CN109211520A - Seabed pockmark forming process simulator and analogy method - Google Patents
Seabed pockmark forming process simulator and analogy method Download PDFInfo
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- CN109211520A CN109211520A CN201811206808.XA CN201811206808A CN109211520A CN 109211520 A CN109211520 A CN 109211520A CN 201811206808 A CN201811206808 A CN 201811206808A CN 109211520 A CN109211520 A CN 109211520A
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01M—TESTING STATIC OR DYNAMIC BALANCE OF MACHINES OR STRUCTURES; TESTING OF STRUCTURES OR APPARATUS, NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
- G01M10/00—Hydrodynamic testing; Arrangements in or on ship-testing tanks or water tunnels
Abstract
Seabed pockmark forming process simulator and analogy method, the simulator include scouring mechanism, pockmark simulation mechanism, and scouring mechanism includes channel body and filter device, and channel body includes first passage body, second channel；Pockmark simulation mechanism includes staving, monitoring pore water pressure device, fluid source device and delivery pipe, sediment sample is filled in staving, fluid cell is equipped in staving, fluid cell is located at below the sediment sample filled in staving, the import of fluid cell is connected to by delivery pipe with fluid source device, the outlet of fluid cell is located at upside towards deposit, the fluid media (medium) release deposited object of cocurrent in fluid cell is to simulate the process that pockmark is formed and migrated upwards, meanwhile monitoring pore water pressure device is monitored deposit internal pressure when simulating pockmark forming process.The situation of change that the present invention forms pockmark and fluid is migrated in deposit carries out quantitative simulation and analysis, can effectively and intuitively grasp its change procedure.
Description
Technical field
The present invention relates to seabed pockmark simulators, belong to marine engineering geology and marine disastrous geology field, especially relate to
And a kind of seabed pockmark forming process simulator and analogy method.
Background technique
Pockmark (pockmark) is the point shape pit on seabed surface, belongs to common seabed oil-gas-water and closes object decomposition work
Left submarine geomorphy is moved, being formed has close contact with fluids leakage activities such as methane.
Seafloor venting systems activity can all generate important shadow to submarine structural, biocoene and ocean or even atmospheric environment
Ring, and pockmark it is most obvious as seafloor venting systems activity, it is most common indicate one of, the hot spot become in Marine Geology research is asked
Topic.The fluid for forming pockmark is probably derived from sea-bottom oil-gas leakage or gas hydrate dissociation, and methane is as a kind of greenhouse gas
Body is also the combustion gas of high heating value simultaneously may be to marine ecosystems from being leaked into ocean water body or even atmosphere in pockmark
And atmospheric environment impacts.Therefore, the research of pockmark changes seabed energy exploration, marine organisms protection, global atmosphere
And submarine geological hazard suffers from important meaning.
Currently, both at home and abroad for the research of pockmark, mainly using acoustic sounding, seismic survey, seabed in-situ observation and
The coring that drills carries out the methods of geologic chemistry analysis, but pockmark is formed and change that seafloor venting systems are migrated in deposit
The research for changing situation there is no progress that can only speculate by theory analysis more without effectively and intuitively studying measure and system
The formation of seabed pockmark and process, the mode of fluid migration.
And to pockmark formed and seafloor venting systems migrate in deposit variation analysis, research, to submarine geomorphy, geology
The origin cause of formation and energy development, which are studied and judged, has important application value, therefore, needs one kind it could be visually observed that pockmark is formed
Process and the technical measures that sunykatuib analysis is carried out to it.
Summary of the invention
The present invention provides a kind of seabed pockmark forming process simulator and analogy method, for solving in existing, for
The situation of change that pockmark is formed and seafloor venting systems are migrated in deposit, can only speculate seabed pockmark by theory analysis
Process, the mode of formation and fluid migration lack effectively and intuitively study system and method.
