CN106289962B - In-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of sample gauge length section in high-low power on-line manner - Google Patents
In-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of sample gauge length section in high-low power on-line manner Download PDFInfo
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- CN106289962B CN106289962B CN201610891353.4A CN201610891353A CN106289962B CN 106289962 B CN106289962 B CN 106289962B CN 201610891353 A CN201610891353 A CN 201610891353A CN 106289962 B CN106289962 B CN 106289962B
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Classifications
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- G01N3/00—Investigating strength properties of solid materials by application of mechanical stress
- G01N3/02—Details
- G01N3/06—Special adaptations of indicating or recording means
- G01N3/068—Special adaptations of indicating or recording means with optical indicating or recording means
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01B—MEASURING LENGTH, THICKNESS OR SIMILAR LINEAR DIMENSIONS; MEASURING ANGLES; MEASURING AREAS; MEASURING IRREGULARITIES OF SURFACES OR CONTOURS
- G01B11/00—Measuring arrangements characterised by the use of optical techniques
- G01B11/16—Measuring arrangements characterised by the use of optical techniques for measuring the deformation in a solid, e.g. optical strain gauge
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- G01N17/00—Investigating resistance of materials to the weather, to corrosion, or to light
- G01N17/02—Electrochemical measuring systems for weathering, corrosion or corrosion-protection measurement
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- G—PHYSICS
- G01—MEASURING; TESTING
- G01N—INVESTIGATING OR ANALYSING MATERIALS BY DETERMINING THEIR CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
- G01N2203/00—Investigating strength properties of solid materials by application of mechanical stress
- G01N2203/02—Details not specific for a particular testing method
- G01N2203/06—Indicating or recording means; Sensing means
- G01N2203/0641—Indicating or recording means; Sensing means using optical, X-ray, ultraviolet, infrared or similar detectors
Abstract
The invention relates to the field of multidisciplinary intersection experiments such as microstructure characterization, mechanics, fatigue, corrosion, stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue and failure analysis, in particular to an in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of a sample gauge length section in a high-low-power online manner and a use method thereof. The system comprises: electrochemical workstation, electrochemical workstation control panel, little power fatigue testing machine control panel, long focus non-contact optical strain gauge, high low power optical microscope, platy sample, high low power optical microscope control panel, circulating pump, external heating or refrigeration cycle looks solution pond, mechanics laboratory bench. The method is used for observing deformation and damage dynamic evolution processes of the plate-shaped material sample under interaction conditions of different mechanics and corrosion environments, and can be used for observing stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue damage processes of the material under interaction conditions of temperature, corrosion environments and loads in real time.
Description
Technical Field
The invention relates to the field of multidisciplinary intersection experiments such as microstructure characterization, mechanics, fatigue, corrosion, stress corrosion, corrosion fatigue, failure analysis and the like, in particular to an in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of a sample gauge length section in a high-low-power online manner and a use method thereof, which are used for observing deformation and damage dynamic evolution processes of a plate-shaped material sample under different mechanics and corrosion environment interaction conditions.
Background
At present, reports on alloy corrosion fatigue failure mechanisms at home and abroad are mostly dependent on subsequent observation results of failure samples. Because the whole corrosion fatigue failure process of the material is dynamic, the influence factors are numerous, and the factors can also change due to high localization on different structural layers at different stages of the failure process, the failure mechanism of the alloy is difficult to be truly reflected only by focusing on the analysis of the final state of the experiment.
In view of this, experimental results and related analysis reported at home and abroad so far are difficult to truly explain the inherent links existing between the microstructure of the materials and the corrosion fatigue failure mechanism thereof, which also greatly limit the structural improvement and performance optimization of the alloy materials. In view of the geometric structure problem of the vertical fatigue equipment, the horizontal fatigue test equipment is required to be adopted for perfecting. On a horizontal fatigue machine, the observation of the dynamic expansion process of fatigue cracks can be easily realized by an optical microscope through a corrosion box. Meanwhile, the strain control of the fatigue of the sample can be realized by utilizing the laser non-contact extensometer, and the high-low power optical lens of the optical microscope can be placed above the position of the gauge length section of the sample so as to realize in-situ real-time monitoring of the deformation and damage process of the material. The acquisition of these data and physical pictures is undoubtedly critical for the intensive study of the fatigue of the alloy material during the corrosion process and the corrosion of the fatigue process. However, it is difficult to collect these data and signals simultaneously with the corrosion micro-force fatigue testing machine used at the present stage.
