron line array layer is 2000-3000 sccm, and the AlN micron line array layer is epitaxially grown at a low temperature. In a preferred embodiment, the pressure in the chamber is adjusted to 400mbar, the temperature in the chamber is adjusted to 980 ℃, TMAl and NH are set3The dosage of the silicon is respectively 30sccm and 2800sccm, and the concentration of the doped silicon is 4 multiplied by 1018cm-3And (4) annealing and cooling are started until the AlN micron-wire array 2 with the triangular section as shown in the figure 4 is grown. At this time, in the same groove, the AlN microwire grown on the sidewalls of both sides of the groove has a gap of 0 to 5nm, preferably 0nm, along one side away from the bottom of the groove. In another preferred embodiment, TMAl and NH are provided3The dosage of the silicon is respectively 40sccm and 3000sccm, and the concentration of silicon doping is 2 multiplied by 1018cm-3. In the step, the AlN nanowire array is epitaxially grown at a low temperature, so that the obtained AlN nanowire crystal is high in quality and low in defect density, and the performance of the vacuum ultraviolet detector can be further guaranteed.
And placing the patterned silicon substrate with the AlN nanowire array in acetone, isopropanol and deionized water in sequence for ultrasonic cleaning. And then transferring the single-layer graphene to the surface of the silicon substrate to be contacted with the n-type AlN microwire array. In a specific embodiment, single-layer graphene with a Cu substrate and a PMMA film is selected, and 5-20 g of anhydrous ferric chloride is dissolved in 30-50 ml of water to form a ferric chloride aqueous solution, so that the Cu substrate of the single-layer graphene is removed. Preferably 11g of anhydrous ferric chloride is dissolved in 45ml of water to prepare an aqueous ferric chloride solution. The remaining ferric chloride solution was then rinsed with deionized water. Then, in an embodiment, a silicon substrate with a clean surface and an AlN micron line array is selected, and the surface of the silicon substrate with the AlN micron line array facing upward lifts the single-layer graphene with the PMMA film out of the deionized water. And after natural drying, transferring the silicon substrate to a heat stage for drying at 40 ℃ to ensure that the single-layer graphene and the AlN micron line array are tightly attached, and electrically isolating the single-layer graphene layer 3 from the silicon substrate 1 through an insulating layer 5.
The PMMA film on the single layer graphene was then removed with acetone and alcohol. And then putting the silicon substrate into deionized water for cleaning and drying.
And then depositing a metal electrode layer on the silicon substrate opposite to the surface provided with the graphene. The metal electrode layer is preferably silver. The thickness is 100-200 nm. In one embodiment, as shown in fig. 6, a vacuum thermal evaporation process is selected on the back surface of the silicon substrate, i.e. the side of the silicon substrate opposite to the surface on which the graphene is disposed, so as to form a graphene-containing layer
Figure BDA0002824491480000081
A silver electrode layer 4 with a thickness of 150nm was deposited.
The above embodiments are preferred embodiments of the present invention, but the present invention is not limited to the above embodiments, and any other changes, modifications, substitutions, combinations, and simplifications which do not depart from the spirit and principle of the present invention should be construed as equivalents thereof, and all such changes, modifications, substitutions, combinations, and simplifications are intended to be included in the scope of the present invention.

Claims (10)

1. A micrometer-scale linear array vacuum ultraviolet detector with a vertical structure is characterized by comprising:
the surface of the p-type silicon substrate is provided with a plurality of grooves which are arranged in parallel, and the cross sections of the grooves are in an inverted trapezoid shape;
the n-type AlN micron line array is formed by epitaxial growth along the side wall of the groove;
the graphene conducting layer is arranged on the silicon substrate and is in contact with the AlN microwire array;
and the metal electrode layer is arranged on the silicon substrate and is opposite to the surface on which the graphene conducting layer is arranged.
2. The vacuum ultraviolet light detector according to claim 1, wherein the AlN micron line has a triangular cross section and a doping concentration of 1 x 1018～1×1019cm-3。
3. The vacuum ultraviolet light detector according to claim 1 or 2, wherein an insulating layer is disposed between the graphene conductive layer and the silicon substrate, the insulating layer is disposed on a surface of the silicon substrate except the groove, and the graphene conductive layer is in contact with the insulating layer and the AlN micron line array.
4. The vacuum ultraviolet light detector according to claim 3, wherein the width of the upper opening of the inverted trapezoidal groove is 5 to 7 μm, the width of the bottom of the inverted trapezoidal groove is 3 to 5 μm, and the depth of the inverted trapezoidal groove is 3 to 5 μm; the width of the insulating layer between adjacent inverted trapezoidal grooves is 1-3 mu m.
5. The vacuum ultraviolet light detector of claim 1, wherein the graphene conductive layer is single-layer graphene, and the single-layer graphene is transferred to the surface of the AlN nanowire array by a wet method.
6. The vacuum ultraviolet light detector according to claim 1, wherein a thin AlN buffer layer is provided between the silicon substrate and the AlN microwire, and has a thickness of 10 to 28 nm.
7. The vacuum ultraviolet light detector according to claim 1, wherein the insulating layer is preferably silicon dioxide or silicon nitride, and the thickness of the insulating layer is 50-450 nm; the metal electrode layer is preferably silver, and the thickness of the metal electrode layer is 100-200 nm; the crystal orientation of the silicon substrate is preferably <100 >.
8. A method for preparing a micrometer line array vacuum ultraviolet detector with a vertical structure is characterized by comprising the following steps:
sequentially arranging an insulating layer and a striped mask layer on the p-type silicon substrate;
etching the insulating layer by taking the mask layer as a mask to form a stripe-shaped insulating layer;
etching the p-type silicon substrate by taking the strip-shaped insulating layer as a mask, and forming a plurality of grooves which are arranged in parallel on the surface of the p-type silicon substrate, wherein the cross sections of the grooves are in an inverted trapezoid shape;
epitaxially growing an n-type AlN micron line array on the side wall of the groove;
transferring single-layer graphene to the surface of the p-type silicon substrate to contact the n-type AlN microwire array;
and depositing a metal electrode layer on the p-type silicon substrate corresponding to the surface provided with the graphene.
9. The preparation method according to claim 8, wherein in the transferring step of the single-layer graphene, the single-layer graphene with the Cu substrate and the PMMA film is selected, the Cu substrate is removed by using an aqueous solution of ferric chloride, then the single-layer graphene with the PMMA film is transferred to the surface of the p-type silicon substrate, and is dried after being naturally dried, and then the PMMA film is removed, wherein the drying temperature is preferably 40 ℃.
10. The method according to claim 9, further comprising epitaxially growing a thin AlN buffer layer on the sidewall before epitaxially growing the n-type AlN micro-wire array, wherein the AlN buffer layer uses nitrogen as a carrier gas, the chamber pressure is set to be 340-420 mbar, the temperature is set to be 800-900 ℃, trimethylaluminum and ammonia gas are introduced, the dosage of the trimethylaluminum and the ammonia gas are respectively 150-250 sccm and 400-600 sccm, and the thickness of the AlN buffer layer is 10-28 nm; keeping the pressure of the chamber unchanged, adjusting the temperature of the chamber to be 960-1020 ℃, the flow rate of trimethylaluminum to be 10-40 sccm and the flow rate of ammonia gas to be 2000-3000 sccm, and growing the n-type AlN microwire on the thin AlN buffer layer by adopting low-temperature epitaxial growth.
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