The present invention is achieved by the following technical programs:
Seabed pockmark forming process simulator, the simulator include scouring mechanism, pockmark simulation mechanism, the punching
Brush mechanism includes the channel body and filter device for liquid flowing, and channel body includes first passage body, second channel；The pockmark
Simulation mechanism includes staving, monitoring pore water pressure device, fluid source device and delivery pipe, is filled with deposit in the staving
Sample, the staving is interior to be equipped with fluid cell, and fluid cell is located at below the sediment sample filled in staving, and the import of fluid cell is led to
It crosses delivery pipe to be connected to fluid source device, the outlet of fluid cell is located at upside towards deposit, and the fluid media (medium) in fluid cell is released
The deposited object of cocurrent is put to simulate the process that pockmark is formed and migrated upwards, meanwhile, monitoring pore water pressure device is in simulation fiber crops
Deposit internal pressure is monitored when cheating forming process；The first passage body, second channel body are respectively provided at staving two
Side, first passage body, second channel body are connected to staving, and the filter device is located at the liquid flow on rear side of staving downstream, are used
In filtering and collect the deposit carried in liquid medium.
To further realize the purpose of the present invention, following technical scheme can also be used:
Seabed as described above pockmark forming process simulator, the scouring mechanism are equipped with fluid-driving mechanism or liquid
Source device, fluid-driving mechanism or liquid source device are located at the liquid flow on front side of staving upstream.
Seabed as described above pockmark forming process simulator, the first passage body, second channel body connect into one
Ring structure, the filter device are located in ring structure, wall palette in the periphery of filter device and channel body.
Seabed pockmark forming process simulator as described above, the outlet in the fluid cell be provided with it is multiple, it is each
Controlled valve is mounted in outlet, fluid cell is equipped with the pressure gauge or pressure sensor for detecting its internal pressure.
Seabed pockmark forming process simulator as described above, the multiple separate chambers of isolated bit in the fluid cell, often
A separate chamber corresponds to 1~3 outlet.
Seabed as described above pockmark forming process simulator, the fluid source device are to provide liquid or gas medium
Pressure pump.
Seabed as described above pockmark forming process simulator, is equipped with controlled fluid valve before the import of the fluid cell.
The invention also discloses a kind of seabed pockmark forming process analogy method, including simulator as described above, institutes
Stating analogy method includes preparation process, parameter determination and test procedure；
The preparation process, the preparation including sediment sample are simultaneously routed in staving, by monitoring pore water pressure device
It is plugged in sediment sample and the connection of delivery pipe, relevant device is installed
The parameter determination, according to simulated experiment it needs to be determined that the output pressure of the flow velocity of liquid medium, fluid cell
Size and whether need continuously to export；
The test procedure, by fluid source device into staving trandfer fluid medium；Scouring mechanism is opened, liquid is made to be situated between
Matter is flowed successively through from channel body, staving, filter device；Meanwhile monitoring pore water pressure device is when simulating pockmark forming process
Real-time monitoring is carried out to deposit internal pressure, liquid is by filter device to collect the deposit carried in liquid medium.
Seabed pockmark forming process analogy method as described above, the sediment sample height being laid in the staving and logical
The interior bottom of road body flushes.
Seabed as described above pockmark forming process analogy method is respectively equipped with controllable flow in import, the outlet of fluid cell
In the case where body valve, controlled valve, it is pre-charged with fluid media (medium) into fluid cell to certain pressure and closes controlled fluid valve, then
Controlled valve is opened in test procedure discharges fluid media (medium).
Compared with the prior art, the advantages of the present invention are as follows:
Simulator and analogy method of the invention, it is simple, convenient, be conducive to push pockmark submarine geomorphy,
Development in the matter origin cause of formation and energy development application study, analysis；Pockmark is formed and seafloor venting systems are transported in deposit
The situation of change of shifting carries out quantitative simulation and analysis, can effectively and intuitively grasp its change procedure, specifically:
1, it is provided with staving in pockmark simulation mechanism of the invention, the seabottom geology situation simulated as needed matches phase
The sediment sample answered simultaneously is laid with to staving in proportion, is passed through certain pressure, the gas of volume, liquid in conjunction with fluid source device
The fluid media (medium)s such as body or gas-liquid mixed, fluid media (medium) are flowed up from staving lower part, are flowed through inside sediment sample and from top surface
Place, liquid medium shed, form pockmark on the sediment sample of accumulation, to seabed pockmark forming process carry out quantitative simulation and
Analysis；Staving is made of transparent organic glass, therefore, can effectively and intuitively grasp its change procedure from external.