Therefore, the development of the in-situ test system capable of observing the deformation and damage of the material on line in high and low power is quite important for researching stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue mechanisms of the alloy material under the interaction conditions of temperature, corrosion environment and load, and has great significance for improving the technical level of deformation and damage test of the material in China and promoting the development of novel domestic high-performance structural materials.
Disclosure of Invention
The invention aims to provide an in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of a sample gauge length section in high and low times on line and a use method thereof, which can observe stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue damage processes of a material under the interaction conditions of temperature, corrosion environment and load in high and low times in situ in real time, solve the problems that the existing material cannot observe a local micro-area damage mechanism in high times in situ under the interaction conditions of mechanics and chemistry, monitor strain and electrochemical response rules of the sample gauge length section position and the like at the same time, and realize high-flux performance parameter measurement of the same sample in the failure process.
The technical scheme of the invention is as follows:
an in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of a sample gauge length section in a high-low power on-line mode, comprising: the device comprises an electrochemical workstation, an electrochemical workstation control panel, a micro-force fatigue testing machine control panel, a long-focus non-contact optical strain measuring instrument, a high-low power optical microscope, a plate-shaped sample, a high-low power optical microscope control panel, a circulating pump, an external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution tank and a mechanical experiment table, wherein the device comprises the following specific structures:
a reference electrode and a plate-shaped sample are arranged in a corrosion groove of the electrochemical workstation, and the reference electrode and the plate-shaped sample are respectively connected with a control panel of the electrochemical workstation through wires; a long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge and a high-low power optical microscope are arranged above the corrosion groove, the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge and the high-low power optical microscope are respectively opposite to the plate-shaped sample, the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge is connected with a micro-force fatigue tester control panel through a wire, and the high-low power optical microscope is connected with the high-low power optical microscope control panel through a wire;
the external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution tank is communicated with the corrosion tank through a pipeline, the pipeline is provided with a circulating pump, two ends of the plate-shaped sample are arranged on the clamp of the micro-force fatigue testing machine, the two outer sides of the corrosion tank and the plate-shaped sample are provided with screw rods of the micro-force fatigue testing machine in parallel, and the screw rods are connected with the clamp through connecting pieces.
In-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of sample gauge length section in high and low times on line, the plate-shaped sample is sealed in the corrosion groove, the distance between the upper surface of the plate-shaped sample and the top of the corrosion groove is required to be less than 5mm, and two ends of the plate-shaped sample extend out of side wall holes of the corrosion groove respectively.
In-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of sample gauge length section in high and low times on line, the connection end of the plate-shaped sample and the corrosion groove is sealed by silica gel.
The in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of the gauge length section of the sample in high-low power online mode can carry out metallographic observation on the plate-shaped sample under the condition of 25-2500 times by using the high-low power optical microscope, and can carry out three-dimensional imaging on an observation area; the working distance of the high-power lens for in-situ real-time observation of the high-power optical microscope and the low-power optical microscope is 6.5mm, and the magnification is 250-2500; the working distance of the low-power lens for in-situ real-time observation of the high-power optical microscope and the low-power optical microscope is 20mm, and the magnification is 25-250.
The in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of the sample gauge length section in high and low times on line can rotate in 180 degrees and bear the weight of not less than 10 kg.