2, monitoring pore water pressure device supervises deposit internal pressure when simulating pockmark forming process in real time
It surveys；Scouring mechanism provides the liquid medium of flowing, during simulating pockmark, due to the effect of fluid media (medium), so that part
Deposit diffuses out, and is finally carried through filter device by liquid medium, the collection of diffusional deposition object is completed, in conjunction with fluid source
Device is passed through the analysis of fluid medium pressure, volume and sediment yield, can establish pockmark model, finds for seabed to be practical
Pockmark research and application.
3, the fluid cell in the present invention is reusable, multiple outlets and corresponding controlled valve is provided with, in fluid cell
Inside is arranged to multiple separate chambers, and each separate chamber corresponds to 1~2 outlet, i.e., each indoor fluid media (medium) pressure of chamber
Difference can be set into power, volume, therefore, can carry out the pockmark simulation of multiple spot, multi-state, improves the efficiency of simulation and accurate
Property.
Detailed description of the invention
In order to more clearly explain the embodiment of the invention or the technical proposal in the existing technology, to embodiment or will show below
There is attached drawing needed in technical description to be briefly described.
Fig. 1 is the structural schematic diagram of simulator of the present invention；
Fig. 2 is the enlarged drawing of pockmark simulation mechanism described in Fig. 1
Fig. 3 is the structural schematic diagram of staving described in Fig. 2；
Fig. 4 is the flow chart of analogy method of the present invention.
Appended drawing reference, the channel 1- body, 11- first passage body, 12- second channel body, 3- motor, 4- idler wheel, 5- filtering dress
It sets, 6- staving, 7- monitoring pore water pressure device, 8- fluid source device, 81- delivery pipe, 82- fluid cell, 83- controlled valve, 84-
Controlled fluid valve, 85- shunt fluid valve, 9- sediment sample, 10- liquid medium, 13- console.
Specific embodiment
In order to make the object, technical scheme and advantages of the embodiment of the invention clearer, below in conjunction with the embodiment of the present invention
In attached drawing, technical scheme in the embodiment of the invention is clearly and completely described, it is clear that described embodiment is
A part of the embodiment of the present invention, instead of all the embodiments.
As shown in Figure 1-Figure 3, a kind of seabed pockmark forming process simulator disclosed in the present embodiment, including for providing
Liquid medium 10 flow scouring mechanism and for simulate pockmark forming process and detection 9 internal voids water of sediment sample
The pockmark simulation mechanism of pressure.
As shown in Fig. 2, pockmark simulation mechanism is by staving 6, monitoring pore water pressure device 7, fluid source device 8 and delivery pipe
81, fluid cell 82 is constituted.Sediment sample 9 is filled in staving 6, fluid cell 82 is located at the sediment sample 9 filled in staving 6
Lower section.
Monitoring pore water pressure device 7 uses pore water pressure feeler lever, by feeler lever main body and is laid on inside feeler lever
Sensor for pore water pressure composition, can real-time monitoring, transmission and by external display grasp different location pore water pressure it is big
It is small.Fluid cell 82 is made of PVC material, has wear-resisting, pressure-resistant and has tension bullet, in 82 periphery of fluid cell setting anti-corrosion painting
Layer, improves its anti-corrosion, anti-aging and sealing performance.82 size of fluid cell is adapted to staving 6, and volume is in 0.01-0.1m3It
Between, the pressure limit that can be born is within 500KPa.
As shown in Figure 1, scouring mechanism includes the channel body 1 and filter device 5 for liquid flowing, channel body 1 includes first
Channel body 11, second channel body 12.Channel body 1 is annular water tank in the present embodiment, is boundary with the staving 6 in pockmark simulation mechanism
Point, 6 two sides of staving are respectively first passage body 11, second channel body 12, opposite first passage body 11, second channel body 12
Other end connection, enables the liquid medium 10 in scouring mechanism to recycle.
Liquid medium 10 in the present embodiment uses water body, and filter device 5 is located at the annular water tank section after staving 6, mistake
Filter device 5 is spaced multiple filter screens, and the periphery of each filter screen is sealed with the annular water tank inner wall of corresponding site
Connection avoids omitting with the deposit that water flow carries, improves measurement accuracy.
The section of annular water tank is rectangle, the width range in section between 20~80cm, altitude range is in 10~60cm
Between, according to the weight of unit of water body in annular water tank, the thickness of annular water tank is matched between 0.5~3cm.
As shown in figure 3, for staving 6 using transparent cube made of high strength glass fiber reinforced plastic, it is opened wide in top in the present embodiment
Lap is closed, and along flushing with the inner bottom surface of annular water tank on staving 6, the import of fluid cell 82 is filled by delivery pipe 81 and fluid source
Set 8 connections, the outlet of fluid cell 82 is located at upside towards deposit, and the fluid media (medium) in fluid cell 82 discharges the deposited object of cocurrent
It is formed and the process migrated upwards with simulating pockmark, meanwhile, monitoring pore water pressure device 7 is when simulating pockmark forming process pair
Deposit internal pressure is monitored.
Annular water tank height needs will cooperate with staving 6, therefore, be supported and consolidated in its bottom using more support columns
It is fixed, guarantee stable structure when simulation test operation.Scouring mechanism is equipped with fluid-driving mechanism or liquid source device, liquid driven
Mechanism or liquid source device are located at the liquid flow of 6 front side of staving upstream, and the fluid-driving mechanism used in the present embodiment is by electricity
Machine 3 and idler wheel 4 are constituted, and idler wheel 4 is located in annular water tank, drive the revolving speed of idler wheel 4, by control motor 3 to adjust water flow
Speed.
It is obvious also possible to the speed of water flow be adjusted by the liquid source device being made of water pump and water pipe, at this point, channel
Body 1 can be not provided with circularizing sink structure, be bar shaped sink, water out be arranged after filter device 5, before staving 6
Water inlet is set；The speed of water flow is controlled by water pump, but relative to 4 system of motor 3 and idler wheel, liquid source device more consumes energy,
And to inaccurate in the adjusting of water velocity.
As shown in Fig. 2, being equipped with controlled valve 83 in the outlet of fluid cell 82；Outlet in fluid cell 82 is provided with more
A, fluid cell 82 is equipped with the pressure gauge or pressure sensor for detecting its internal pressure.Controllable flow is equipped with before the import of fluid cell 82
Body valve 84.Fluid source device 8 is to provide the pressure pump of liquid, gas or gas-liquid mixed media.Fluid media (medium) is adopted in the present embodiment
With air, while according to simulation test needs, the temperature of air is controlled.
Further, multiple separate chambers are isolated into fluid cell 82, each separate chamber corresponds to 1,2 or 3 fluid
The outlet of capsule 82.In order to make the indoor fluid medium pressure of each chamber, volume that difference can be set into, each separate chamber is used
Branch pipeline and shunt fluid valve 85 are controlled, to realize the simulated operation of multiple spot, multi-state, improve simulation test efficiency and
Accuracy.
Above-mentioned controlled valve 83, controlled fluid valve 84 and shunt fluid valve 85 are all made of solenoid valve or remote-controlled valve, Ke Yijin
The external control of row guarantees to open or close fluid cell 82, delivery pipe 81, branch pipeline immediately.
In use, pressure pump, which powers and passes through console 13, starts pressure pump work, controlled fluid valve 84 is opened, to fluid
Capsule 82 carries out pneumatic compression, the gas pressure on pressure gauge in real-time display fluid cell 82, and controlled fluid valve is closed after pressurising
84；At this point, the controlled valve 83 in fluid cell 82 remains off；Deposit and water are added into staving 6, to Settlement Consolidation
After completely, the switch for opening controlled valve 83 carries out next step test；Variation shadow of the fluid migration process to deposit inside pore pressure
It rings, is monitored by pore water pressure feeler lever；Annular water tank is connected with staving 6, sets 3 idler wheel of motor, 4 revolving speed by console 13,
Corresponding to required water volume flow rate, water flow is taken away by suspended sediment caused by being migrated upwards by fluid when staving 6, passes through
Flow velocity reduces, suspended substance sedimentation and is filtered when multiple filter screens, and settling suspension object is collected and measured after the test.