The in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of the sample gauge length section in high and low times on line comprises the following use method:
(1) Sticking standard strain in a gauge length section of a plate-shaped sample, sealing the plate-shaped sample into a corrosion groove, sealing two ends of the connection of the plate-shaped sample and the corrosion groove by using silica gel, and air-drying;
(2) Respectively clamping the two external ends of the plate-shaped sample sealed to the corrosion groove on a clamp of a micro-force fatigue testing machine, and tightening the clamp by using a fixing bolt;
(3) Placing a micro-force fatigue testing machine with a plate-shaped sample on a mechanical experiment table, and focusing a lens of a high-low power optical microscope until the microstructure on the surface of a gauge length section of the plate-shaped sample can be clearly observed;
(4) Aligning the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge with a standard strain paste to realize real-time monitoring of strain;
(5) Placing a reference electrode of an electrochemical workstation into a corrosion tank for fixation, and monitoring the change of electrochemical data of a plate-shaped sample;
(6) The circulating pump pumps in and pumps out the heated or refrigerated liquid from the external heating or refrigeration cycle phase solution tank, so that the temperature of the liquid in the corrosion tank contained in the system is regulated and controlled within the range of 0-70 ℃;
(7) And loading the sample, and carrying out in-situ observation and monitoring on deformation and damage of the sample gauge length section.
In-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of sample gauge length section in high and low power on line, the cell pressure of electrochemical workstation is + -15V, the potential scanning range is + -12.8V, the minimum potential increment is 0.0125mV, and the potential control precision is less than + -0.5 mV.
The in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of the sample gauge length section in high and low times online can be used for measuring the strain in the mechanical test process in real time by the long-focus non-contact optical strain measuring instrument, recording the strain response rule in the mechanical process and recording macroscopic deformation.
The invention has the advantages and beneficial effects that:
1. the invention can realize high-low times observation on the sample gauge length section, synchronously monitor the strain and electrochemical response of the sample, and truly realize the measurement of multi-flux data of the same sample under the condition of multi-factor coupling.
2. The invention utilizes the circulating pump and the external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution pool to realize the influence of the environmental temperature on the mechanical and chemical interaction behavior of the materials.
3. The test system provided by the invention can simulate the near-working-condition service environment, and the measured experimental data can provide more applicable references for life prediction and performance improvement of engineering materials.
4. The system provided by the invention has the advantages of ingenious design and simplicity and convenience in operation, and can realize in-situ real-time observation of deformation and damage mechanisms of the gauge length section of the plate-shaped sample on the existing horizontal micro-force fatigue testing machine, so that the synchronous information quantity of the same sample measurement is greatly improved.
Drawings
FIG. 1 is a main configuration structure diagram of a high-low power online material deformation observation and damage in-situ test system.
FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of an in-situ test system for observing deformation and damage of a material on line with high and low power.
FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of the size and shape of a plate-like sample according to the present invention.
FIG. 4 is a schematic view of the position of the connecting end of the sample sealed by silica gel and the corrosion groove.
In the figure, 1 a corrosion tank; 2 a reference electrode; 3 an electrochemical workstation control panel; 4, controlling a panel of the micro-force fatigue testing machine; 5 long focal length non-contact optical strain gauge; 6, a high-low power optical microscope; 7 plate-like samples; 8, high-low power optical microscope control panel; 9, a screw rod; 10, clamping; 11 a circulation pump; 12 an external heating or refrigeration cycle phase solution tank; 13, connecting the silica gel sealing sample with the corrosion groove; 14 mechanics experiment table.
Detailed Description
In the specific implementation process, the invention combines a high-low power optical microscope, a micro-force fatigue testing machine and an electrochemical workstation, places the samples clamped at two ends in different liquid corrosion tanks, seals the two ends connected with the corrosion tanks by silica gel, can observe the mutual correlation between deformation and corrosion of the samples and microstructure under the condition of 25-2500 amplification factors, can acquire images at different stages of evolution in real time, and can realize three-dimensional morphology imaging of an observation area. The electrochemical workstation can realize dynamic monitoring of corrosion current density when a plate-shaped sample is statically and dynamically loaded in the corrosion liquid under a certain externally applied potential condition. The external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution pool and the circulating pump can realize in-situ observation and test of interaction of materials in temperature (0-70 ℃), load and corrosive environment. The system can realize static and dynamic loading mechanical experiments under the corrosion environment condition, simultaneously provides an in-situ test and observation system for deformation and damage of the material under different loading conditions, can observe and record the dynamic process of material failure, can develop stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue experiments under the interaction condition of temperature, corrosion environment and load, and can monitor the change condition of material corrosion behavior under the dynamic load condition.