The seabottom geology situation simulated as needed is matched corresponding sediment sample 9 and is laid in proportion to staving 6
It is interior, the fluid media (medium)s such as certain pressure, the gas of volume, liquid or gas-liquid mixed, fluid media (medium) are passed through in conjunction with fluid source device 8
Flowed up from 6 lower part of staving, flow through the inside of sediment sample 9 and from top surface, liquid medium 10 shed, in the deposition of accumulation
Pockmark is formed on object sample 9, quantitative simulation and analysis are carried out to seabed pockmark forming process；Staving 6 is transparent organic glass
It is made, therefore, can effectively and intuitively grasp its change procedure from external.Monitoring pore water pressure device 7 is in simulation pockmark
When forming process, real-time monitoring is carried out to deposit internal pressure；Scouring mechanism provides the liquid medium 10 of flowing, in simulation fiber crops
During hole, due to the effect of fluid media (medium), so that Parts of deposits diffuses out, finally it is carried through by liquid medium 10
Filter device 5 completes the collection of diffusional deposition object, is passed through fluid medium pressure, volume and sediment yield in conjunction with fluid source device 8
Analysis, can establish pockmark model, for seabed it is practical find pockmark research and application.
As shown in figure 4, present embodiment discloses a kind of seabed pockmark forming process analogy method, including mould as described above
Quasi- device, the analogy method includes preparation process, parameter determination and test procedure；
The preparation process, the preparation including sediment sample 9 are simultaneously routed in staving 6, monitoring pore water pressure are filled
Set the 7 connection installations for being plugged in interior sediment sample 9 and delivery pipe 81, relevant device.The preparation and laying of sediment sample 9
Work is mainly that sediment sample is chosen, acquisition, transports and it is equably layed in inside staving 6；
The parameter determination, according to simulated experiment it needs to be determined that the flow velocity of liquid medium 10, the output pressure of fluid cell 82
Power size and whether need continuously to export.Being determined as of water velocity decides whether water flow according to the demand of operating condition of test
It washes away and the size of water velocity.
The test procedure, by fluid source device 8 into staving 6 trandfer fluid medium；Scouring mechanism is opened, liquid is made
Medium 10 is flowed successively through from channel body 1, staving 6, filter device 5；Meanwhile monitoring pore water pressure device 7 is in simulation pockmark shape
Real-time monitoring is carried out to deposit internal pressure at when process, liquid is carried by filter device 5 to collect in liquid medium 10
Deposit.
In the case where the import of fluid cell 82, outlet are respectively equipped with controlled fluid valve 84, controlled valve 83, to fluid cell 82
In be pre-charged with fluid media (medium) to certain pressure and close controlled fluid valve 84, then open controlled valve 83 in test procedure and release
Put fluid media (medium).
When operation, powering to pressure pump and passing through console 13 starts pressure pump work, opens controlled fluid valve 84, convection current
Somatocyst 82 carries out pneumatic compression, and the gas pressure on pressure gauge in real-time display fluid cell 82 closes controlled fluid after pressurising
Valve 84；At this point, the controlled valve 83 in fluid cell 82 remains off；Deposit and water are added into staving 6, it is solid wait settle
After knot is complete, the switch for opening controlled valve 83 carries out next step test；Variation of the fluid migration process to deposit inside pore pressure
It influences, is monitored by pore water pressure feeler lever；Annular water tank is connected with staving 6, sets 4 turns of 3 idler wheel of motor by console 13
Speed, corresponding to required water volume flow rate, water flow is taken away by suspended sediment caused by being migrated upwards by fluid when staving 6,
It by flow velocity reduction, suspended substance sedimentation when multiple filter screens and is filtered, settling suspension object is collected simultaneously after the test
Measurement.
In order to improve the accuracy of simulation test, 9 height of sediment sample being laid in staving 6 and the interior bottom of channel body 1
It flushes.
Corresponding data processing and equipment cleaning work are carried out after simulation test, are carried out test test next time to facilitate, are protected
Protect the quality of equipment.Data processing includes that pore water pressure changes with time, fluid migration path is with pressure size and deposition
Influence etc. of the variation, flow velocity of species type to pockmark form.Equipment cleaning is to clean out deposit in sink, discharges all examinations
Test fluid used, and natural air drying.
Simulator and analogy method of the invention, it is simple, convenient, be conducive to push pockmark submarine geomorphy,
Development in the matter origin cause of formation and energy development application study, analysis；Pockmark is formed and seafloor venting systems are transported in deposit
The situation of change of shifting carries out quantitative simulation and analysis, can effectively and intuitively grasp its change procedure, specifically:
The technology contents of the not detailed description of the present invention are well-known technique.