The invention will be further described with reference to the drawings and examples.
As shown in FIGS. 1-3, the system for in-situ testing deformation and damage of a high-low power on-line observation material mainly comprises: electrochemical workstation (including corrosion tank 1, reference electrode 2 etc.), electrochemical workstation control panel 3, little power fatigue testing machine (including lead screw 9, anchor clamps 10 etc.), little power fatigue testing machine control panel 4, long focus non-contact optical strain gauge 5, high low power optical microscope 6, platy sample 7, high low power optical microscope control panel 8, circulating pump 11, external heating or refrigeration cycle looks solution pond 12, mechanics laboratory bench 14 etc. specific structure is as follows:
a reference electrode 2 and a plate-shaped sample 7 are arranged in the corrosion tank 1, and the reference electrode 2 and the plate-shaped sample 7 are respectively connected with the control panel 3 of the electrochemical workstation through wires; the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge 5 and the high-low power optical microscope 6 are arranged above the corrosion groove 1, the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge 5 and the high-low power optical microscope 6 are respectively opposite to the plate-shaped sample 7, the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge 5 is connected with the micro-force fatigue tester control panel 4 through a wire, and the high-low power optical microscope 6 is connected with the high-low power optical microscope control panel 8 through a wire. The external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution tank 12 is communicated with the corrosion tank 1 through a pipeline, a circulating pump 11 is arranged on the pipeline, two ends of the plate-shaped sample 7 are mounted on the clamp 10, screw rods 9 are arranged on two outer sides of the corrosion tank 1 and parallel to the plate-shaped sample 7, the screw rods 9 are connected with the clamp 10 through connecting pieces, and the micro fatigue test is carried out on the plate-shaped sample 7 under the driving of the screw rods 9.
As shown in fig. 2, the plate-shaped sample 7 is sealed in the corrosion groove 1, the distance between the upper surface of the plate-shaped sample 7 and the top of the corrosion groove 1 is required to be less than 5mm, and two ends of the plate-shaped sample 7 respectively extend out of side wall holes of the corrosion groove 1. In order to prevent leakage of the etching solution at the connection end of the plate-like sample 7 and the etching tank 1, this position was sealed with a silicone rubber, and the connection end of the silicone rubber-sealed plate-like sample 7 and the etching tank 1 (the silicone rubber-sealed sample and the etching tank connection end 13) is shown in fig. 4. The high-low power optical microscope 6 is placed above the surface of the sample to be observed, and the high-low power optical microscope 6 is focused until the microscopic structure of the surface of the gauge length section of the sample can be clearly observed.
As shown in FIG. 3, the gauge length of the plate-like specimen 7 is 2mm thick, 4mm wide and 25mm long; the clamping section of the plate-shaped sample 7 is 30.4mm long and 10mm wide, and the total length of the sample is 100mm.
In the invention, the self weight of the micro-force fatigue testing machine is less than 10kg, the maximum load range is not less than 4000N, the dynamic displacement stroke is at least 50mm, the load precision is less than 0.3% of the full range, the minimum resolution is 0.001N, unidirectional tension-compression and fatigue experiments can be carried out, and the mechanical experiments can be carried out by compiling a load spectrum according to the requirement, so that the response rule of the material under the corresponding stress and/or strain under the static and dynamic mechanical/chemical interaction conditions can be obtained.
In the invention, the high-low power optical microscope 6 can carry out metallographic observation on a plate-shaped sample 7 with the height of 80mm under the condition of 25-2500 times, can carry out three-dimensional imaging on an observation area, and the mechanical experiment table 14 can rotate within 180 degrees and can bear the weight of not less than 10 kg. The working distance of the high-power lens of the high-power and low-power optical microscope 6 for in-situ real-time observation is 6.5mm, and the magnification is 250-2500; the working distance of the low-power lens of the high-low power optical microscope 6 for in-situ real-time observation is 20mm, and the magnification is 25-250.
In the invention, the cell pressure of the corrosion cell 1 in the electrochemical workstation is +/-15V, the potential scanning range is +/-12.8V, the minimum potential increment is 0.0125mV, and the potential control precision is less than +/-0.5 mV.
In the invention, the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge 5 can measure the strain in the mechanical test process in real time, record the strain response rule in the mechanical process, and record the macroscopic deformation.
In the invention, the temperature of the liquid in the corrosion tank 1 can be circularly pumped into the heated or refrigerated liquid from the external heating or refrigeration circulation phase solution tank 12 through the circulating pump 11, so that the regulation and control within the range of 0-70 ℃ are realized.
As shown in fig. 1-4, the application method of the in-situ test system for observing deformation and damage of the material in high-low power on line is as follows:
1. sticking standard strain in a gauge length section of a plate-shaped sample 7, sealing the plate-shaped sample into the corrosion groove 1, sealing two ends of the connection of the plate-shaped sample 7 and the corrosion groove 1 by using silica gel, and air-drying;
2. respectively clamping the two external ends of the plate-shaped sample 7 sealed to the corrosion groove 1 on a clamp 10 of a micro-force fatigue testing machine, and tightening the clamp by using a fixing bolt;
3. placing a micro-force fatigue testing machine provided with a plate-shaped sample 7 on a mechanical experiment table 14, focusing a lens of a high-low power optical microscope 6 until a microstructure on the gauge length section surface of the plate-shaped sample 7 can be clearly observed;
4. aligning the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge 5 with a standard strain paste to realize real-time monitoring of strain;
5. placing a reference electrode 2 of an electrochemical workstation into the corrosion tank 1 for fixation, and monitoring the change of electrochemical data of a plate-shaped sample 7;
6. the circulating pump 11 pumps in and pumps out the heated or refrigerated liquid from the external heating or refrigeration cycle phase solution tank 12, so that the temperature of the liquid in the corrosion tank 1 contained in the system is regulated and controlled within the range of 0-70 ℃;
7. and loading the sample, and carrying out in-situ observation and monitoring on deformation and damage of the sample gauge length section.
The embodiment results show that the high-low power online observation material deformation and damage in-situ test system can realize the high-low power in-situ real-time observation of the stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue damage process of the material under the interaction conditions of temperature, corrosion environment and load. The invention can observe the mutual correlation between the deformation and corrosion of the sample and the microstructure in situ under the condition of 25-2500 magnification by a high-low magnification optical microscope, can acquire images at different stages of evolution in real time, and can realize the three-dimensional morphology imaging of an observation area. The invention can obtain the corresponding strain response rule of the material under the static and dynamic mechanical/chemical interaction conditions by real-time monitoring of the alignment standard strain paste position of the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge. The invention can realize the dynamic monitoring of corrosion current density when the plate-shaped sample is loaded in the corrosion liquid in static and dynamic state under the condition of a certain external potential by configuring the reference electrode. According to the invention, the temperature of the liquid in the corrosion tank contained in the system can be regulated and controlled within the range of 0-70 ℃ by configuring an external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution tank and a circulating pump.