Claims (10)
1. seabed pockmark forming process simulator, which is characterized in that the simulator includes scouring mechanism, pockmark analog machine
Structure, the scouring mechanism include the channel body and filter device for liquid flowing, and channel body includes first passage body, second logical
Road；The pockmark simulation mechanism includes staving, monitoring pore water pressure device, fluid source device and delivery pipe, in the staving
Filled with sediment sample, fluid cell is equipped in the staving, fluid cell is located at below the sediment sample filled in staving, stream
The import of somatocyst is connected to by delivery pipe with fluid source device, and the outlet of fluid cell is located at upside towards deposit, in fluid cell
The fluid media (medium) release deposited object of cocurrent formed with to simulate pockmark and the process migrated upwards, meanwhile, monitoring pore water pressure
Device is monitored deposit internal pressure when simulating pockmark forming process；The first passage body, second channel body point
It is not located at staving two sides, first passage body, second channel body are connected to staving, and the filter device is located at the liquid on rear side of staving
Downstream is flowed to, for filtering and collecting the deposit carried in liquid medium.
2. pockmark forming process simulator in seabed according to claim 1, which is characterized in that the scouring mechanism is equipped with
Fluid-driving mechanism or liquid source device, fluid-driving mechanism or liquid source device are located at the liquid flow on front side of staving upstream.
3. pockmark forming process simulator in seabed according to claim 1 or 2, which is characterized in that the first passage
Body, second channel body connect into a ring structure, and the filter device is located in ring structure, the periphery and channel of filter device
Internal wall palette.
4. pockmark forming process simulator in seabed according to claim 1, which is characterized in that going out in the fluid cell
Mouth is provided with multiple, is mounted on controlled valve in each outlet, fluid cell is equipped with the pressure gauge or pressure for detecting its internal pressure
Sensor.
5. pockmark forming process simulator in seabed according to claim 4, which is characterized in that isolation in the fluid cell
At multiple separate chambers, each separate chamber corresponds to 1~3 outlet.
6. pockmark forming process simulator in seabed according to claim 1, which is characterized in that the fluid source device is
The pressure pump of liquid, gas or gas-liquid mixed media is provided.
7. pockmark forming process simulator in seabed according to claim 1, which is characterized in that the import of the fluid cell
It is preceding to be equipped with controlled fluid valve.
8. seabed pockmark forming process analogy method, including simulator as claimed in claim 1, the simulation side
Method includes preparation process, parameter determination and test procedure；
The preparation process, the preparation including sediment sample are simultaneously routed in staving, monitoring pore water pressure device are plugged
In sediment sample and the connection of delivery pipe, relevant device is installed
The parameter determination, according to simulated experiment it needs to be determined that the output pressure size of the flow velocity of liquid medium, fluid cell
And whether need continuously to export fluid media (medium)；
The test procedure, by fluid source device into staving trandfer fluid medium；Open scouring mechanism, make liquid medium from
Channel body, staving, filter device flow successively through；Meanwhile monitoring pore water pressure device when simulating pockmark forming process to heavy
Product object internal pressure carries out real-time monitoring, and liquid is by filter device to collect the deposit carried in liquid medium.
9. pockmark forming process analogy method in seabed according to claim 8, which is characterized in that be laid in the staving
Sediment sample height is flushed with the interior bottom of channel body.
10. pockmark forming process analogy method in seabed according to claim 8, which is characterized in that fluid cell import,
In the case that outlet is respectively equipped with controlled fluid valve, controlled valve, fluid media (medium) is pre-charged with into fluid cell to certain pressure simultaneously
Controlled fluid valve is closed, then controlled valve is opened in test procedure and discharges fluid media (medium).
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| CN113640469A (en) * | 2021-08-16 | 2021-11-12 | 中国科学院广州能源研究所 | Experimental test device and method for testing gas leakage and pit formation |
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Cited By (2)
| Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| WO2021190120A1 (en) * | 2020-03-26 | 2021-09-30 | 南方海洋科学与工程广东省实验室(广州) | System and method for simulating formation and evolution of deep-sea cold spring ecosystem |
| CN113640469A (en) * | 2021-08-16 | 2021-11-12 | 中国科学院广州能源研究所 | Experimental test device and method for testing gas leakage and pit formation |
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