Claims (5)
1. The application method of the in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of a sample gauge length section in high and low times on line is characterized by comprising the following steps: the device comprises an electrochemical workstation, an electrochemical workstation control panel, a micro-force fatigue testing machine control panel, a long-focus non-contact optical strain measuring instrument, a high-low power optical microscope, a plate-shaped sample, a high-low power optical microscope control panel, a circulating pump, an external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution tank and a mechanical experiment table, wherein the device comprises the following specific structures:
a reference electrode and a plate-shaped sample are arranged in a corrosion groove of the electrochemical workstation, and the reference electrode and the plate-shaped sample are respectively connected with a control panel of the electrochemical workstation through wires; a long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge and a high-low power optical microscope are arranged above the corrosion groove, the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge and the high-low power optical microscope are respectively opposite to the plate-shaped sample, the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge is connected with a micro-force fatigue tester control panel through a wire, and the high-low power optical microscope is connected with the high-low power optical microscope control panel through a wire;
the external heating or refrigerating circulation phase solution pool is communicated with the corrosion groove through a pipeline, a circulating pump is arranged on the pipeline, two ends of the plate-shaped sample are arranged on the clamp of the micro-force fatigue testing machine, the two outer sides of the corrosion groove and the plate-shaped sample are provided with screw rods of the micro-force fatigue testing machine in parallel, and the screw rods are connected with the clamp through connecting pieces;
the plate-shaped sample is sealed in the corrosion groove, the distance between the upper surface of the plate-shaped sample and the top of the corrosion groove is required to be less than 5mm, and two ends of the plate-shaped sample extend out of side wall holes of the corrosion groove respectively;
the high-low power optical microscope performs metallographic observation on the plate-shaped sample at 25-2500 times, and can perform three-dimensional imaging on an observation area; the working distance of the high-power lens for in-situ real-time observation of the high-power optical microscope and the low-power optical microscope is 6.5mm, and the magnification is 250-2500; the working distance of a low-power lens for in-situ real-time observation of a high-power optical microscope is 20mm, and the magnification is 25-250;
the using method of the system is as follows:
(1) Sticking standard strain in a gauge length section of a plate-shaped sample, sealing the plate-shaped sample into a corrosion groove, sealing two ends of the connection of the plate-shaped sample and the corrosion groove by using silica gel, and air-drying;
(2) Respectively clamping the two external ends of the plate-shaped sample sealed to the corrosion groove on a clamp of a micro-force fatigue testing machine, and tightening the clamp by using a fixing bolt;
(3) Placing a micro-force fatigue testing machine with a plate-shaped sample on a mechanical experiment table, and focusing a lens of a high-low power optical microscope until the microstructure on the surface of a gauge length section of the plate-shaped sample can be clearly observed;
(4) Aligning the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge with a standard strain paste to realize real-time monitoring of strain;
(5) Placing a reference electrode of an electrochemical workstation into a corrosion tank for fixation, and monitoring the change of electrochemical data of a plate-shaped sample;
(6) The circulating pump pumps in and pumps out the heated or refrigerated liquid from the external heating or refrigeration cycle phase solution tank, so that the temperature of the liquid in the corrosion tank contained in the system is regulated and controlled within the range of 0-70 ℃;
(7) And loading the sample, and carrying out in-situ observation and monitoring on deformation and damage of the sample gauge length section.
2. The method for using the in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of the gauge length section of the sample in a high-low power on-line manner according to claim 1, wherein the connection end of the plate-shaped sample and the corrosion groove is sealed by silica gel.
3. The method of using the in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of a gauge length section of a sample in high and low power on line according to claim 1, wherein the mechanical experiment table is rotatable within 180 degrees and bears a weight of not less than 10 kg.
4. The method for using the in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of a gauge length section of a sample in high and low online mode according to claim 1, wherein the cell pressure of an electrochemical workstation is +/-15V, the potential scanning range is +/-12.8V, the minimum potential increment is 0.0125mV, and the potential control precision is less than +/-0.5 mV.
5. The method for using the in-situ test system capable of observing deformation and damage of the gauge length section of the sample in high and low times on line according to the claim 1, wherein the long-focus non-contact optical strain gauge is used for measuring strain in the mechanical test process in real time, recording the strain response rule in the mechanical process and recording macroscopic deformation.
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